MobUuLe, 1.1. INTRODUCTION to METAL CUTTING Metal cutting is a process of removing (cutting) a layer of material from a metal blank by means of a fool, which is harder than the metal being cut. During Stone Age, methods were first adopted for shaping materials by means of chipping process. The development of civilization and the technological innovations made man to develop new machines and methods for shaping materials. It was soon learnt that the metal cutting process is basically one of shearing the work material. The layer of metal is removed in the form of a chip through the process of plastic deformation or controlled fracture. Although machine toolst began to be manufactured in significant numbers, there were no technological or mathematical representations (models) capable of describing the physics or mechanics of metal cutting process. The significant efforts and contributions by various scientists and machinists finally helped to develop technological/physical models for engineering of efficient machining. It is important for every individual involved in manufacturing to have a basic knowledge of the fundamentals of machining of materials, and also the theory/physics behind the metal cutting process. This knowledge helps one to understand and solve the various problems encountered in metal cutting process. 1.2 ORTHOGONAL & OBLIQUE CUTTING The process of metal cutting is classified into two types: Orthogonal cutting, and Obligue cutting. 8) Orthogonal eutting Orthogonal cutting is a type of cutting operation in which the cutting edge of the tool is straight and perpendicular to the direction of work or tool travel. Refer figure 1.1. The chip flows over the tool face, and the direction of chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting edge. Only two components of the cutting force acts on the tool, and both of them are perpendicular to each other and hence can be represented in a 2-D (two-dimensional) plane. Hence, orthogonal cutting is also referred to as 2-D cutting operation. The drawback of this type of cutting is shorter tool life. This is because, for the same feed and depth of cut, the force which shears the metal acts on a smaller area thereby reducing the life of cutting tool. Orthogonal cutting is used for parting off operation on lathe, broaching and slotting operations. Chi flow Too! face EX Wedge shape tool che Work support cutting oD |scrin KI edge fi VW te — | feed Tool Motion of workpiece si Figure 1.1 Orthogonal cutting +A machine tool is a power-driven machine, which holds the tool and workpiece to perform the machining operation.2 Metal Cutting & Forming b) Oblique cutting Oblique cuting is a type of cutting operation in which the cutting edge of the too is ‘work or tool travel. Refer figure 1.2. This inclination causes change in te diretio t with a side-ways movement producing @ helical form of chip. Three components of the cutting force acts a the utr edge and they are mutually perpendicular to cach other, and can be represented in a 3-D (three-dimensiona) plane: TACT oblique cutting is also refered to as 3-D cutting operation. The advantage of this type of cutting is that the culint ‘acts comparatively on a larger area enhancing tool life. In general, all metal cutting operations are carried out througt ‘oblique cutting method. ‘straight and inclined to the direction of mo the chip to flow across the tol face Chip flow ‘Wedge shape too! hi surro | Work om eye oe Feed Too! Cutting edge of the too! inclined with the tool feed (o) Figure 1.2 Oblique cutting ‘Note In general, all metal cutting operations are carried out through oblique cutting method. However, in practical, the cutting operations are geometrically complex, and as such forthe sake of simplicity in analyzing cutting operations, ‘orthogonal mode of cutting is normally assumed. Most of the general principles of orthogonal cutting are equally applicable to oblique cutting. 1.2.1 Comparison Between Orthogonal & Oblique Cutting ‘Table L.1 gives a brief comparison between orthogonal and oblique methods of cutting. St Orth ; i ar rthogonal cutting Oblique cutting ‘The cutting edge of the tool is straight and inclined 1 | Gutting edge of the tool is straight & to the direction of work or tool travel. perpendicular to the direction of work or tool travel 21 Chip flows over the tool face, and the direction of | Chip flows across the tool face at an angle. chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting edge. ‘Chip flows side-ways in a long curl of helical form, 3_| The chip coils in a tight Mat spiral 4+] Only two components of the cutting force acts on | Thtee components of the cutting foree acts at the the tool, cutting edge. F | For the same feed and depth of cut, the force | The cutting force acts comparatively on a larger which shears the metal acts on a smaller area | area enhancing too life, ie thereby reducing life ofthe cutting tool @_| Produces sharp comers Produces a chamfer atthe end of cut | 7 [Used for parting-off operation on lathe, | Used commonly in almost all machining operations broaching & slotting machines. ‘Table 1.1 Comparison between Orthogonal & Oblique cuttingModule -1 3 1.3. CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS Cutting tools are classified into two types based on the number of cutting edges they possess. They are: single point cutting tool and multi-point cutting tool gle point cutting tool A single point cutting tool is the simplest type consisting of a single effective cutting edge that removes the excess ‘material from the workpiece. Lathe tools (chamfering tool, parting tool, facing tool etc.), shaper tools (tools used in shaping machine), planer tools, boring tools etc., are examples single point cutting tools. ‘+ Multipoint cutting tool ‘A multipoint cutting tool has more than one cutting edge and includes milling cutters, drill bit, reamers, broachers, grinding wheel etc 1.3.1 Single Point Cutting Tool Nomenclature axis Cutting tool nomenclature designates the various elements or parts of a cutting tool. Although the terminology used to designate the various elements remain same for both single point and multipoint cutting tools, itis easier to understand the same in a single point cutting tool. The Face important nomenclature for a single point turing tool is illustrated in figure 1.3 and listed below. ose Base xaxis a) Tool shank ig the main body ofthe cutting tool, and is also the part nan of the tool that is gripped in the tool holder. 'b) Face is the top surface of the tool over which the chip (cut material) End cutting Side cutting flows during cutting edge edge ©) Cutting edge is the portion of the face edge that separates the chip yeaxis from the workpiece. The total cutting edge of the. tool includes side Figure 1.3 ‘cutting edge and end cutting edge. * Side cutting édge is the primary or major cutting edge formed on the side face of the tool. ‘+ End cutting edge is the minor cutting edge formed at the end face of the tool 4) Flank is the surface adjacent to, and below the cutting edge when the tool lies in a horizontal position. ©) Nose isthe tip of the cutting tool, and is formed by the intersection of the sie cutting edge and the end cutting edge. Nose radius is the radius of the nose ofthe cutting tool. Its a very important parameter, since it gives strength to the Guting sp, increases tool life, and gives a fine surface finish on the workpiece, The value of the nose radius ranges from 0.4 -1.6 mm and depends on several factors like depth of eut, amount of feed, type of tool (solid, or with insert) ete. As the value of the nose radius increases, a higher cuting speed can be used resulting in good surface finish, but the life ofthe tool willbe reduced. Also, it may lead to chatter and vibrations due to higher level ofcuting forces generated during cutting. 13.2 Cutting Tool Geometry A cutting tool can perform its function efficiently, when it is ground to the correct shape and with correct angles, Tool seometry refers tothe various angles provided on the cutting tool. Figure 1.4 shows a single point cutting tool with various geometric elements marked on it 4) Side cutting edge angle 11s the angle between the side cutting edge and the longitudinal axis z-axis) of the tool, It avoids formation of| built-up- edge, controls the direction of chip flow, and distributes the cutting force and heat prod luced over a larger cutting edge. b) Side relief angle Iti the angle made by the lank ofthe tool and a plane perpendicular to the base just under the side cutting edge. Side relief Anele permits the tool to be fed side-ways into the job (workpiece), so that it can cut without rubbing against the job. Sr‘Metal Cuting & Forming Face Back rake angle ame Side fake angle Face Shank End cutting angle Side cutting angle’ igure 14 Geometry of single point cutting tool (3-Principal views) ©) End cutting edge angle Itis the angle between the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the tool shank. It acts as a relief angle by allowing only a small section of the end cutting edge to participate in the cutting action thereby preventing chatter and vibration. 4d) End relief angle Itis the angle between a plane perpendicular to the base and the end flank of the tool. End relief angle prevents the end of the cutting tool from rubbing against the job during machining, ©) Lip angle It is the angle between the tool face and the ground end surface of the flank. Lip angle is maximum when clearance and rake angle are minimum. The larger the lip angle, the stronger willbe the cutting edge. Hence for cutting hard metals the rake angle is reduced and lip angle is increased, however the cutting speeds must be kept low. ~ ° 1) Rake angle Rake angle is the inclination ofthe fae (top surface) ofthe tol with respect tothe horizontal reference surface. Rake angle facilitate wedge action in cutting and help the chips to flow away from the cutting edge thereby reduc \ cutting eda lucing the pressur chip on the tool face. Rake angle ean be zero (neutral) positive or negative as shown in figure 1.5, Ereseure ofibe + Zero (neutral) rake angle When he face ofthe cating tol is ato orzo as showin aur 15(8 th ol ssid to coma . ina ze rake increases the stength of he tool and prevents the cutting edge from duging into the workpicee Newer ones Ze zero rake have a large eater wear due tthe hip siding over the rake ace. Zero rake angle isnot used gn too ith operations, but meal forming tools are provided with zero rake, as they are mainly used for finishing (ee oat where little amount of pressure is required to remove small amounts of material 18 formed surfaces Zero rake Positive = Negative — Tip of tool Toot Toot (a) Zero rake {b) Positive rake {el Neguve van Figure LS Types of rake «* Positive rake angle When the face ofthe tool isso ground that it slopes downwards fom the ip oF the tool as shown in He 1.5(b), the tootModule -1 5 js said to contain a positive rake. Positive rake angle helps in the formation of continuous chip in ductile materials and ‘contributes in avoiding the formation of built-up-edge chip. Tools with positive rake angle are used for cutting non-ferrous snd low-tensile strength materials, and also for materials which work harden while being machined. However, excessive takes the tool sharp and pointed thereby reducing the strength of the cutting edge, Hence for machining hard positive rake mi larger rake angles are used. metals, tools are given smaller rake angles, while for machining soft metals, « Negative rake angle When the face of the cutting tool slopes upwards from the tip of the tool as shown in figure 1.5(c), itis said to contain a negative rake. Cutting tools with negative rake angle are stronger, making them suitable for machining high strength materials; for taking interrupted cuts, and machining with high feeds, Negative rake angles are generally employed on carbide tipped tools for machining extra-hard surfaces, hardened steel parts, cast steels etc. However, increased negative rake angle leads to increased cutting force during machining, which in turn causes vibrations, and increased power consumption. Hence, tools with negative rake should be used only when absolutely necessary. Rake angle is a combination of back rake angle and side rake angle as discussed below: # Back rake angle measures the downward slope of the top surface of the tool from the tip of the tool (nose) to the rear along the longitudinal axis (z-axis). Back rake angle can be positive or negative type. It allows the chip to flow smoothly when the material is cut by primary cutting edge. ide rake angle measures the slope of the top surface of the tool to the side in a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis (z-axis). Side rake angle can be positive or negative type. It allows the chip to flow smoothly when the material is cut by side cutting edge. 1.3.3 Designation of Cutting Tools (Tool Signature) ‘The tool is designated to denote a standardized system of specifying the principal tool angles of a single point cutting tool. ‘This designation is termed as tool signature. There are two systems used to designate the cutting tool: 1) ASA (American Standards Association) system or ANSI (American National Standards Institute) 2) ORS (Orthogonal Rake System) 1.3.3.1 ASA (American Standards Association) System In the ASA system, the various tool angles are specified independently of the position of the cutting edge, The three planes of reference and the coordinates are chosen based on the configuration and axis of the machine tool concerned. ‘The ASA system consists of seven elements to denote a single point cutting tool. They are always written in the following order: Back rake angle, Side rake angle, End relief angle, Side relief angle, End cutting edge angle, Side cutting edge angle, and nose radius. For instance, a tool having tool signature as 10, 9, 6, 5, 8, 7, 2mm represents: 1) Back rake angle = 10° 2) Side rake angle=9° 3) End relief angle = 6° 4) Side relief angle = 5° 5) End cutting edge angle = 8° 6) Side cutting edge angle = 7° 7) Nose radius = 2. mm 1.33.2 ORS (Orthogonal Rake System) System In ORS system, the various tool angles are specified with reference to the position of the cutting edge. The planes of reference and the coordinates are chosen based on the configuration of the cutting tool. The ORS system consists of seven elements to denote a single point cutting tool. They are always written in the following order: Inclination angle, Normal or Side rake angle, Side relief angle, End relief angle, End cutting edge angle, Approach angle, and nose radius. For instance, a tool having tool signature as 5, 10, 6, 6, 5, 90, Imm represents, 1) Angle of inclination = 5° 2) Normal rake angle = 10° 3) Side relief angle = 6° 4) End relief angle = 6° 5) End cutting edge angle 7) Nose radius =1mm 6) Approach angle = 90°at : | | ° Metal Cutting & Forming 14 MECHANICS OF ORTHOGONAL CUTTING Tool face When a cutting too is forced to move against the rigidly held workpiece, the tool exerts @ compressive force on the workpiece. Retér figure 1.6. shear plane ‘The material ofthe workpiece is stressed beyond its yield point causing it to deform plastically and shear off. ‘The plastic flow takes place in the localized region called shear plane, while the sheared portion of the metal begins to flow along the cutting tool face in the form of stall Pieces called chips. The advancing tool continues to remove the ‘workpiece metal along the shear plane in the form of chips. Work is done by the cuting tool on the workpiece, and more than 90% of the energy is transformed into heat. ‘The heat is concentrated near the tip Figure 1.6 Mechanics of machi Of the tool, and as such raises the temperature ofthe tool, the workpiece, and the shearing chips. As a result, the workpiece and the tool soften in the localized region, an chips to weld to the cutting tool thereby making it unsuitable for machining. Hence, the cutting parameters, heat, and wear ‘ofthe tool form the basic features in the analysis of metal cuting process. 1.5 CHIP FORMATION PROCESS When cutting too! is forced to move against the rigidly held workpiece, the tool exerts a compressive force on the ‘workpiece. Refer figure 1.7, The material of the workpiece is stressed beyond its yield point causing ito deform plastically and shear off. The plastic flow takes place inthe localized region called shear plane, while the sheared portion of the metal begins to flow along the cutting tool face inthe form of small pieces called chips. ‘The advancing tool continues to remove the workpiece metal along the shear plane in the form of chips. However, depending on the change in cutting conditions, three diferent types of chips are formed. They re: (1) Continuous chips (3) Continuous chips with Buill-Up- Edge (BUE) and (3) Discontinuous chips 8) Continuous chips Aen the workpiece material is ductile (Example mild steel, copper, aluminum ete.) fracture will not oceur in the shear plane, and the chip comes of in the form ofa long string or ribbon like witha smooth shining surface ae shown te figure Hee aes 3PE of chip sealed continuous chip and the primary reason for its formation isthe fat that, ductile mated has a tendency to elongate or flow much more before it ruptures from the parent werkpiece materi, Werkpiece Shear zone some eases, cause the The various cutting conditions resulting in the formation of continuous chips include * Workpiece material is ditt + Fine feed and high cuting speeds imparted during cutting * Cutting oo provided with large rake angle + Inparting low depth of cus» Use of efficient coolams Effect of continuous chips Continous chips are desirable, since i rete a smooth Finish onthe workpiece, absorb les en 8 encrey/power, er Lewin: aps run te ol othe were sing ech al poses Hah fe NP HO ihe posing bles the operator. The Hof he cating tool also reduces. I such esa ge NOTA ad break the continuity ofthe chip. Refer figure 1.7(0) * chip breakers are used to b) Continuous ehips with Built-Up-Eage (BUE) During machining tough steels such as alloy sels, tool sels ete, large eting forces use lot of et athe tol work interface. The hgh heat generat ens the eo ose to get welded tit in the form of metal neg Rete figure Le) Ween teeta wen el Adincent tothe tool cating ais ea a pede Ts neal gly ran ards ils mnt A Ps FP Fhe 8 ne rote ul. rae broken and said ava loge ing ship, ieee We a, adheres te surface of the worse esuing in por src ish. Ts the hae BUE mage toe this is shew by cireultng proper eating Fide cut ne daring cn F ust be reduced & are required and this in tumModule- 1 7 ‘The various cutting conditions resulting in the formation of built-up-edge type of chips include: * Cutting tool provided with low rake angle Low cutting speeds imparted during cutting ‘* Imparting high depth of cuts * Rough surface of cutting tool * Insufficient circulation of cutting fluid. Effect of built-up-edge The formation of built-up-edge causes the tool edge to become blunt and lose its cutting capability thereby producing a rough surface on work parts. It unfavourably changes the rake angle at the tooltip causing inerease in cutting forces and power consumption. Repeated formation and dislodgement of the BUE causes fluctuation in cutting forces and thus induces vibration which is harmful for the tool, job and the machine tool. Continuous Tool face Separated chip. Chip breaker eX erties Worle {a) Continuous chip (b) Use of chip breaker conieusus oe Fragments of BUE adheres Disconinvus 7 tho he ep “ 4 (el cominuos hip wit BUE (a Discontinuous cps Figure 1.7 Types of chips produced in metal cutting ©) Discontinuous or Segmented chips While cutting brittle materials like cast iron, brass, bronze ec., the workpiece material along the shear plane will periodically fracture producing a segment of the chip. This type of chip formed is called discontinuous or segmented chips. Refer figure 1.7(d). ‘The primary reason for the formation of such chips in brittle materials isthe fact that, the binding strengths for metal grains are not very strong, and as such, the metal easily shears before it elongates. They are also sometimes produced while machining ductile materials, especially when low cutting speeds are used and adequate coolant is not supplied during cutting operation. This results in poor surface finish and excessive tool wear. ‘The various cutting conditions resulting in the formation of discontinuous chips include: * Workpiece material is brittle. * Small rake angle is provided on the tool. + Imparting high depth of cut * Coarse feeds and low speeds imparted during cutting Effect of discontinuous chips For brittle mater they are produced while machin {0 main reasons ils, discontinuous chips gives a fair surface finish, low power consumptio 1¢ ductile materials with comparatively poor results, disc - and longer tool fife. Although inuous chips are preferred for 1) Since most of the heat generated in cutting is carried away by the outward flowing chip, the break-up of chips into segments or simall fragments reduces the heat generated (or friction) at the tool-ehip interface at a faster rate as Against the continuous chips that are long and wrapping around the tool or workpiece posing problems to operator, work surface finish and tool life 2) Discontinuous chips fracture into small pieces th are convenient to collect, handle and dispose.: Metal Cutting & Forming 1.6 MERCHANT’s MODEL FOR ORTHOGONAL CUTTING yw the value of eee _ on : wing chip. It is desirable to know the va metal cuting process, various fores act onthe euting tool and flowing chip. 1 is OTT Sines, ete fr these forces, since it hel ate the power required for operating the machi Ischin leancc fest woes copa of wining he eating pressure, doer relevant neste The relationship among the various forces was established by Merchant with the following assumptions: 1) The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact between the workpiece and tool flank. 2) The width of the cutting tool is greater than that of the workpiece. 3) Only continuous type of chip is produced 4) There is no sideways flow of chip 5) Cutting velocity remains constant 6) Depth of cut is constant 7) Inertial forces of the chip are neglected Merchants cirele diagram & Analysis Merchant suggested a compact and a convenient way of representing the forces inside a circle, whose diameter represents the resultant F, of all the various forces acting on the chip. The resultant diagram is called Merchant cirele diagram and is shown in figure 1.8. The relationship between the various forces acting on the cutting tool is derived as follows: Let a =Rake angle and $= Shear angle jon angle (on the tool face). rietional force along the tool face =, = Normal force to the tool face Therefore, F,= HF, where j= co-efficient of friction between the tool-chip interface, F, = Shear force E,, = Force normal to the shear force. F. = Horizontal eutting force exerted by the tool on the workpiece. F. = Thrust force, or vertical force. Resultant force acting at the tool cutting edge « Workeiece Figure 1.8 Merchants circle diagram showing various anglesModule 1 9 To find F, and F, E From triangle BOC, cos (B-a) = =". F = F,c0s (Ba) F also, sin (B - ) = i F, sin (B - at) ---- 2) Tofind F,& F,, : F From triangle OBD, cos (@ + B - a) = i 2 = F,co(o+B-c) =--*B] Fe also, sin (6+ Ba) = F,,= Fasin (9+ B- a) 4] To find F&F, Note F,&F, must be expressed in terms of cutting force (F,) and thrust force (F,). ‘The Merchants circle diagram is re-constructed as shown in figure 1.9 with the following modifications: * Extend the line AB to a short distance 3 + From O, draw a line OR parallel to AB. Extend OR to a short distance. ‘+ From point C, draw a line parallel to OA to cut the extended lines at M & N. a Workpiece Figure 1.9. Re-constructed Merchants circle diagram To find F, From the diagram F, = OA=MN “ MN=MC+CN ef] But MC =? &CN=? From triangle MCO, sin a = MC = ----(6)10 Metal Cutting & Forming To find CY From triangle CNB cos « ON Equation (6) and (7) in (3) gives, F, = F.sina+ Feosee To find F, = AB=OR — or F,=OR=OM-MR From triangle CNB, sin. = eM or NB= F,sinot But MR = NB -. NB=MR = F,sin& Feost. F, sino Equation (11) and (10) in (9) gives, Substituting (12) and (8) in (13), We Bet K= oo ain Summarizing the results, we have “Thus the Merchants diagram helps to calculate all the forces involved in metal cuttin the followin F = F,cos(B-0) F, = F,sin(B-a) ‘cash ~ F, sing F.= Fyeodo+B-a) or = orb-a) Fysina+ F cosee Fcosa~ F, sina “sina-+ F, cosa. = Focosa.~ F,sincr so Taree viz cutting oF Tangential force (F) and thrust force (E) acting a the tool ip can Be ‘while te remaining forces are calculated with reference to these wo forees Of all the forees, experimentally measured. sooerpng force (F>) asin the detonating peed white de dhs ree (>) ats a the deton nara ca a mit The reson farce is Balanced by an equal a opposite Force along the shear plane al 8 CE) perpenticn ce (fae onal she fie the chip encounters a considerable frictional resistance resolved i ‘The coefficient of friction while climbing up the tal euting indicates thi (uy) in et Ws Hi pol, ts telat by the equation: F =1.8 IMPORTANT RELATIONS Following are a few important parameters in metal cutting. 8) Chip thickness ratio (¢) .s known as chip thickness ip thie ting (t) i ‘The ratio of uncut chip thickness (chip thickness before cutting.) to chip thickness eae ee ving is taken a5 the chip ratio or cutting ratio. It is denoted by r. The initial feed or depth of cut given during thickness before cutting (¢) Chip thickness rati It, the ; rl ty of metal to be constant, In orthogonal cutting, the width of chip equals the width of cut. Assuming specific gravity volume of chip produced will be equal to the volume of metal cut. length of metal eut and L, = length of chip ‘Thus, chip thickness rat ca before cutting L, Chip thickness ratio can also be defined as the ratio of chip length after cutting (L,) to uncut chip length ( ). b) Chip reduction coefficient (kh) vy ore Chip reduction coefficient is the inverse of chip thickness ratio, i.e, & {+ Itis a quantitative measure of the degree of Plastic deformation in metal cutting operation and determines the power consumption and amount of energy required to Temove material from the workpiece metal. ©) Power consumed (P) in turning ‘The power consumed by a single point euting tool to remove excess material from the workpiece depends on the cutting A 60x1000 force (F) and cutting velocity (V.), ie., Power = P= Ww ‘The power consumed by the tool helps to determine the life of the tool for maximum Productivity, to select a motor of Suitable capacity that can be installed in the machine tool, and also for designing machine components. 1) Specific cutting energy-(P) Specific energy is the power consumption per unit volume of material removed, This Parameter is essential to determine the size of the driving motor in the machine tool. Specific cutting energy is given by the equation: P= Nimm? of where b= depth of cut (mm), f= tool feed (mn/rev), and Cutting force (NyProblem 2. The following are the details during turning of a mild steel workpiece. . oo! geometry 0- 10-6 - 7-8-9 ~ 0.1 inch, Feed = 0.19 mm/rev, depth of cut = 2 mm, Chip Thickness = 0.385 mv cal ate (a) Chip Thickness ratio (b) Shear angle. Solution : From tool geometry, rake angle a= 0° chip thickness before cutting, f, = 0.19 mm/rév (The initial feed given during turing can be taken as chip thickness before cutting) chip thickness after cutting, (a) chip thickness ratio (r) 0.385 mm Pn oes . O19 wens oP 0385 () Shear angle (@) _ reese. __(049)cos(0°) wht tan = TT sinee ~ T=(049yein0) ~ 04? or 6 = tan! (0,49) = 26.1 = 261° Problem 3. The following data refer to an orthogonal cutting process. Chip thickness 0.62mm, feed 0.2mm, rake angle 15%, Calculate chip reduction co-efficient and shear angle, (VTU July 08)(b) Shear angle (@) 18.74° Problem 4 In an chip length = 240m vertical component of Solution : Chip lenge depth of cu (a) Shear plane angle (9) reese ficreoen) wht tang = Es ge ne(_reose. ) T-rsing \nrsse) where r Equation (1) becomes 0 (b) Chip thickness (¢) ic 4 WL chip thihness ratio = p= 4 = feed (in present problem depeh of cur ig given) © . os *% Equation (2) becomes out = Chip thicknes. (©) Friction angle (B) whew anB or B= tan (uy Fesina+ F60se —2400sin where [= co-efficient of frition = SBE Bcose 2400sin20. 94, - 200s Fecosa Fina ~ 4o0co539= OE _ 108637 2405in20 ~ 3iay= = 0.4 + Equation (3) becomes, B = tan-' (0. N20 217317 = 0.48Module Is (d) Resultant cutting force (R) wkt R= (F2+F? = J2400? = 2497 = 412N Problem 5 The followi = 0.45 mm, Width of cu ig speed was 150 mimin & the rake angle was +10*. Calculate the following: coefficient (¢) Shear angle (d) Veloc' stress. (g) Power required for cutting data were obtained during orthogonal tumit f a certain workpiece material. Chip thickness 13 kg, Thrust force = 29.5 kg. The cutting (a) Chip thicknes ratio (b) chip reduction of the chip along the tool face (e) Frictional force along the tool face (f) Shear Solution : feed cutting force F, (a) Chip thickness ratio (7) wkt r= (b) Chip reduction co-efficient (k) wkt & (©) Shear angle (@) | = tan! (0.604) = 31.16° (@ Velocity of chip along tool face ( 1) Vesing — . wht Vp= Tpqq—a) —_ (Eauation ¥)= x V can also be used) 1s0sin(31.16) Vy = Soxtaia6— 10°) 7 8322 mnie (©) Frictional force (F,) wkt F, = Fe sina + F,cos 7 F, = 108.; sin 10° + 289.39 cos 10° = 477.48 N (9 Shear stress (oF) ultimate shear stress (¢,) (or) maximum shear stress (¢,.) r-foree(E) sheararea hed wt shear stress = Shear fore = F, Shear Area = Sing =] 280,39 sin 31.16 = 798.8Metal Cutting & Forming 207 mm? Shear stre (2) Power required for cutting wkt. Power Problem 6 A seamless wuhing 3 Rake angle = 35°, Cutting speed mim, Cutting force culside diameter is tum orthogonally on a lathe. The following data is available mimin, Feed = 0.10 mmirex, Length of continuous chip in one revolution ~ $0.72 00 N, Feed force = SON. Calculate the coefficient of friction, shear plane angle, velocity of chip along tool face and chip thickness, (VTU, Feb, 2004) Solution : Diameter of workpiece = d = 3 = 1S mimin feed or chip thickness before cutting length of chip = £ $0.72 mm 00. N, F, = 80.N (a) Coefficient of friction (1) Fsina+ F cosce — 200sin3S°+80c0s35° F.cos =F, sin ~ 200cas35°-S0sin 3 (b) Shear plane angle (¢) wkt tang where wht = PI where Ly and L, are the lengths ofthe metal (before cut) andthe chip (after cut) espectivel respectively 4 : 4, = Length of uncut chip = m= & (35) = 109.5 mm (chiptengti) ncut chip lengeh) substituting r= 0.46 in equation (1), we have tan 9 = —2A6E0835°__ 0376 1-046sin3S> 0.736 tang = 0510 or = 27.03 (6) Velocity of ehip along tot face (W,) ) ©(@) Chip thickness (t,) ou au 046=— = =0.21T mm wkt or . a 046 Problem 7 A bar of 90mm diameter is reduced to 87.6mm by a cutting tool while cutting orthogonally. If the mean length of the cut chip is 88.2mm, find the cutting ratio. If the rake angle is 15°, what is the shear angle. Solution :- initial diameter of workpiece = d, = 90mm. final diameter of workpiece = d, = 87.6mm, Length of cut chip = L, = 88.2mm, a= 15° (a) Cutting ratio or chip thickness ratio (r) 4 , = length of uncut chip 4 L 882 ERD” (+h) ~ (00+ 876) moze aed 2 2 (b Shear angle () 16 kt, tan 6 = TEs 051660815 ya. 390 (0316)sin1S =rsina 1 Problem 8 The following are the details obtained during machining of C-25 steel with 0-10-6-6-8-90-1 mm (Orthogonal Rake System - ORS) shaped tripple carbide cutting tool. Depth of cut 2mm, feed 0.2mmirev, speed 200 m/min. Tangential cutting force 1600N, Feed thrust force 850N, Chip thickness 0.39 mm. Calculate (a) Shear force (b) Normal force at shear plane (¢) Friction force (d) Kinetic coefficient of friction and (e) Specific cutting energy. 0.2mmirev ; cutting speed 2mm ; feed Solution : From tool designation, rake angle = 02 = 10° ; depth of cut = 0.39 mm. = V= 200 mimin ; Fe = 1600N ; F, = 850 N ; Chip thickness = (a) Shear force (F,) wkt. F, = F,cos o~ F, sin =<] [2] oo 039 (0512)cos10° =(0512)sin10 Now equation (1) becomes, F, = 1600 cos 28.96 — 850 sin 28.96 = 988.4 N 512 Equation (2) becomes, tan = 0.553 or = tan (0.553) = 28.96° (b) Normal force at shear plane Normal force at shear plane is given by (F.) sarpine = Fc Sin 6+ F, €05 § = 1600 sin (28.96) + 850 cos (28.96) = 1518 N (©) Friction force (F,) F,sin + F, cos & = 1600 sin 10 + 850 cos 10 1114.9.Ni feral Cutting & Formins Metal Ci (4) Kinetic co-efficient of friction () F f. 8 1492 wkt p= St Fees _ 1600sin10+850cos10 _ 11 en Fecosa—F, sina ~ 1600cos10+850sin10 142809 (©) Specific cutting energy WA. specific cutting energy = = feed = 0.2 mmirev = jaf Take width b= depth of cut = 2 mm & f= feed = 0.2 mm Specific cutting energy = Degg = 4000 Nim i kg, Feed force Problem 9 The following are the data obtained during a turning operation on a lathe. Cutting ee eae —_ aie = 30kg, Bake rake angle = 15°, Feed rate = 0.2mm/rev, chip thickness = 0.3mm, Cutting speed = 10 in, Woekpice diameter = 120mm, Depth of cut = 0.4mm. Calculate (a) Chip thickness ratio (b) Shear angle (c) Coefficient (@) Friction angle (c) Shear stress (f) Shear strain (g) Strain energy & (h) Chip flow velocity. Solution : F- = 120kg = 1177.2 N, F,= 30kg = 2943N; a= 15°, 1, = 0.2mmirav 3mm 5 V_=100m/min, diameter d= 120mm, depth of cut = d= 0.4mm (a) Chip thickness ratio (1) = 1.2 7 wht r= >= 95 =067 = 0.67 (b) Shear angle (6) wa) = tan = Fesina+ F cosa _ 11772sin15+2943c0s15 58895 © Fecosa—F,sina 11772cosiS—2943sin15 ~ 1060: (d) Friction angle (B) 0.67 costs ] (© Co-efficient of friction (1) wks. wkt. = tan or B = tan! (W) = tan (0.55) = 28,8° (@) Shear stress (¢,) Skear force F) ‘Shear area(s) where F, = F, cos $~F, sin wkt t= ot (0402) 0.123 mm sin38Module- 1 9 74645 -+ Equation (1) reduces tot, = “75> = 5741.9 Nim? (O Shear strain = + tan(23) aaa? 3) wékt. shear strain = cot $+ tan (~ a) = cot 38 + tan (38 ~ 15) (g) Strain energy strain energy/unit volume (hy Chip flow velocity (V,) wk. ¥, = 1 ¥, = (0.67) (100) = 67 m/min (shear stress) (shear strain (5741.9) (1.7) = 9761 N/mm? Problem 10 The following data relates to an orthogonal turning operation. Cutting force = 23 Ax, Feed force = 10 ky. Cutting speed = 150 m/min, Feed = 0.125 mmvrev. Chip thickness = 0.25 mm, Back rake angle = 30°, Calculate (a) the work done in shear strain/min (b) shear strain 30° Solution: F,=23 kg = 225.63 N, F,= 10 ke = 98.1 N, V, (@) work done in shear strain wk. work done in shear strain = FV, eer t) 50 m/min, t, = 0.125 mm/rev, ty ~ 0.25 mm, 0 Vecosot To find F, & V,: wkt V,= 7 but =? aa + eosf-a) OH & 012s 025 05c0s30" 05: 0 5 A clea i 50603 130.9 mini cax{30—30) 7 1299 min wkt F, = + Work done in shear strain per minut (b) Shear strain 1 Tap PN = 1.73 sot 30° + tan (30 ~ 30) = wk:t, Shear strain = cot @ + tan (@ ~ 0) Shear strain = 1.73 Problem 11 The following details relates to an orthogonal cutting operation, Feed = 1.25 mm/rev, chip thickness » 2 mm, rake angle of tool = 10°, calculate (a) chip thickness ratio & shear angle (b) IC the shear strength is 6000 Aw/em', width of cut = 10 mm, cutting speed = 30 mpm and co-efficient of friction = 0.9, determine the following : (i) Shearing. force (ii) Friction angle (ii) Cutting force & (iv) Thrust force Solution : 1.25 mm/rey, t= 2 mm, a= 10° Shear stress = t, = 6000 kg/em? = 588.6 Nim? b, = 10 mm; V. = 30 mpm, p= 0.9 ‘To find Chip thickness ratio (r) and shear angle (4) Chip thickness ratioMetal Cutting & Forming Shear ang = tan” sing To find Shear Force F, shear force wt shear st sear fore() sheararea(,) bit _ WOKS) 55 sa? sing ~ sin3462 588.6 (: 2.95 x 10° N tan B tan-"(qt) = tan-"(0.9) = 41.98° E - =F, : where F, = —_ "pcos (Ba) re Fe cos(0+B—0) ke PE gry * Fe = Cos (34.624 4195-10) > ' : oF, = Fy cos (B ~ &) = 32.6 * 10° cos (41.98 ~ 10) = 27.65 x 10° N To find Thrust force = F, = F, = Fy sin (B — a) = (32.6 * 10°) sin (41.98 — 10) = 17.26 x 109 N Problem 12 A mild steel bar is tuned on a lathe with a cutting tool having rake angle 10° and with a cutting speed of 200 mpm. Ifthe width of cut is 3 mm and uncut thickness is 0.3 mm, determine (a) the shear angle (b) cutting force and Thrust force (c) machining constant for the mild steel workprice. The maximum shear stress is 400 Mimm? and Co- efficient of the friction is 0.5. Solution : a= 10°, V,= 200 m/min, b, = 3 mm, t,=0.3 mm, 1, = 400 Nimm’, w= 0.5, (a) Shear angle (@) reoser [Note Since chip thickness () isnot given in problem, @ cannot be calculated using the equation tan 6 From Emst-Merchant’s solution, (b) Cutting force (F,) and Thrust force (F) wht F, = Fy cos (B~ a) F, = Fysin (B~ @) Bu Fy =? r wt F_ = ——+— cates Boa) ' 28) he ——Module -1 a4 But Shear force F, Shear Force(F,) wok shear stress (¢,) oa] Shear Area A,) 1, = 400 Mimm? Ay _ by 3x03 aa = 1.505 mnt sing 0 From equation (4) we have, F, = t, A, = (400) (1.505) 602 Equation (3) reduces to, Fy = ——————————~ = iquation (3) redu Tax(GGT + 2656210) 1006.8 N (1006.8) cos (26.56 ~ 10) = 965.03 86.95 N From equation (1), F, and From equation (2), F, = (1006.8) sin (26.56 ~ 10) (©) Machining constant for the mild steel workpiece. wkt 29+B-a=C where 2 2 (36.72) + (26.56) - 10 = C or C= 90° Problem 13 An AISI 4340 steel of diameter 80 mm and density 7.9 * 10° ke/mm’ is turned using an H1SS tool with a rake angle of 8°. The undeformed chip.thickness is 0.3 mm, depth of cut (width of cut) is 1.5 mm. The speed is 150 rpm and the chip comes off in a continuous from. A Im long chip weighs 5.7 * 10” kg, but the chip width is unchanged at 1.5 mm, Calculate (a) The cutting ratio, (b) Shear angle and (c) Chip velocity. machining constant Solution : Diameter of workpiece = 80 mm, Density of work material = 7.910 kg/mm’ = 8°, t, = 0.3 mm. Chip width = 1.5 mm, Speed N = 150 rpm Length of chip = 1 m= 1000 mm, Weight of chip = 5.7% 10 kg. Note The given speed 150 rpm refers to the rotation of the workpice material and hence should not be confused with the ‘cutting speed, which is expressed in m/min, (a) Cutting ratio (or) chip thickness ratio. But, =? weight of chip (: Density = Heat) wht, volume of chip = Tensiiyof chip material Volume. 57x10 e of chip = = 72.51 mn? volume of chip = 57 wt,” Volume of chip = (length of chip) * (width of chip) » (thickness of chip) Volume of chip ckness of chip = Trp of chip) (Widih of chip) 2 thickness of chip = wis t= 048 nun en ) a = 0.625 048 4 a using, r= 1 aMetal Cutting & For (b) shear angle (9) reosce wkt tan = To or ri (©) Chip velocity (1) V=r¥_ V, = cutting speed, and r = chip thickness ratio dN . V, = =~ mmisec_ (Note dis in mm) 60 }4) (80) (150) 92.5 mm/sec <. chip velocity = V = r V, = (0.625) (628) 1.10 INTRODUCTION TO CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS Metal cuting processes involve high local stresses, friction and considerable heat generation during cutting. Technologies for machining tough workpiece materials such as high-speed machining, dry machining, and continuing developments place extreme demands on cutting tools. Emphasis has been laid on the development of heat-resistant tool materials that can perform at higher speeds and last longer under increasingly rigorous operating conditions. The result has been a progression from high-speed steel (HSS) tools to cemented carbides, cermets, ceramics and super hard materials. The details regarding the various cutting tool materials and their applications are briefed in the following sections. 1.10.1 Properties / Characteristics / Requirements of Cutting Tool Materials ‘The material selected for cutting tool should possess the following basic properties: 1) Hot of Red hardness ofa material to resist softening at elevated temperatures is known as hor or red hardness. A cutting tool material should have @ high value of hardness to resist the temperature generated during metal cutting; else, the tool will lose its shape making it unsuitable for use. 2) Wear resistance ‘A cutting tool wears gradually as the cutting operation progresses. Hence, the material selected for the tool should show high resistance to wear to ensure longer tool life. 3) Toughness Fen shuts ont ce Wiow Races SMO Ong enough to wiht 4) Thermal conductivity and specific heat A tool material should have a high thermal conductivity and specific heats in order to readily absorb the heat ge the cutting zone and conduct it away. teat generated at '5) Chemical stability and inertness ‘The chemical stability and inertness with respect to the workpiece material should be hi contributing to tool wear are avoided. 80 that any adverse reactions 6) Availability and cost “The material selected forthe manufacture of euting tool should be easily available and with to nv cost ‘TYPES OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS ng tool materials, each having their own characteristics and applications, follows. ipplications. A fey ‘commonly used tool 1.1 ‘There are various cutt ials are discussed briefly materiModule 1 2B LILd High Sp (Iss) ) are so called because they are capable of eutting at speeds, about four times faster than the carbon only cutting, tool available for metal cutting operations, ‘The details of HSS are discussed in High speed steels (HS steel tools, which was once th brief as follows: © Composition HSS is ni, (ungsten, molybdenum, chromium, and vanadium in suitable proportions. Cobalt is sometimes added to improve hot hardness. ‘There are two basic types of high speed steels: Type HSS, in which tungsten is the principal alloying with composition ranging from 12 ~ 18 %, and M-type HSS, in which molyhdenum is the principal alloying clement with composition ranging from 4 ~ 9%, Under Type category, 18-4-1 1/88 is in common use, containing 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, and 1'% vanadium, in addition (0 a carbon content of 0.7%, Under M-type category, 6-6-4-2 /18S is in common use, containing 6% molybdenum, 6% tungsten, 4% chromium, and 2% aanadium, in addition to a carbon content of 0.6%. ; Note ‘The shortage of tungsten during World war-1 made molybdenum to substitute tungsten. Nearly 95 % of HSS tools used is of M series type. roperties & Applications High speed steels have excellent hardenability and can retain their hardness up to about 600°C. ‘They are relat and moderately priced. ‘They can be shaped easily. As such HSS are commonly used for manufacturing drill bits, rearers, counter bore, milling cutters and many single point cutting tools. 1.11.2 Cemented Carbides Cemented carbide, often called simple carbide is the most common material used for manufacturing cutting tools. The chief advantage of carbide tools is its ability to cut at 3-5 times faster than HSS tools, + Composition Cemented carbide contains either tungsten or titanium mixed with cobalt in suitable proportions, along with @ small amount of carbon, They are accordingly called as Cemented tungsten carbides and Cemented titanium carbides. + Properties & Applications Carbide tools cut at 3-5 times faster than HSS tools, and can retain their cutting edges up to about 1200°C. The hard and possess high compressive strength, however they are brittle and cannot withstand impact loading. Tool grinding is difficult and can be done only with silicon carbide or diamond wheels. Further they cost more. Owing to these disadvantages, carbide tools are generally used as brazed or throw-away inserts*. Tungsten carbide tools are commonly used for machining steels, cast irons and certain non-ferrous materials. Note ‘The word cemented is used because tungsten carbide grains are together with cobalt as a binder, m similar to producing concrete in which gravel (small stones) is cemented together with cement, 1.11.3 Coated Carbides It because carbide is more brittle (due to high hardness) thereby making it susceptible to chipping and br -ase the life of the carbide tools, they are coated with certain materials like titanium carbide (77C), titanium nit mics, diamond etc,, and such tools are called coated carbides. Of all the coatings, Titanium carbide (7iC) is the mnost widely used. Coating allows the culting edge of the tool to clearly pass through the work, al without having the material stick to it. Italso provides longer wear resistance and helps to decrease Cutting with carbide tools is slightly diffi © Instead of making the entre tool fiom a single material, the shank or body of the euting tool is made with a plain carbon steel ‘material, and then its tip is attached with another replaceable material called insert, On degradation, the insert is discarded.Metal Cutting & Forming 24 i out 80 percent of the inserts the temperature associated withthe cutting process thereby increasing the life ofthe took es Pea ener used in machining today are coated cemented carbide grades. Coating is usually deposit ermal Deposition (CVD) technique, Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) technique, etc. 1.11.4 Ceramics ‘The primary benefit of ceramic materials for manufacturing tools include: high hardness, ability to ee bie ae at extremely high-temperatures (even when inside a furnace), high electrical and wear resistance, a ao However, they are extremely britle in nature and this makes them to be used as inserts in cutting tool applica different variants of ceramic materials used for cutting tool applications are discussed in brief as follows. + Cemented oxide tools Ceramic tools made primarily from aluminum oxide (alumina) with certain additions of titanium, magnesium, chromium or Zirconium oxides ot silicon carbide rans that ate dsrbuted homogencously throughout the alumina matrix are called cemented axide tools. Cemented oxide tools are brittle in nature and hence require heavy, rigid and vibration-free machines and set-ups, They are usually used in applications for cutting metals at high speeds without the use of coolant. * Sialon tools Sislon(Si-AV.O-N) is a ceramic too! material having silicon-aluninum oxynitride isostructural with beta-silicon nitride (SiN). Cuting tools made wi thea expansion hat rest ina very good tema shock resistance. They are excelleat for turning ray ease ee ae fi ated for miling and ker iterupedcut operations on gray cast ton. Sion tools can also boreceed a nitride or other coating materials + Cubie Boron Nitride (CBN) Boron nite in its natural form has hexagonal, graphite lke structure. When this hexa i . is hexagonal boron nti Neher and pesie nthe order of abet 1500°C and 8 GPa respective ts hoe bral Gist are Converted o cubic fr, and hence is known as cubic boron nitride. This mater is powder fermi ature can {Gnerture and pressure witha metal ora ceramic binder phase to et polyersaline wae oe Se as a fool in Gee tol older. The advantage of CBN sth, it second nade ony to iamond, ae high-tempersna inser) ina Sia car aera metals and rest oxidization thereby making i particulary se ee™PEtUES, it remains dlifcul-o-cut material. fed for machining hard and 1.12 INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE TOOLS ‘A machine tol isa power driven machine, designed to hold and move a sharp cutting tool a material or vice versa, so as to remove excess material fiom the workpieee in order t0 prod finish. A few commonly used machine tools include, Lathe, Drilling machines, here area variety of machine tots designed for various applications, howeg, following functions 1) Hold the work material in position 2) Hold the cutting tool in position 3) Impart motion tothe work material, or cuting too, or both, in the desir 4) Regulte the cutting spee! and also the feeding movement between the Sainst a rigidly held workpiece ‘0 Produce the desired « ° Milling machines, an, i 'ed shape, size, and ‘mgeneral, most machine ‘d direction Cutting 1001 any ‘The present chapter deals with the classification, constructional dels aya Spesitcation ofa fon et few mach i aerane ‘Machine tools in brie Late the oldest fal machine tol an pets the mast basc oo sed i basic too used in industri astral by fring etn tol ap it ating elidel work piece. Ty ne eineeiatie Ato © Femove exces plin and tapered sfc i aso werkt an Unc es “Has fe dhe estas Peis ine, bring reaming et. Lather Besides ge eindial used to perform various ope! work piece is tue or rotated between two centers the five comer led nnn cn an ead center o the machine Machines, singe theModule -1 25 ¢ Lathe or Center Lathe 1.13.1 Engi Engine lathe is one of the most widely used lathes and is so called in view of the fact that earlier lathes were driven by steam engines. Iisa general purpose turning machine used to perform a variety of operations. Engine lathe is also called center lathe, since the workpiece is held and rotated between two centers: one being the live center, rotating at the headstock side, and the other, dead center, supporting the workpiece at the tailstock side. Figure 1.12 shows the parts of a Center lathe, Following is a brief description of the same. 1) Bed Itis a rigid structure which forms the base or foundation to suppor all the other parts such as headstock, tailstock, carriage, etc. It is usually made from gray cast iron. At the top of the bed are the guideways, which guides for accurate movement of carriage and tailstock. 2) Headstock (Live center) ‘The headstock mounted at the left end of the lathe bed serves as a housing for the spindle, drivin of which the workpiece can be rotated at different speeds. The headstock spindle is provided support one end of the workpiece while it is being rotated. 3) Tailstock (Dead center) ‘The tailstock mounted at the right end of the lathe bed performs two functions: + Provide support to the other end of the rotating work piece # Hold a tool for performing operations like drilling, rea The tailstock can be made to slide along tlie bed, and can be clamped at any location so as to accommodate workpiece of different lengths. It can also be shifted laterally on the bed so as to make it offset for producing taper surfaces. Dead center -ars or pulleys by means a live center or chuck to Spindle, Chuck / Stove love Sa a Headstock ta (Gearbox) Tawa om Bed bé 2 reso g rT hasa whee rT TTT TTY fam —| © — oa coriage UN seri [ Ep] switen / ‘Apron Bed Feed rod (Ute [ ) t Hand whee! for movernentofearage Leg Leg Figure 1.12 Parts of Center Lathe 4) Carriage The cutting ool is supported, moved and controlled with the help of carriage, The carriage consists of the following parts.& Forming Metal Cutting 26 ; Lavays, It supports the cross-slid, + Saddle — The saddle is a part of the carriage that can be made to slide along the bed-wa35- sPPO! compound rest and tool post. . " * Cross-slide ~ The cosalte is mounted on the saddle. It can be made to move in ae es saddle movement, or perpendicular to the lathe axis thereby providing the necessary depth of eu ; . : * Compound rest ~ Its mounted on the cross-slide and suppor the tol post. The compound rest Has 2 CHGAIAE Bas graduated in degrees. This helps the cutting tool to be swivelled at any angle to obtain taper surfaces a # Tool-post — It is mounted on the compound rest, and is used to hold/support the cutting tool firmly in position hand-wheels and clutches to during machining. © Apron ~ It is fitted beneath the saddle fai operate the carriage by hand or by automatic power feed. ; + Feed rod ~The feed rod is @ long shaft that gives automatic feed to the carriage for various operations namely the operator. It houses the gears, levers, boring, turning etc. except thread cutting. ‘+ Lead screw ~ It isa long shaft with square threads cut on it. The rotation of the lead screw facilitates the movement of carriage during thread cutting operations. 5) Legs Legs are the supports which carry the entire load of the machine over them. They are firmly secured to the floor by means of foundation bolts in order to prevent vibrations of the machine during operation. 1.13.2. Specification of Center Lathe The size of center lathe is specified by one or more of the following criteria. Refer figure 1.13. Spindle Headstock Distance between Tailstock centers 7 ot Lathe bed Length of bed. Lf Figure 1.13 Specification of Center Lathe * Distance between centers isthe maxinu length of the jb that can be held between the five center & dead cent * Swing diameter is the maximum diameter of the workpiece that can revolve without touching a nn en Some manufacturers specify Height of centers instead of swing diameter, 18 the guide ways Height of centers is the height measured from the bed to the lathe center axis, # Length of bed indicates the approximate floor space occupied by the lathe: «+ Range of spindle speeds 1.13.3. Machining Processes on Lathe In lathes, the workpiece is rotated at suitable speeds while the euting tool is fed Tinearly against the few machining processes on lathe are discussed as follows. ie "rotating workpiece. A 1) Cylindrical Turning also called plain tuming or straight tuning is 2 machining process for protein ndrical turning, also call _ owl shown in figure 1.14, One en ofthe workpiece is held rigidly in ¢ ehacye 2 o3tatical surtace ‘on the workpiece . o + Whi ” the dead center of the machine. The cutting tool is fed a evolvine ile the other 7 supported by the dead ec teed ig tool i revolving workpiece, in a din eee to the lathe axis sp 25 fo prosuce a cylindrical su rection parallelModule -1 4 Chuck Jaw Original diameter of work <5 Dead centre Workpiece (Support) Chuck Hem | Chip Lathe: Workpiece ofeut ao axis Longitudinal | feed Figure 1.14 Cylindrical turing Figure 1.15 Facing 2) Facing Facing is a machining process for producing a flat surface at the end face of the workpiece as shown in figure 1.15. One end of the workpiece is held rigidly in the chuck, white the other end is left free and un-supported. The tool is fed in a Girection perpendicular to the lathe axis to produce a flat surface at the end of the workpiece. Facing is also carried out to reduce or cut the workpiece to the required length, 3) Taper turning Taper turing is a machining process for producing conical surface Chuck. ‘on a cylindrical workpiece as shown in figure 1.16. The work aay piece is held rigidly between the two supports of the machine and Po. the cutting tool is fed against the revolving workpiece at an angle ‘Wiorchesd tothe lathe axis. Thisanglereferred as half-taperangleiscalculated | —.{J._“Worplece | using the equation: D-d LU ct Half-taper angle = A “ eae Centre (b) Lathe chuck (a) Lathe centres Headstock Lathe dog Bush (work) / D jlstock Mandrel Spindle} | > cee oss NDrive Too! plate (a) Face plate (c) Use of dog, drive plate and mandrel in machining a bush Drive plate Cross-slide ways (e} Steady rest in use (8 Follower test in use Figure 1.21 Lathe accessories 2) Lathe chuck A lathe chuck is a tool, which by means of its adjustable jaws, holds the work as well as rotates the workpiuece so that the Stationary cutting tool can perform machining operation. Refer figure 1.21(b). The chuck is used for workpieces of short Tength and large diameter or of irregular shape that cannot be supported between centers. The chuck is attached to the30 headstock spindle and he independent chuck, coll 3) Lathe dog A lathe dog is a tool w Refer figure 1.21(), 4) Drive plate ‘The drive plate is a circul threaded hole that helps it to be which engages with the serted into the hole. 5) Face plate let chuck, ete, tail of by bolts or clamps. Refer figure 1.21(d). 6) Mandret ‘The lathe mandrel is a cylindrical bar with central hole at ea pulleys, ete., to machine the external suri centers. Refer figure 1.21(c) 7) Steady rest to additionally support t 8) Follower rest A follower rest unlike steady rest is not fixed in one Cutting tool thereby providing constant support to the the workpiece and prevent it from bendit the lathe bed ina suitable position, Refer figure 1.21(e), 1.15 KINEMATICS OF LATHE oper: by changing the gear ra fosated on the machine Kelp the operator wo carry out the machisine operation Is 0 making measurement reducing time and labo g the Norton gear and the Mead 16 CAPSTAN & TURRE: tio in the pear qu T LATHES on the work pice ut, The details repardi lar plate having a central boss drive systems ex drant connecting the feed pear box with sqipped with special tooling fa pices ina proper sequence. “Alka eb y chucks. The face plate has four T-slots and a Position, rather is ttt workpiece during eves is fed manually by th The workpiece takes the rotational power from the electric mot box which splits the input speed into a numer of speeds by op workpiece, the half nut is engaged with te rotting lead-serew to posit ively cause parallel to the lathe bed or axis of the workpiece. The feed rate for bet inthe Feed gear facility fed as follows: avoids re-set Metal Cuting & Forming nee Fotates with the spindle, Chucks in manual lathe can be a 3-jaw or self-centering chuck, 44 ich transmits motion tothe workpiece from the spindle when the work is held between two center, Projecting from it, Refer figure 1.21(c). The boss has a intemal % attached to the headstock spindle. hole is provided on the plate to accommodate a pin 4 dog plate. When a bent dog is used, the pin is taken out and the bent portion of the tails *d on the lathe saddle to travel along with the " cut taken by the tool, Refer figure 1.21(). from the source to the 1 operator, ee or through the bel pera bully, clutch and then the speed gest sr utile cuting screw threads e0 travel of the carriage and hence the too! ing is varied as required bY box. Ther ones ane of feeds can be increas the spindle, oe ties capable of accommodate enemas Positive stops or feed trips independently, without the necessity fo" '8 Of work oF tools, therebY Mod 1.16 Sade accu a) B also mach iH The | whielModule - 1 31 1.16.1 Saddle Type Turret Lathe Saddle type turret lathe as shown in figure 1.22 is basically suited for heavy-duty jobs, particularly those requiring long and accurate cuts. The lathe consists of the following parts: a) Bed ‘The bed is a long, box like casting with rectangular guideways upon which are mounted the carriage and turret saddle. It also supports the headstock and other parts of the machine. The bed provides strength and rigidity to all the parts of the machine during its operation b) Headstock ‘The headstock mounted on the left end of the bed houses the powerful motor and transmission mechanism like gears, which operates the spindle to rotate at various speeds. Square turret Hexagonal turret, too! post Turret saddle Side-hung carriage (ltr ew of sdeype tart tho ary Hexagonal turret O-| 0 Cross. Bed guideways slide Hand wheel Turret saddle saddle -=— x y T Side-hung carriage Feed rod Tray or saddle —r (b) Front view of saddle type turret lathe Figure 1.22 Saddle type Turret LatheMetal Cutting & Forming 32 aa decir head with a multiple speed motor mounted ‘Nore Modem turret lathes use either an all geared head, or id the spindle speed directly on the spindle. The operator needs only to set the dial to the diameter of the workpiece, an P! es selector will automaticaly shift to the correct speed. ©) Turret and turret saddle " mount Ina turret lathe, there is no talstock; instead, a hexagonal indexable turret (turret head oF tol hoe) panied ont sade, which slides longitudinally onthe bed. ‘The trret is a hexagonal (six sided) block with a throu His Maco each face of the hexagon into which the shank of six different tools may be accommodated and clamped by means of serews provided on the top the turret. The turret may be indexed (rotated through fixed angle) automatically or marwaly to bring each tool in proper position for performing the operation on the work piece. @) Cross-stide and square turret ‘The cross-slide is mounted over the chaser saddle, which is ofa side-hung type supported on the front bedways, and on an additional way provided on the front of the bed near its bottom. The chaser saddle can slide longitudinally on the bedways of the machine through power or manual operation. The cross-stide carries a square turret tool post capable of holding fou different single point cutting tools. The square turret is indexed manually about a vertical axis to bring each of the four tools into operating position. it can also move in transverse direction (perpendicular to the spindle axis) on the cross-slide. ©) Feed rod The feed rod controls the motion for the side-hung carriage during thread cutting and other related operations. 0 Legs Legs are hollow casting, acting as supports, carrying the entire load ofthe machine over them. They are firmly secured to the floor by means of foundation bolts in order to prevent vibrations of the machine during operation. The left lez accommodates in it several mechanisms like electrical, drives, oil pump, etc. 1.16.2 Capstan Lathe or Ram Type Turret Lathe ‘The moder name fr a capstan ate wedi industries is a ram type turret athe. The capstan late is similar in appear? to the sa ~ type Met athe, except regarding the features of the saddle and cross-slide, which forms the main basis of aire ne ypesoflates. The capstan lathe i so called, because ofthe ool head cartier, the rrr bei circular shaped instead of hexagon. However, in some machines, the tool havi ie Figure 1.23 shows the features ofa capstan lth. The machine consists ofthe folios poe PE a) Bed ed The bed isa long, box like casting with rectan also supports the headstock. The bed provi b) Headstock ‘The headstock is a large casting mounted on the change of the spindle seeds, “This shoud be select on ee Generally changing button. prior to an operation by ) Turret saddle “The saddle in a capstan lathe supports an aux vertical spindle. Thecapstanheadisa circular shay around six tools of different types. The ram cat the tools against the work ieee. Further, the saddle ina capstan lathe can be moved accommodate work piece of different lengths, aectough power feed mechanism. fan all-geared headstock is used for rapid changing the lever or pressing the speed Along the beays and scr ‘The tartetor easton head ean be ea wee any desired position in order 10 ‘manually by means of hand whee! a) reg co tr °)Module <1 [Wore When the hand wheel is turned in the indexes the capstan Head to bring the next fool in position, ‘The movement of the tool is controlled by aclu tps. Hach stop is set for correct tr ‘will stop further movement of the tool a c of saddle type turret lathes, fet head moves backwar mean time, Jockwise direction, Each el of the tool movement, which ening. of the tools is int ) Cross-stide The crossslide is mounted over the + saddle, which ix of reach aver ype or bridge type that can slide longitudinally oon the hedways between the headstock and the tutet saddle, ‘The cross-alide carries a square turret tool post capable of Holding four different single point cuting tools, ‘The advantage of reach over (ype saddle over the side-hung saddle as used in saddle type turret lathe fies in the availability of an additional tool post at the rear end, which also ean carry around four coulting. tools for various operations, ‘The square turret too! post at the front, and the tool post at the rear can be moved in the transverse direction on the eross-slid, oF ‘The ed vod tod controls the motion for the reach-over saddle during thread culting and similar such operations. Cross slide fo post Capstan head or Hexagonal turret Turret saddle Square tarot Roach-over carriage, or saddle {a) Pictorial view of a ram-type turret lathe (capstan lathe) Hoadstock Lovers goinay fee Squere ipstan head or turret 7 hexagonal turret Turret saddlo _ Auvillary slide f -\c)--{oo or rain ==} Bed quideways i. f Food tod Tay Rulach over — Hand whe overnant of turret saddle (b) Front view of capstan lathe lathe or Ri Figure 1,23 Cap type Turret La34 1) Legs ine Legs are hollow castings, acting as supports, carrying the entire load of the machin: Metal Cutting & Forming ‘over them. They are firmly secured to i g operation. The left lez the floor by means of foundation bolts in order to prevent vibrations of the machine during ope electrical, drives, oil pump, etc. accommodates in it several mechanisms 1.16.3 Specification of Capstan/Turret Lathe ‘The size of the Capstar/Turret lathe is specified by one or more of the following criteria. ‘+ Maximum diameter of the workpiece that can be revolved. * Maximum diameter of the workpiece that can be passed terough the headstock spindle. + Power of main drive motor + Range of spindle speeds # Range of longitudinal and cross-feed rates © Type of chucking (pneumati 1.16.4 , hydraulic, etc.,) and chuck size. Difference Between Capstan & Turret Lathe Table 1.2 gives a brief comparison between Turret and Capstan lathes, ‘Turret lathe Capstan lathe 1. |The turret head is mounted on a saddle, which slides directly on the bedways of the machine. The wre or capstan hy z i ead is. mou auxiliary slide called ram: poe ni suideways provided on the saddle” SNeS of the 2. |The entire saddle unit is moved for feeding the tools against the rotating work. ‘The saddle is fixed at @ convenien work and the tools ae fed by movin eete® OM the 3. | Manual movement of the entire saddle for feeding the tools is a tedious process. ‘ng the ram, The capstan head ean be moved back and forth’ 4, | The cutting forees of the hexagonal turret head are transferred to the rigid lathe bed. Hence, heavy jobs involving high cutting forces ean be machined. casily without having to mave the entire saddle unit The cutting forces ie Torees of theo ald ae eae Bliny slide Span hea aE tented y ram, which isn iis lathe bed. Hence heavy ory aa reat Y cuts may resu 5. | Turret lathe may carry either a reach-over {ype or side-hung type earriage/saddle, Capable of tuming workpieces up to 200 ‘mnt in diameter, Table 1.2 ‘Turret versus Capstan lathe in defection or vibrations ions of the machine suitable onty for sme anda A capstan lathe arty rs sade nny only reach Capable of tama diameter, ean “over type workpieces up 10 60 mm in