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176 Record: The note-taking process flows 209 Cooperative learning: Studying in groups
181 Review: The note-taking process flows 211 What to do during the test
182 Practicing Critical Thinking 17: Reflect 212 Words to watch for in essay questions
on your review habits
215 The high costs of cheating
184 Turn PowerPoints into powerful notes
215 Perils of high-tech cheating
185 When your instructor talks quickly
216 Let go of test anxiety
186 Practicing Critical Thinking 18: Taking
217 Have some FUN!
notes under pressure
218 Getting ready for math tests
187 Taking notes while reading
222 Practicing Critical Thinking 19: Use
188 Note this information about your sources
learning styles for math success
190 Visualize ideas with concept maps
222 Studying across the curriculum
192 Taking effective notes for online
224 The test isn’t over until . . .
coursework
225 F is for Feedback
195 Taking notes during meetings
226 Celebrate mistakes
196 Note taking 2.0
227 Notable failures
198 Master Student Profile: Teresa Amabile
227 Practicing Critical Thinking 20:
199 Quiz Chapter 5
20 things I like to do
200 Skills Snapshot Chapter 5
228 Master Student Profile: Lalita Booth

chapter 6 229
230
Quiz Chapter 6
Skills Snapshot Chapter 6
Tests
chapter 7
202 Power Process: Detach
Thinking
203 Think beyond the grade
204 What to do before the test
232 Power Process: Embrace the new
205 How to cram (even though you “shouldn’t”)
233 Critical thinking: A survival skill
206 Journal Entry 13: Explore your feelings
235 Six kinds of thinking
about tests
238 A process for critical thinking
207 Ways to predict test questions
241 Practicing Critical Thinking 21:
208 Journal Entry 14: Notice your excuses
Critical thinking scenarios
and let them go

vii

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 243 Finding “aha!”: Creativity fuels critical
thinking
chapter 8
243 Tangram Communicating
244 Journal Entry 15: Use divergent
thinking to brainstorm goals 272 Power Process: Employ your word
245 Ways to create ideas 273 Communication: Keeping the channels
246 Journal Entry 16: Use convergent open
thinking to plan habits 273 Practicing Critical Thinking 24:
247 Create on your feet Practice sending or receiving

249 Practicing Critical Thinking 22: 274 Choosing to listen

Explore emotional reactions 277 Five ways to say “I”
250 Attitudes, affirmations, and 278 Choosing to speak
visualizations
280 Practicing Critical Thinking 25: Write
251 Practicing Critical Thinking 23: an “I” message
Reprogram your attitude
281 Journal Entry 17: Discover
251 Simple attitude replacements communication styles
252 Don’t fool yourself: 15 common 282 Developing emotional intelligence
mistakes in logic
283 Communicating in teams: Getting
254 Cognitive biases: More ways we fool things done as a group
ourselves
285 Using technology to collaborate
256 Think critically about information on
the Internet 287 Managing conflict

257 Gaining skill at decision making 289 Journal Entry 18: Recreate a relationship

258 Four ways to solve problems 290 Five ways to say no . . . respectfully

260 Asking questions: Learning through 291 Practicing Critical Thinking 26: VIPs
inquiry (very important persons)

261 15 questions to try on for size 292 Five steps to effective complaints

263 Thinking about your major 292 Criticism is constructive

265 Service-learning: Turn thinking into 293 Communicating with instructors

contribution 294 Communicating respect for your instructors
268 Master Student Profile: Irshad Manji 295 Diversity is real—and valuable
269 Quiz Chapter 7 297 Communicating across cultures
270 Skills Snapshot Chapter 7 299 Students with disabilities: Ask for what
you want

viii

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300 You deserve compliments 335 Practicing Critical Thinking 29: Show
me the money
301 Practicing Critical Thinking 27:
Becoming a culture learner 336 Managing money during tough times
302 Communicating as a first-generation 338 Take charge of your credit
student
340 Common credit terms
303 Staying safe on social networks
342 Journal Entry 21: Create a new
306 Three phases of effective writing experience of money
307 Writing for online readers 342 If you get into trouble . . .
308 Befriend your word processor 343 Education pays off—and you can pay
for it
311 Academic integrity: Avoid plagiarism
344 Practicing Critical Thinking 30:
313 Mastering public speaking
Education by the hour
317 Making the grade in group presentations
345 Money for the future
318 Master Student Profile: Chimamanda
346 Practicing Critical Thinking 31: Plan
Adichie
to pay for your degree
319 Quiz Chapter 8
349 Use tools to tame your money
320 Skills Snapshot Chapter 8
351 Your money and your values

chapter 9 352
353
Master Student Profile: Leo Babauta
Quiz Chapter 9
Money 354 Skills Snapshot Chapter 9

322 Power Process: Risk being a fool chapter 10

323 The end of money worries
Next Steps
324 Practicing Critical Thinking 28: The
Money Monitor/Money Plan
356 Power Process: Persist
325 Journal Entry 19: Reflect on your
experience of money 357 Jump-start your education with
transferable skills
329 Make more money
359 Practicing Critical Thinking 32:
330 Journal Entry 20: Reflect on your
Recognize your skills
Money Monitor/Money Plan
360 65 transferrable skills
332 No budgeting required
363 Practicing Critical Thinking 33: Plan
333 Spend less money
to develop a new skill
334 Free fun
364 Taking the road to graduation

ix

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 365 Practicing Critical Thinking 34: Make 388 The Discovery Wheel: Coming full circle
a trial choice of a major
392 Skills Snapshot: Revisiting your
367 Transferring to a new school Discovery Wheels
369 Start creating your career 393 Journal Entry 23: Celebrate your gains,
clarify your intentions
370 Journal Entry 22: Plan a career by
naming names 394 Practicing Critical Thinking 38: Are
you getting there?
371 Another option: Don’t plan your career
396 Master Student Profile: Ben Barry
372 Start creating your résumé
397 Quiz Chapter 10
373 Discover the hidden job market
398 Skills Snapshot Chapter 10
376 Develop interviewing skills
377 Practicing Critical Thinking 35: Plan
to explore your career
378 Join a diverse workplace 399 The Master Guide to Becoming a
Master Student
380 Put your health to work
402 Endnotes
381 Persist on the path of mastery
405 Additional Reading
384 Practicing Critical Thinking 36: Plan
to persist with an academic plan 407 Index
386 Tools for lifelong learning
387 Practicing Critical Thinking 37: This
book shouts, “Use me!”

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Preface
Children are great students. They quickly master complex
skills like language, and they have fun doing it. For young
children, learning is a high-energy process that involves
experimentation, discovery, and sometimes broken dishes.
Then comes school. Drill and drudgery can replace
discovery and dish breaking. Learning may become a drag.
Use this book to reverse that process. Rediscover
what you knew as a child—that joy and learning go hand
in hand. Becoming a master student is about gaining
knowledge and skills by unleashing the natural learner
within you.
This book is full of suggestions for doing that. Every
chapter is packed with tips, techniques, methods, tools, and
processes for you to play with.
Sometimes people feel overwhelmed by this fact. “There
are more ideas in here than I could ever use this term—or
even during the rest of my education,” they say.
Exactly. That’s the whole point. And there are several
reasons for this.
One is that Becoming a Master Student is designed for
long-term use. You’ll find enough ideas to play with for years
beyond graduation—for the rest of your life, in fact.
There are also many suggestions here because some of
them may work well for you and others might not. Consider
note-taking methods, for example. Some students rave about
mind mapping—a visual way of recording ideas. Other stu-
dents find mind mapping too messy and swear by traditional
outlines instead. This book offers detailed instructions for
both methods—and many more. Feel free to play with all of
Acknowledgments
Jose Adames, Central Texas College
Deb Butler, Victoria College
Dale Haralson, Hinds Community College
Judy Isonhood, Hinds Community College
Wendy Jansen, Killian Community College
Kami Kurtenbach, South Dakota State University
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
them, combine them, modify them, and invent new methods
of your own.
That’s the biggest reason for the density of ideas in this
book. Underlying every paragraph and every page is an
invitation to actively experiment with the content. Find out
what truly works for you.
People who excel in any field are experimenters. They’re
willing to consider many options—even the ones that
sound crazy at first. When faced with a new idea, their first
reaction is not to say: That will never work. Instead, they ask:
How might that work? Then they take action to find out.
It took hundreds of people to produce Becoming a Master
Student. Besides the author, there were editors, designers,
proofreaders, and advisors. Beyond them were hundreds of
educators and students who contributed everything from a
single comment to the inspiration for entire chapters.
The true author of this book, however, is you. Your
responses to any suggestion can lead you to think new
thoughts, say new things, and do what you never believed
you could do. If you’re willing to experiment with new ways
of learning, the possibilities are endless. This process is more
fundamental and more powerful than any individual tool or
technique you’ll ever read about.
Consider the possibility that you can create the life of
your dreams. There are people who scoff at this idea, and
they have a perspective that is widely shared. Please set it
aside. The process of experimenting with your life is sheer
joy, and it never ends.
Begin now.
Krista LeBrun, East Central Community College
Stacey Macchi, Western Illinois University
Jenny Middleton, Seminole State College of Florida
LeAnne Olson, Mountwest Community and Technical College
Jennifer Perkins, Central Piedmont Community College
Jason Walker, Salem International University
xi
What’s New
to this Edition

The foundations and themes for student success

in Becoming a Master Student have been used by
millions of students. Since the first edition, students
and instructors have helped shape this book by
providing strategies, insights, and suggestions. As
a result of its continuous evaluation and refinement,
students are inspired and motivated by this book
to adopt, develop, and commit to using the skills needed for success
in college and throughout life. These ideas are now a part of the 16th edition. Every word in
every article has been evaluated for its helpfulness to students. Statistics have been updated;
recent research has been included; and articles have been shortened or lengthened as
necessary to maximize clarity of concepts and strategies. Here are some of the major
changes you will see in this edition.

Key Updates
●● Becoming a Master Student has a new chapter structure
based on extensive feedback from instructors about how
they actually use the text. Core content from the Diversity
and Health chapters in the Fifteenth Edition are now
integrated throughout the text. The remaining chapters—
those that instructors and students use most often—are
expanded.
●● Master Student Profiles now emphasize specific strategies
that people use to overcome obstacles and achieve their
goals.
●● Exercises throughout the text focus on critical thinking
and have new titles to reflect this change. Many of the
new Practicing Critical Thinking exercises are worksheets
with step-by-step instructions. These guide students to
move to higher levels of thinking in Bloom’s taxonomy of
educational objectives.
●● Chapter quizzes also focus on higher levels of thinking
and direct students to more of the core concepts in
the text.
●● The Master Student Map at the beginning of each chapter
now includes “Do you have a minute?”—actions that students
can take in 60 seconds or less to move toward mastery.
Chapter-by-Chapter Updates
Introduction: The Master Student
●● New focus on mastery Mastery and qualities of a master
student are the centerpiece of this revised chapter. Articles
and interactives about motivation and habit change
support the master student process—the continuous cycle
of discovery, intention, and action.
●● Revised article “Ways to change a habit” offers more
strategies for behavior change.
●● New exercise “Practicing Critical Thinking: Plan to change
a habit” guides students to specify a cue, new behavior, and
reward for a habit that they want to adopt.
●● New sidebar “Do you have a minute?” gives more examples
of “baby steps” that students can take to make meaningful
progress toward their goals.
●● Revised journal entry “Commitment” is expanded.

xii

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Chapter 1: Discovering Yourself
●● Revised Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) Students can
now complete this assessment without having to remove
pages from the book.
●● Revised article “Learning through your senses: The VARK
system” describes the Read–Write style in more detail and
offers related strategies.
●● New master student profile Joshua Williams dem-
onstrated the courage to take a First Step and tell the
truth about being homeless as student. He persisted to
graduation, founded a scholarship that helps students pay
for textbooks, worked as a case manager for delinquent
teenagers, and entered graduate school.
Chapter 2: Time
●● New articles “Making the transition to higher education”
and “Making time for school as an adult learner” focus on
time management as a key to balancing education with
work and family commitments. “Making time for health”
suggests ways for students to exercise, rest, eat well, and
manage stress in the midst of their busy lives.
●● New exercises Students can use “Practicing Critical
Thinking: Take a first step about health” to assess their
health-related habits and plan changes in these behaviors.
“Practicing Critical Thinking: Create your to-do list” is a
worksheet that guides students to apply strategies from
“The ABC daily to-do list.”
●● New master student profile Ramit Sethi wrote the book
I Will Teach You To Be Rich and created an online community
“focused on personal finance and entrepreneurship for
college students, recent college grads, and everyone else.”
Chapter 3: Memory
●● Revised article “Mnemonic devices” offers additional
suggestions for using these popular memory techniques.
●● New sidebar “Making connections in memory-friendly
ways” reveals the mnemonic devices that are baked into
Becoming a Master Student and suggests ways for students
to use similar strategies.
●● New master student profile Maria Popova grew Brain
Pickings from a weekly email newsletter to one of the
world’s most visited websites, demonstrating how a side
project can bloom into a career.
Chapter 4: Reading
●● New articles “Muscle reading at work” suggests ways to
use the three phases of Muscle Reading to extract meaning
from documents of all types, including reports, emails,
training materials, and websites. “Checklist: Review these
common word parts” defines word prefixes, roots, and
suffixes that are useful for students to know. “Beyond speed
reading: Becoming a flexible reader” guides students to
think critically about claims for speed reading techniques
and offers research-based strategies as alternatives.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
●● New exercise “Practicing Critical Thinking: Plan to
complete your reading assignments” is a worksheet based
on “Getting past roadblocks to reading,” with detailed
guidance for estimating and scheduling reading time.
Chapter 5: Notes
●● Revised article “Visualize ideas with concept maps” is
expanded with an additional example.
Chapter 7: Thinking
●● New articles “Six kinds of thinking” presents Bloom’s
taxonomy of educational objectives—the theoretical basis
of this chapter—with examples of each level of thinking.
“Attitudes, affirmations and visualizations” suggests cre-
ative ways for students to change attitudes and behaviors.
●● New exercise “Practicing Critical Thinking: Reprogram your
attitude” guides students to create their own affirmations.
●● New sidebars “Simple attitude replacements” offers
examples of effective affirmations. “Cognitive biases: More
ways we fool ourselves” expands on “Don’t fool yourself:
15 common mistakes in logic” with additional examples of
errors in reasoning.
Chapter 8: Communicating
●● New articles “Communicating with instructors” sug-
gests ways for students to develop positive, long-term
relationships with teachers. “Communicating respect in
the classroom” emphasizes the benefits civility for both
students and instructors. “Communicating respect at work”
offers strategies for develop a work ethic that employers
value. “Communicating across cultures” explains the
concept of cultural competence and includes strategies for
thriving with diversity. “Communicating as a first-generation
student” guides students who are new to higher education
to build alliances with instructors and maintain positive
relationships with family members. In addition, “Diversity
is real and valuable” encourages students to use higher
education as a laboratory for learning to bridge culture gaps.
●● Revised article “Choosing to listen” is expanded with
additional techniques.
●● New exercise “Practicing Critical Thinking: Becoming a
culture learner” guides students to question their assump-
tions about members of other cultures, interpret their
observations in alternative ways, and choose new behaviors
to thrive with diversity.
Chapter 9: Money
●● New article “Money for the future” suggests ways for
students to make decisions about saving, investing, insur-
ance, home ownership, car shopping, and signing contracts.
●● New exercises “Practicing Critical Thinking: Plan to pay for
your degree” guides students to predict their income and
expenses for each school term and prevent financial issues
that might disrupt their education.
xiii
●● New journal entry “Reflect on your experience of money”
asks students to state their current financial concerns and
preview the chapter for potential solutions.
Chapter 10: Next Steps
●● New articles “Join a diverse workplace” suggests how
students can become master employees who enter the
global marketplace with ease. “Put your health to work”
underlines the connection between wellness and success in
the workplace.
●● New exercises Look for four new worksheets in this
chapter. “Practicing Critical Thinking: Plan to develop a new
skill” guides students to apply strategies from “Jump-start
your education with transferable skills.” “Practicing Critical
Thinking: Plan to explore your career” prompts students to
test their career choices through internships, employment,
and other experiences. “Practicing Critical Thinking: Plan
to persist with an academic plan” allows students to track
their academic progress each term and ensure that they’re
on track to graduate. And “Practicing Critical Thinking: Are
you getting there?” suggests that students revisit their
long-term goals to assess how their daily activities align
with those goals.
●● New master student profile Ben Barry worked for
Facebook as one of the company’s first communication
designers and now heads his own design studio in San
Francisco. He demonstrates strategies for staying focused
in the midst of everyday distractions.

Embracing

Technology
MindTap® College Success for Becoming a Master Student
combines tools like readings, videos, flashcards, quizzes, and
digital activities to help guide students through their course
and transform into master students.

The College Success Factors Index (CSFI) is a personal suc-

cess indicator that helps students identify their strengths and
areas for growth in 10 key factors identified by researchers
to affect college success. The CSFI now kicks off MindTap®
College Success for Becoming a Master Student!

For Instructors
Visit the Instructor Companion Site for additional resources
and course support to support your teaching with Becoming
a Master Student. This site includes an Instructor’s Manual,
test banks, sample syllabi, and more. To access the Instructor
Companion Site, visit login.cengage.com.
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xiv

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&
Discovery
Intention
Statement
guidelines

Discovery Statements Intention Statements

uu Record the specifics about your thoughts, feelings, uu Make intentions positive.
and behavior.
uu Focus on what you want rather than what you don’t want.
uu Notice your thoughts, observe your actions, and
record them accurately. uu Make intentions observable.
uu Use discomfort as a signal. uu Be specific about your intentions.
uu Feeling uncomfortable, bored, or tired might be a uu Make intentions small and achievable.
signal that you’re about to do valuable work.
uu Break large goals into small, specific tasks that can be
uu Suspend judgment. accomplished quickly.

uu When you are discovering yourself, be gentle. uu Set timelines.

uu Tell the truth. uu Set a precise due date for tasks you intend to do.
uu The closer you get to the truth, the more powerful uu Move from intention to action.
your Discovery Statements.
If you want new results in your life, then take action.

xv

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Introduction

The Master
© wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock.com
Student
why what is included . . .
You can ease your   2 Power Process: Discover what you want
transition to higher
education and set up a
  3 Rewrite this book
lifelong pattern of success
by starting with some key
strategies.
  4 Master student qualities

  8 The master student process—Discovery

  9 The master student process—Intention

how
11 The master student process—Action
Take a few minutes to
skim this chapter. Find
12 Keep the process alive
three suggestions that
look especially useful.
Make a note to yourself,
13 Get the most from this book
or mark the pages where
the strategies that you 15 Motivation—I’m just not in the mood
intend to use are located
in the chapter. 17 Ways to change a habit

what if... do you have a minute?

I could use the ideas Take a minute to make a list of anything about your life that’s nagging at you as
in this book to more incomplete or unresolved. Possibilities for this list include:
consistently get what I
want in my life? ●● Longstanding problems that are still not solved
●● Projects that you’d like to finish and haven’t yet started
●● Tasks that you’ve been putting off
●● Habits that you’d like to stop—or start

Save this list and refer to it as you read and work through this chapter. Everything
you wrote down is a clue about something that’s important to you. This chapter is
filled with strategies for getting clear about what you want and taking immediate
steps to get it.

B e c o m in g a M a s t e r S tud ent   1

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Discover what you want
Imagine a man who tries to buy a plane
ticket for his next vacation, with no
destination in mind. He pulls out his iPad
and logs in to his favorite website for trip
planning. He gets a screen that prompts
him for details about his destination. And
he leaves all the fields blank.
“I’m not fussy,” says the would-be
vacationer. “I just want to get away.
I’ll just accept whatever the computer
coughs up.”
Compare this person to another traveler
who books a flight to Ixtapa, Mexico,
departing on Saturday, March 23, and
returning Sunday, April 7—window seat,
first class, and vegetarian meals.
Now, ask yourself which traveler is more
likely to end up with a vacation that
he’ll enjoy.
The same principle applies in any area
of life. Knowing where we want to go
increases the probability that we will
arrive at our destination. Discovering
what we want makes it more likely that
we’ll attain it.
Okay, so the example about the traveler
with no destination is far-fetched. Before
you dismiss it, though, do an informal
experiment: Ask three other students
what they want to get out of their
education. Be prepared for hemming,
hawing, and vague generalities.
sippakorn/Shutterstock.com
2 Int r oduct io n | Th e M a st e r S t u de n t
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
This is amazing, considering the stakes
involved. Students routinely invest years
of their lives and thousands of dollars,
with only a hazy idea of their destination
in life.
Now suppose that you asked someone
what she wanted from her education,
and you got this answer: “I plan to get
a degree in journalism, with double
minors in earth science and Portuguese,
so I can work as a reporter covering the
environment in Brazil.” The details of a
person’s vision offer clues to his or her
skills and sense of purpose.
Another clue is the presence of “stretch
goals”—those that are big and achievable.
A 40-year-old might spend years talking
about his desire to be a professional
athlete someday. Chances are, that’s
no longer achievable. However, setting
a goal to lose 10 pounds by playing
basketball at the gym three days a week
is another matter. That’s a stretch—a
challenge. It’s also doable.
Discovering what you want helps you
succeed in higher education. Many
students quit school simply because they
are unsure about what they want from
it. With well-defined goals in mind, you
can look for connections between what
you want and what you study. The more
connections, the more likely you’ll stay in
school—and get what you want in every
area of life.

Gil C/Shutterstock.com
Something happens when you get involved
with a book by writing in it. Becoming a Master
Student is about learning, and learning results
when you are active. When you make notes in
the margin, you can hear yourself talking with
the author. When you doodle and underline,
you see the author’s ideas taking shape. You can
even argue with the author and come up with
your own theories and explanations. In all of
these ways, you can become a coauthor of this
book. Rewrite it to make it yours.
While you’re at it, you can create symbols
or codes that will help you when reviewing the
text later on. You might insert a “Q” where you
practicing
CRITICAL THINKING
Textbook reconnaissance
Start becoming a master student this moment by doing a
15-minute “textbook reconnaissance.” First, read the table of
contents. Do it in three minutes or less. Next, look at every
page in the text. Move quickly. Scan headlines. Look at
pictures. Notice forms, charts, and diagrams.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Rewrite
this book
Some books should be preserved
in pristine condition. This book isn’t
one of them.
have questions, or put exclamation points or
stars next to important ideas. You could also
circle words to look up in a dictionary.
Remember, if any idea in this book doesn’t
work for you, you can rewrite it. Change
the exercises to fit your needs. Create a new
technique by combining several others. Create
a technique out of thin air!
Find something you agree or disagree with
and write a short note in the margin about it.
Or draw a diagram. Better yet, do both. Let
creativity be your guide. Have fun.
Begin rewriting now.
1
Look especially for ideas you can use. When you find
one, note the location and a short description of the idea.
You also can use sticky notes to flag pages that look useful.
(If you’re reading Becoming a Master Student as an ebook, you
can flag pages electronically.)
B e c o m in g a M a s t e r S tud ent   3
 Master student
qualities
This book is about something
that cannot be taught. It’s about
becoming a master student.
Mastery means attaining a level of skill that
goes beyond technique. For a master, work
is effortless. Struggle evaporates. The master
carpenter is so familiar with her tools that they
are part of her. To a master chef, utensils are
old friends. Because these masters don’t have
to think about the details of the process, they
bring more of themselves to their work.
Mastery can lead to flashy results: an
incredible painting, for example, or a gem of a
short story. In basketball, mastery might result
in an unbelievable shot at the buzzer. For a
musician, it might be the performance of a
lifetime, the moment when everything comes
together. You could describe the experience as
“flow” or “being in the zone.”
Often, the result of mastery is a sense of
profound satisfaction, wellbeing, and timeless-
ness. Distractions fade. Time stops. Work
becomes play. After hours of patient practice,
after setting clear goals and getting precise
feedback, the master has learned to be fully
in control.
At the same time, he lets go of control.
Results happen without effort, struggle, or
worry. Work seems self-propelled. The master
is in control by being out of control. He lets
go and allows the creative process to take over.
That’s why after a spectacular performance by
an athlete or performer, observers often say,
“He played full out—and made it look like he
wasn’t even trying.”
Likewise, the master student is one who
makes learning look easy. She works hard
without seeming to make any effort. She’s
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relaxed and alert, disciplined and spontaneous,
focused and fun-loving.
You might say that those statements don’t
make sense. Actually, mastery does not make
sense. It cannot be captured with words. It
defies analysis. Mastery cannot be taught. It
can only be learned and experienced.
By design, you are a learning machine. As
an infant, you learned to walk. As a toddler,
you learned to talk. By the time you reached
age 5, you’d mastered many skills needed to
thrive in the world. And you learned all these
things without formal instruction, without
lectures, without books, without conscious
effort, and without fear. You can rediscover
that natural learner within you. Each chapter
of this book is about a step you can take on
this path.
Master students share certain qualities.
These are attitudes and core values. Although
they imply various strategies for learning, they
ultimately go beyond what you do. Master
student qualities are ways of being exceptional.
Following is a list of master student quali-
ties. Remember that the list is not complete.
It merely points in a direction. As you read,
look to yourself. Put a check mark next to each
quality that you’ve already demonstrated. Put
another mark—say, an exclamation point—
next to each quality you want to actively work
on possessing. This is not a test. It is simply a
chance to celebrate what you’ve accomplished
so far—and start thinking about what’s
possible for your future.
uu Inquisitive. The master student is curious
about everything. By posing questions, she
can generate interest in the most mundane,
humdrum situations. When she is bored
during a biology lecture, she thinks to
herself, “I always get bored when I listen
to this instructor. Why is that? Maybe
it’s because he reminds me of my boring
Uncle Ralph, who always tells those
endless fishing stories. He even looks
like Uncle Ralph. Amazing! Boredom
is certainly interesting.” Then she asks
herself, “What can I do to get value out of
this lecture, even though it seems boring?”
And she finds an answer.
uu Able to focus attention. Watch a
2-year-old at play. Pay attention to his
eyes. The wide-eyed look reveals an energy
and a capacity for amazement that keep
his attention absolutely focused in the here
and now. The master student’s focused
attention has a childlike quality. The
world, to a child, is always new. Because
the master student can focus attention, to
him the world is always new too.
uu Willing to change. The unknown does
not frighten the master student. In fact,
she welcomes it—even the unknown in
herself. We all have pictures of who we
think we are, and these pictures can be
useful. But they also can prevent learning
and growth. The master student embraces
new ideas and new strategies for success.
uu Able to organize and sort. The
master student can take a large body
of information and sift through it to
discover relationships. He can play with
information, organizing data by size, color,
function, timeliness, and hundreds of
other categories. He has the guts to set big
goals—and the precision to plan carefully
so that those goals can be achieved.
uu Competent. Mastery of skills is impor-
tant to the master student. When she
learns mathematical formulas, she studies
them until they become second nature. She
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
practices until she knows them cold—then
puts in a few extra minutes. She also is
able to apply what she learns to new and
different situations.
uu Joyful. More often than not, the master
student is seen with a smile on his face—
sometimes a smile at nothing in particular
other than amazement at the world and
his experience of it.
uu Able to suspend judgment. The
master student has opinions and positions,
and she is able to let go of them when
appropriate. She realizes she is more
than her thoughts. She can quiet her
internal dialogue and listen to an opposing
viewpoint. She doesn’t let judgment get in
the way of learning. Rather than approach-
ing discussions with a “prove it to me
and then I’ll believe it” attitude, she asks
herself, “What if this is true?” and explores
possibilities.
uu Energetic. Notice the master student
with a spring in his step, the one who
is enthusiastic and involved in class.
When he reads, he often sits on the very
edge of his chair, and he plays with the
same intensity. He is determined and
persistent.
uu Well. Health is important to the master
student, though not necessarily in the
sense of being free of illness. Rather, she
values her body and treats it with respect.
She tends to her emotional and spiritual
health as well as her physical health.
uu Self-aware. The master student is willing
to evaluate himself and his behavior. He
regularly tells the truth about his strengths
and those aspects that could be improved.
uu Responsible. There is a difference
between responsibility and blame, and the
master student knows it well. She is will-
ing to take responsibility for everything in
her life—even for events that most people
would blame on others. For example, if a
master student takes a required class that
most students consider boring, she chooses
to take responsibility for her interest level.
She looks for ways to link the class to one
B e c o m in g a M a s t e r S tud ent   5
 of her goals and experiments with new
study techniques that will enhance her
performance in any course.
uu Willing to take risks. The master
student often takes on projects, with no
guarantee of success. He participates
in class dialogues at the risk of looking
foolish. He tackles difficult subjects in
term papers. He welcomes the risk of a
challenging course.
uu Willing to participate. Don’t look for
the master student on the sidelines. She’s
a collaborator—a team player who can be
counted on. She is engaged at school, at
work, and with friends and family. She
is willing to make a commitment and to
follow through on it.
uu A generalist. The master student is
interested in everything around him. In
the classroom, he is fully present. Outside
the classroom, he actively seeks out ways
to deepen his learning—through study
groups, campus events, student organiza-
tions, and team-based projects. Through
such experiences, he develops a broad base
of knowledge in many fields that can apply
to his specialties.
uu Willing to accept paradox. The word
paradox comes from two Greek words,
para (“beyond”) and doxen (“opinion”).
A paradox is something that is beyond
opinion or, more accurately, something that
might seem contradictory or absurd yet
might actually have meaning. For example,
the master student can be committed
to managing money and reaching her
financial goals. At the same time, she can
be totally detached from money, knowing
that her real worth is independent of how
much money she has.
uu Courageous. The master student admits
his fear and fully experiences it. For
example, he will approach a tough exam
as an opportunity to explore feelings of
anxiety and tension related to the pres-
sure to perform. He does not deny fear;
he embraces it. If he doesn’t understand
something or if he makes a mistake, he
admits it. When he faces a challenge and
bumps into his limits, he asks for help.
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And he’s just as willing to give help as to
receive it.
uu Self-directed. Rewards or punishments
provided by others do not motivate the
master student. Her desire to learn comes
from within, and her goals come from
herself. She competes like a star athlete—
not to defeat other people, but to push
herself to the next level of excellence.
uu Spontaneous. The master student is
truly in the here and now. He is able to
respond to the moment in fresh, surpris-
ing, and unplanned ways.
uu Relaxed about grades. Grades make
the master student neither depressed nor
euphoric. She recognizes that sometimes
grades are important. At the same time,
grades are not the only reason she studies.
She does not measure her worth as a
human being by the grades she receives.
uu “Tech” savvy. A master student defines
technology as any tool that’s used to
achieve a human purpose. From this
point of view, computers become tools
for deeper learning, higher productivity,
and greater success. When faced with a
task to accomplish, the master student
chooses effectively from the latest options
in hardware and software. He doesn’t get
overwhelmed with unfamiliar technology.
Instead, he embraces learning about the
new technology and finding ways to use
it to help him succeed at the given task.
He also knows when to go “offline” and
fully engage with his personal community
of friends, family members, classmates,
instructors, and coworkers.
uu Intuitive. The master student has an
inner sense that cannot be explained by
logic alone. She trusts her “gut instincts”
as well as her mind.
uu Creative. Where others see dull details
and trivia, the master student sees oppor-
tunities to create. He can gather pieces of
knowledge from a wide range of subjects
and put them together in new ways. The
master student is creative in every aspect
of his life.
uu Willing to be uncomfortable. The
master student does not place comfort practicing
first. When discomfort is necessary to
reach a goal, she is willing to experience it. CRITICAL
THINKING
2
She can endure personal hardships and can
look at unpleasant things with detachment.

uu Optimistic. The master student sees

setbacks as temporary and isolated,
knowing that he can choose his response
to any circumstance. The master student in you

uu Willing to laugh. The master student The purpose of this exercise is to demonstrate to yourself that you
might laugh at any moment, and her sense truly are a master student. Start by remembering a time in your life
of humor includes the ability to laugh at when you learned something well or demonstrated mastery. This
herself. Although going to school is a big experience does not have to relate to school. It might be a time
investment, with high stakes, you don’t when you aced a test, played a flawless soccer game, created a work
have to enroll in the deferred-fun program. of art that won recognition, or burst forth with a blazing guitar solo.
A master student celebrates learning, and It might be a time when you spoke from your heart in a way that
one of the best ways of doing that is to moved someone else. Or it might be a time when you listened deeply
laugh now and then. to another person who was in pain, comforted him, and connected
with him at a level beyond words.
uu Hungry. Human beings begin life with a
natural appetite for knowledge. In some
people, it soon gets dulled. The master Step 1
student has tapped that hunger, and it gives
Describe the details of such an experience in your life. Include the
him a desire to learn for the sake of learning.
place, time, and people involved. Describe what happened and how
you felt about it.
uu Willing to work. Once inspired, the
master student is willing to follow through
with sweat. She knows that genius and
creativity are the result of persistence
and work. When in high gear, the master
student works with the intensity of a child
Step 2
at play.
Now, review the article “Master student qualities,” and take a look at
uu Caring. A master student cares about the master student qualities that you checked off. These are the quali-
knowledge and has a passion for ideas. ties that apply to you. Give a brief example of how you demonstrated
He also cares about people and ap- at least one of those qualities.
preciates learning from others. He
collaborates on projects and thrives on
teams. He flourishes in a community that
values win–win outcomes, cooperation,
and love.
Step 3

Now think of other qualities of a master student—characteristics that

were not mentioned in the article. List those qualities along with a
one-sentence description of each.

B e c o m in g a M a s t e r S tud ent   7

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 The master student process:

Discovery
One way to become a better student is to grit your teeth and try harder.
There is a better way—the master student process. The purpose of
using this process is to develop the qualities of a master student.

You can use the master

student process to learn about
any subject, change your
habits, and acquire new skills.

That is a large claim. If you’re

skeptical, that means you’re
already developing one quality
of a master student—being
inquisitive. Balance it with
another quality—the ability
to suspend judgment while
considering a new idea.

First, get an overview of the

Brian A Jackson/Shutterstock.com
master student process.
There are three phases:
writing that guide you through wells up from the deepest
●● Discovery—observing the master student process. part of your mind. Don’t let
your thoughts, feelings, Some of these Journal such moments disappear.
behaviors, and current Entries are called Discovery Capture them in Discovery
circumstances Statements. Their purpose is Statements.
●● Intention—choosing the to help you gain awareness To get the most value from
new outcomes you’d like of “where you are”—your Discovery Statements, keep
to create current thoughts, feelings, the following guidelines
●● Action—following through and behaviors. Use Discovery in mind.
on your intentions with Statements to describe your
new behaviors strengths and the aspects Record the specifics.
of your life that you’d like Thoughts include inner voices.
As you experiment with to change. The result is a We talk to ourselves constantly
the master student process, running record of how you are in our head. When internal
remember that there’s nothing learning and growing. chatter gets in the way, write
you need to take on faith. Sometimes Discovery down what you tell yourself. If
Experience it firsthand. Test Statements capture an “aha!” this seems difficult at first, just
the process in daily life. Then moment—a sudden flash start writing. The act of writing
watch the results unfold. of insight. Perhaps a new can trigger a flood of thoughts.
Throughout this book, solution to an old problem Thoughts also include
you’ll see Journal Entries. suddenly occurs to you. mental pictures. These are
These are suggestions for Maybe a life-changing insight especially powerful. Picturing

8   Int roduct io n | Th e M a st e r S t u de n t

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 The sporangia are in all cases capsule-like, and burst open when
ripe to eject the spores. They are nearly always situated on the
leaves (in Lycopodiaceæ, in the axils of the leaves, or above these,
on the stems themselves). In some forms (Leptosporangiatæ), the
sporangia are developed from a single epidermal cell; in others
(Eusporangiatæ), from a group of epidermal cells, or from cells
which lie beneath the epidermis. In the first group a primitive mother-
cell (archesporium) is formed, which divides commonly into sixteen
special mother-cells. In the latter group, on the other hand, a number
of primitive spore-mother-cells are developed. In each sporangium
three different tissues are generally developed; an innermost
sporogenous one (s in Fig. 204 A), which arises from the
archesporangium; an outermost one, which forms the wall (a), and
may be one or, more rarely, several layers in thickness; and an
intermediate one, the tapetum (Fig. 204 A, B, b t), which is rich in
protoplasm, and whose cells are dissolved so that the spores float
freely in the fluid thus provided. The spores arise as in the Mosses
(in tetrads), by the cross-division of the special mother-cells, and
according to the manner in which they are arranged in the mother-
cell have either a tetrahedral form, with a large base resembling a
segment of a ball, or are oblong (bilateral spores). Their construction
is the same as in the Mosses (p. 187).
 Fig. 204.—Selaginella inæqualifolia. A A young sporangium, which may
develope either into a macro-, or a microsporangium. B A microsporangium.
The spore-formation in its earliest commencement takes place in
the same way in the Isosporous and the Heterosporous Vascular
Cryptogams; but from a certain point, after the tetrahedral division, a
difference occurs with regard to the macrosporangia. All the spores
formed in the microsporangium may complete their development; but
those which are formed in the macrosporangium are generally
aborted, with the exception of one or four, and these consequently
attain a much larger size (see Fig. 239.—The series to the left are
microsporangia; those to the right, macrosporangia).
Apogamy. In some Ferns (Pteris cretica; Aspidium filix mas, var. cristatum; A.
falcatum; Todea africana) the young plant is not developed as a consequence of
fertilisation, but as a bud from the prothallium. This is known as apogamy, or loss
of the power of sexual reproduction. The antheridia are generally more or less
developed; archegonia are entirely wanting in Asp. filix mas, var. cristatum. This
variety has probably only become apogamous through cultivation. Many
specimens of Isoëtes lacustris, in a lake in the Vosges mountains, produce in the
place where the sporangia are usually found, a vegetative shoot which grows into
a new plant, so that the sexual generation is wanting in this case. Some
specimens have sporangia on some leaves, and shoots on others.
Apospory, or the formation of prothallia instead of sporangia and spores on the
leaves, is found in Athyrium filix femina, var. clarissimum. In this case the
development of the sporangia proceeds only to a certain point, and from these
arrested sporangia the prothallia are produced. Normal sporangia are entirely
wanting in this variety, and in Aspidium angulare, var. pulcherrimum, sporangia are
completely wanting. Compare the Mosses (page 188).

The Vascular Cryptogams are divided into three large classes, in

each of which a progressive development can be traced from the
isosporous to the heterosporous forms, but some of these are now
only known as fossils.
Class 1. Filicinæ (Ferns).—The stem is small in comparison with
the leaves, and branches only seldom, and then by lateral shoots.
The leaves are scattered, large, often deeply divided, and of various
highly developed forms. The undeveloped leaves are rolled up in the
bud, having what is termed circinate venation. The sporangia are
situated on the edge or on the lower side of the leaves, those on
which the sporangia are borne (sporophylls) being often the ordinary
foliage-leaves; but in a few cases the fertile differ from the barren
ones (a higher stage in development). The fertile leaves are not
confined to definite parts of the shoot, and do not limit its growth.
The archesporium is most frequently unicellular.
A. Isosporous: Sub-Class 1. Filices (True Ferns).
B. Heterosporous: Sub-Class 2. Hydropterideæ (Water Ferns).
Class 2. Equisetinæ (Horsetails), in its widest meaning.—The
leaves in this class are small in comparison with the stem. They are
arranged in whorls, and unite to form a sheath. The sporangia are
situated on specially modified, shield-like leaves, which are closely
packed together and form a “cone.” The cone is borne terminally,
and limits the growth of the shoot. The sporangia are developed from
a large group of epidermal cells, the archesporium being unicellular.
The branches are arranged in whorls, and develope acropetally.
A. Isosporous: Sub-Class 1. Equisetaceæ. Existing forms.
B. Heterosporous: Sub-Class 2. Extinct forms.
Class 3. Lycopodinæ (Club-Mosses).—Roots generally
branching dichotomously. The leaves are scattered or opposite, and
in proportion to the stem very small, undivided, and simple. They are
scale-like and triangular, tapering from a broad base to a point. The
sporangia are situated singly (except in Psilotaceæ), and almost in
every case on the upper side of the leaf or in the axil of a leaf; but in
some cases they are borne on the stem, just above the leaf-axil. The
sporangia arise from groups of epidermal cells. The sporophylls are
often modified, and differ from the foliage-leaves; they are then
arranged in cones placed terminally on branches, thus limiting their
growth.
A. Isosporous: Sub-Class 1. Lycopodieæ.
B. Heterosporous: Sub-Class 2. Selaginelleæ.

Class 1. Filicinæ (Ferns).

The characteristics of this class have already been given on page
204.
The class is divided into two sub-classes:—
1. The True Ferns, Filices, have one kind of spore which
generally developes monœcious prothallia, relatively large and
green. The sporangia are most frequently situated in groups (sori),
which are often covered but not enclosed by an indusium.
2. Water Ferns, Hydropteridæ, have microsporangia with
many (4 × 16) microspores, and macrosporangia, each with one
macrospore. The prothallium is small, and projects but slightly from
the germinating spore. The sporangia are situated in groups (sori),
which are either enclosed by an indusium, or enveloped in a portion
of a leaf, to form “fruits” termed sporocarps.
 The old name for the Hydropterideæ, “Rhizocarpeæ,” i.e. the “root-fruited,”
originated from the erroneous supposition that the sporocarps were borne on the
roots.

Sub-Class 1. Filices (the True Ferns).

Of the eight orders (with about 4,000 species) comprised in this
sub-class, the Polypodiaceæ is the largest (having about 2,800
species) and the most familiar; for this reason it will be taken as
typical.
The sexual generation. When the spore germinates, the external
covering (exospore) is ruptured, as in the Mosses. The internal cell-
wall (endospore) grows out as a filament, which soon divides and
gives rise to the prothallium, a flat, cellular expansion resembling the
thallus of a Liverwort. In its fully developed state the prothallium is
generally heart-shaped, dark green, and provided with root-hairs,
and it attains a diameter of about one centimetre (Fig. 205). It is
formed of one layer of cells, except along the central line near the
anterior depression, where it becomes several layers of cells in
thickness, forming the “cushion,” on the lower side of which the
archegonia are developed. The antheridia are first formed; they are
thus found on the oldest parts of the prothallium, on its edge, or
among the root-hairs. The archegonia are developed later, and are
therefore found near the apex. Several tropical Ferns have
prothallia[18] deviating from this typical form; Trichomanes (Order
Hymenophyllaceæ) has filamentous, branched prothallia, which
resemble the protonema of a Moss. Others, again, have strap-
shaped prothallia, which resemble the thallus of certain Liverworts.
 Fig. 205.—Prothallium (p p) of Maiden hair
(Adiantum capillus veneris) with a young plant
attached: b first leaf; w′ primary root; w″
adventitious roots; h h root-hairs of the
prothallium (× abt. 30).
 Fig. 206.—Antheridia of Maiden-hair (× 550). A Unripe; B ripe, but unopened; C
open and ejecting the spermatozoids (s). Those which have been last ejected are
still lying enclosed in their mother-cells, the others are coiled up and drag with
them the cytoplasmic remains (b); f cells of the prothallium.
The archegonia have been already mentioned (p. 199, Fig. 201).
The antheridia are hemispherical or slightly conical bodies (Fig.
206). They consist, as in the Mosses, of a wall formed by one layer
of cells, which encloses a number of spermatozoid-mother-cells (A
and B). The antheridia when ripe absorb water, and are ruptured,
and the spirally-coiled spermatozoids liberated (Fig. 206 S). The
spermatozoids have been observed to pass down the neck of the
archegonium, and to fuse with the oosphere.
The asexual generation. The first leaf, the “cotyledon,” of the
embryo developed from the oospore (Figs. 202, 205) is always
small, and has a very simple shape. The leaves which occur later
become more perfect, stage by stage, until the permanent form of
leaf has been attained.—The stem is most frequently a
subterranean or a semi-aerial rhizome; it is only in the tropical, palm-
like Tree-Ferns, that the stem raises itself high in the air and
resembles that of a tree, with leaf-scars or with the remains of leaves
attached (Figs. 207, 203); in certain species the stem is encased in a
thick mat of aerial roots (Dicksonia antarctica). When the rhizome is
horizontal the internodes are frequently elongated, and the leaves
are arranged in two rows, as in Polypodium vulgare and in the
Bracken-Fern (Pteridium aquilinum), etc.; it is also generally
dorsiventral, having a dorsal side on which the leaves are situated,
and a ventral side, different from the former, on which the roots are
borne. When the stem ascends in an oblique direction, or is nearly
vertical, its internodes are extremely short, and the leaves are
arranged in a spiral line with a complicated phyllotaxis, e.g. in
Athyrium filix-fœmina, Aspidium filix-mas, etc. The branching upon
the whole is extremely slight, and is generally confined to the petiole
(e.g. Aspid. filix-mas), or to the stem near the insertion of the leaves.
Several species normally form buds on different parts of the lamina.
The buds which are formed on the stem are not confined to the leaf-
axil as in the higher plants. The Tree-Ferns, generally, do not branch
at all.
The vascular bundles are concentric, with the wood surrounded
by the soft bast. In transverse section they are seen as circles or
irregularly-shaped figures (Fig. 203), the name of “King Charles and
the Oak” (Bracken-Fern) having originated from the appearance
which the bundles present in oblique section. In Osmunda they are
collateral and resemble those of the Flowering-plants. Round each
individual bundle is often a sheath of thick-walled, hard, brown,
sclerenchymatous cells, which act as a mechanical tissue; similar
strands are also found in other parts of the stem.
Fig. 207.—Various Ferns (1, 2, 3, 4).
 The leaves in nearly all species are only foliage-leaves, borne in
a spiral. They have an apical growth which continues for a long time,
and some require several years for their complete development. In
the buds they are rolled up (circinate); not only the midrib, but also
all the lateral veins, and even the terminal portions of a leaf are
sometimes rolled up together, the tissues of the leaf being already
fully developed and only waiting to expand. The leaves are often
excessively divided and compound, with pinnate branches, and have
an epidermis with stomata and a well-developed system of venation.
Stipules are only found in Marattiaceæ and Ophioglossaceæ.
Very often peculiar hairs or scales (paleæ, ramenta), dry, brown,
flat and broad, are found on stem and leaf.
The sporangia are small, round capsules, which, in a very large
number of Ferns, are formed on the back, but more rarely on the
edge of the ordinary foliage-leaves. It is very seldom that there is any
difference in form between the barren foliage-leaves and the fertile
leaves, as is found for example in Blechnum spicant or
Struthiopteris; or that the fertile part of the leaf is differently
constructed from the barren portion of the same leaf, as in the Royal-
Fern (Osmunda). In such instances the mesophyll of the fertile parts
is poorly developed.
The sporangia in the Polypodiaceæ are lens-shaped, with long
stalk (Fig. 211 D): their wall consists of one cell-layer on which a
single row of cells, passing vertically over the top (that is along the
edge of the sporangium), is developed into the “ring” (annulus). The
cells of the annulus are very much thickened on the inner and side
walls, and are yellowish-brown. The thickened cells, however, do not
entirely encircle the sporangium, and on one side, near the stalk,
they pass over into large, flat, thin-walled cells. These form a weak
point in the wall, and it is here that the sporangium is opened
diagonally by the elongation of the annulus. The sporangium of the
Polypodiaceæ opens as it dries. The cells of the annulus are very
hygroscopic, and in straightening, the annulus bends back with a
jerk, thus ejecting the spores to considerable distances. The cells of
the annulus absorb water with great readiness. [The sporangium
arises as a single epidermal cell, from which a basal stalk-cell is cut
off. Three oblique cell-walls, intersecting near the base, are next
formed in the upper cell, and a fourth between these and parallel to
the free surface; an inner tetrahedral cell enclosed by four others is
thus formed, the outer cells become the wall of the sporangium,
while the inner cell, by a series of walls, parallel to its sides, cuts off
a layer of cells which eventually form the tapetum, the remaining
central cell constituting the archesporium.]
The spores are either oblong and bilateral, or they are tetrahedric
with curved sides, depending upon the way in which the tetrad
division has taken place.
The sporangia are almost always situated on the nerves and
gathered into groups, sori, which differ in form in the various genera.
The sori, in many genera, may be covered by a scale-like structure,
the indusium (Figs. 211 B, 212).
In the majority of cases, each sorus is situated on a small papilla
(placenta, or receptacle), which is supplied by a small vascular
bundle. Between the sporangia, hairs (paraphyses) are often
situated, which spring either from the placenta or from the stalks of
the sporangia.
Systematic Division. The Ferns may be divided into two groups,
characterized by the structure and development of the sporangia.
The sporangia in the Eusporangiatæ take their origin from a group
of epidermal cells, and their walls are formed by several layers of
cells. The archesporium is the (not tetrahedric) hypodermal terminal
cell of the axial row of cells which give rise to the sporangium. In the
Leptosporangiatæ the sporangia are developed from single
epidermal cells, and their walls are uni-layered. The archesporium is
a central, often tetrahedric cell, from which sixteen spore-mother-
cells are developed.[19] It is difficult to say which form is the oldest
(according to Prantl, those which have the sori on the nerve-
endings); however, the Eusporangiatæ would seem to have made
their appearance long before the others, and also well defined
Marattiaceæ and Ophioglossaceæ occur in the Kulm and Coal
period, before the true Polypodiaceæ.
 About 4,000 species of Ferns are now existing, and they are
found especially in tropical and sub-tropical forests.

Family 1. Eusporangiatæ.
Order 1. Ophioglossaceæ. The prothallium differs from that of all
other Ferns in being subterranean, free from chlorophyll, pale and
tuberous. The stem is extremely short, with short internodes, most
frequently unbranched, vertical, and entirely buried in the ground
(Fig. 208 st). In several species (among which are the native ones)
one leaf is produced every year, which has taken three to four years
for its development. In Botrychium a closed, sheath-like basal part of
each leaf covers the subsequent leaves during their development. In
Ophioglossum and others each leaf has at its base an intrapetiolar,
cap-like sheath, which protects the succeeding leaf. The leaves are
of two kinds: (a) foliage, which in Ophioglossum vulgatum are
lanceolate and entire, but in Botrychium however, are pinnate (b in
Fig. 208 A, B); and (b) fertile, which are found facing the upper side
of the foliage-leaves. These latter in Ophioglossum are undivided
and spike-like (Fig. 209 A), but pinnate in Botrychium (Fig. 208 B).
Each foliage and fertile leaf are branches from the same petiole. The
large sporangia are placed laterally, and open by two valves. No
annulus is formed (Fig. 209).—Ophioglossum reproduces
vegetatively by adventitious buds on the roots.
 Fig. 208.—A Ophioglossum vulgatum (Adder’s-tongue); B
Botrychium lunaria (Moonwort), both natural size; r-r roots; bs
leaf-stalk; st stem; b foliage-leaf; f fertile leaf.
 Fig. 209.—Fertile
leaf of
Ophioglossum.
Three genera with about twelve species.
Order 2. Marattiaceæ are tropical Ferns, whose gigantic leaves
resemble those of the Polypodiaceæ, but have stipules in addition.
The sporangia are grouped in sori, situated on the lower side of the
leaves, the sporangia in each sorus being arranged either in two
rows or in a ring. In Angiopteris they are isolated (Fig. 210 A), but in
the other species (Kaulfussia, Danæa, Marattia), they are united,
and form “synangia” divided into a number of chambers
corresponding to the sporangia. These open by clefts or pores.
Marattia presents the highest development, as its sporangia are
completely united in a capsule-like synangium, which is closed until
maturity, and then opens by two valves. In each valve there is a row
of three to eleven sporangia, each opening by a slit towards the
inside (Fig. 210 B, C). An indusium encloses the sorus, except in
Kaulfussia; it is formed of flat and lobed hairs, which resemble the
hairs of the other portions of the leaves. In Angiopteris and Marattia
the indusium is very rudimentary; in Danæa it forms a kind of cupule.
The numerous fossil Marattiaceæ (15 genera, with 98 species) present similar
differences to those now living, but more various forms are found, for example,
with solitary free sporangia. Those now living are the last small remnant (4 genera
with only 23 species) of a once dominant family, which existed from very early
times, and whose culminating point was reached in the Kulm and Coal periods.
The Ophioglossaceæ appear also in the Kulm and Coal periods, and were
about as numerous as at the present time (presumably 2 genera, with 19 species).
Leptosporangiate Ferns appear however to have occurred first of all in the Trias-
formation.

Fig. 210.—Sporangia of the Marattiaceæ: A Angiopteris;

B and C Marattia; C is a half sorus with nine sporangia, each
of which has opened by a longitudinal cleft.
 Family 2. Leptosporangiatæ.
Order 1. Polypodiaceæ. Sporangia on the lower side of the
leaves, stalked and provided with a vertical, incomplete annulus;
dehiscing by a transverse cleft (Fig. 211 D).—The genera are
distinguished by the form of the indusium and the position of the sori,
etc.
1. The sporangia cover the entire lower surface of the leaf
(Tropical America and Asia). Acrostichum, Platycerium.
2. Sori without indusia, circular or oval. Polypodium (Fig. 211 A).
The leaves are most frequently situated in two rows on the dorsal
side of the creeping rhizome, and fall off leaving a smooth scar
behind.—P. vulgare, common in woods, on stones. (Phegopteris also
has no indusium; see page 214).
3. The sporangia are situated in continuous lines just inside the
margin of the leaf.—Pteris[20]: the sporangia form a continuous line
along the entire margin of the leaf (Fig. 211 C), which bends over
and covers the sporangia, forming a “false-indusium.” Pteridium has
linear sori situated on a marginal vascular bundle, covered by two
linear basal indusia, of which the outer is bent over like the edge of a
leaf.—P. aquilinum (Bracken) has a wide-spreading rhizome with
large alternate leaves, placed on opposite sides, at some distance
apart. Only one leaf is developed from each branch every year.
 Fig. 211.—Portions of leaves with sori. A Polypodium. B Aspidium. C Pteridium.
D A sporangium of one of the Polypodiaceæ: r the annulus; s spores.
Adiantum (Maiden-hair): sori on the underside of small portions of the edge of
the leaf, which are bent over (false indusium). Cryptogramme (Allosorus),
Cheilanthes.
4. The sori are oval or linear, situated on one side of the vascular
bundle.—Asplenium (Fig. 212 A): sori linear; indusium with one of its
edges attached at the external side. A. ruta muraria (Wall-Rue); A.
septentrionale; A. trichomanes.—Athyrium: sori linear or curved; A.
filix-fœmina (Lady-Fern).—Scolopendrium (Fig. 212 B): sori as in
Asplenium, but situated in pairs across the lanceolate, entire leaves.
Each sorus is covered on the external side by an indusium, whose
free edges are parallel and approach each other. S. vulgare (Hart’s-
tongue).—Blechnum (B. spicant, Hard Fern; the fertile leaves differ from the
barren, the pinnæ being narrower, while the underside is almost entirely covered
with sori, and hence they are of a much darker brownish hue than the barren
ones).—Ceterach: indusium rudimentary or absent.
5. Sori circular and covered by a shield-like, or reniform indusium.
—Aspidium (Fig. 211 B); the leaves wither away and leave no scar
upon the root-stock. A. filix-mas (Male-Fern); A. spinulosum.—
Phegopteris has no indusium, the withered bases of the leaf-stalks
are persistent; P. dryopteris and P. polypodioides.
6. The indusium is situated below the sori, and has the shape of a
one-sided scale (Cystopteris, Struthiopteris), or of a cup or cupule,
which in Woodsia is sometimes fimbriate (Fig. 212 C, D).

Fig. 212.—A Asplenium. B Scolopendrium. C Woodsia; D single sorus of the

same. E Cyathea: the sporangia have fallen off in the upper sori. (All magnified.)
7. The sori are situated on the margin of the leaf, and at the end of a vascular
bundle. Indusium, semi-cupular. Davallia. Principally tropical species. 1 in S.
Europe.
This order is the greatest, comprising about 2,800 species, the
majority being perennial plants. A few are large, and known as Tree-
Ferns.
As plants in conservatories and rooms the following are cultivated: species of
Gymnogramme (tropical America), Lomaria, Nephrolepis, Pteris (P. serrulata,
cretica).
Officinal. Aspidium filix-mas, rhizome and the withered petioles.—Species of
Alsophila and Cibotium give Penghawar Djambi. The rhizome of Pteridium
aquilinum, var. esculentum, contains so much starch that it is used as food.
The other orders of true Ferns deviate from the Polypodiaceæ, especially in the
formation of the annulus, the bursting of the sporangium and its mode of
attachment and development, and in the differences in the formation of the
prothallium, etc. The principal are:—
 Order 2. Hymenophyllaceæ. To this order belong the lowest and most Moss-
like Ferns; the leaves, with the exception of the veins, are most frequently formed
of only one layer of cells, and consequently stomata are wanting; the formation of
the prothallium also somewhat resembles the Mosses. Sori marginal, on the
extremities of the vascular bundles, and surrounded by a cupular indusium. The
sporangia are sessile, with equatorial annulus. Hymenophyllum (H. tunbridgense,
European). Trichomanes (T. speciosum, European). Species about 200, which live
especially on rocks and trees in damp and shady tropical forests. Some have no
roots.
Order 3. Cyatheaceæ. Annulus complete and oblique. To this order belong,
principally, the tree-like Ferns with palm-like habit. The number of species is about
200, they are all tropical and form forests in some regions of Australia. Cibotium
and Dicksonia have marginal sori, with cupular, basal indusium. (The stem of D.
antarctica is covered with aerial roots.) Alsophila (without indusium); Cyathea with
cupular, inferior indusium (Fig. 212 E).

Fig. 213.—Gleichenia: A part of a leaf with sori; B a single sorus.

Order 4. Gleicheniaceæ. Sporangia with equatorial annulus, and longitudinal
dehiscence, most frequently groups of 3–4 in sori without indusium (Fig. 213).
Gleichenia: the apical growth of the leaves continues for a long time.
Order 5. Schizæaceæ. Annulus apical. To this order belongs Aneimia, which is
so commonly cultivated in conservatories. The two lowest pinnæ are
metamorphosed, having no leaf parenchyma and being covered with sporangia.
Schizæa. Mohria. Lygodium, a climber, whose leaves have unlimited growth and
attain a length of several metres. About 70 species. Tropical.
Order 6. Osmundaceæ. The sporangia have at the apex a lateral group of
strongly thickened cells, which gradually pass over into the ordinary cells. The
sporangia open by a longitudinal cleft. Indusium wanting. Osmunda bears the
sporangia upon peculiar, branched pinnæ, without parenchyma (the uppermost in
the leaf). O. regalis (Royal-Fern): European.
 Sub-Class 2. Hydropterideæ (formerly Rhizocarpeæ), Water Ferns.
The following further characteristics must be added to those given
on page 205:—

Fig. 214.—Salvinia natans: A microsporangium with germinating microspores

and protruding prothallia (s); B a prothallium with the bicellular antheridium (s)
growing out of the microsporangium; C the two cells of the antheridium have
opened by transverse clefts; beneath is seen the microspores enclosed by the
hardened mucilage; D spermatozoids still enclosed in the mother-cells.