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Chapter 4: The Pelvic Girdle and Hip Joint
Bones and Bony Landmarks of the Hip Region
Joint Structure and Movements of the Pelvic Girdle
Joint Structure and Movements of the Hip
Description and Functions of Individual Hip Muscles
Alignment and Common Deviations of the Hip Region
Pelvic and Hip Mechanics
Muscular Analysis of Hip Movements
Key Considerations for the Hip in Whole-Body Movement
Special Considerations for the Hip in Dance
Hip Injuries in Dancers
Summary
Chapter 5: The Knee and Patellofemoral Joints
Bones and Bony Landmarks of the Knee Region
Joint Structure and Movements of the Knee
Description and Functions of Individual Knee Muscles
Knee Alignment and Common Deviations
Knee Mechanics
Structure and Movements of the Patellofemoral Joint
Patellofemoral Alignment and the Q Angle
Patellofemoral Mechanics
Muscular Analysis of Knee Movements
Key Considerations for the Knee in Whole-Body Movement
Special Considerations for the Knee in Dance
Knee Injuries in Dancers
Summary
Chapter 6: The Ankle and Foot
Bones and Bony Landmarks of the Ankle and Foot
Joint Structure and Movements of the Ankle and Foot
Description and Functions of Individual Muscles of the Ankle and Foot
Alignment and Common Deviations of the Ankle and Foot
Mechanics of the Ankle and Foot
Muscular Analysis of Movements of the Ankle and Foot
Key Considerations for the Ankle and Foot in Whole-Body Movement
Special Considerations for the Ankle and Foot in Dance
Ankle and Foot Injuries in Dancers
Summary
Chapter 7: The Upper Extremity
Bones and Bony Landmarks of the Shoulder Complex
Joint Structure and Movements of the Shoulder Girdle

8
Joint Structure and Movements of the Shoulder
Description and Functions of Individual Muscles of the Shoulder Complex
Alignment and Common Deviations of the Shoulder Complex
Shoulder Mechanics
Muscular Analysis of Shoulder Movements
Special Considerations for the Shoulder Complex in Dance
Bones, Joint Structure, and Movements of the Elbow Complex
Description and Functions of Selected Individual Muscles of the Elbow
Complex
Alignment and Common Deviations of the Elbow Complex
Muscular Analysis of Elbow Complex Movements
The Wrist–Hand Complex
Key Considerations for the Upper Extremity in Whole-Body Movement
Upper Extremity Injuries in Dancers
Summary
Chapter 8: Analysis of Human Movement
Anatomical Movement Analysis of Whole-Body Movements
Other Methods for Movement Analysis
Sample Research-Supported Movement Analysis
Optimal Performance Models
Movement Cues
Summary
Glossary
References and Resources
About the Author

9
 Preface
Dance is physically demanding and involves many styles of
movement. The vocabulary of dance requires tremendous versatility,
strength, range of motion, coordination, and artistry. This text provides
scientific information that dancers can use to better understand their bodies
and consequently optimize movement performance, as well as potentially
reduce injury risk.
Dance Anatomy and Kinesiology emerged from the difficulty that I and
many colleagues had in finding a single text that could be used to teach
anatomy and kinesiology classes for dancers. Many dancers are visual
learners and so often request texts that are rich in graphic materials.
However, there was also the desire for the material to be adequate in
depth, as scientifically accurate as possible, and specific for dancers. This
text meets these criteria and provides many practical exercises to allow
dancers to apply the material on their own bodies.
The second edition of this book has been shaped by the request from
many teachers to narrow the scope and depth of the text so that it is more
accessible to a wider range of dancers, and to enable it to be covered in a
single university undergraduate course. The second edition was also
undertaken to allow the inclusion of online resources for students and
teachers, resources that were requested by many instructors using the first
edition.

Scope, Structure, and Organization

The focus of Dance Anatomy and Kinesiology is dance movement, so
selected aspects of the broader disciplines of anatomy and kinesiology that
are most vital for developing an understanding of dance movement are
included. For example, human anatomy is the science of the structure of
the human body and traditionally covers all of the systems of the body.
However, the scope of this text is narrowed to cover just the skeletal and
muscular systems. Similarly, kinesiology can be considered the science of
human motion. Even though, more broadly speaking, kinesiology includes
anatomical principles, anatomy is part of the title of this text because of the
greater focus on anatomy than seen in many kinesiology texts. Kinesiology
is part of the title of the text because of the more applied focus and

10
inclusion of aspects of mechanics that generally exceed the scope of
traditional anatomy texts. Mechanics is a branch of physics concerned with
energy and forces and their effect on bodies and motion. This text
selectively includes aspects of biomechanics that relate to movements of
joints, dance technique, and injury prevention.

Chapter Content

This book contains eight chapters. The first two chapters provide a
foundation for the rest of the text by presenting concepts and terminology
related to bones, joints, and muscles that are used in the remainder of the
text.
Chapters 3 through 7 deal with the various regions of the body. These
chapters begin with the spine (chapter 3) because of its central structural
and functional role in movement. The next three chapters (chapters 4
through 6) cover the lower extremity, moving distally from the hip to the
knee and then to the ankle and foot. A single chapter (chapter 7) covers the
upper extremity. The lower extremity is discussed first and in more detail
relative to the upper extremity because of the preponderance of injury in
this area in dancers, the important use of the lower extremity for weight
bearing and force generation in many dance forms, and the tendency to
emphasize the lower extremity in many dance anatomy and kinesiology
courses due to time constraints.
Each of these five chapters addresses key bones, joints, muscles,
alignment, and mechanics for the given region, as well as simple
movement analysis, with special considerations for dance. In the final
section of each of these chapters, selected dance injuries for the given
region are described. The purpose of these injury sections is not for self-
diagnosis and self-treatment. Rather, these discussions provide some
introductory concepts and references to aid dancers in understanding the
anatomical basis of key injuries so that they are better informed when
seeking treatment from a qualified medical professional and when making
necessary modifications in their training should an injury occur.
The concluding chapter of Dance Anatomy and Kinesiology provides a
schema that will help readers analyze full-body dance movements. The
purpose of this chapter is to present an approach that can be used to
increase understanding of strength, flexibility, and technique issues that
will influence optimal execution of a dance movement. This understanding
will allow the dancer and dance instructor to be more specific in cueing
and in the use of supplemental exercises so that dance performance is

11
enhanced.

Dance Terminology

Throughout the text, dance movements are often described using

terminology from ballet due to its greater standardization. However,
simplified versions of this terminology (e.g., front développé vs.
développé devant) without reference to the facing of the body are used to
make the information more accessible to dance medicine professionals and
dancers from other dance forms, in which ballet terminology is often used
less formally. But this use of common ballet terminology is not meant to
limit the application of the information to ballet technique; dancers can
make parallel applications to similar movements in the dance form of their
choice.

Special Elements

Various special elements appear throughout most chapters, including

the following:

Learning Objectives provide an overview and help students focus on

key concepts within a chapter.
Concept Demonstrations select key concepts that are often difficult
to grasp and provide movement experiences that dancers can perform
to aid with learning.
Tests and Measurements provide examples of tests that are used for
evaluation of areas such as alignment or flexibility. Although
specialized training is required for performing many of these tests
accurately, they are included to help dancers understand underlying
concepts.
Dance Cues reflect on the potential anatomical basis of some cues
that are commonly used in teaching dance technique.
Study Questions and Applications aid with learning the material
presented in the chapter and with checking that key concepts are
understood.

Glossary

Key terms are boldfaced and defined in this text. Some of these terms

12
appear in the glossary at the back of this text for reference and
reinforcement. To confine the length of the glossary and avoid undue
redundancy, other terms are not included in the glossary. Instead, they are
just defined as they are presented and, in some cases, are illustrated in a
nearby figure or listed in a closely approximated table. Many of these
latter terms, such as specific bones and muscles, are also listed in the index
at the end of this text.

References and Resources

While the second edition of this text is streamlined to be more

accessible to a wider audience, an extensive list of references and
resources is still included to allow the reader to go into more depth in areas
of specific interest or expertise.

Ancillaries

Students who have purchased this text will have access to the
following additional resources:

Chapter Outlines aid with studying for exams and easily identifying
the relationships among terms.
Laboratory Exercises aid with practical application of key concepts
covered in the text.
Video Clips provide visual aids for selected tests, alignment
identification, conditioning exercises, and technique considerations.
The following icon will appear by text for which there is a video clip.

Approved adopting instructors will have access to the student

resources and the following additional resources:

Sample Syllabus for teaching in a semester format

PowerPoint Presentations organized by chapter
Laboratory Exercises with sample solutions
Instructor Chapter Outlines to aid with student reviews and test
writing
Study Questions and Applications with sample answers or chapter
references provided
Sample Tests with answers

13
 How to Use This Book for Specific Goals
Although the impetus for this book and for the second edition of the
book was to provide a text for university courses, it is also intended for
other dancers, dance teachers, and those who provide health care for
dancers. The more concise presentation of material and the additional
resources offered with this second edition will make it a more user-
friendly resource for university students, dance teachers, and dancers in
general.
In an attempt to meet the disparate needs of the potential readers, the
second edition of Dance Anatomy and Kinesiology allows for various
levels and emphasis as it is used. For example, the book is organized with
consistent headings in chapters (chapters 3 to 7) in order to allow teachers
to select the sections of the chapters they want to emphasize in their
courses while deleting other sections or leaving other sections as optional
supplemental reading. For example, university instructors may elect to
focus on the earlier anatomy sections and not include the sections on
common injuries. In contrast, some dancers or Pilates instructors may
select the book to better understand injuries that they or their clients have
sustained.
It is hoped that this book will become a valuable resource that can be
used on many levels as knowledge and circumstances change. In the past,
much of dance was taught through imitation of proficient dancers and
teachers, with cueing often based on intuition and personally derived
experiential assumptions. This text brings greater scientific knowledge and
understanding to dance so that assumptions can be evaluated and honed to
reflect an ideal blend of science and art. It also shows the value of the
scientific perspective so that as new research and knowledge evolve in
dance, readers have a framework in which to apply this information. Such
a blend of science and art can allow teaching to become more effective and
empower dancers to realize their unique individual potentials so that
technical proficiency will better support their artistic vision.

14
 Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the many colleagues who have provided valuable
input to this book, and especially Katherine Daniels (Cornish College of
the Arts), Scott E. Brown (Sinai Hospital of Baltimore and Johns Hopkins
University), Terese Freedman (Mount Holyoke College), Ralph Rozenek
(California State University, Long Beach), and Ginny Wilmerding
(University of New Mexico), for their review of all or portions of this
edition. Deepest gratitude is expressed to D. Skip Clippinger and Mario
Zemann for the countless hours they spent rendering illustrations for this
book, essential for enriching and clarifying the theoretical concepts
presented in this text. Sincere thanks are also expressed to Francia Russell
(Director of Pacific Northwest Ballet School from 1977 to 2005) for her
long support of my work, particularly in the early years, and the pivotal
role she and Pacific Northwest Ballet played in the evolution of my work
with dancers.
I also greatly appreciate all the talented photographers who provided
inspiring images of dancers in motion, as well as other individuals who
contributed photographs or helped me acquire the photographs used in this
text. Particular appreciation is expressed to Francia Russell, Lia Chiarelli,
and Angela Sterling for their assistance with photo acquisition of Pacific
Northwest Ballet dancers, and to Angela Sterling (photographer for Pacific
Northwest Ballet) for providing many of the photographs of Pacific
Northwest Ballet dancers used on chapter openings and some chapter
interiors. Appreciation is also expressed to Alonzo King’s Lines Ballet and
Robert Rosenwasser for their assistance with acquisition of photos.
Gratitude is also expressed to Gregory Crosby for use of his photos of
CSULB dancers. I would also like to thank the many dancers who are
depicted in the photos and especially (1) the dancers of Pacific Northwest
Ballet including Deborah Hadley (cover photo); (2) Maurya Kerr (dancer
with Alonzo King’s Lines Ballet) and Jennifer Owen (dancer with
BalletMet Columbus) for use of photos demonstrating exercises and
correct technique taken by me when they were students at Pacific
Northwest Ballet School; (3) Jennifer Fitzgerald (former CSULB dancer),
Merett Miller (former Sacramento Ballet dancer), Dwayne Worthington
(former CSULB MFA dancer), and Quetta Boyd (former CSULB dancer)
for modeling for strength, flexibility, and technique exercises; and (4)
Quetta Boyd, Stephanie Cheung, Sarita Persaud, Samantha Price, Ismael

15
Rumbo, and Jack Taylor (CSULB dancers and alumni) for participating in
the video clips for the second edition. Appreciation is also expressed to
Shawn Robertson for his assistance with editing and cataloging my many
photos for the first edition.
In addition, I would like to thank California State University, Long
Beach and particularly Judy Allen (former Dance Department Chair),
Andrew Vaca (Dance Department Chair), Donald Para (former Dean,
College of the Arts), and Cyrus Parker-Jeannette (Dean, College of the
Arts) for their support of the first and second editions of this work. Lastly,
I would like to express sincere gratitude to the many individuals at Human
Kinetics who helped to make this text become a reality, and particularly to
Judy Patterson Wright for her unrelenting support of the first edition and
Ray Vallese for his thoughtful assistance in the evolution of this second
edition.

16
 1
The Skeletal System and Its Movements

©Angela Sterling. Dancer: Lesley Rausch with Pacific Northwest Ballet

Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

17
 Describe the four primary tissues of the body
Describe the composition, structure, and types of bones, as well as
how a bone grows in length and girth
Identify the major bones of the human skeleton and its divisions
Use anatomical terminology to describe the position of the body and
relative location of body structures
Describe the three classes of joints of the body
Identify the movements and associated plane and axis of joints that
are particularly key for human movement
Describe how joints can work together in kinematic chains

We start our discussion of dance anatomy and kinesiology in this book

by looking at the skeletal system. The skeletal system provides the
structural framework of the human body, and its joints permit the varied
movements that we explore in dance vocabulary. In movements such as
those in which the gesture leg is raised high to the side, as shown in this
chapter’s opening photo, bones function in both their support and
movement roles. The bones and associated joints of the gesture leg allow
for the large movement occurring at the right hip, while those of the
support leg are key for providing stability so that the dancer can remain
upright despite a very small base of support. The support function of bones
requires that they be strong, and understanding of bone remodeling is key
to preventing the loss in bone strength commonly seen in female dancers.
The role of bones in joints is key for understanding and describing human
movement.
The concepts and terminology provided in this chapter are used and
applied in more depth in later chapters. Hence, this chapter can serve both
as an introduction and as a reference for when this information is
readdressed.

Primary Tissues of the Body

The body is composed of four different primary tissues—muscle,
nervous, epithelial, and connective tissues. Each of these tissues has
characteristics that help it better fulfill its specialized functions. Muscle
tissue is characterized by its ability to contract and is found in the heart, in
various organs (e.g., in the smooth muscle in the gastrointestinal tract), and
in the skeletal muscles of the body. Nervous tissue is composed of cells

18
(neurons) that are able to generate and conduct electrical messages, as well
as other cells (neuroglia) that help support these neurons. Epithelial tissue
is composed of cells that fit closely together to form continuous sheets, or
membranes, that cover and line surfaces of the body or form glands.
Connective tissues generally function to bind, support, insulate, and
protect structures and can be further divided into connective tissue
proper, cartilage, bone, and blood.
These primary tissues of the body can be grouped together into
anatomical or functional units called organs. An organ is a structure that
performs a specific function for the body and is composed of two to four
of the primary tissues. Traditional examples of organs are the heart,
kidneys, and brain. However, bones and muscles also fit these criteria and
can be considered organs. Organs that work closely together for a common
purpose can be grouped according to this common function into systems.
This text focuses on the skeletal system and the muscular system as they
relate to human movement. The skeletal system is addressed in this
chapter, and the muscular system is addressed in chapter 2. The skeletal
system is composed of all of the bones of the body, related cartilages and
ligaments, and the joints that connect these bones together.

Bone Composition and Structure

In the average individual, bone makes up about 15% to 20% of total
body weight (Huwyler, 1999). Bone is one of the strongest connective
tissues in the body. A unique quality of bone is the presence of an
inorganic (nonliving) mineral component, composed mainly of calcium
salts, in the space between bone cells (the extracellular matrix). These
calcium salts help give bone its great compressive strength (the ability to
resist a force that would tend to push together or crush a bone; L. pressus ,
to press together). This extracellular matrix also contains organic (living)
fibrous proteins called collagen fibers that imbue bone with its great
tensile strength (the ability to resist a pulling force that would tend to pull
a bone apart; L. tensio , to stretch) and flexibility. This combined structural
makeup allows bone to withstand great forces associated with movement.
In addition, bone contains several types of cells—including osteoblasts
and osteoclasts—that are vital for bone growth and remodeling.
Osteoblasts play a key role in making and depositing new bone. In
contrast, osteoclasts are responsible for breaking down or removal of
bone, termed bone resorption, and conversion of the mineral salts

19
(including calcium) into a soluble form that can pass into the blood.

Functions of Bone

The composition of bone allows it to serve the following key functions.

Support: Bones provide an internal rigid framework for the body that
is essential for stability and form.
Protection: Some bones protect fragile structures within, such as the
brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs.
Movement: Bones assist with movement by forming the rigid links
(levers) that are moved at joints when muscles contract.
Blood cell production: Some bones contain tissue that is responsible
for the production of blood cells.
Mineral storage: Various important minerals including calcium are
stored within bones. Bone contains 99% of the calcium in the body
(Encyclopedia Britannica, 2014).

Types of Bone

Bones come in a large variety of shapes and sizes. They can be

classified according to their shape into the five types described next and
illustrated in figure 1.1.

Long bones are tubular in shape and much longer than they are wide.
They make up most of the limbs, including the femur in the thigh
(figure 1.1), tibia and fibula in the lower leg, and the metatarsals and
phalanges in the feet (figure 1.4), as well as parallel bones in the
upper limbs. Long bones can provide support for the body by serving
as columns that support load along their long axis. They also enhance
movement by allowing the limbs to move through a large distance, at
a fast speed, or both.

20
 Figure 1.1 Types of bones in the skeleton (anterior view).

Short bones are cubical in shape and are found in the upper portion
of the hand (carpals; see figure 1.4) and foot (tarsals; see figures 1.1
and 1.4). These bones often articulate with more than one other bone,
allowing them to aid with small complex movements and stability.
Flat bones are relatively thin and flat, although often slightly curved
in shape. These bones commonly protect important soft underlying
structures, and their shape also allows for extensive attachment of
muscles. Examples include the upper portion of the pelvis (ilium)
seen in figure 1.1, some of the bones of the skull, and the ribs,
sternum, and scapula (figure 1.4).
Irregular bones do not fall into the preceding three classifications
and exhibit complex and varied shapes. Examples include the
vertebrae that form the vertebral column and the lower portion of the
pelvis (ischium) shown in figures 1.1 and 1.4. Irregular bones serve
various functions that are often enhanced by their specialized shapes.
Sesamoid bones (G. sesamoeides , like sesame) are bones that form

21
 within a tendon. An example is the patella, commonly called the
kneecap (figure 1.1). Sesamoid bones help protect the tendons they
are within from excessive wear from the underlying bone. They also
change the angle of the tendon so that the associated muscle can
produce more effective force for movement.

Structure of Bone

Irrespective of the type, bone generally has a hard outer layer of very
dense bone called compact bone and an inner layer or area of less dense
bone called cancellous bone. The compact bone provides great strength.
Cancellous bone (L. a grating, lattice) contains many open spaces between
thin processes of bone (trabeculae) in a honeycomb-like structure. These
trabeculae (L. trabs , a beam) form a type of latticework that corresponds
to the lines of stress imposed on the bone. This architecture allows for high
energy absorption and stress distribution when bones are loaded (Hamill
and Knutzen, 2009) while allowing the bones to be much lighter than if
they were composed solely of compact bone. A more detailed description
of a typical long bone follows.

Structure of a Typical Long Bone

A typical long bone is composed of a shaft, called the diaphysis (G. a

growing between), that has thick walls of compact bone and a hollow
cavity called the medullary cavity (L. marrow). The medullary cavity is
lined with a membrane called the endosteum (G. endon , within + osteon,
bone). The expanded ends of the bone, called the epiphyses (G. epi, upon
+ physis , growth), are composed of cancellous bone within a thin outer
layer of compact bone. Each epiphysis (singular of epiphyses) also has a
surface that comes directly in contact with an opposing bone to form a
joint. This surface is termed the articular surface and is covered with a
thin layer of specialized connective tissue called articular cartilage. With
the exception of the portion of the epiphyses covered with this articular
cartilage, the whole outside of the bone is covered by a fibrous membrane
called the periosteum (G. peri , around + osteon, bone). The periosteum
contains blood vessels important for bone nourishment and provides a site
for attachment of many muscles and ligaments to the bone.

22
 Figure 1.2 Structure of a typical long bone (longitudinal section).

In bone present in young individuals that is still growing, there is a

plate of cartilage separating each epiphysis from the diaphysis. This is
termed the epiphyseal plate (G. epi, upon + physis , growth) or growth
plate, and it is important for allowing bones to grow in length.

Structure of Other Types of Bones

Similar to long bones, short bones, irregular bones, and flat bones have
an outer layer of compact bone covered by periosteum. Underneath this
layer of compact bone lies cancellous bone that is covered by endosteum.
These bones also contain bone marrow between their trabeculae, and some
of these bones are important sites for generating blood cells.

Bone Development and Growth

Bone growth begins early in the development of the fetus, and one
form of growth, endochondral ossification, involves cartilage models of
bones that are mostly replaced by bone as the child develops. As growth
proceeds, a plate of cartilage remains toward the ends of long bones
between the diaphysis and epiphyses: the epiphyseal plate, or growth plate,

23
previously described (figure 1.2). On the diaphyseal (central) side of the
growth plate the cartilage is replaced by bone, while on the epiphyseal side
of the growth plate, new cartilage growth occurs. This process allows
growth in length of the bone to continue until the adult size of that
particular bone is achieved. At this time, the cartilaginous epiphyseal
plates are replaced by bone, and the diaphysis fuses with the epiphyses.
The growth plates are now considered closed. This closure of the
epiphyseal plates generally occurs progressively from puberty to maturity.
Although there is much individual variability, most of the long bones of
the limbs achieve closure between approximately ages 18 and 25 (Hall,
2003).
In addition to growth in length, long bones also undergo growth in
girth, termed appositional growth. The osteoblasts in the deep layer of the
periosteum lay down new bone on the outside of the bone, while
osteoclasts in the endosteum resorb bone on the inside. This process allows
the bone to grow outward, increasing its girth while slightly expanding the
medullary cavity to make a thicker and stronger bone while preventing the
bone from becoming too heavy. Although this expansion in girth occurs at
the greatest rate before maturity, it continues throughout adulthood. A
summary of this growth of long bones in girth and length appears in figure
1.3.

24
Figure 1.3 Bone growth in youth. (A) Growth in bone length, (B) growth
in bone girth and maintenance of proportions via remodeling.

Adapted from Marieb 1995.

Bone Growth and Remodeling

In addition to growing in length and girth, bone is also continually

remodeling in response to many factors including the mechanical stresses
to which it is exposed.

Bone and Physical Activity

This relationship of mechanical stress to bone development was

actually expressed a long time ago (in 1892) by Julius Wolff. Wolff’s law
holds that changes in the internal architecture of bone and the external
form of a bone occur in response to the magnitude and direction of forces
acting on bones. In essence, healthy bones lay down new bone with the aid
of osteoblasts where needed and resorb bone with the aid of osteoclasts
where it is not needed in accordance with imposed forces. Two primary
forces acting on bones relate to the loading of bones in weight-bearing
activities and to the contraction of muscles. Hence, physical activity has a
potent effect on bone, and in a specific manner. For example, some
runners show increased bone density in the lower leg bones; tennis players
may show increased bone density of the arm bones on their dominant side;

25
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 INDEX

Aberdeen, 267
Adams, Clement, 192
Adams, M. Robert, 216
Admirals, rank of, 248
Admiralty and sheathing, 245;
Admiralty flag, 199
Adriatic Sea, naval battle on the, 216
Africans, East, and the art of navigation, 51
Ailsa, Marquis of, 327
Alderney Race, 251
Alexander the Great, 44
Alfred’s, King, ships, 131
Algiers, bombardment of, 235;
piracy, 233
Althiburus mosaic, 84
Amasis, 48
America, Columbus and, 183;
the Vikings and, 92;
the Phœnicians and, 50
America Cup, 293, 325
America, North, discovery of, 258;
timber, 268
American Civil War, 266, 269;
frigates, 256
American shipbuilding, 266;
the Dutch and, 293
American War of 1812, 256;
wasters, 296;
yachting, 330;
yachts, 325
Amsterdam, Rijks Museum, 241
Anchorena, Señor A. de, 332
Anchors, 72, 147, 154, 156
Anglo-Saxon ships, 131-133
Anne, Queen, navy of, 249
Anson, Lord, 258
Anthony’s, Anthony, “Roll,” 186
Aphlaston, the, 54, 58
Arctic expedition, Dutch, 231;
exploration, 218
Armada, Spanish, 194, 197, 198, 202, 203, 206;
tapestries of, 207;
number of ships and their construction, 211-214
Artemon, or foresail, 79
Arun, River, ancient boat found near, 100
Atlantic emigrant traffic, 272;
steamers, 266;
yacht race across the, 330
Australia, 246, 268, 272
Australian aborigines and stone implements, 99

Babylonia, 20
Bakhuizen, Ludolf, 5
Ballast, 196, 324
Baltic, Phœnicians on the, 112;
ketches, 303;
ships, 10
Banners, 153. See also Flags
Barber, Commander T. M., 37
Barcelona ships, 170
Barton Broad, 307
Baston, T. (engraver), 250
Bayeux Tapestry, the, 17, 134
Beaching, 60
Bedford, John, Duke of, 166
“Before the Mast,” 154
Bentall, Mr. E. H., 328
Bergen law for sailors, 127
Bernoulli, Jean, 243
Bibliography, 335 et seq.
Bilge water, 249
Bill-hooks, 187, 199
Billingsgate, 235, 285, 303
Binnacles, 179
Black Ball liners, 270
Blackwall, 246, 267
Blake, Admiral, 230, 232, 233
Blankenberg boat, 312
Boar’s head, 60
Bodleian Library MS., 203
Bombay yacht, 309
Bonaventure mast, 175
Bonhomme, —, 209
Bonnets, 153, 178, 195, 275
Booms, 123
Boreas, 129
Boston, 255
Botley, Viking ship discovered at, 115
Bounty system for shipbuilding, 179
Bowlines, 179, 198, 210
Bows, 86;
clipper, 266, 324;
Greek, 61;
overhanging, 329;
Phœnician, 55;
round, 257;
schooner, 276;
Viking double, 94
Bowsprit, 275
Brails, 65, 82, 262, 285
Brassey, Lord, 50, 327
Bremen, ancient boats discovered at, 102
Breydon Water, 307
Brigg prehistoric boat, 95
Brighton, 129, 136, 322
Bristol as port, 138
Britanni, the, 104
British Empire shipping tonnage in 1821, 258
British Museum, models in, 27;
and Brigg prehistoric boat, 96
British Navy, size of, in 1813, 256 (see also under the names of
monarchs);
last sailing ship in the, 300
Brixham ketch, 303;
Mumble Bees, 291
Broad arrow as Government mark, 234
Bronze and Iron Age ships, 104
Brooking, Charles, 5, 323
Brosen Viking ship, 117
Bruges, 163
Budge, Dr. E. A. Wallis, 22, 28
Bulkheads, 196
Bullen, Mr. F. T., on the way of the ship, 12;
on the ships of St. Paul’s voyage, 15;
on Elizabethan sea-terms, 210;
on spritsails, 265;
on clipper ships, 271
Bulwarks, 178
Burgess, W., 295
Burmese junks, 7, 31
“Butter-rigged,” 298
Byrne, Mr. St. Clare, 327
Bytharne’s “Book of War,” 188

Cabins, 148
Cables, 276
Cabot, John, 184
Cæsar, ships used by, 87, 93, 103, 106, 107;
and the Northern seas, 107
Calais, siege of, 159
California, 268
Caligula, ships of, 76
Cambyses, 48
Camper and Nicholson, Messrs., 326, 332
Canary Isles, discovery of, 158
Cannon, introduction of, 158, 168
Canterbury Cathedral, picture of a ship formerly in, 185
Cape Horn, 268, 273, 274, 277
Cape La Hogue, 240
Cape Verde Islands, 292
Cappelle, Jan van der, 5, 284
Captain, the, temp. James I., 225
“Caravel,” derivation of, 182
Careening, 226
Carpaccio’s pictures of ships, 130, 162
Carrying trade, temp. Queen Elizabeth, 193
Carter, Captain, 329
Carvel-work, 323
Cary-Elwes, Mr. V., ancient boat belonging to, 96
Castles on ships, 68, 140, 156, 169;
on Armada ships, 211;
absorbed into the hull, 164;
fore and stern, 171
Catteville, 138
Caulking, 178
“Ceols,” 134
Chancellor, Richard, 191
Chapman, F. H. af, 243
Charles I. and his navy, 228
Charles II. and his navy, 234-246;
gift of Dutch yacht for, 289, 321;
introduces yacht-racing, 321
Chatham, 200, 229, 236, 237, 241
China tea trade, 268
Chinese junks, 31, 310
Christiania, 291
Cinque Ports, the, 129, 148, 152, 154
Civil War, the, 232
Claude Lorraine’s “St. Ursula,” 5
Clipper races in China tea trade, 269
Clitherowe, Admiral, seal of, 166
Clowes, Sir W. Laird, 177
Clyde, the, ancient boat found, 100;
five-master built on, 273
Coal-carrying trade, 300
Coasting trade, temp. Queen Elizabeth, 193
“Cocke,” or coque, 200
Coins, ships on, 128, 157
Colbert, Jean B., 249
Cole, Mr. Vicat, 5
Columbus’s Christopher, ship, 176, 180, 183;
 model, 182;
replica, 180;
navigation instruments, 184
Commonwealth, the, and war with the Dutch, 232;
construction of ships, 234;
decoration of ships, 233;
and the flying of flags, 241
Compass, variation of the, 193
Concas, Captain D. V., 180
Connolly, Mr. J. B., 294
Cook, Captain, 258
Cooke, E. W., R.A., 261
Cooking galley, Elizabethan, 196
Copper sheathing, 251
Coracle, the, 103
Cork, 322
Corks, 178
Cornwall, men of, 202
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, MS., 146, 154
Cotton ships, 266
Cowes, 322, 327, 331
“Crane line,” 178
Crawford, Earl of, 330
Cressets, 181, 190
Crimean War, 268, 323
Cromwell and the Navy, 233
Crowinshield, —, 295
Crusades, ships of the, 17, 138, 139, 141, 146, 153, 172
Cuyp, A., 5
Cypress, 246

Dam, or Damme, seal of, 154, 276, 304

Dampier, William, 246, 258
Danes, the, and British love of ships, 109
Dartmouth, 202, 215, 216
Dassie, Le Sieur, 243
David II. of Scotland, coin of, 157
Davits, 177
Dead-eyes, 178
Deal “galley,” 131;
luggers, 318
Deane, Sir Anthony, 236, 241, 245, 321
Deane, Anthony, the younger, 246
Decks, 148, 171, 196, 205, 246
Decoration of royal yachts, 322
Decoration of ships, temp. Henry VIII., 188, 191;
temp. Elizabeth, 194;
during the Commonwealth, 233
Deptford, 322
Devon, men of, 202, 291
Devonport, 257
Dhow, the, 44
Digby, Captain, 239
Dilke, Lady E. F. S., 5
Dixon, Mr. Charles, 5, 241, 255
Doldrums, the, 332
Dover, seal of, 152
Drake’s, Sir Francis, voyage round the world, 202
Draught, Elizabethan, 194
“Drift sail,” 225
Dublin, 138
Duemichen, Dr., 40
Dug-outs, ancient, discoveries of, 100
Dumbarton, 274
Dumfries, ancient boat found near, 100
Dungeness, 319
Dunraven, Earl of, 183
Dutch develop fore-and-aft rig, 282, 283
Dutch East India Company, 322
Dutch East Indiamen, sterns of, 243
Dutch exploration of N.-E. Passage, 219
Dutch man-of-war, seventeenth century, model of, 243
Dutch naval rivalry, seventeenth century, 231
Dutch navy in 1675, 236
Dutch schuyts, 303
Dutch ships and English men-of-war, 232
Dutch, war with the, 1667, 237;
invasion of England, 237, 241

East Coast ketch, 303, 304

East India Company, founding of, 221;
under James I., 226;
 monopoly, 258
East India Company, Dutch, 322
East Indiamen, 258
Eddystone Lighthouse, 246
Edgar, King, navy of, 132;
as a yachtsman, 320
Edinburgh Museum, ancient boat in, 101
Edward I., ships of the time of, 154
Edward III., navy of, 157;
fleet at the siege of Calais, 158
Edward IV., ships of, 174;
shipping in the reign of, 161
Edward VI., ships of, 191
Edward VII., ships of, 264;
yacht Britannia, 329
Egyptians, ancient, history of ships, 20-45;
dynasties, 28;
expedition to Punt, 39;
exploration, 26;
rig of ships, 11, 29, 38;
shape of ships, 9;
model rigged boat discovered, 3
Elizabeth, Queen, maritime affairs under, 193-221
Elm sheathing, 245
England as the “Sovereign of the Seas,” temp. John, 148;
temp. Elizabeth, 201
English fleet, the, opposed to the Armada, 211
English Navy, the, in 1675, 236
English sailing ships, Viking influence on, 127
English skill, 18
Ensigns. See Flags
Etruscan vase showing naval warfare, 64
Europe, Northern, early ships of, 89-127
Exeter, Thomas Beaufort, Duke of, seal of, 166
Eyes on ships, 11, 65

Fabriano, Gentile da, 161

Fife, Mr. William, 326, 327, 333
Fife & Son, of Fairlie, 333
Fighting-tops, 16, 65, 181
Figureheads, 12, 194, 228
Fireships, 236
FitzGerald, Henry, 146
Flags, banners, ensigns, streamers, &c., 176, 188, 199, 241, 248,
254
Flagships, 157
Florence, Duke of, 246
Forecastle, Greek, 65
Forecastles reduced, 194. See also Castles
France and England, Norman trade between, 137
French models in English naval architecture, 259
French navy in 1675, 236
French ships, fifteenth century, 164;
seventeenth century, 244;
warships, sixteenth century, 184;
eighteenth century, 249
French, ships taken from the, 257
Friesland oarsmen, 131
Froude, Mr. William, 328
Furneaux, Mr. Henry, on “pontibus,” 108

“Galleys” and “ships,” 138

Gallic ship, 88
Gama, Vasco da, 51, 184
Gauckler, M. P., 84
Geestemünde, 275
Genoa, ships of, 170
George III. and yachting, 322
German Emperor’s Cup, 330
German Ocean, 282
German, St., 137
German yacht designers, 331
Germanic craft, 102
Germanicus, ships built by, 108
Germans as sailing-men, 274
Giorgione, 130
Glasgow, ancient canoes found near, 101;
ship built at, 274
Glass, stained, pictures of ships, 130
Gloppen Viking ship, 117
Gloucester, Massachusetts, 293
Gloucester, Richard Plantagenet, Duke of, seal of, 166
Gnomon, 71
Godredus Crovan, 138