Core Ch 6 Nutrition in humans

6.1 Ingestion
-Mastication: the process of chewing food into small pieces
-Benefits of chewing:
-allow a large surface area for the digestive enzymes to act on
-chew the food down to smaller pieces for easy swallowing

6.1.1 Types of teeth

Types of tooth Incisor Canine Premolar Molar
* chisel-shaped * pointed and * broad top * broad top
with flat curved with cusps with cusps,
Shape sharp edges * has 1 root * has 1 or 2 larger than
* has 1 root roots premolar
* has 2 or 3
roots
Function Biting and Tearing flesh Crushing and Crushing and
cutting food grinding food grinding food

6.1.2 Dentition formula

-Definition of dentition formula: the numbers and types of teeth on each side of
the upper and lower jaws
-Dental formula of adults: 2123, 2123
-Dental formula of milk dentition: 2102, 2102 (no premolar)

6.1.3 Comparison of dentition between carnivores and herbivores

Carnivores:
-well-developed canines
-two pairs of carnassials teeth (large molars with sharp and pointed edges)

Herbivores:
-no canines
-contain diastema for holding plant materials for the molars to grind (store
vegetation)
6.1.4 Structure of a tooth
(1) Enamel
-the outermost, hardest part of the crown
-non-living and is made mainly of calcium salts (calcium phosphate)
-protects the tooth from wearing down as a result of chewing

(2) Dentine
-bone-like substance, but not as hard as enamel
-contains strands of living cytoplasm

(3) Pulp cavity

-contains living cells (for making dentine)
-contains blood vessels (supply oxygen and nutrients to the tooth, and
remove waste from it)
-contains nerve fibres (detect temp and pressure)

6.1.5 Dental diseases

How does tooth decay develop??
-bacteria break down the food debris on tooth surface into acids
-acids dissolve the enamelmake holes on the tooth

How does periodontal disease develop??

-bacteria in the plaque produce toxinsinflammation of the gums (red, swollen,
bleed easily)
-toxins then start to break down the cement, periodontal membranes and the
jawboneteeth become loose and fall out

6.1.6 Dental care

-Regular dental check
-Brush your teeth twice every day
-Use fluoride toothpaste
-Use toothpaste with grinding particles for removing plaque on tooth surface
-Avoid taking acidic food or drink (they may dissolve the enamel)
-Avoid chewing hard food
6.2 Digestion
1. Physical digestion
-increases the surface area of food in contact with the digestive juices
-does not change the chemical structure of the food
-Examples:
(i) chewing in the mouth cavity (mastication)
(ii)churning in the stomach
(iii)peristalsis along the alimentary canal
(iv)emulsification of lipids by bile salts in the small intestine

2. Chemical digestion
-break down large, complex food molecules into small, simpler molecules
-changes the chemical structure of the food
-Examples:
(i) protease catalyses the breakdown of proteins into polypeptides, peptides
and amino acids
(ii)lipase catalyses the breakdown of lipids into glycerol and fatty acids
(iii)carbohydrase catalyses the breakdown of complex carbohydrates into
simple sugars

6.2.1 Digestion in the mouth cavity

Digestive juice: saliva (secreted by salivary glands) (pH is slightly
alkalineprovides an optimum pH for the action of salivary amylase)

What does saliva contain?

-salivary amylase: catalyses the breakdown of starch into maltose
-mucus: helps bind food particles together
moistens and lubricates the foodmake the food easier to be swallowed
-water: dissolves soluble substances in food

During swallowing:
1. tongue rises to push the bolus towards the pharynx
2. soft palate moves up to prevent the bolus from entering the nasal cavity
3. larynx risesepiglottis covers the opening to tracheaprevents the
bolus from entering the trachea
4. the bolus enters the oesophagus
6.2.2 Peristalsis along the oesophagus
Definition of peristalsis: produced by the alternate contraction and relaxation of
the longitudinal muscles(外) and circular muscles (內)

***Functions of peristalsis:
-pushes food along the oesophagus and other parts of the alimentary canal
-helps mix the food with the digestive juices
-increases the contact between the wall of the alimentary canal and digested food
to facilitate absorption (along the small intestine)

Behind the bolus:

1. Circular muscles contract, while longitudinal muscles relax
2. lumen becomes smaller
3. food is squeezed forward

In front of the bolus:

1. Circular muscles relax, while longitudinal muscles contract
2. food slides through the lumen

6.2.3 Digestion in the stomach

Contraction of cardiac sphincter (上) prevents food from flowing back into the
oesophagus
Pyloric sphincter (下) controls the release of food into the duodenum

Digestive juice: gastric juice (secreted by the gastric gland) (pH: very
acidicprovides an optimum pH for the action of pepsin)

What does gastric juice contain?

-pepsin: catalyses the breakdown of proteins into peptides
-hydrochloric acid: provides an acidic medium for the action of pepsin
kills most bacteria in food (bacteria can’t resist the acidity)
-mucus: protects the stomach wall from being digested by the pepsin (tissues of
stomach wall are proteins) and being damaged by hydrochloric acid

churning in stomach: physical digestion, turns the bolus into chime (a creamy
liquid)
6.2.4 Digestion in the small intestine
First secretion: bile (produced by the liver) (slightly alkaline)
temporarily stored in the gall bladderreleased through the
bile duct into the duodenum

What does bile contain?

-no digestive enzymes!!!! (no chemical digestion)
-bile salts: emulsify lipids into small droplets (physical digestion)facilitates
the chemical digestion by increasing the surface area of lipids for
lipase to act on
-bile pigments: formed from the breakdown of haemoglobin from RBC, waste
products
Haemoglobin

protein iron

bile pigment recycle

bone marrow

-sodium hydrogencarbonate: alkalineneutralizes the acidic chyme, provides an

optimum pH for the action of enzymes in the small
intestine

Second secretion: pancreatic juice (produced by the pancreas) (slightly

alkaline)
carried along the pancreatic duct to the duodenum

What does pancreatic juice contain?

-pancreatic amylase: catalyses the breakdown of the remaining starch into
maltose
-proteases: catalyse the breakdown of some proteins into peptides, and some
peptides into amino acids
-pancreatic lipase: catalyses the breakdown of emulsified lipids into fatty acids
and glycerol
-sodium hydrogencarbonate: alkalineneutralizes the acidic chyme and
provides an optimum pH for the action of enzymes in the small intestine
Third secretion: intestinal juice (produced by some glands in the wall of small
intestine) (slightly alkaline)

What does intestinal juice contain?

-water: dissolves soluble substances in food
-mucus: protect the wall of duodenum from damage
-sodium hydrogencarbonate: alkaline provides an optimum pH for the action
of enzymes

*some enzymes are present on the cell membrane of epithelial cells of the small
intestine
-carbohydrases(maltase, sucrose): catalyse the breakdown of disaccharides into
monosaccharides
-proteases: catalyse the breakdown of peptides into amino acids

digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids is completed in the small

intestine
6.3.1 Adaptations of small intestine for absorption
Adaptation
-very long
-inner wall highly folded
and there are many
finger-like
projections(villi)
-numerous microvilli on
the epithelial cells of villi
-thin epithelium
-presence of network of
capillaries
-peristalsis along the
small intestine
Significance
Increase the surface
area for absorption
Reduces the distance
for diffusion of food
molecules into the
bloodincreases the
diffusion rate
Allow the absorbed
food molecules to be
carried away by blood
rapidlykeep a steep
concentration
gradient of food
molecules across the
wall of small
intestineincrease
the rate of diffusion of
food molecules
Bring newly digested
food molecules into
close contact with
villi for
absorptionkeep a
steep concentration
gradient of food
molecules across the
wall of small
intestineincrease
the rate of diffusion of
food molecules
6.3.2 Absorption of food into the blood
-water-soluble food molecules (monosaccharides, amino acids, minerals
and water-soluble vitamins—vitamin C) can be absorbed into the capillaries by
diffusion and active transport
-absorption of digested food into the bloodwater potential of the content in the
small intestine increases(higher than that of the blood)water is drawn into
blood by osmosis

6.3.3 Absorption of food into the lymph

1. fatty acids and glycerol enter the epithelium of the villi (differentially
permeable) by diffusion
2. fatty acids and glycerol recombine into fine lipid droplets in the epithelial cells
3. fine lipid droplets, lipid-soluble vitamins—vitamin A and D enter the lymph in
the lacteals of the lymphatic system
4. lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins in the lacteals are transported to the main
lymph vesselsbloodstream near the neck regionheartall parts of body

6.3.4 Absorption of substances in the large intestine

-much of the remaining water in the undigested & unabsorbed materials is
absorbed through the wall of colon into the blood
-some minerals and vitamins are also absorbed

6.4.1 Blood flow of absorbed food

For water-soluble food molecules:
capillaries of villushepatic portal veinliverhepatic veinvena cavaheart
aortaall parts of the body

For lipids & lipid-soluble vitamins:

lacteals of villuslymph vesselsvena cavaheartaortaall parts of the
body

6.4.2 Fates of absorbed food

1. Glucose
-used by body cells for releasing energy by respiration
-excess glucose is converted to glycogen(stored in the liver & muscles) and
lipids (stored under the skin as subcutaneous fat/around the internal organs
as a shock absorber)
2. Amino acids
-used by cells to make structural proteins for growth and repair
-as the raw materials for making functional proteins (enzymes, hormones,
antibodies)
-excess amino acidsdeaminated in the liver (high conc of amino acidaffect
the body’s pH, become acidicaffect metabolism)

3. Lipids
-used by cells to make cell membrane & some hormones
-energy reserves in our body
-excess lipidsdeposited around the internal organs(act as a shock
absorber)/build up in adipose tissue under the skin(act as a heat insulator)

6.4.3 Roles of the liver

1. Regulation of blood glucose level
-After meal:
blood glucose level risesliver converts excess glucose to glycogen(stored in
liver)
-Between meals:
blood glucose level drops (glucose is continuously used by cells to release
energy by respiration)liver converts the stored glycogen into glucose,
which is then released into the blood

2. Storage of glycogen, iron(used for making new RBC) and lipid-soluble

vitamins

3. Production of bile and vitamin A (carotene is changed into vitamin A in

liver)

4. Deamination
-excess amino acids are broken down in the liver
-amino groupsremoved and converted to urea
-remaining parts are converted to carbohydrates/lipids (used in respiration
to release energy)

5. Detoxification
-liver cells contain enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of mild toxic
substances (e.g. alcohol & drugs) into harmless substances
 Question bank

1. Describe how liver helps the digestion of food. {CE 08 Q1a}

-Liver produces bile (1)

-which is released into the duodenum (1)
-to help the digestion of fat/to emulsify fat (1)
-to provide an alkaline medium for enzymes to work (1)

2. Suggest why coagulation of milk protein can facilitate stomach’s digestion.

{CE 02 Q4c}

-coagulated milk protein, being in semi-solid form, can be retained in the

stomach for a longer period of time (1)
-for the protease to digest it (1)

3. Explain how the process of digestion would be affected if a person lost a lot of
molars. {CE 01 Q1c}

-food cannot be ground or crushed into small pieces/there would be less

mechanical digestion (1)
-the surface area for the action of digestive enzymes would not be large
enough (1)
-it would take longer time for the food to be broken down into simple soluble
forms (1)

4. Both the air sacs and the villus are richly supplied with blood capillaries.
State 2 reasons to explain how this feature can speed up the absorption of
substances. {CE 94 Q3(a)}

-With a rich supply of blood capillaries, substances absorbed can be

transported away rapidly (1)
-so as to maintain a steep concentration gradient across the wall of air
sac/villus (1)
-The capillary network also provides a large surface area (1)
-to increase the rate of diffusion of substances (1)
5. Explain why whole milk has a lower GI value than fat-free milk. {CE 07 Q9(b)}

-Whole milk has more fat than fat-free milk (1)

-presence of fat slow down the digestion of carbohydrates (1)
-and hence a slower rate of absorption of glucose (1)

6. Suggest 3 importance precautions when performing experiment involving

dialysis tubing to reduce experimental error. {CE 94 Q1(a)}

-Tie the knot of dialysis tubing tightly (1)

-Examine carefully the dialysis tubing for any damage (1)
-Rinse the outside of dialysis tubing with distilled water before immersing
into the water (1)

7. Suggest why the faeces produced by patients whose pancreatic duct is

blocked have a high fat content. {CE 03 Q2(c)}

-pancreas produces pancreatic juice, which contains pancreatic lipase (1)

-due to the blockage of pancreatic duct, pancreatic lipase cannot reach the
duodenum (1)
-thus fat in the food cannot be digested (1)
and is egested in the faeces

8. In patients whose pancreatic duct is blocked, their tissues of the pancreas

may get digested. Why? {CE 03 Q2(c)}

-due to the blockage of pancreatic duct, digestive enzymes accumulate in the

pancreas (1)
-the protease accumulated digests the tissue of the pancreas/the lipase
accumulated digest the cell membrane of pancreatic tissue cells (1)

9. Explain the importance of the churning action of the stomach in the digestion
of food. {CE 05 Q3(e)}

-churning action of the stomach will break down food into smaller pieces (1)
-this helps to increase the surface area of food for the action of enzymes (1)
-it also helps to mix the food with the digestive enzymes (1)
10. Gall bladder is removed from a patient by surgical operation. Explain why this
patient cannot digest fatty food properly after the operation.

-bile produced in the liver can no longer be stored in gall bladder (1)
-when food enters the duodenum (1)
-insufficient amount of bile is released to emulsify fats in the food (1)
-hence, the surface area for the action of lipase decreases (1)
and cannot digest fatty food properly

11. Suggest why the backflow of gastric juice is more likely to occur if a person
has a meal just before sleeping. {CE 07 Q6(b)}

-after meal, the release of gastric juice increases (1)

-pressure inside the stomach increases (1)
-also, the stomach and oesophagus are at the same level while sleeping (1)
thus increase the chance of gastric reflux.

Food & Nutrition (★★★+)

1. General functions of human digestive system
(a) Digestion of fats (the role of liver & gall bladder, effect of blockage of bile
duct/pancreatic duct on the digestion of fats) {DSE 12 P1-10, AL 12 P1-10,
CE 99-2(b), CE 03-2(c)}
(b) A flow chart to show the flow of absorbed food from small intestine to
heart/ Flowchart to show the route of transport of a fat soluble compound
{CE 04-1(a), AL 04 PIIA-1(c), AL 05 PIA-6, AL 07 PIIA-1(a)}
(c) The role of stomach in digestion; gastric ulcer; gastric reflux
{CE 05-3, CE 07-6}
(d) Digestion of proteins
(e) Role of liver in Deamination

2. Food requirements
(a) The concept of balance diet {CE 06-5, CE 07-9(b)}
-total energy intake＞＞total energy output ->> obesity/gain weight
-total energy intake＜＜total energy output ->> lose weight
(b) Energy value of different types of food/Carbohydrates as an immediate
source of energy {AL 02 PIIA-3(a)(I), AL 10 PIIB-5(c)}
(c) General functions of different types of food {DSE 14 P1-11}
(d) Long term health problem brought about by excessive intake of fat, sugar
or sodium in food {AL 99 PIIC-9}
(e) Food test {Benedict’s test, DCPIP test, Ph test for the presence of fatty
acids}
(f) Calorimeter

3. Structural adaptations of villus/small intestine to the absorption of food {DSE

13 P1-3}
4. (a) The role of teeth in mechanical digestion {CE 01-1(c)}
(b) Dentition of carnivores vs herbivores {AL 04 PIA-3, AL 08 PIA-5}
(c) Dietary requirement for keeping tooth healthy
(d) The cause & prevention of tooth decay