Chapter#1

1. **Define empirical formula with an example.**

- An empirical formula represents the simplest whole-number ratio of the elements in a compound. For
example, the empirical formula for glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) is CH₂O.

2. **Explain why are hydrogen and oxygen considered elements whereas water as a compound.**
- Hydrogen and oxygen are considered elements because they consist of only one type of atom (H₂ and O₂,
respectively). Water (H₂O) is a compound because it is made up of two different elements, hydrogen and
oxygen, chemically combined in a fixed ratio.

3. **What is the significance of the symbol of an element?**

- The symbol of an element is a shorthand notation representing one atom of the element. It provides a
universal way to identify elements and allows scientists to easily write chemical formulas and equations.

4. **Define atomic mass unit. Why is it needed?**

- An atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as one twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. It is needed to
express the masses of atoms and subatomic particles in a manageable and comparable way, since their actual
masses are extremely small.

5. **State the nature and name of the substance formed by combining the following:**
- i. **Zinc + Copper**: This forms an alloy known as brass.
- ii. **Water + Sugar**: This forms a mixture known as a sugar solution.
- iii. **Aluminium + Sulphur**: This forms a compound known as aluminium sulfide (Al₂S₃).
- iv. **Iron + Chromium + Nickel**: This combination forms an alloy known as stainless steel.

6. **Differentiate between molecular mass and formula mass, which of the followings have molecular
formula?**
- Molecular mass is the sum of the masses of all atoms in a molecule, applicable to molecular compounds.
Formula mass is the sum of the masses of all atoms in the empirical formula of a compound, applicable to
both ionic and molecular compounds. The following have molecular formulas: H₂O, KI, and H₂SO₄.

7. **Differentiate between homoatomic and heteroatomic molecules with examples.**

- Homoatomic molecules are composed of atoms of the same element, such as O₂ (oxygen) and N₂
(nitrogen). Heteroatomic molecules are composed of atoms of different elements, such as H₂O (water) and
CO₂ (carbon dioxide).

8. **Define element and classify the elements with examples.**

- An element is a pure substance consisting of only one type of atom, identified by its atomic number.
Elements can be classified into metals (e.g., iron, Fe), non-metals (e.g., oxygen, O), and metalloids (e.g., silicon,
Si).
 Chapter#2
1. **Define a chemical reaction.**
- A chemical reaction is a process in which substances (reactants) undergo a transformation to form new
substances (products) with different properties.

2. **What are reactants?**

- Reactants are the starting substances in a chemical reaction that undergo change to form products.

3. **What are products?**

- Products are the new substances formed as a result of a chemical reaction.

4. **What is a chemical equation?**

- A chemical equation is a symbolic representation of a chemical reaction where the reactants are written on
the left side and the products on the right side, with an arrow indicating the direction of the reaction.

### Q.2 Differentiate between the following.

1. **Addition reaction and decomposition reaction.**

- An addition reaction is a chemical reaction where two or more substances combine to form a single
product. For example, \( A + B \rightarrow AB \).
- A decomposition reaction is a chemical reaction where a single compound breaks down into two or more
simpler substances. For example, \( AB \rightarrow A + B \).

2. **Balanced chemical equation and unbalanced chemical equation.**

- A balanced chemical equation has the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the
equation, maintaining the law of conservation of mass. For example, \( 2H_2 + O_2 \rightarrow 2H_2O \).
- An unbalanced chemical equation does not have the same number of atoms of each element on both sides
of the equation. For example, \( H_2 + O_2 \rightarrow H_2O \).

3. **Exothermic reaction and endothermic reaction.**

- An exothermic reaction releases energy, usually in the form of heat, to its surroundings. For example,
combustion reactions.
- An endothermic reaction absorbs energy from its surroundings, usually in the form of heat. For example,
photosynthesis.

### Q.3 Complete and balance the following incomplete equations.

1. **\( Mg(s) + O_2(g) \rightarrow MgO \)**

- \( 2Mg(s) + O_2(g) \rightarrow 2MgO(s) \)

2. **\( CH_4(g) + O_2(g) \rightarrow CO_2 + H_2O \)**

- \( CH_4(g) + 2O_2(g) \rightarrow CO_2(g) + 2H_2O(g) \)

3. **\( Fe(s) + S(s) \rightarrow FeS \)**

- \( Fe(s) + S(s) \rightarrow FeS(s) \) (Already balanced)
4. **\( N_2(g) + H_2(g) \rightarrow NH_3 \)**
- \( N_2(g) + 3H_2(g) \rightarrow 2NH_3(g) \)

5. **\( Na(s) + Cl_2(g) \rightarrow NaCl \)**

- \( 2Na(s) + Cl_2(g) \rightarrow 2NaCl(s) \)

### Q.4 Write at least two examples of the following chemical reactions.

1. **Addition reaction**
- \( C_2H_4 + H_2 \rightarrow C_2H_6 \) (Hydrogenation of ethene)
- \( N_2 + 3H_2 \rightarrow 2NH_3 \) (Synthesis of ammonia)

2. **Decomposition reaction**
- \( 2H_2O \rightarrow 2H_2 + O_2 \) (Electrolysis of water)
- \( CaCO_3 \rightarrow CaO + CO_2 \) (Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate)

3. **Exothermic reaction**
- \( CH_4 + 2O_2 \rightarrow CO_2 + 2H_2O \) (Combustion of methane)
- \( 2H_2 + O_2 \rightarrow 2H_2O \) (Formation of water)

4. **Endothermic reaction**
- \( 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + sunlight \rightarrow C_6H_12O_6 + 6O_2 \) (Photosynthesis)
- \( NH_4NO_3 + H_2O \rightarrow NH_4^+ + NO_3^- + heat \) (Dissolution of ammonium nitrate in water)

### Q.5 Describe the applications of chemical reactions.

- Chemical reactions are fundamental in various industries such as pharmaceuticals, where they are used to
create medications.
- In agriculture, chemical reactions are essential for producing fertilizers.
- In energy production, reactions like combustion are crucial for generating power.
- Chemical reactions are also key in environmental processes, such as water purification and waste
management.

### Q.6 Write down the rules for balancing chemical equations.

1. Write the unbalanced equation using correct chemical formulas for all reactants and products.
2. Count the number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation.
3. Use coefficients to balance each element one at a time, starting with the most complex substance.
4. Ensure the coefficients are in the simplest whole-number ratio.
5. Double-check to confirm that the number of atoms of each element is equal on both sides of the equation.

### Q.7 Describe the importance of exothermic reactions in everyday life.

- Exothermic reactions provide energy for heating homes and cooking food (e.g., combustion of natural gas).
- They are used in hand warmers to provide heat.
- Exothermic reactions are fundamental in industrial processes like the production of cement and steel.
- They play a crucial role in biological processes such as respiration, where energy is released to sustain life.

### Q.8 Give two examples of chemical reactions from everyday life which are essential for life.

1. **Photosynthesis**
- \( 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + sunlight \rightarrow C_6H_12O_6 + 6O_2 \)
- This process is essential for producing oxygen and glucose, which are vital for the survival of most life
forms.

2. **Cellular respiration**
- \( C_6H_12O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + energy \)
- This process releases energy from glucose, which is necessary for cellular activities.

### Q.9 How do the following reactants react together? Write down complete reactions and balance the
resulting equations.

1. **Iron + Hydrochloric acid**

- \( Fe + 2HCl \rightarrow FeCl_2 + H_2 \)

2. **Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide**

- \( CaO + CO_2 \rightarrow CaCO_3 \)

3. **Carbon monoxide + Oxygen**

- \( 2CO + O_2 \rightarrow 2CO_2 \)

4. **Methane + Oxygen**
- \( CH_4 + 2O_2 \rightarrow CO_2 + 2H_2O \)

5. **Carbon dioxide + Water**

- \( CO_2 + H_2O \rightarrow H_2CO_3 \)
 Chapter#3

**i. How water rises in plants?**

- Water rises in plants through a process called capillary action, combined with transpiration pull and root
pressure. Capillary action allows water to move up through narrow tubes in the plant's xylem, while
transpiration (the evaporation of water from the leaves) creates a negative pressure that pulls water upward
from the roots.

**ii. Point out two properties of water that make it an excellent solvent.**
1. **Polarity**: Water molecules have a polar structure with a positive end (hydrogen) and a negative end
(oxygen), allowing them to surround and interact with various solutes.
2. **Hydrogen bonding**: Water can form hydrogen bonds with other polar molecules and ions, helping to
dissolve them effectively.

**iii. Why is the water molecule polar?**

- The water molecule is polar because of its bent shape and the difference in electronegativity between
oxygen and hydrogen atoms. Oxygen is more electronegative, pulling the shared electrons closer to itself and
creating a partial negative charge, while hydrogen atoms have a partial positive charge.

**iv. Which salts are responsible for hardness of water?**

- The salts responsible for hardness of water are primarily calcium bicarbonate (\( Ca(HCO_3)_2 \)), calcium
sulfate (\( CaSO_4 \)), magnesium bicarbonate (\( Mg(HCO_3)_2 \)), and magnesium sulfate (\( MgSO_4 \)).

**v. Explain the chemistry of removing the temporary hardness by boiling water.**
- Temporary hardness caused by calcium and magnesium bicarbonates (\( Ca(HCO_3)_2 \) and \(
Mg(HCO_3)_2 \)) can be removed by boiling. Boiling decomposes the bicarbonates into insoluble carbonates,
carbon dioxide, and water:
\[ Ca(HCO_3)_2 (aq) \rightarrow CaCO_3 (s) + CO_2 (g) + H_2O (l) \]
\[ Mg(HCO_3)_2 (aq) \rightarrow MgCO_3 (s) + CO_2 (g) + H_2O (l) \]

**vi. What is the principle of removing permanent hardness of water?**

- Permanent hardness, caused by soluble salts like calcium sulfate (\( CaSO_4 \)) and magnesium sulfate (\(
MgSO_4 \)), can be removed by ion exchange methods or by adding chemicals like washing soda (sodium
carbonate, \( Na_2CO_3 \)) that precipitate the hardness ions as insoluble carbonates:
\[ CaSO_4 (aq) + Na_2CO_3 (aq) \rightarrow CaCO_3 (s) + Na_2SO_4 (aq) \]

**vii. What are the reasons for waterborne diseases?**

- Waterborne diseases are typically caused by the presence of pathogenic microorganisms like bacteria,
viruses, and protozoa in contaminated water. Common sources of contamination include sewage, agricultural
runoff, and industrial waste.

**viii. Differentiate between soft and hard water.**

- **Soft water**: Contains low concentrations of calcium and magnesium ions. It lathers easily with soap and
does not leave scale deposits.
- **Hard water**: Contains high concentrations of calcium and magnesium ions. It does not lather easily with
soap and leaves scale deposits on pipes and appliances.
**ix. What are the causes of hardness in water?**
- Hardness in water is caused by the dissolution of calcium and magnesium salts, such as carbonates,
bicarbonates, sulfates, and chlorides, from rocks and soil into the water supply.

**x. What are the effects of temporary hardness in water?**

- Temporary hardness can cause scale formation in kettles and boilers, reduce the effectiveness of soaps and
detergents, and leave residues on fixtures and fabrics.

**xi. What are the disadvantages of hard water?**

- Hard water leads to scale buildup in pipes and appliances, reduces the efficiency of heating systems,
increases soap and detergent consumption, and can cause dry skin and dull hair.

**xii. Differentiate between deliquescence and efflorescence.**

- **Deliquescence**: The process by which a substance absorbs moisture from the air and dissolves in it to
form a solution (e.g., calcium chloride).
- **Efflorescence**: The process by which a substance loses water to the air, forming a powdery deposit on its
surface (e.g., washing soda).

### Extensive Questions

**xiii. Write a detailed note on the water cycle.**

- The water cycle, or hydrological cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below
the Earth's surface. It involves processes such as evaporation (water turning into vapor), transpiration (water
release from plants), condensation (vapor forming clouds), precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or hail), infiltration
(water soaking into the ground), and runoff (water flowing over the land). This cycle is essential for
distributing water and maintaining life on Earth.

**xiv. How does the polarity of water molecules play its role to dissolve substances?**
- The polarity of water molecules allows them to surround and interact with various solutes. The positive end
of the water molecule attracts negative ions, while the negative end attracts positive ions, effectively breaking
them apart and keeping them in solution. This ability to dissolve a wide range of substances makes water an
excellent solvent.

**xv. Explain the methods of removing permanent hardness.**

- Permanent hardness can be removed using ion exchange resins, which replace calcium and magnesium ions
with sodium or potassium ions. Alternatively, chemical methods like adding washing soda (sodium carbonate)
or using water softeners can precipitate the hardness ions as insoluble carbonates.

**xvi. What is hydrolysis? Discuss its types.**

- Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction where a compound reacts with water, resulting in the breakdown of that
compound. Types of hydrolysis include:
1. **Salt hydrolysis**: When salts react with water to form acidic or basic solutions.
2. **Ester hydrolysis**: Breaking down esters into acids and alcohols.
3. **Amide hydrolysis**: Converting amides into acids and amines.

**xvii. Explain the reasons why water is considered a universal solvent.**

- Water is considered a universal solvent due to its polarity and ability to form hydrogen bonds. These
properties allow it to dissolve a wide variety of ionic and molecular substances, facilitating numerous chemical
reactions essential for life and various industrial processes.

**xviii. Differentiate between different types of impurities.**

- Impurities in water can be categorized as:
1. **Physical impurities**: Suspended particles like sand, silt, and organic matter.
2. **Chemical impurities**: Dissolved salts and minerals (e.g., calcium, magnesium), and pollutants like
pesticides and heavy metals.
3. **Biological impurities**: Pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa.
4. **Radiological impurities**: Radioactive substances from natural or anthropogenic sources.
 Chapter#4

**(a) A homogeneous phase**

- **Definition**: A homogeneous phase is a single phase system in which the composition and properties are
uniform throughout.
- **Example**: A solution of salt (NaCl) in water is a homogeneous phase because the salt is evenly
distributed throughout the water.

**(b) A concentrated solution**

- **Definition**: A concentrated solution has a relatively large amount of solute dissolved in a solvent
compared to a dilute solution.
- **Example**: A solution containing 10 M (molar) hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a concentrated solution.

**(c) A solution of solid in a solid**

- **Definition**: This is a type of solid solution where one solid is dispersed uniformly within another solid.
- **Example**: Brass is a solid solution of zinc in copper.

**(d) A consulate temperature**

- **Definition**: The consulate temperature is the highest temperature at which two liquids are completely
miscible in all proportions.
- **Example**: For the system of phenol and water, the consulate temperature is about 66°C.

**(e) Conjugate solution**

- **Definition**: Conjugate solutions are pairs of solutions of the same components in different phases,
typically liquid-liquid, that coexist at equilibrium.
- **Example**: A mixture of water and ether, which separates into two layers, each layer being a conjugate
solution.

### 2. Concentration Units of Solutions and Comparison

**Concentration Units:**
- **Molarity (M)**: Moles of solute per liter of solution.
- **Molality (m)**: Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
- **Weight/Weight percentage (w/w %)**: Mass of solute per mass of solution, multiplied by 100.
- **Volume/Volume percentage (v/v %)**: Volume of solute per volume of solution, multiplied by 100.
- **Parts per million (ppm)**: Mass of solute per million parts of solution.
- **Normality (N)**: Gram equivalent weight of solute per liter of solution.

**Comparison of Molar and Molal Solutions:**

- **Molarity (M)**: Depends on the volume of the solution, which can change with temperature.
- **Molality (m)**: Depends on the mass of the solvent, which is independent of temperature.

### 3. One Molal Solutions of NaCl and Glucose

**(a) Which solution has a greater number of particles of solute?**

- NaCl dissociates into Na+ and Cl- ions in solution, so a 1 molal solution of NaCl has 2 moles of particles per
kilogram of solvent.
- Glucose does not dissociate in solution, so a 1 molal solution of glucose has 1 mole of particles per kilogram
of solvent.
- **Answer**: NaCl solution has a greater number of particles.

**(b) Which solution has a greater amount of solvent?**

- Both solutions have the same amount of solvent (1 kg of water) because they are defined as 1 molal
solutions.
- **Answer**: Both have the same amount of solvent.

**(c) How do we convert these concentrations into weight-by-weight percentages?**

- **NaCl**: 1 molal = 58.44 g of NaCl in 1000 g of water. Weight percentage = (58.44 / (1000 + 58.44)) * 100 ≈
5.52%
- **Glucose**: 1 molal = 180.16 g of glucose in 1000 g of water. Weight percentage = (180.16 / (1000 +
180.16)) * 100 ≈ 15.26%

### 4. Explanations with Reasons

**i. Molality is independent of temperature because it is based on the mass of the solvent, which does not
change with temperature. Molarity depends on temperature because it is based on the volume of the
solution, which can expand or contract with temperature changes.**

**ii. The sum of mole fractions of all components in a solution is always equal to unity because mole fraction
is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of a component to the total number of moles in the solution,
and thus the sum of all mole fractions must equal 1.**

**iii. For 100 g of 98% H2SO4:**

- Mass of H2SO4 = 98 g
- Volume of H2SO4 = Mass / Density = 98 g / 1.84 g/cm³ ≈ 53.26 cm³

**iv. The relative lowering of vapor pressure is independent of temperature because it depends on the ratio of
the number of solute particles to solvent particles, which does not change with temperature.**

**v. Colligative properties are obeyed when the solute is non-electrolyte and solutions are dilute because
colligative properties depend on the number of particles in solution, not their nature. Non-electrolytes do not
dissociate, ensuring predictable behavior, and dilution minimizes solute-solute interactions.**

### 5. Graphical Explanation for Elevation of Boiling Point

- **Elevation of Boiling Point (ΔTb)**: When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, the boiling point of the
solution increases. This can be represented by a graph showing the boiling point of the pure solvent and the
boiling point of the solution.
- **Graph**: Plot temperature on the y-axis and the number of solute particles on the x-axis. The boiling point
of the solution is higher than the boiling point of the pure solvent, and the difference (ΔTb) is proportional to
the molal concentration of the solute.
### 6. Freezing Point Depression

- **Freezing Point Depression (ΔTf)**: Adding a non-volatile solute to a solvent lowers the freezing point of
the solution. This can be explained by the fact that the solute particles disrupt the formation of the solid
phase, requiring a lower temperature to achieve the same phase change.
- **Graph**: Plot temperature on the y-axis and the number of solute particles on the x-axis. The freezing
point of the solution is lower than the freezing point of the pure solvent, and the difference (ΔTf) is
proportional to the molal concentration of the solute.

### 7. Calculate the Molarity of Glucose Solution

- Given: 9 g of glucose (C6H12O6) in 250 cm³ of solution.

- Molar mass of glucose = 180 g/mol.
- Moles of glucose = 9 g / 180 g/mol = 0.05 mol.
- Volume of solution = 250 cm³ = 0.25 dm³.
- Molarity (M) = moles of solute / volume of solution (in dm³) = 0.05 mol / 0.25 dm³ = 0.2 mol/dm³.

### 8. Calculate the Mass of Urea in 100 g of H2O in 0.3 Molal Solution

- Given: 0.3 molal solution of urea.

- Moles of urea = 0.3 mol.
- Molar mass of urea (CH4N2O) = 60 g/mol.
- Mass of urea = 0.3 mol × 60 g/mol = 18 g.
- Mass of water = 100 g.
- Mass of solution = 100 g (water) + 18 g (urea) = 118 g.
- Mass of urea in 100 g of H2O = 18 g.

### 9. Calculate the Molality of a Mixed NaCl Solution

- Given:
- 250 g of 20% NaCl solution (50 g NaCl and 200 g water).
- 200 g of 40% NaCl solution (80 g NaCl and 120 g water).
- Total NaCl = 50 g + 80 g = 130 g.
- Total water = 200 g + 120 g = 320 g.
- Moles of NaCl = 130 g / 58.44 g/mol = 2.224 mol.
- Molality (m) = moles of solute / kg of solvent = 2.224 mol / 0.320 kg = 6.95 mol/kg.

### 10. Mole Fraction of Sucrose Solution

- Given: 1 molal solution of sucrose.

- Moles of sucrose = 1 mol.
- Mass of water = 1 kg = 1000 g.
- Moles of water = 1000 g / 18 g/mol = 55.56 mol.
- Total moles = 1 mol (sucrose) + 55.56 mol (water) = 56.56 mol.
- Mole fraction of sucrose = 1 mol / 56.56 mol = 0.0177.
- Mole fraction of water = 55.56 mol / 56.56 mol = 0.9823.
### 11. Calculate Volume of 80% H2SO4 Required

- Given:
- 80% H2SO4 solution with density 1.8 g/cm³.
- 20% H2SO4 solution with density 1.25 g/cm³.
- Mass of H2SO4 in final solution = 200 g (20% of 1 dm³ or 1000 g).
- Mass of H2O in final solution = 800 g.
- Volume of 80% H2SO4 solution needed:
- Let

V cm³ be the volume of 80% H2SO4 solution.

- Mass of H2SO4 in V cm³ = 0.80 × 1.8 g/cm³ × V = 1.44V.
- To get 200 g of H2SO4: 1.44V = 200 g → V = 200 g / 1.44 g/cm³ ≈ 138.89 cm³.
- Adjusting for density:
- Volume of final solution (20% H2SO4) is 1000 g / 1.25 g/cm³ = 800 cm³.
- Volume of water needed to dilute: 800 cm³ - 138.89 cm³ ≈ 661.11 cm³.
- Total volume = 138.89 cm³ + 661.11 cm³ = 800 cm³.
- **Answer**: 173.5 cm³ of 80% H2SO4 is required to prepare 1 dm³ of 20% H2SO4 solution.
 Chapter#5
**i. Define a base and explain that all alkalies are bases, but all bases are not alkalies.**

- **Base**: A substance that can accept hydrogen ions (protons) or donate a pair of valence electrons to form
a bond.
- **Explanation**:
- **Alkalies** are bases that are soluble in water. Examples include sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium
hydroxide (KOH).
- Not all bases are alkalies because some bases are insoluble in water. For example, copper(II) oxide (CuO) is a
base but not an alkali.

**ii. Define Bronsted-Lowry base and explain with an example that water is a Bronsted-Lowry base.**

- **Bronsted-Lowry Base**: A substance that can accept a proton (H+ ion).

- **Example**: In the reaction \( NH_3 + H_2O \rightarrow NH_4^+ + OH^- \), water (H2O) acts as a Bronsted-
Lowry base by accepting a proton from ammonia (NH3).

**iii. How can you justify that Bronsted-Lowry concept of acid and base is applicable to non-aqueous
solutions?**

- The Bronsted-Lowry concept defines acids and bases in terms of proton transfer, which is not limited to
aqueous solutions. For example, in liquid ammonia, \( NH_4^+ \) acts as an acid by donating a proton, and \(
NH_2^- \) acts as a base by accepting a proton.

**iv. Which kind of bond is formed between Lewis acid and a base?**

- **Coordinate Covalent Bond**: This bond is formed when a Lewis base donates a pair of electrons to a Lewis
acid.

**v. Why H+ ion acts as a Lewis acid?**

- The \( H^+ \) ion acts as a Lewis acid because it can accept a pair of electrons from a Lewis base to form a
coordinate covalent bond.

**vi. Name two acids used in the manufacture of fertilizers.**

- **Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)**

- **Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4)**

**vii. Define the following:**

- **a) Normal salt**: A salt that is formed by the complete neutralization of an acid by a base. Example:
Sodium chloride (NaCl).
- **b) Basic salt**: A salt that is formed by the incomplete neutralization of a strong base by a weak acid, and
still contains hydroxide ions. Example: Basic copper(II) chloride (Cu(OH)Cl).
**viii. Na2SO4 is a neutral salt while NaHSO4 is an acid salt. Justify.**

- **Na2SO4** is formed by the neutralization of a strong acid (H2SO4) and a strong base (NaOH), making it
neutral.
- **NaHSO4** is formed by the partial neutralization of sulfuric acid, retaining one acidic hydrogen, making it
an acid salt.

**ix. Give a few characteristic properties of salts.**

- Soluble in water to varying degrees.

- Conduct electricity when dissolved in water (electrolytes).
- Can form crystals.
- Generally have high melting and boiling points.

**x. How are the soluble salts recovered from water?**

- Soluble salts can be recovered from water by **evaporation** or **crystallization** techniques.

**xi. How are the insoluble salts prepared?**

- Insoluble salts are typically prepared by **precipitation reactions** where two soluble salts are mixed, and
an insoluble salt precipitates out of the solution.

**xii. Why is a salt neutral, explain with an example?**

- A salt is neutral when it is formed from the neutralization of a strong acid and a strong base. Example: NaCl,
formed from HCl (strong acid) and NaOH (strong base).

**xiii. Name an acid used in the preservation of food.**

- **Acetic Acid (found in vinegar).**

**xiv. Name the acids present in:**

- **i. Vinegar**: Acetic Acid (CH3COOH)
- **ii. Ant sting**: Formic Acid (HCOOH)
- **iii. Citrus fruit**: Citric Acid (C6H8O7)
- **iv. Sour milk**: Lactic Acid (C3H6O3)

**xv. How can you justify that Pb(OH)NO3 is a basic salt?**

- **Pb(OH)NO3** is a basic salt because it contains hydroxide ions (OH-) in its formula, indicating that it was
formed from a partial neutralization involving a weak acid and a strong base.

**xvi. You are in need of an acidic salt. How can you prepare it?**

- Acidic salts can be prepared by the partial neutralization of a strong acid with a weak base. Example: Adding
a limited amount of NaOH to H2SO4 will produce NaHSO4.
**xvii. Which salt is used to prepare plaster of Paris?**

- **Calcium Sulfate Hemihydrate (CaSO4·0.5H2O)**

### Extensive Questions

**1. Define an acid and a base according to Bronsted-Lowry concept and justify with examples that water is an
amphoteric compound.**

- **Bronsted-Lowry Acid**: A substance that donates a proton (H+).

- **Bronsted-Lowry Base**: A substance that accepts a proton (H+).
- **Water as Amphoteric**: Water can act as both an acid and a base.
- As an acid: \( H_2O + NH_3 \rightarrow NH_4^+ + OH^- \)
- As a base: \( H_2O + HCl \rightarrow H_3O^+ + Cl^- \)

**2. Explain the Lewis concept of acids and bases.**

- **Lewis Acid**: A substance that can accept a pair of electrons.

- **Lewis Base**: A substance that can donate a pair of electrons.
- Example: \( BF_3 \) (Lewis Acid) and \( NH_3 \) (Lewis Base) form \( BF_3NH_3 \).

**3. Define a salt and give the characteristic properties of salts.**

- **Salt**: An ionic compound formed from the neutralization reaction between an acid and a base.
- **Properties**:
- Ionic structure.
- High melting and boiling points.
- Solubility in water varies.
- Conduct electricity in aqueous solutions.

**4. Explain with examples how soluble salts are prepared.**

- Soluble salts are prepared by **neutralization reactions**. Example:

- **NaCl**: \( HCl + NaOH \rightarrow NaCl + H_2O \)
- **KNO3**: \( HNO3 + KOH \rightarrow KNO3 + H2O \)

**5. Give the characteristics of an acidic salt.**

- Formed by partial neutralization of a diprotic or polyprotic acid.

- Contains replaceable hydrogen atoms.
- Example: Sodium hydrogen sulfate (NaHSO4).

**6. Give four uses of calcium oxide.**

- Used in the manufacture of cement and concrete.

- Acts as a neutralizing agent in agriculture to amend acidic soils.
- Used in the production of glass.
- Employed in the treatment of wastewater.

**7. You are having a strong acid (HNO3) and strong base (NaOH). On mixing:**
- **a) What type of salt you will have?**: **Sodium nitrate (NaNO3)**
- **b) What type of reaction will it be?**: **Neutralization reaction**
- **c) Will it be soluble or insoluble salt?**: **Soluble**
- **d) If it is soluble, how will it be recovered?**: By **evaporating** the water from the solution.

**8. Explain why:**

- **a) HCl forms only one series of salts.**: HCl is a monoprotic acid, releasing only one H+ ion.
- **b) H2SO4 forms two series of salts.**: H2SO4 is a diprotic acid, capable of releasing two H+ ions, forming
both normal salts (Na2SO4) and acid salts (NaHSO4).
- **c) H3PO4 forms three series of salts.**: H3PO4 is a triprotic acid, capable of releasing three H+ ions,
forming three series of salts: primary (NaH2PO4), secondary (Na2HPO4), and tertiary (Na3PO4) salts.

**9. Classify the following salts as soluble or insoluble salts:**

- **a) Sodium chloride**: Soluble
- **b) Silver nitrate**: Soluble
- **c) Lead chloride**: Insoluble
- **d) Copper sulphate**: Soluble
- **e) Barium sulphate**: Insoluble
- **f) Ammonium chloride**: Soluble
- **g) Sodium carbonate**: Soluble
- **h) Calcium carbonate**: Insoluble
- **i) Ferric chloride**: Soluble
- **j) Magnesium sulphate**: Soluble
 Chapter#6
**i. Name three common household substances having:**

**a. pH value greater than 7:**

1. Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) solution

2. Ammonia solution
3. Bleach

**b. pH value less than 7:**

1. Vinegar (acetic acid)

2. Lemon juice (citric acid)
3. Stomach acid (hydrochloric acid)

**c. pH value equal to 7:**

1. Pure water
2. Distilled water
3. Neutral saline solution

**ii. Define pH. What is the pH of pure water?**

- **pH**: A measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution, representing its acidity or basicity. It is
calculated as the negative logarithm (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration:
\[ \text{pH} = -\log[H^+] \]
- The pH of pure water is 7, which is neutral.

**iii. How many times a solution of pH 1 will be stronger than that of a solution having pH 2?**

- A solution of pH 1 has a hydrogen ion concentration 10 times greater than a solution of pH 2 because pH is a
logarithmic scale. Each pH unit represents a tenfold difference in hydrogen ion concentration.

### Numericals

**1. Calculate the pH and pOH of 0.2 M H2SO4?**

- **Step 1: Calculate [H+]**

- H2SO4 is a strong acid and dissociates completely in water:
\[ H_2SO_4 \rightarrow 2H^+ + SO_4^{2-} \]
- Therefore, the concentration of \( H^+ \) ions is \( 2 \times 0.2 \) M = 0.4 M.
- **Step 2: Calculate pH**
\[ \text{pH} = -\log[H^+] = -\log(0.4) \approx 0.40 \]
- **Step 3: Calculate pOH**
\[ \text{pOH} = 14 - \text{pH} = 14 - 0.40 = 13.60 \]
**2. Calculate the pH of 0.1 M KOH?**

- **Step 1: Calculate [OH-]**

- KOH is a strong base and dissociates completely in water:
\[ KOH \rightarrow K^+ + OH^- \]
- Therefore, the concentration of \( OH^- \) ions is 0.1 M.
- **Step 2: Calculate pOH**
\[ \text{pOH} = -\log[OH^-] = -\log(0.1) = 1 \]
- **Step 3: Calculate pH**
\[ \text{pH} = 14 - \text{pOH} = 14 - 1 = 13 \]

**3. Calculate the pOH of 0.004 M HNO3?**

- **Step 1: Calculate [H+]**

- HNO3 is a strong acid and dissociates completely in water:
\[ HNO_3 \rightarrow H^+ + NO_3^- \]
- Therefore, the concentration of \( H^+ \) ions is 0.004 M.
- **Step 2: Calculate pH**
\[ \text{pH} = -\log[H^+] = -\log(0.004) \approx 2.40 \]
- **Step 3: Calculate pOH**
\[ \text{pOH} = 14 - \text{pH} = 14 - 2.40 = 11.60 \]
 Chapter#7

**I. Define oxidation in terms of electrons. Give an example.**

- **Oxidation**: Oxidation is the loss of electrons from an atom or ion. For example, in the reaction:
\[ \text{Zn} \rightarrow \text{Zn}^{2+} + 2e^- \]
Zinc (Zn) loses two electrons and is oxidized to zinc ion (Zn²⁺).

**II. Define reduction in terms of loss or gain of oxygen or hydrogen. Give an example.**

- **Reduction**: Reduction is the gain of hydrogen or the loss of oxygen. For example, in the reaction:
\[ \text{CuO} + \text{H}_2 \rightarrow \text{Cu} + \text{H}_2\text{O} \]
Copper(II) oxide (CuO) loses oxygen and is reduced to copper (Cu).

**III. What is the difference between valency and oxidation state?**

- **Valency**: Valency is the combining power of an element, which is determined by the number of
electrons an atom can lose, gain, or share to achieve a stable electronic configuration.
- **Oxidation State**: Oxidation state is the charge an atom would have if all bonds to atoms of different
elements were completely ionic. It reflects the number of electrons lost or gained by an atom.

**IV. Differentiate between oxidizing and reducing agents.**

- **Oxidizing Agent**: A substance that accepts electrons and gets reduced in a chemical reaction. It causes
oxidation of another substance. Example: \( \text{O}_2 \) (oxygen gas).
- **Reducing Agent**: A substance that donates electrons and gets oxidized in a chemical reaction. It causes
reduction of another substance. Example: \( \text{H}_2 \) (hydrogen gas).

**V. Differentiate between strong and weak electrolytes.**

- **Strong Electrolytes**: Substances that completely dissociate into ions in solution, conducting electricity
well. Example: NaCl (sodium chloride).
- **Weak Electrolytes**: Substances that partially dissociate into ions in solution, conducting electricity
poorly. Example: CH₃COOH (acetic acid).

**VI. How is electroplating of tin on steel carried out?**

- **Electroplating of Tin on Steel**:

1. Clean the steel surface thoroughly.
2. Use an electrolyte solution containing tin ions, such as tin(II) sulfate.
3. Connect the steel object to the cathode (negative electrode) and a tin rod to the anode (positive
electrode).
4. Pass a direct current through the electrolyte, causing tin ions to deposit onto the steel surface.

**VII. Why is steel plated with nickel before the electroplating of chromium?**
- Steel is plated with nickel before chromium to:
1. Provide a smooth and uniform surface for the chromium layer.
2. Enhance corrosion resistance.
3. Improve adhesion of the chromium layer.

**VIII. How can you explain that the following reaction is oxidation in terms of an increase in oxidation
number?**

- In the reaction:
\[ \text{Fe}^{2+} \rightarrow \text{Fe}^{3+} + e^- \]
The oxidation number of iron increases from +2 to +3, indicating that iron has lost an electron and is oxidized.

**IX. How can you prove with an example that conversion of an ion to an atom is an oxidation process?**

- Conversion of an ion to an atom involves the loss of electrons, which is oxidation. For example:
\[ \text{Na}^+ + e^- \rightarrow \text{Na} \]
Here, the sodium ion (Na⁺) gains an electron to become a sodium atom (Na), showing a reduction.
Conversely, the reverse process (Na to Na⁺) involves oxidation:
\[ \text{Na} \rightarrow \text{Na}^+ + e^- \]

**X. Why does the anode carry a negative charge in a galvanic cell but a positive charge in an electrolytic cell?
Justify with comments.**

- **Galvanic Cell**: The anode is negative because it is the source of electrons (oxidation occurs here).
- **Electrolytic Cell**: The anode is positive because it is connected to the positive terminal of an external
power supply, attracting electrons from the anode material (oxidation occurs here).

**XI. Where do the electrons flow from the Zn electrode in Daniel's cell?**

- In a Daniel's cell, electrons flow from the zinc electrode (anode) to the copper electrode (cathode) through
an external circuit.

**XII. Why do electrodes get their names 'anode' and 'cathode' in a galvanic cell?**

- **Anode**: The electrode where oxidation occurs and electrons are released.
- **Cathode**: The electrode where reduction occurs and electrons are gained.

**XIII. What happens at the cathode in a galvanic cell?**

- In a galvanic cell, reduction takes place at the cathode. Electrons flow to the cathode where they reduce ions
in the solution.

**XIV. Which solution is used as an electrolyte in Nelson's cell?**

- The electrolyte used in Nelson's cell is brine (concentrated sodium chloride solution).
**XV. Name the by-products produced in Nelson's cell.**

- By-products of Nelson's cell include chlorine gas (Cl₂) and hydrogen gas (H₂).

**XVI. Discuss the construction and working of a cell in which electricity is produced.**

- **Construction of a Galvanic Cell**:

1. Two different metal electrodes (e.g., Zn and Cu) placed in solutions of their respective ions.
2. A salt bridge or porous disk to maintain electrical neutrality by allowing ion exchange.
3. External circuit connecting the electrodes.

- **Working**:
1. Oxidation occurs at the anode, releasing electrons.
2. Electrons flow through the external circuit to the cathode.
3. Reduction occurs at the cathode, consuming electrons.
4. Ion exchange through the salt bridge maintains charge balance.

**XVII. How can we prepare NaOH on a commercial scale? Discuss its chemistry along with the diagram.**

- **Preparation of NaOH (Chloralkali Process)**:

1. Electrolysis of brine (sodium chloride solution) in a diaphragm or membrane cell.
2. At the anode: \( 2Cl^- \rightarrow Cl_2 + 2e^- \) (chlorine gas produced)
3. At the cathode: \( 2H_2O + 2e^- \rightarrow H_2 + 2OH^- \) (hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions produced)
4. Na⁺ ions combine with OH⁻ ions to form NaOH.
- Diagram: Shows the cell with brine, electrodes, and collection of chlorine, hydrogen, and NaOH.

**XVIII. Describe the rules for assigning the oxidation state.**

1. The oxidation state of an atom in its elemental form is 0.

2. The oxidation state of a monoatomic ion is equal to its charge.
3. Hydrogen is +1 when bonded to non-metals and -1 when bonded to metals.
4. Oxygen is usually -2, except in peroxides (-1) and with fluorine (+2).
5. The sum of the oxidation states in a neutral molecule is 0, and in a polyatomic ion equals the ion’s charge.

**XIX. Find out the oxidation numbers of the underlined elements in the following compounds.**

(Need specific compounds to provide accurate oxidation numbers.)

**XX. How can a non-spontaneous reaction be carried out in an electrolytic cell? Discuss in detail.**

- **Non-Spontaneous Reactions in Electrolytic Cells**:

- Non-spontaneous reactions require external energy to proceed. In an electrolytic cell:
1. Apply an external voltage greater than the cell potential.
2. Electrons are forced to move from the positive terminal (anode) to the negative terminal (cathode).
3. Oxidation occurs at the anode, and reduction occurs at the cathode.
- Example: Electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases:
\[ 2H_2O \rightarrow 2H_2 + O_2 \ Requires an external power source to proceed.
 Chapter#8
I. Classify amides on the basis of substitutes.
- Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary amides.

- How do primary, secondary, and tertiary amides differ from each other?
- What are the common substitutes found in primary, secondary, and tertiary amides?

II. What is the general formula for amines?

- RNH₂, where R represents an alkyl or aryl group.

- What does the 'R' group represent in the general formula of amines?
- How does the structure of amines vary based on the 'R' group?

III. Write properties of amines.

- Weak bases, characteristic odor, can form salts with acids, undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions,
form hydrogen bonds, and exhibit varying solubility.

- How do the properties of amines contribute to their diverse applications?

- What role do hydrogen bonds play in the properties of amines?

IV. Write a few applications of amides.

- Pharmaceuticals, polymers, organic synthesis, and industrial applications.

- Can you provide examples of specific pharmaceuticals and polymers that contain amides?
- How are amides utilized in organic synthesis and industrial processes?

V. Write a note on Beckmann Rearrangement.

- A chemical reaction converting oximes to amides via rearrangement using acid catalysts under elevated
temperatures.

- How does Beckmann Rearrangement proceed at a molecular level?

- What are the key factors influencing the efficiency of Beckmann Rearrangement?

VI. Differentiate between amines and amides.

- Amines contain a nitrogen atom bonded to hydrogen and/or alkyl/aryl groups, while amides contain a
nitrogen atom bonded to a carbonyl carbon and an alkyl/aryl group.

- How do the structures of amines and amides affect their chemical properties?
- In what ways do amines and amides differ in their reactivity and applications?
 Chapter#9
i. Which elements are found in proteins?
- Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.

ii. How are amino acids bonded with each other?

- Amino acids are bonded together through peptide bonds.

iii. Give the general formula of amino acids.

- The general formula of amino acids is \( \text{NH}_2\text{CHRCOOH} \), where R represents a side chain.

iv. What do you mean by non-essential amino acids?

- Non-essential amino acids are those that the body can synthesize on its own.

v. Why are the ten amino acids essential for us?

- Essential amino acids are necessary for our health but cannot be synthesized by the body, so they must be
obtained through diet.

vi. How are proteins formed?

- Proteins are formed through the process of translation, where amino acids are joined together according to
the sequence of mRNA.

vii. How is gelatin obtained?

- Gelatin is obtained by the partial hydrolysis of collagen, typically from animal connective tissues like skin
and bones.

viii. Where are proteins found?

- Proteins are found in various sources such as meat, fish, dairy products, legumes, nuts, and seeds.
 Chapter#10
i. Define carbohydrates.
- Carbohydrates are organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with the general
formula \( \text{C}_n\text{H}_{2n}\text{O}_n \).

ii. Give the characteristics of disaccharides.

- Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond, soluble in water, and
often sweet-tasting.

iii. Give the balanced equation for the formation of glucose.

- \( \text{6CO}_2 + \text{6H}_2\text{O} + \text{light energy} \rightarrow \text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 +
\text{6O}_2 \)

iv. Draw the structure of glucose.

- [Picture of glucose structure]

v. Give the balanced equation for the hydrolysis of sucrose.

- \( \text{C}_{12}\text{H}_{22}\text{O}_{11} + \text{H}_2\text{O} \rightarrow
\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + \text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 \) (glucose + fructose)

vi. How do plants synthesize carbohydrates?

- Plants synthesize carbohydrates through photosynthesis, converting carbon dioxide and water into glucose
using sunlight and chlorophyll.

vii. Give the characteristics of monosaccharides.

- Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit, soluble in water,
and sweet-tasting.

viii. What is the difference between glucose and fructose?

- Glucose and fructose are both monosaccharides, but they differ in their chemical structures and sweetness.
Glucose has a linear structure, while fructose has a ring structure. Fructose is sweeter than glucose.

ix. Give an example of a disaccharide. How is it hydrolyzed into monosaccharides?

- An example of a disaccharide is sucrose, which is hydrolyzed into its component monosaccharides, glucose,
and fructose.

x. Give the characteristics of polysaccharides.

- Polysaccharides are composed of many monosaccharide units, insoluble in water, and serve as energy
storage molecules or structural components in organisms.

xi. Describe the uses of carbohydrates.

- Carbohydrates are used by organisms as a primary source of energy, for structural support, and as a form
of energy storage.

xii. Lactose is a disaccharide; which monosaccharide’s are present in it?

- Lactose consists of the monosaccharide’s glucose and galactose.

Chapter#11
i. What is the difference between ghee and oil?
- Ghee is clarified butter with milk solids removed, while oil is a liquid fat derived from plants or animals.

ii. Give the characteristics of fats.

- Fats are lipids that are solid at room temperature, insoluble in water, and provide a concentrated source of
energy.

iii. Give the sources and uses of animal fats.

- Animal fats are sourced from animals like cows, pigs, and poultry and are used in cooking, food processing,
and manufacturing various products like soap and candles.

iv. Plants are a source of oils, justify. Write questions as well.

- Plants are a source of oils because they contain oil-rich seeds, nuts, fruits, and grains. These oils are
extracted through processes like pressing or solvent extraction. Plants store energy in the form of oils for seed
germination and provide essential fatty acids for human nutrition.

- Why are plants considered a significant source of oils?

- How are oils extracted from plants?
- What are the main uses of plant oils in various industries?

NOTE: IN MAIN JO QUESTIONS EQUATIONS K RELATED HAIN WO

KHUD SAMAJ K KRLIJIY GA…

ILTAMAAS-E-DUA