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vi Contents
5.4 Longitudinal Strains in Beams 449 7.4 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress 656
5.5 Normal Stress in Beams (Linearly 7.5 Hooke’s Law for Plane Stress 669
Elastic Materials) 453 7.6 Triaxial Stress 675
5.6 Design of Beams for Bending 7.7 Plane Strain 679
Stresses 466 Chapter Summary and Review 694
5.7 Nonprismatic Beams 476 Problems 697
5.8 Shear Stresses in Beams of Rectangular
Cross Section 480 8. Applications of Plane Stress
5.9 Shear Stresses in Beams of Circular (Pressure Vessels, Beams, and
Cross Section 488 Combined Loadings) 719
5.10 Shear Stresses in the Webs of Beams 8.1 Introduction 720
with Flanges 491 8.2 Spherical Pressure Vessels 720
*5.11 Built-Up Beams and Shear Flow 498 8.3 Cylindrical Pressure Vessels 726
*5.12 Beams with Axial Loads 502 8.4 Maximum Stresses in Beams 733
*5.13 Stress Concentrations in Bending 509 8.5 Combined Loadings 741
Chapter Summary and Review 514
Problems 518
Problems 768
6. Stresses in Beams (Advanced Topics) 553
9. Deflections of Beams 787
6.1 Introduction 554
6.2 Composite Beams 554
9.2 Differential Equations of the Deflection
6.3 Transformed-Section Method 563
Curve 788
6.4 Doubly Symmetric Beams with Inclined
9.3 Deflections by Integration of the
Loads 571
Bending-Moment Equation 793
6.5 Bending of Unsymmetric Beams 578
9.4 Deflections by Integration of the Shear-
6.6 The Shear-Center Concept 589 Force and Load Equations 804
6.7 Shear Stresses in Beams of Thin-Walled 9.5 Method of Superposition 809
Open Cross Sections 590
9.6 Moment-Area Method 818
6.8 Shear Stresses in Wide-Flange
9.7 Nonprismatic Beams 826
Beams 593
9.8 Strain Energy of Bending 831
6.9 Shear Centers of Thin-Walled Open
Sections 597 *9.9 Castigliano’s Theorem 836
*6.10 Elastoplastic Bending 605 *9.10 Deflections Produced by Impact 848
Chapter Summary and Review 614 *9.11 Temperature Effects 850
Problems 616 Chapter Summary and Review 854
Problems 856
7. Analysis of Stress and Strain 639
7.1 Introduction 640 10. Statically Indeterminate Beams 883
7.2 Plane Stress 640 10.1 Introduction 884
7.3 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear 10.2 Types of Statically Indeterminate
Stresses 648 Beams 884
Contents vii
10.3 Analysis by the Differential Equations References and Historical notes 1019
of the Deflection Curve 887
APPenDIX A: Systems of Units and Conversion
10.4 Method of Superposition 893
Factors 1029
*10.5 Temperature Effects 907
*10.6 Longitudinal Displacements at the Ends APPenDIX B: Problem Solving 1043
of a Beam 914
APPenDIX C: Mathematical Formulas 1051
Problems 919 APPenDIX D: Review of Centroids and Moments
of Inertia 1057
11. Columns 933
APPenDIX e: Properties of Plane Areas 1083
11.2 Buckling and Stability 934 APPenDIX F: Properties of Structural-Steel
11.3 Columns with Pinned Ends 942 Shapes 1089
11.4 Columns with Other Support APPenDIX G: Properties of Structural
Conditions 951 Lumber 1101
11.5 Columns with Eccentric Axial
Loads 960 APPenDIX H: Deflections and
11.6 The Secant Formula for Columns 965 Slopes of Beams 1103
11.7 Elastic and Inelastic Column APPenDIX I: Properties of Materials 1109
Behavior 970
Answers to Problems 1115
11.8 Inelastic Buckling 972
11.9 Design Formulas for Columns 977 Index 1153
Problems 996
*A star attached to a section number indicates a specialized and/or advanced topic.
A B o U T T H eCAoUnTTHe on RT S
Barry J. Goodno
Barry John Goodno is Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at
Georgia Institute of Technology. He joined the Georgia Tech faculty in 1974. He
was an Evans Scholar and received a B.S. in Civil Engineering from the University
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, in 1970. He received M.S. and Ph.D. degrees
in Structural Engineering from Stanford University, Stanford, California, in 1971
and 1975, respectively. He holds a professional engineering license (PE) in Georgia,
is a Distinguished Member of ASCE and an Inaugural Fellow of SEI, and has
held numerous leadership positions within ASCE. He is a past president of the
ASCE Structural Engineering Institute (SEI) Board of Governors and is also a
member of the Engineering Mechanics Institute (EMI) of ASCE. He is past-chair
of the ASCE-SEI Technical Activities Division (TAD) Executive Committee, and
past-chair of the ASCE-SEI Awards Committee. In 2002, Dr. Goodno received
© Barry Goodno
the SEI Dennis L. Tewksbury Award for outstanding service to ASCE-SEI. He
received the departmental award for Leadership in Use of Technology in 2013 for
his pioneering use of lecture capture technologies in undergraduate statics and
mechanics of materials courses at Georgia Tech. He is a member of the Earth-
quake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) and has held several leadership posi-
tions within the NSF-funded Mid-America Earthquake Center (MAE), directing
the MAE Memphis Test Bed Project. Dr. Goodno has carried out research, taught
graduate courses and published extensively in the areas of earthquake engineering
and structural dynamics during his tenure at Georgia Tech.
Dr. Goodno is an active cyclist, retired soccer coach and referee, and a
retired marathon runner. Like co-author and mentor James Gere, he has com-
pleted numerous marathons including qualifying for and running the Boston
Marathon in 1987.
James M. Gere
James M. Gere (1925-2008) earned his undergraduate and master’s degree in
Civil Engineering from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1949 and 1951,
respectively. He worked as an instructor and later as a Research Associate for
Rensselaer. He was awarded one of the first NSF Fellowships, and chose to study
at Stanford. He received his Ph.D. in 1954 and was offered a faculty position
in Civil Engineering, beginning a 34-year career of engaging his students in
challenging topics in mechanics, and structural and earthquake engineering. He
served as Department Chair and Associate Dean of Engineering and in 1974
co-founded the John A. Blume Earthquake Engineering Center at Stanford. In
1980, Jim Gere also became the founding head of the Stanford Committee on
Earthquake Preparedness. That same year, he was invited as one of the first for-
eigners to study the earthquake-devastated city of Tangshan, China. Jim retired
Courtesy of James and
from Stanford in 1988 but continued to be an active and most valuable member
Janice Gere Family Trust
of the Stanford community.
ix
x About the Authors
Jim Gere was known for his outgoing manner, his cheerful personality and
wonderful smile, his athleticism, and his skill as an educator in Civil Engi-
neering. He authored nine textbooks on various engineering subjects starting
in 1972 with Mechanics of Materials, a text that was inspired by his teacher
and mentor Stephan P. Timoshenko. His other well-known textbooks, used
in engineering courses around the world, include: Theory of Elastic Stability,
co-authored with S. Timoshenko; Matrix Analysis of Framed Structures and
Matrix Algebra for Engineers, both co-authored with W. Weaver; Moment
Distribution; Earthquake Tables: Structural and Construction Design Manual,
co-authored with H. Krawinkler; and Terra Non Firma: Understanding and
Preparing for Earthquakes, co-authored with H. Shah.
In 1986 he hiked to the base camp of Mount Everest, saving the life of a
companion on the trip. James was an active runner and completed the Boston
Marathon at age 48, in a time of 3:13. James Gere will be long remembered by
all who knew him as a considerate and loving man whose upbeat good humor
made aspects of daily life or work easier to bear.
P R e FAC e
Mechanics of Materials is a basic engineering subject that, along with statics,

must be understood by anyone concerned with the strength and physical per-
formance of structures, whether those structures are man-made or natural. At
the college level, statics is usually taught during the sophomore or junior year
and is a prerequisite for the follow-on course in Mechanics of Materials. Both
courses are required for most students majoring in mechanical, structural, civil,
biomedical, petroleum, nuclear, aeronautical, and aerospace engineering. In
addition, many students from such diverse fields as materials science, industrial
engineering, architecture, and agricultural engineering also find it useful to study
mechanics of materials.
Mechanics of Materials
In many university engineering programs today, both statics and mechanics of
materials are taught in large sections of students from the many engineering
disciplines. Instructors for the various parallel sections must cover the same
material, and all of the major topics must be presented so that students are
well prepared for the more advanced courses required by their specific degree
programs. An essential prerequisite for success in a first course in mechanics of
materials is a strong foundation in statics, which includes not only understanding
fundamental concepts but also proficiency in applying the laws of static equi-
librium to solutions of both two- and three-dimensional problems. This ninth
edition begins with an updated section on statics in which the laws of equilib-
rium and an expanded list of boundary (or support) conditions are reviewed, as
well as types of applied forces and internal stress resultants, all based upon and
derived from a properly drawn free-body diagram. Numerous examples and end-
of-chapter problems are included to help students review the analysis of plane
and space trusses, shafts in torsion, beams and plane and space frames, and to
reinforce basic concepts learned in the prerequisite course.
Many instructors like to present the basic theory of say, beam bending, and
then use real world examples to motivate student interest in the subject of beam
flexure, beam design, etc. In many cases, structures on campus offer easy access to
beams, frames, and bolted connections that can be dissected in lecture or in home-
work problems, to find reactions at supports, forces and moments in members
and stresses in connections. In addition, study of causes of failures in structures
and components also offers the opportunity for students to begin the process of
learning from actual designs and past engineering mistakes. A number of the new
example problems and also the new and revised end-of-chapter problems in this
ninth edition are based upon actual components or structures and are accompa-
nied by photographs so that the student can see the real world problem alongside
the simplified mechanics model and free-body diagrams used in its analysis.
An increasing number of universities are using rich media lecture (and/
or classroom) capture software (such as Panopto and Tegrity) in their large
undergraduate courses in mathematics, physics, and engineering. The many
new photos and enhanced graphics in the ninth edition are designed to support
this enhanced lecture mode.
xi
xii Preface
Key Features
The main topics covered in this book are the analysis and design of structural
members subjected to tension, compression, torsion, and bending, including
the fundamental concepts mentioned above. Other important topics are the
transformations of stress and strain, combined loadings and combined stress,
deflections of beams, and stability of columns. Some additional specialized top-
ics include the following: stress concentrations, dynamic and impact loadings,
non-prismatic members, shear centers, bending of beams of two materials (or
composite beams), bending of unsymmetric beams, maximum stresses in beams,
energy based approaches for computing deflections of beams, and statically
indeterminate beams.
Each chapter begins with a Chapter Overview highlighting the major top-
ics covered in that chapter and closes with a Chapter Summary and Review in
which the key points as well as major mathematical formulas in the chapter
are listed for quick review. Each chapter also opens with a photograph of
a component or structure that illustrates the key concepts discussed in the
chapter.
new Features
Some of the notable features of this ninth edition, which have been added as
new or updated material to meet the needs of a modern course in mechanics of
materials, are:
• Problem-Solving Approach—All examples in the text are presented in a
new Four-Step Problem-Solving Approach which is patterned after that
presented by R. Serway and J. Jewett in Principles of Physics, 5e, Cengage
Learning, 2013. This new structured format helps students refine their
problem-solving skills and improve their understanding of the main con-
cepts illustrated in the example.
• Statics Review—The Statics Review section has been enhanced in Chapter
1. Section 1.2 includes four new example problems which illustrate calcu-
lation of support reactions and internal stress resultants for truss, beam,
circular shaft and plane frame structures. Thirty-four end-of-chapter prob-
lems on statics provide students with two- and three-dimensional structures
to be used as practice, review, and homework assignment problems of
varying difficulty.
• Expanded Chapter Overview and Chapter Summary and Review sections—
The Chapter Overview and Chapter Summary sections have been expanded
to include key equations and figures presented in each chapter. These sum-
mary sections serve as a convenient review for students of key topics and
equations presented in each chapter.
• Continued emphasis on underlying fundamental concepts such as equilib-
rium, constitutive, and strain-displacement/ compatibility equations in
problem solutions. Example problem and end-of-chapter problem solu-
tions have been updated to emphasize an orderly process of explicitly writ-
ing out the equilibrium, constitutive and strain-displacement/ compatibility
equations before attempting a solution.
Preface xiii
• Expanded topic coverage—The following topics have been updated or have

received expanded coverage: stress concentrations in axially loads bars
(Sec. 2.10); torsion of noncircular shafts (Sec. 3.10); stress concentrations
in bending (Sec. 5.13); transformed section analysis for composite beams
(Sec. 6.3); generalized flexure formula for unsymmetric beams (Sec. 6.5);
and updated code provisions for buckling of steel, aluminum and timber
columns (Sec. 11.9).
• Many new example and end-of-chapter problems—More than forty new
example problems have been added to the ninth edition. In addition, there
are more than 400 new and revised end-of-chapter problems out of the
1440 problems presented in the ninth edition text. The end-of-chapter
problems are now grouped as Introductory or Representative and are
arranged in order of increasing difficulty.
• Centroids and Moments of Inertia review has moved to Appendix D to free
up space for more examples and problems in earlier chapters.
Importance of example Problems

• Examples are presented throughout the book to illustrate the theoretical
concepts and show how those concepts may be used in practical situations.
All examples are presented in the Four-Step Problem-Solving Approach
format so that the basic concepts as well as the key steps in setting up and
solving each problem are clearly understood. New photographs have been
added showing actual engineering structures or components to reinforce
the tie between theory and application. Each example begins with a clear
statement of the problem and then presents a simplified analytical model
and the associated free-body diagrams to aid students in understanding
and applying the relevant theory in engineering analysis of the system. In
most cases, the examples are worked out in symbolic terms so as to better
illustrate the ideas, and then numeric values of key parameters are substi-
tuted in the final part of the analysis step. In selected examples through-
out the text, graphical display of results (e.g., stresses in beams) has been
added to enhance the student’s understanding of the problem results.
example 1-1 In many cases, the problem

involves the analysis of a
real physical structure, such
Figure 1-6 Figure 1-7 as this truss structure (Fig.
Free-body diagram of truss model 1-6) representing part of
y
the fuselage of a model air
P plane. Begin by sketching
C
the portion of the structure
2P
θC = 80° of interest showing
a members, supports,
b
θB = 40° dimensions and loadings.

θA = 60° This Conceptualization
Ax A B
D x step in the analysis often
Ay By leads to a free-body
c/2 c/2 diagram (Fig. 1-7).
xiv Preface
Solution:
The solution involves the following steps:
The next step is to simplify 1. Conceptualize [hypothesize, sketch]: First sketch a free-body dia-
the problem, list known gram of the entire truss model (Figure 1-7). Only known applied
data and identify all
forces at C and unknown reaction forces at A and B are shown and
unknowns, and make
necessary assumptions to then used in an equilibrium analysis to find the reactions.
create a suitable model 2. Categorize [simplify, classify]: Overall equilibrium requires that the
for analysis. This is the
Categorize step. force components in x and y directions and the moment about the z
axis must sum to zero; this leads to reaction force components Ax,
Ay, and By. The truss is statically determinate (unknowns: m 1 r 5 5
Write the governing 1 3 5 8, knowns: 2j 5 8) so all member forces can be obtained using
equations, then use the method of joints. . . .
appropriate mathematical
3. Analyze [evaluate; select relevant equations, carry out mathematical
and computational
techniques to solve the solution]: First find the lengths of members AC and BC, which are
equations and obtain needed to compute distances to lines of action of forces.
results, either in the form
of mathematical formulas Law of sines to find member lengths a and b: Use known angles u A, u B,
or numerical values. The and uC and c 5 10 ft to find lengths a and b:
Analysis step leads to
support reaction and sin(u B ) sin(408 )
b 5c 5 (10 ft) 5 6.527 ft,
member forces in the truss. sin(uC ) sin(808 )
sin(u A ) sin(608 )
a 5c 5 (10 ft) 5 8.794 ft
sin(uC ) sin(808 )
Check that computed lengths a and b give length c by using the law
of cosines:
c 5 (6.527 ft)2 1 (8.794 ft)2 2 2(6.527 ft)(8.794 ft) cos(808 ) 5 10 ft

List the major steps in your
analysis procedure so that it 4. Finalize [conclude; examine answer—does it make sense? Are units
is easy to review or check at
a later time. correct? How does it compare to similar problem solutions?]: There
are 2 j 5 8 equilibrium equations for the simple plane truss consid-
ered above and, using the method of joints, these are obtained by
applying SFx 5 0 and SFy 5 0 at each joint in succession. A com-
puter solution of these simultaneous equations leads to the three
reaction forces and five member forces. The method of sections is an
efficient way to find selected member forces.
List the major steps in the Finalize step,

review the solution to make sure that it is
presented in a clear fashion so that it can
be easily reviewed and checked by others.
Are the expressions and numerical values
obtained reasonable? Do they agree with
your initial expectations?
Preface xv
Problems
In all mechanics courses, solving problems is an important part of the learning
process. This textbook offers more than 1440 problems, many with multiple
parts, for homework assignments and classroom discussions. The problems
are placed at the end of each chapter so that they are easy to find and don’t
break up the presentation of the main subject matter. Also, problems are
generally arranged in order of increasing difficulty, thus alerting students to
the time necessary for solution. Answers to all problems are listed near the
back of the book.
Considerable effort has been spent in checking and proofreading the text so
as to eliminate errors. If you happen to find one, no matter how trivial, please
notify me by e-mail (bgoodno@ce.gatech.edu). We will correct any errors in the
next printing of the book.
Units
Both the International System of Units (SI) and the U.S. Customary System
(USCS) are used in the examples and problems. Discussions of both systems
and a table of conversion factors are given in Appendix A. For problems involv-
ing numerical solutions, odd-numbered problems are in USCS units and even-
numbered problems are in SI units. This convention makes it easy to know
in advance which system of units is being used in any particular problem. In
addition, tables containing properties of structural-steel shapes in both USCS
and SI units may be found in Appendix F so that solution of beam analysis
and design examples and end-of-chapter problems can be carried out in either
USCS or SI units.
Supplements
Instructor Resources
An Instructor’s Solutions Manual is available in both print and digital versions,
and includes solutions to all problems from this edition with Mathcad solutions
available for some problems. The Manual includes rotated stress elements for
problems as well as an increased number of free body diagrams. The digital
version is accessible to instructors on http://login.cengage.com. The Instructor
Resource Center also contains a full set of Lecture Note PowerPoints.
Student Resources
FE Exam Review Problems has been updated and now appears online. This
supplement contains 106 FE-type review problems and solutions, which cover
all of the major topics presented in the text and are representative of those likely
to appear on an FE exam. Each of the problems is presented in the FE Exam
format and is intended to serve as a useful guide to the student in preparing for
this important examination.
Many students take the Fundamentals of Engineering Examination upon
graduation, the first step on their path to registration as a Professional Engi-
neer. Most of these problems are in SI units which is the system of units used
xvi Preface
on the FE Exam itself, and require use of an engineering calculator to carry out
the solution. The student must select from four available answers, only one of
which is the correct answer. Go to http://www.cengagebrain.com to find the
FE Exam Review Problems and the resources below, which are available on
the student website for this book:
• Answers to the FE Exam Review Problems
• Detailed Solutions for Each Problem
S.P. Timoshenko (1878–1972)

and J.M. Gere (1925–2008)
Many readers of this book will recognize the name of Stephen P. Timoshenko—
probably the most famous name in the field of applied mechanics. A brief
biography of Timoshenko appears in the first reference in the References and
Historical Notes section. Timoshenko is generally recognized as the world’s most
outstanding pioneer in applied mechanics. He contributed many new ideas and
concepts and became famous for both his scholarship and his teaching. Through
his numerous textbooks he made a profound change in the teaching of mechan-
ics not only in this country but wherever mechanics is taught. Timoshenko was
both teacher and mentor to James Gere and provided the motivation for the
first edition of this text, authored by James M. Gere and published in 1972.
The second and each subsequent edition of this book were written by James
Gere over the course of his long and distinguished tenure as author, educator,
and researcher at Stanford University. James Gere started as a doctoral student
at Stanford in 1952 and retired from Stanford as a professor in 1988 having
authored this and eight other well-known and respected text books on mechan-
ics, and structural and earthquake engineering. He remained active at Stanford
as Professor Emeritus until his death in January of 2008.
Acknowledgments
To acknowledge everyone who contributed to this book in some manner is clearly
impossible, but I owe a major debt to my former Stanford teachers, especially my
mentor and friend, and co-author James M. Gere.
I am grateful to my many colleagues teaching Mechanics of Materials at
various institutions throughout the world who have provided feedback and con-
structive criticism about the text; for all those anonymous reviews, my thanks.
With each new edition, their advice has resulted in significant improvements
in both content and pedagogy.
My appreciation and thanks also go to the reviewers who provided specific
comments for this ninth edition:
Erian Armanios, University of Texas at Arlington
Aaron S. Budge, Minnesota State University, Mankato
Virginia Ferguson, University of Colorado, Boulder
Preface xvii
James Giancaspro, University of Miami
Paul Heyliger, Colorado State University
Eric Kasper, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
Richard Kunz, Mercer University
David Lattanzi, George Mason University
Gustavo Molina, Georgia Southern University
Suzannah Sandrik, University of Wisconsin—Madison
Morteza A.M. Torkamani, University of Pittsburgh
I wish to also acknowledge my Structural Engineering and Mechanics

colleagues at the Georgia Institute of Technology, many of whom provided
valuable advice on various aspects of the revisions and additions leading to
the current edition. It is a privilege to work with all of these educators and to
learn from them in almost daily interactions and discussions about structural
engineering and mechanics in the context of research and higher education.
I wish to extend my thanks to my many current and former students who have
helped to shape this text in its various editions. Finally, I would like to acknowl-
edge the excellent work of Edwin Lim who suggested new problems and also
carefully checked the solutions of many of the new examples and end of chapter
problems.
I wish to acknowledge and thank the Global Engineering team at Cengage
Learning for their dedication to this new book:
Timothy Anderson, Product Director; Mona Zeftel, Senior Content Developer;

D. Jean Buttrom, Content Project Manager; Kristin Stine, Marketing Manager;
Elizabeth Brown and Brittany Burden, Learning Solutions Specialists; Ashley
Kaupert, Associate Media Content Developer; Teresa Versaggi and Alexander
Sham, Product Assistants; and Rose Kernan of RPK Editorial Services, Inc.
They have skillfully guided every aspect of this text’s development and
production to successful completion.
I am deeply appreciative of the patience and encouragement provided by
my family, especially my wife, Lana, throughout this project.
Finally, I am very pleased to continue this endeavor begun so many years
ago by my mentor and friend, Jim Gere. This ninth edition text has now reached
its 45th year of publication. I am committed to its continued excellence and wel-
come all comments and suggestions. Please feel free to provide me with your
critical input at bgoodno@ce.gatech.edu.
Barry J. Goodno
Atlanta, Georgia
M I n DTA P o n L I n e C o U R S e
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SyMBoLS
A area
Af , Aw area of flange; area of web
a, b, c dimensions, distances
C centroid, compressive force, constant of integration
c distance from neutral axis to outer surface of a beam
D diameter
d diameter, dimension, distance
E modulus of elasticity
E r , Et reduced modulus of elasticity; tangent modulus of elasticity
e eccentricity, dimension, distance, unit volume change
(dilatation)
F force
f shear flow, shape factor for plastic bending, flexibility,
frequency (Hz)
fT torsional flexibility of a bar
G modulus of elasticity in shear
g acceleration of gravity
H height, distance, horizontal force or reaction, horsepower
h height, dimensions
I moment of inertia (or second moment) of a plane area
I x, I y, I z moments of inertia with respect to x, y, and z axes
I x1, I y1 moments of inertia with respect to x1 and y1 axes (rotated axes)
I xy product of inertia with respect to xy axes
I x1y1 product of inertia with respect to x1 y1 axes (rotated axes)
IP polar moment of inertia
I1, I 2 principal moments of inertia
J torsion constant
K stress-concentration factor, bulk modulus of elasticity, effective
length factor for a column
k spring constant, stiffness, symbol for P /EI
kT torsional stiffness of a bar
L length, distance
LE effective length of a column
ln, log natural logarithm (base e); common logarithm (base 10)
M bending moment, couple, mass
M P, MY plastic moment for a beam; yield moment for a beam
m moment per unit length, mass per unit length
N axial force
xxi
xxii Symbols
n factor of safety, integer, revolutions per minute (rpm)

O origin of coordinates
O9 center of curvature
P force, concentrated load, power
Pallow allowable load (or working load)
Pcr critical load for a column
PP plastic load for a structure
Pr, Pt reduced-modulus load for a column; tangent-modulus load
for a column
PY yield load for a structure
p pressure (force per unit area)
Q force, concentrated load, first moment of a plane area
q intensity of distributed load (force per unit distance)
R reaction, radius
r radius, radius of gyration ( r 5 I /A )
S section modulus of the cross section of a beam, shear center
s distance, distance along a curve
T tensile force, twisting couple or torque, temperature
TP, TY plastic torque; yield torque
t thickness, time, intensity of torque (torque per unit distance)
tf , t w thickness of flange; thickness of web
U strain energy
u strain-energy density (strain energy per unit volume)
ur , ut modulus of resistance; modulus of toughness
V shear force, volume, vertical force or reaction
v deflection of a beam, velocity
v9, v 0, etc. dv/dx, d 2 v /dx 2 , etc.
W force, weight, work
w load per unit of area (force per unit area)
x, y, z rectangular axes (origin at point O)
xc , yc , zc rectangular axes (origin at centroid C)
x, y, z coordinates of centroid
Z plastic modulus of the cross section of a beam
a angle, coefficient of thermal expansion, nondimensional ratio
b angle, nondimensional ratio, spring constant, stiffness
bR rotational stiffness of a spring
g shear strain, weight density (weight per unit volume)
g xy , g yz , g zx shear strains in xy, yz, and zx planes
g x1y1 shear strain with respect to x1 y1 axes (rotated axes)
gu shear strain for inclined axes
d deflection of a beam, displacement, elongation of a bar
or spring
Symbols xxiii
∆T temperature differential
d P , dY plastic displacement; yield displacement
« normal strain
« x, « y, « z normal strains in x, y, and z directions
« x1, « y1 normal strains in x1 and y1 directions (rotated axes)
«u normal strain for inclined axes
«1, « 2 , « 3 principal normal strains
«9 lateral strain in uniaxial stress
«T thermal strain
«Y yield strain
u angle, angle of rotation of beam axis, rate of twist of a bar
in torsion (angle of twist per unit length)
up angle to a principal plane or to a principal axis
us angle to a plane of maximum shear stress
k curvature (k 5 1/r )
l distance, curvature shortening
n Poisson’s ratio
r radius, radius of curvature ( r 5 1/k ), radial distance in polar
coordinates, mass density (mass per unit volume)
s normal stress
s x, s y, s z normal stresses on planes perpendicular to x, y, and z axes
s x1, s y1 normal stresses on planes perpendicular to x1 y1 axes (rotated
axes)
su normal stress on an inclined plane
s 1, s 2, s 3 principal normal stresses
s allow allowable stress (or working stress)
s cr critical stress for a column (s cr 5 Pcr /A)
s pl proportional-limit stress
sr residual stress
sT thermal stress
sU , sY ultimate stress; yield stress
t shear stress
t xy , t yz, t zx shear stresses on planes perpendicular to the x, y, and z axes
and acting parallel to the y, z, and x axes
t x1y1 shear stress on a plane perpendicular to the x1 axis and acting
parallel to the y1 axis (rotated axes)
tu shear stress on an inclined plane
t allow allowable stress (or working stress) in shear
t U , tY ultimate stress in shear; yield stress in shear
f angle, angle of twist of a bar in torsion
c angle, angle of rotation
v angular velocity, angular frequency (v 5 2p f )
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whilst he appeared to occupy his mind solely with the internal state
of his dominions. His very first act was a proof that he was quite
ready to go in opposition to all the ordinary rules of political
prudence, and when under the influence of his humour to follow his
views, reckless of consequences. He caused splendid funeral
honours and services to be performed for his murdered father, and
forced the audacious and godless, though clever criminals, who had
helped to place his mother on the throne, to be publicly exposed to
the gaze of the people. Notwithstanding this, he suffered them to
remain in possession of their honours and estates, whilst he
designated them as murderers, and reminded the people that his
mother had taken part in the murder of his father. The body of Peter
III, which had been deposited in the convent of Alexander Nevski,
was by his orders placed beside that of his wife; and it was notified
by an inscription in the Russian language that, though separated in
life, in death they were united.
Alexis Orlov and Prince Baratinski, two of the
[1796 a.d.] murderous band, were compelled to come to St.
Petersburg to accompany the funeral
procession on foot, but they were not so treated as to prevent them
afterwards from doing further mischief. Alexis obtained permission to
travel in foreign countries. Baratinski was ordered never again to
show himself at court; which, under existing circumstances, could
not to him be otherwise than an agreeable command. Single proofs
of tender feeling, of a noble heart, and touching goodness, nay even
the emperor’s magnanimous conduct towards Kosciuszko and his
brethren in arms, combined with his sympathy with the fate of
Poland, could not reconcile a court, such as that of Russia under
Catherine II had become, and a city like that of St. Petersburg, to the
change of the court into a guard-room, and to the daily varying
humours of a man of eccentric and half-deranged mind. Even the
improvements in the financial affairs of the country were regarded as
ruinous innovations by those who in times past had profited by the
confusion. The whole of Russia, and even the imperial family, were
alarmed and terrified; a complete flood of decrees, often
contradictory, and mutually abrogatory, followed one another in quick
succession; and the mad schemes of the emperor, who was,
nevertheless, by no means wicked or insensible to what was good
and true, reminded all observers of the most unhappy times of
declining Rome.b
Imperial Eccentricities
The guards, that dangerous body of men who had overturned the
throne of the father, and who had long considered the accession of
the son as the term of their military existence, were rendered
incapable of injuring him by a bold and vigourous step, and treated
without the least deference from the first day. Paul incorporated in
the different regiments of guards his battalions that arrived from
Gatshina, the officers of which he distributed among the various
companies, promoting them at the same time two or three steps; so
that simple lieutenants or captains in the army found themselves at
once captains in the guards, a place so important and hitherto so
honoured, and which gave the rank of colonel, or even of brigadier.
Some of the old captains of the first families in the kingdom found
themselves under the command of officers of no birth, who but a few
years before had left their companies, as sergeants or corporals, to
enter into the battalions of the grand duke. This bold and hasty
change, which at any other time would have been fatal to its author,
had only the effect of inducing a few hundreds of officers, subalterns
and others, to retire.
Paul, alarmed and enraged at this general desertion, went to the
barracks, flattered the soldiers, appeased the officers, and
endeavoured to retain them by excluding from all employ, civil and
military, those who should retire in future. He afterwards issued an
order that every officer or subaltern who had resigned, or should give
in his resignation, should quit the capital within four-and-twenty
hours, and return to his own home. It did not enter into the head of
the person who drew up the ukase that it contained an absurdity; for
several of the officers were natives of St. Petersburg, and had
families residing in the city. Accordingly, some of them retired to their
homes without quitting the capital, not obeying the first part of the
order, lest they should be found guilty of disobedience to the second.
Arkarov, who was to see it put in force, having informed the emperor
of this contradiction, directed that the injunction to quit St. Petersburg
should alone be obeyed. A number of young men were consequently
taken out of their houses as criminals, put out of the city, with orders
not to re-enter it, and left in the road without shelter, and without any
furred garments, in very severe weather. Those who belonged to
very remote provinces, for the most part wanting money to carry
them thither, wandered about the neighbourhood of St. Petersburg,
where several perished from cold and want.
The finances of the empire, exhausted by the prodigalities and still
more by the waste of Catherine’s reign, required a prompt remedy;
and to this Paul seemed at first to turn his thoughts. Partly from
hope, partly from fear, the paper money of the crown rose a little in
value. It was to be supposed that the grand duke of all the Russias,
who for thirty years had been obliged to live on an income of a
hundred thousand rubles (£10,000) per annum, would at least have
learned economy per force; but he was soon seen to rush into the
most unmeasured sumptuosity, heap wealth upon some, and lavish
favours upon others, with as much profusion as his mother, and with
still less discernment. The spoils of Poland continued to add to the
riches of men already too wealthy. All he could do towards restoring
a sort of equilibrium between his receipts and disbursements was to
lay an exorbitant tax on all the classes of his slaves. The poll-tax of
the wretched serfs was doubled, and a new tax was imposed upon
the nobles, which, however, the serfs would ultimately have to pay.
After the first impressions which his accession caused in the heart of
Paul, punishments and disgraces succeeded with the same rapidity
and profusion with which he had lavished his favours. Several
experienced the two extremes in a few days. It is true that most of
these punishments at first appeared just; but then it must be allowed
that Paul could scarcely strike any but the guilty, so corrupt had been
all who were about the throne.
A whim which caused no little surprise was the imperial prohibition
of wearing round hats, or rather the sudden order to take them away
or tear them to pieces on the heads of those who appeared in them.
This occasioned some disgraceful scenes in the streets, and
particularly near the palace. The
Cossacks and soldiers of the
police fell on the passengers to
uncover their heads, and beat
those who, not knowing the
reason, attempted to defend
themselves. An English
merchant, going through the
street in a sledge, was thus
stopped, and his hat snatched
off. Supposing it to be a robbery,
he leaped out of his sledge,
knocked down the soldier, and
called the guard. Instead of the
guard, arrived an officer, who
overpowered and bound him;
but as they were carrying him
Paul I
before the police, he was
fortunate enough to meet the (1754-1801)
coach of the English minister,
who was going to court, and
claimed his protection. Sir Charles Whitworth made his complaint to
the emperor; who, conjecturing that a round hat might be the
national dress of the English as it was of the Swedes, said that his
order had been misconceived, and he would explain himself more
fully to Arkarov. The next day it was published in the streets and
houses that strangers who were not in the emperor’s service, or
naturalised, were not comprised in the prohibition. Round hats were
now no longer pulled off; but those who were met with this unlucky
headdress were conducted to the police to ascertain their country. If
they were found to be Russians, they were sent for soldiers; and
woe to a Frenchman who had been met with in this dress, for he
would have been condemned as a Jacobin.
A regulation equally incomprehensible was the sudden prohibition
of harnessing horses after the Russian mode. A fortnight was
allowed for procuring harness in the German fashion; after the
expiration of which, the police were ordered to cut the traces of every
carriage the horses of which were harnessed in the ancient manner.
As soon as this regulation was made public, several persons dared
not venture abroad, still less appear in their carriages near the
palace, for fear of being insulted. The harness-markers availed
themselves of the occasion to charge exorbitant prices. To dress the
ishvoshtshki, or Russian coachmen, in the German fashion, was
attended with another inconvenience. Most of them would neither
part with their long beards, their kaftans, nor their round hats; still
less would they tie a false tail to their short hair, which produced the
most ridiculous scenes and figures in the world. At length the
emperor had the vexation to be obliged to change his rigorous order
into a simple invitation to his subjects gradually to adopt the German
fashion of dress, if they wished to merit his favour. Another reform
with respect to carriages: the great number of splendid equipages
that swarmed in the streets of St. Petersburg disappeared in an
instant. The officers, even the generals, came to the parade on foot,
or in little sledges, which also was not without its dangers.
It was anciently a point of etiquette for every person who met a
Russian autocrat, his wife, or son, to stop his horse or coach, alight,
and prostrate himself in the snow or in the mud. This barbarous
homage, difficult to be paid in a large city where carriages pass in
great numbers, and always on the gallop, had been completely
abolished under the reign of the polished Catherine. One of the first
cares of Paul was to re-establish it in all its rigour. A general officer,
who passed on without his coachmen’s observing the emperor riding
by on horseback, was stopped, and immediately put under arrest.
The same unpleasant circumstance occurred to several others, so
that nothing was so much dreaded, either on foot or in a carriage, as
the meeting of the emperor.
The ceremony established within the palace became equally strict,
and equally dreaded. Woe betide him who, when permitted to kiss
the hand of Paul, did not make the floor resound by striking it with his
knee as loud as a soldier with the butt-end of his firelock. It was
requisite, too, that the salute of the lips on his hand should be heard,
to certify the reality of the kiss, as well as of the genuflection. Prince
George Galitzin, the chamberlain, was put under arrest on the spot
by his majesty himself, for having made the bow and kissed the hand
too negligently.
If this new reign was fatal to the army and to the poor gentry, it
was still more so to the unhappy peasantry. A report being spread
that Paul was about to restrict the power of masters over their
slaves, and give the peasants of the lords the same advantages as
those of the crown, the people of the capital were much pleased with
the hopes of this change. At this juncture an officer set off for his
regiment, which lay at Orenberg. On the road he was asked about
the new emperor, and what new regulations he was making. He
related what he had seen, and what he had heard; among the rest,
mentioning the ukase which was soon to appear in favour of the
peasants. At this news, those of Tver and Novgorod indulged in
some tumultuous actions, which were considered as symptoms of
rebellion. Their masters were violently enraged with them; and the
cause that had led them into error was discovered. Marshal Repnin
was immediately despatched at the head of some troops against the
insurgents; and the officer who had unwittingly given rise to this false
hope, by retailing the news of the city on his road, was soon brought
back in confinement. The senate of St. Petersburg judged him
deserving of death, and condemned him to be broken, to undergo
the punishment of the knout, and if he survived this, to labour in the
mines. The emperor confirmed the sentence. This was the first
criminal trial that was laid before the public; and assuredly it justified
but too well those remains of shame which had before kept secret
similar outrages.
The most prominent of Paul’s eccentricities was that mania which,
from his childhood, he displayed for the military dress and exercise.
This passion in a prince no more indicates the general or the hero
than a girl’s fondness for dressing and undressing her doll
foretokens that she will be a good mother. Frederick the Great, the
most accomplished soldier of his time, is well known to have had
from his boyhood the most insuperable repugnance to all those
minutiæ of a corporal to which his father would have subjected him;
this was even the first source of that disagreement which ever
subsisted between the father and the son. Frederick, however,
became a hero; his father was never anything more than a corporal.
Peter III pushed his soldato-mania to a ridiculous point, fancying he
made Frederick his model. He loved soldiers and arms, as a man
loves horses and dogs. He knew nothing but how to exercise a
regiment, and never went abroad but in a captain’s uniform.
Paul, in his mode of life when grand duke, and his conduct after
his accession, so strongly resembled his father that, changing
names and dates, the history of the one might be taken for that of
the other. Both were educated in a perfect ignorance of business,
and resided at a distance from court, where they were treated as
prisoners of state rather than heirs to the crown; and whenever they
presented themselves appeared as aliens and strangers, having no
concern with the royal family. The aunt of the father (Elizabeth) acted
precisely as did the mother of the son. The endeavours of each were
directed to prolong the infancy of their heirs, and to perpetuate the
feebleness of their minds. The young princes were both
distinguished by personal vivacity and mental insensibility, by an
activity which, untrained and neglected, degenerated into turbulence;
the father was sunk in debauchery, the son lost in the most
insignificant trifles. An unconquerable aversion to study and
reflection gave to both that infatuated taste for military parade, which
would probably have displayed itself less forcibly in Paul had he
been a witness of the ridicule they attached to Peter. The education
of Paul, however, was much more attended to than that of his father.
He was surrounded in infancy by persons of merit, and his youth
promised a capacity of no ordinary kind. It must also be allowed that
he was exempt from many of the vices which disgraced Peter;
temperance and regularity of manners were prominent features of
his character—features the more commendable, as before his
mother and himself they were rarely to be found in a Russian
autocrat. To the same cause, education, and his knowledge of the
language and character of the nation, it was owing that he differed
from his father in other valuable qualities.
The similarity which, in some instances, marked their conduct
towards their wives, is still more striking; and in their amours, a
singular coincidence of taste is observable. Catherine and Marie
were the most beautiful women of the court, yet both failed to gain
the affections of their husbands. Catherine had an ambitious soul, a
cultivated mind, and the most amiable and polished manners. In a
man, however, whose attachments were confined to soldiers, to the
pleasures of the bottle, and the fumes of tobacco, she excited no
other sentiment than disgust and aversion. He was smitten with an
object less respectable, and less difficult to please. The countess
Vorontzov, fat, ugly in her person and vulgar in her manners, was
more suitable to his depraved military taste, and she became his
mistress. In like manner, the regular beauty of Marie, the unalterable
sweetness of her disposition, her unwearied complaisance, her
docility as a wife, and her tenderness as a mother were not sufficient
to prevent Paul from attaching himself to Mademoiselle Nelidov,
whose disposition and qualities better accorded with his own, and
afterwards to a young lady of the name of Lopukhin, who, it is
believed, rejected his suit. To the honour of Paul it is related that he
submitted to that mortifying repulse with the most chivalric patience
and generosity. Nelidov was ugly and diminutive, but seemed
desirous, by her wit and address, to compensate for the
disadvantages of her person; for a woman to be in love with Paul it
was necessary she should resemble him.
On their accession to the throne, neither the father nor the son
were favourites with the court or the nation, yet both acquired
immediate popularity and favour. The first steps of Paul appeared to
be directed, but improved, by those of Peter. The liberation of
Kosciuszko and other prisoners brought to public recollection the
recall of Biron, Munich, and Lestocq, with this difference—that Peter
III did not disgrace these acts of clemency and justice by ridiculous
violences, or by odious and groundless persecutions. Both issued
ukases extremely favourable to the nobility, but from motives
essentially different, and little to the honour of the son. The father
granted to the Russian gentry those natural rights which every man
ought to enjoy; while the son attempted the folly of creating a
heraldic nobility in Russia, where that Gothic institution had never
been known. In the conduct which he observed towards the clergy,
Paul, however, showed himself a superior politician. Instead of
insulting the priests, and obliging them to shave their beards, he
bestowed the orders of the empire on the bishops, to put them on a
footing with the nobility, and flattered the populace and the
priesthood by founding churches, in obedience to pretended
inspiration.
In his military operations, however, his policy appears to have
abandoned him, because here he gave the reins to his ruling
passion. The quick and total change of discipline he introduced in his
armies created him nearly as many enemies as there were officers
and soldiers. In the distrust and suspicions which incessantly
haunted him, his inferiority to his father is also evident. One of the
first acts of Peter III was to abolish the political inquisition
established by Elizabeth; whereas Paul prosecuted no scheme with
greater alacrity than that of establishing a system of spies, and
devising means for the encouragement of informers. The blind
confidence of the father was his ruin, but it flowed from a humanity of
disposition always worthy of respect. The distrust of the son did not
save him; it was the offspring of a timorous mind, which by its
suspicions was more apt to provoke than to elude treason.k
Paul’s Foreign Policy
In regard to foreign matters Paul’s initial policy was one of peace.

He put a stop to the levying of recruits after the manner adopted by
his mother—that is, in the proportion of three men to every five
hundred souls—recalled his army from Persia, and left Georgia to
take care of itself. He showed compassion for the Poles, recalled the
prisoners from Siberia, transferred King Stanislaus from Grodno to
St. Petersburg, visited Kosciuszko at Schlüsselburg and released
him in company with the other prisoners. He bade Kolitchev, envoy
extraordinary at Berlin, inform the king that he, Paul, wished neither
conquest nor aggrandisement. He dictated to Ostermann a circular
directed to the foreign powers, in which he declared that of all the
countries of the world Russia alone had been constantly engaged in
war since 1756; that forty years of warfare had reduced the
population; that the emperor’s humanity would not allow him to
withhold from his beloved subjects the peace for which they longed;
that though on account of these considerations Russia could take no
active part in the struggle against France, the emperor would
“nevertheless remain closely united with his allies, and would use
every means to oppose the rise of the mad French Republic which
threatened all Europe with upheaval by the destruction of its laws,
privileges, property, religion, and customs.” He refused all armed
assistance to Austria, which was alarmed at Napoleon’s victories in
Italy, and recalled the fleet that Catherine had adjoined to the English
fleet for the purpose of blockading the coasts of France and Holland.
He even received overtures made by Caillard, the French envoy to
Prussia, and caused him to be informed that the emperor “did not
consider himself at war with the French, that he had never done
anything to harm them, but was rather disposed to keep peace with
them, and would induce his allies to hasten the conclusion of war, to
which end he offered the mediation of Russia.”
It was not long, however, before relations again became strained
between France and Russia. By the Treaty of Campo Formio the
Ionian Isles had been given to the French, who thus acquired a
threatening position in the East and increased power over the Divan.
The Directory authorised Dombrowski to organise Polish legions in
Italy. Panin, at Berlin, intercepted a letter from the Directory to the
French envoy, which spoke of a restoration of Poland under a prince
of Brandenburg. Paul, on his side, took into his pay the troops of the
prince of Condé, and established ten thousand émigrés in Volhinia
and Podolia. He offered an asylum to Louis XVIII after his flight from
Brunswick, and installed him in the ducal palace at Mitau with a
pension of 200,000 rubles. The news that a French expedition was
being secretly organised at Toulon made him fear for the security of
the coasts of the Black Sea, which were immediately put in a state of
defence. The abduction of Zagurski, the Russian consul at Corfu, the
capture of Malta by Napoleon, the arrival at St. Petersburg of the
banished knights who offered Paul the protectorate of their order and
the title of grand master, the invasion of Helvetian territory by the
Directory, the expulsion of the pope and the proclamation of the
Roman Republic—all were events that precipitated the rupture.
Paul concluded an alliance with Turkey which had been disturbed
by an Egyptian invasion, also with England, Austria, and the
kingdom of Naples. Thus, by the double aggression of Bonaparte
against Malta and Egypt, Russia and Turkey were led, contrary to all
traditions, to make common cause. Paul pledged himself to unite his
fleet with the Turkish and English squadron, and to furnish one body
of troops for a descent on Holland, another for the conquest of the
Ionian Isles, and a grand auxiliary army for the campaigns in Italy
and Switzerland.
In the autumn of 1798 a Turkish-Russian fleet captured the French
garrisons in the Ionian Isles. The king of Naples invaded the territory
of the Roman Republic, but Championnet brought the Neapolitan
troops back on to their own ground, and after making a triumphal
entry into Naples proclaimed the Parthenopean Republic.
THE CAMPAIGNS OF KORSAKOV AND SUVAROV (1798-1799)
The Russian army in Switzerland was placed

[1798-1799 a.d.] under the command of Rimski-Korsakov, that of
Holland under the orders of Hermann; while
Austria, at the suggestion of England, requested that the victor of
Fokshani and of the Rimnik should receive the command of the
Austro-Russian army. Flattered by this mark of deference, Paul I
recalled Suvarov from exile in his village. “Suvarov has no need of
laurels,” wrote the czar, “but the country has need of Suvarov.”c
A few days after the battle of Magnano, Suvarov arrived on the
Mincio with the first division of his forces, twenty thousand strong,
and took the command of all the allied troops in Italy. The jealousy of
the Austrian generals was naturally excited and they called a council
of war, in order to examine his plans. The members of the council,
beginning at the youngest, proposed their several schemes. Suvarov
quietly heard them all, and when they had done, took a slate, drew
two lines, and said, “Here, gentleman, are the French, and here the
Russians; the latter will march against the former and beat them.” So
saying, he rubbed out the French line, and added, “This is all my
plan; the council is concluded.”
Suvarov kept his word, and in less than three months swept the
French entirely out of Lombardy and Piedmont. Thrusting himself
between the three French armies of Switzerland, northern Italy, and
the Parthenopean Republic, it was his purpose, in concert with the
archduke Charles of Austria, to penetrate into France on its most
defenceless side, by the Vosges and the Jura, the same quarter on
which the great invasion of 1814 was afterwards effected. The
campaign opened on the 25th of April, on the steep banks of the
Adda, behind which Moreau had posted his diminished force of
twenty-eight thousand men in three divisions. The passage was
forced with immense loss to the French, who were compelled to
abandon Milan, which Suvarov entered in triumph on the 29th.
After a week’s delay, during which all the principal places of
Lombardy surrendered to the allies, Suvarov followed Moreau’s
retreat, and endeavoured to dislodge him from his advantageous
position on the Po. Not succeeding in this attempt as rapidly as
suited his impetuous habits, the Russian general suddenly changed
his purpose, and advanced against Turin, whilst Moreau at the same
moment had resolved to retire to Turin and the crests of the
Apennines, in order to preserve his communications with France. On
the 27th of May, Vukassovitch, who commanded the advance guard
of the Russians, surprised Turin, and forced the French to take
refuge in the citadel, leaving in the hands of the victors nearly three
hundred pieces of artillery, sixty thousand muskets, and an
enormous quantity of ammunition and military stores. Moreau’s army,
thus deprived of all its resources, was saved from destruction only by
the extraordinary ability of its commander, who led it safely towards
Genoa by a mountain path, which was rendered practicable for
artillery, in four days. With the exception of a few fortresses, nothing
now remained to the French of all Napoleon’s conquests in northern
Italy; they had been lost in less time than it had taken to make them.
Exulting in the brilliant success of his arms,
[1799 a.d.] Paul bestowed another surname, Italienski, or
the Italian, on his victorious general, and
ordered by an express ukase that Suvarov should be universally
regarded as the greatest commander that had ever appeared.
Meanwhile the results of his skill and vigour were neutralised by the
selfish policy of the Austrian court, which had become by the Treaty
of Campo Formio, and the acquisition of Venice, in some degree an
actual accomplice with the aggressors against whom it was in arms.
Suvarov was compelled to submit to the dictation of the emperor
Francis I, and deeply disgusted he declared that he was no longer of
any use in Italy, and that he desired nothing so ardently as to be
recalled.
The disasters of the French in upper Italy were fatal to their
ascendancy in the south, and Macdonald received orders to
abandon the Parthenopean Republic, and unite his forces with those
of Moreau. His retreat was exposed to great dangers by the
universal insurrection of the peasants; but he accomplished it with
great rapidity and skill. The two French commanders then concerted
measures to dislodge the allies from their conquests—a project
which seemed not unlikely to be fulfilled, so obstinately had the Aulic
council adhered to the old system of dispersing the troops all over
the territory which they occupied. Though the allies had above a
hundred thousand men in the field, they could hardly assemble thirty
thousand at any one point; and Macdonald might easily have
destroyed them in detail could he have fallen upon them at once; but
the time he spent in reorganising his army in Tuscany, and in
concerting measures with Moreau, was well employed by Suvarov in
promptly concentrating his forces. Macdonald advanced against him
with an army of thirty-seven thousand men, taking Modena on his
way, and driving Hohenzollern out of it after a bloody engagement.
The two armies met on the Trebbia, where a first and indecisive
action took place on the 17th of June; it was renewed on each of the
two following days, and victory finally remained with the Russians. In
this terrible battle of three days, the most obstinately contested and
bloody that had occurred since the beginning of the war, the loss on
both sides was excessive; that of the French was above twelve
thousand in killed and wounded, and that of the allies not much less.
But nearly equal losses told with very unequal severity on the
respective combatants; those of the allies would speedily be
retrieved by large reinforcements, but the republicans had expended
their last resources, were cut off from Moreau, and had no second
army to fall back upon. Macdonald with infinite difficulty regained the
positions he had occupied before the advance to the Trebbia, after
losing an immense number of prisoners.
The fall of the citadel of Turin on the 20th of June was of great
importance to the allies; for besides disengaging their besieging
force it put into their hands one of the strongest fortresses in
Piedmont, and an immense quantity of artillery and ammunition. This
event, and Suvarov’s victory on the Trebbia, checked the successful
operations of Moreau, and compelled him to fall back to his former
defensive position on the Apennines. Again, contrary to Suvarov’s
wishes, the allied forces were divided for the purpose of reducing
Mantua and Alexandria, and occupying Tuscany. After the fall of
those two fortresses, Suvarov laid siege to Tortona, when Joubert,
who had meanwhile superseded Moreau, marched against him at
the head of the combined forces of the French. On the 15th of
August, another desperate battle was fought at Novi, in which
Joubert was killed, but from which neither side derived any particular
advantage. The French returned to their former positions, and the
Italian campaign was ended.
Suvarov now received orders to join his forces with those under
Korsakov, who was on the Upper Rhine with thirty thousand men.
The archduke Charles might, even without this fresh reinforcement,
have already annihilated Massena had he not remained for three
months, from June to August, in complete inactivity; at the very
moment of Suvarov’s expected arrival, he allowed the important
passes of the St. Gotthard to be again carried by a coup-de-main by
the French, under General Lecourbe, who drove the Austrians from
the Simplon, the Furka, the Grimsel, and the Devil’s Bridge. The
archduke, after an unsuccessful attempt to push across the Aar at
Dettingen, suddenly quitted the scene of war and advanced down
the Rhine for the purpose of supporting the English expedition under
the duke of York against Holland. This unexpected turn in affairs
proceeded from Vienna. The Viennese cabinet was jealous of
Russia. Suvarov played the master in Italy, favoured Sardinia at the
expense of the house of Habsburg, and deprived the Austrians of the
laurels and the advantages they had won. The archduke,
accordingly, received orders to remain inactive, to abandon the
Russians, and finally to withdraw to the north; by this movement
Suvarov’s triumphant progress was checked, he was compelled to
cross the Alps to the aid of Korsakov, and to involve himself in a
mountain warfare ill-suited to the habits of his soldiery.
Korsakov, whom Bavaria had been bribed with Russian gold to
furnish with a corps one thousand strong, was supported solely by
Kray and Hotze with twenty thousand men. Massena, taking
advantage of the departure of the archduke and the non-arrival of
Suvarov, crossed the Limmat at Dietikon and shut Korsakov, who
had imprudently stationed himself with his whole army in Zurich, so
closely in that, after an engagement that lasted two days, from the
15th to the 17th of September, the Russian general was compelled
to abandon his artillery and to force his way through the enemy. Ten
thousand men were all that escaped. Hotze, who had advanced from
the Grisons to Schwyz to Suvarov’s rencontre, was, at the same
time, defeated and killed at Schanis. Suvarov, although aware that
the road across the St. Gotthard was blocked by the Lake of
Lucerne, on which there were no boats, had the temerity to attempt
the passage. In Airolo, he was obstinately opposed by the French
under Lecourbe, and, although Shveikovski contrived to turn this
strong position by scaling the pathless rocks, numbers of the men
were, owing to Suvarov’s impatience, sacrificed before it.
On the 24th of September, 1799, he at length climbed the St.
Gotthard, and a bloody engagement, in which the French were
worsted, took place on the Oberalpsee. Lecourbe blew up the Devil’s
Bridge, but, leaving the Urnerloch open, the Russians pushed
through that rocky gorge, and, dashing through the foaming Reuss,
scaled the opposite rocks and drove the French from their position
behind the Devil’s Bridge. Altorf on the lake was reached in safety by
the Russian general, who was compelled, owing to the want of
boats, to seek his way through the valleys of Schächen and Muotta,
across the almost impassable rocks, to Schwyz. The heavy rains
rendered the undertaking still more arduous; the Russians, owing to
the badness of the road, were speedily barefoot; the provisions were
also exhausted. In this wretched state they reached Muotta on the
29th of September and learned the discouraging news of Korsakov’s
defeat. Massena had already set off in the hope of cutting off
Suvarov, but had missed his way. He reached Altorr, where he joined
Lecourbe on the 29th, when Suvarov was already at Muotta, whence
Massena found on his arrival that he had again retired across the
Bragelburg, through the Klönthal. He was opposed on the lake of
Klönthal by Molitor, who was, however, forced to retire by
Auffenberg, who had joined Suvarov at Altorf and formed his
advanced guard, Rosen, at the same time, beating off Massena with
the rearguard, taking five cannon and one thousand of his men
prisoners. On the 1st of October, Suvarov entered Glarus, where he
rested until the 4th, when he crossed the Panixer Mountains through
snow two feet deep to the valley of the Rhine, which he reached on
the 10th, after losing the whole of his beasts of burden and two
hundred of his men down the precipices; and here ended his
extraordinary march, which had cost him the whole of his artillery,
almost all his horses, and a third of his men.
The archduke had, meanwhile, tarried on the Rhine, where he had
taken Philippsburg and Mannheim, but had been unable to prevent
the defeat of the English expedition under the duke of York by
General Brune at Bergen, on the 19th of September. The archduke
now, for the first time, made a retrograde movement, and
approached Korsakov and Suvarov. The different leaders, however,
did nothing but find fault with each other, and the czar, perceiving his
project frustrated, suddenly recalled his troops, and the campaign
came to a close.
Paul’s anger fell without measure or reason on his armies and
their chiefs. All the officers who were missing, that is to say who
were prisoners in France, were broken as deserters, and Suvarov,
instead of being well received with well merited honours, was
deprived of his command and not suffered to see the emperor’s face.
This unjust severity broke the veteran’s heart. He died soon after his
return to St. Petersburg; and no Russian courtier, nor any member of
the diplomatic body except the English ambassador, followed his
remains to the grave.
PAUL RECONCILED WITH FRANCE (1800 A.D.)
Frustrated in the objects for which he had

[1800 a.d.] engaged in war, Paul was now in a mood easily
to be moved to turn his arms against the allies
who had deceived his hopes. He had fought for the re-establishment
of monarchy in France, and of the old status quo in Europe; and the
only result had been the aggrandisement of Austria, his own
immediate neighbour, of whom he had much more reason to be
jealous than of the remote power of France. The rapid steps, too,
which Bonaparte was taking for the restoration of monarchical forms
in that country were especially calculated to conciliate Paul’s good-
will towards the first consul. The latter and his able ministers
promptly availed themselves of this favourable disposition through
the connections they had made in St. Petersburg. Fouché had such
confidential correspondence even with ladies in the Russian capital,
that he afterwards received the earliest and most correct intelligence
of the emperor’s murder. Two persons at the court of St. Petersburg
were next gained over to France, or rather to Bonaparte’s rising
empire; these were the minister Rostoptchin, and the emperor’s
favourite, the Turk Kutaisov, who had risen with unusual rapidity from
the situation of the emperor’s barber to the rank of one of the first
Russian nobles. He was also nearly connected by relationship with
Rostoptchin.
Rostoptchin first found means to send away General Dumourier
from St. Petersburg, whither he had come for the purpose of carrying
on his intrigues in favour of the Bourbons. He next sought to bring
Louis Cobenzl also into discredit with the emperor, and he
succeeded in this, shortly before the opening of the campaign in Italy
in 1800, when the cabinet of Vienna was called upon to give a plain
and direct answer to the questions peremptorily put by the emperor
of Russia. Paul required that the cabinet should answer, without if or
but, without circumlocution or reserve, whether or not Austria would,
according to the terms of the treaty, restore the pope and the king to
their dominions and sovereignty. Cobenzl was obliged to reply that if
Austria were to give back Piedmont to the king of Sardinia it must
still retain Tortona and Alessandria; and that it never would restore
the three legations and Ancona. The measure of the emperor’s
indignation was now full; he forbade Count Cobenzl the court, and at
a later period not only ordered him to leave the country, but would
not even allow an embassy or chargé-d’affaires to remain.
The emperor proceeded more deliberately with regard to the
English. At first he acted as if he had no desire to break with them;
and he even allowed the Russians, whom they had hired for the
expedition against Holland, to remain in Guernsey under Viomesnil’s
command, in order to assist their employers in an expedition against
Brittany. The English government, however, at length provoked him
to extremities. They refused to redeem the Russians who had been
made prisoners in their service, by giving in exchange for them an
equal number of French, of whom their prisons were full; they
refused to listen to any arrangements respecting the grand
mastership of the knights of Malta, or even as to the protectorate of
the order, and gave the clearest intimations that they meant to keep
the island for themselves. Bonaparte seized upon this favourable
moment for flattering the emperor, by acting as if he had really more
respect for Paul than the two powers for whom he had made such
magnanimous sacrifices. Whilst the English refused to redeem the
Russians made prisoners in their service by exchange, Bonaparte
set them free without either exchange or ransom.
The emperor of Germany had broken his word, and neither
restored the pope nor the king of Sardinia, whilst Bonaparte
voluntarily offered to restore the one and give compensation to the
other. He assailed the emperor in a masterly manner on his weak
side, causing the six or seven thousand Russians, whom the English
refused to exchange, to be provided with new clothing and arms, and
he wrote a letter to Panin, the Russian minister, in which he said that
he was unwilling to suffer such brave soldiers as these Russians
were to remain longer away from their native land on account of the
English. In the same letter he paid another compliment to the
emperor, and threw an apple of mortal strife between him and
England. Knowing as he did that his garrison in Malta could not hold
out much longer, he offered to place the island in the hands of the
emperor Paul, as a third party. This was precisely what the emperor
desired; and Sprengporten, who was sent to France to bring away
the Russians, and to thank the first consul, was to occupy Malta with
them. The Russians were either to be conveyed thither by Nelson,
who up to this time had kept the island closely blockaded, and was
daily expecting its surrender, or at least he was to be ordered to let
them pass; but both he and the English haughtily rejected the
Russian mediation.
Paul now came to a complete breach with England. First of all he
recalled his Russian troops from Guernsey, but on this occasion he
was again baffled. It was of great importance to the English cabinet
that Bonaparte should not immediately hear of the decided breach
which had taken place between them and the emperor, and they
therefore prevailed upon Viomesnil, an émigré, who had the
command of the Russians in Guernsey, to remain some weeks
longer, in opposition to the emperor’s will. Paul was vehemently
indignant at this conduct; Viomesnil, however, entered the English
service, and was provided for by the English government in Portugal.
Lord Whitworth was next obliged to leave Russia, as Count
Cobenzl had previously been. Paul recalled his ambassadors from
the courts of Vienna and London, and forthwith sent Count Kalitchev
to Paris to enter into friendly negotiations with Bonaparte. In the
meantime, the English had recourse to some new subterfuges, and
promised, that in case Malta capitulated, they would consent to allow
the island to be administered, till the conclusion of a peace, by
commissioners appointed by Russia, England, and Naples. Paul had
already named Bailli de la Ferrette for this purpose; but the English
refused to acknowledge his nominee, and even to receive the
Neapolitans in Malta. Before this took place, however, the emperor
had come to issue with England on a totally different question.
The idea of a union among the neutral powers, in opposition to the
right alleged by England, when at war with any power whatsoever, to
subject the ships of all neutral powers to search, had been
relinquished by the empress Catherine in 1781, to please the English
ambassador at her court; Paul now resumed the idea. Bonaparte
intimated his concurrence, and Paul followed up the matter with
great energy and zeal, as in this way he had an opportunity of
exhibiting himself in the character of an imperial protector of the
weak, a defender of justice and right, and as the head of a general
alliance of the European powers. Prussia also now appeared to do
homage to him, for the weak king was made to believe, that by a
close alliance between Russia and France, he might be helped to an
extension of territory and an increase of subjects, without danger or
cost to himself, or without war, which he abhorred beyond everything
else. The first foundation, therefore, for an alliance between Russia
and France, was laid in Berlin, where Beurnonville, the French
ambassador, was commissioned to enter into negotiations with the
Russian minister Von Krüderer. Beurnonville promised, in
Bonaparte’s name, that the Russian mediation in favour of Naples
and Sardinia would be accepted, and that, in the question of
compensations for the German princes particular regard would be
had to the cases of Baden and Würtemberg.
THE ARMED NEUTRALITY (1800 A.D.)
As to the armed neutrality by sea against England, Prussia could

easily consent to join this alliance, because she had in fact no navy;
but it was much more difficult for Sweden and Denmark, whose
merchant ships were always accompanied by frigates. In case,
therefore, the neutral powers came to an understanding that no
merchant vessels which were accompanied by a ship of war should
be compelled to submit to a search, this might at any time involve
them in hostilities with England. In addition to Denmark, Sweden,
and Prussia, which, under Paul’s protectorate, were to conclude an
alliance for the protection of trading vessels belonging to neutral
powers against the arrogant claims of England, Bonaparte
endeavoured to prevail upon the North Americans to join the
alliance. They were the only parties who, by a specific treaty in 1794,
had acknowledged as a positive right what the others only submitted
to as an unfounded pretension on the part of England. On that
occasion the Americans had broken with the French Republic on the
subject of his treaty, and Barras and Talleyrand had been shameless
enough to propose that the Americans should pay a gratuity, in order

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Importance of example Problems

example 1-1 In many cases, the problem

θB = 40° dimensions and loadings.

c 5 (6.527 ft)2 1 (8.794 ft)2 2 2(6.527 ft)(8.794 ft) cos(808 ) 5 10 ft

List the major steps in the Finalize step,

S.P. Timoshenko (1878–1972)

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n factor of safety, integer, revolutions per minute (rpm)

Paul’s Foreign Policy

In regard to foreign matters Paul’s initial policy was one of peace.

THE CAMPAIGNS OF KORSAKOV AND SUVAROV (1798-1799)

The Russian army in Switzerland was placed

Frustrated in the objects for which he had

THE ARMED NEUTRALITY (1800 A.D.)

As to the armed neutrality by sea against England, Prussia could

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