Indian Geography Study Material

PHYSICAL
INDIAN
GEOGRAPHY
CONTENT BUILDING BOOKS

CIVIL SERVICES EXAMINATION
INDEX
TITLE PAGE NO.
CHAPTER 1: INDIA: LOCATION 1-2
1. Introduction 1
2. India and its Neighbours 2
CHAPTER 2: PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA 3-32
1. Introduction 3
2. The Himalayan Mountains 3
2.1 Introduction 3
2.2 Origin of the Himalayas 3
2.3 Distribution of the Himalayas 4
2.4 The Himalayan Ranges 4
2.5 Passes in the Greater Himalayas 6
2.6 The Trans Himalayas 7
2.7 The Eastern Hills or The Purvanchal 7
2.8 Subdivisions of Himalayas 8
2.8.1 Kashmir or North-western Himalayas 8
2.8.2 Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas 10
2.8.3 The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas 11
2.8.4 The Arunachal Himalayas 11
2.8.5 The Eastern Hills and Mountains 12
2.9 The Significance of the Himalayas 13
2.10 Occurrence of landslides in Himalayas 14
3. The Northern Plains 14
3.1 Introduction 15
3.2 Origin of the Plain 15
3.3 Geomorphology of the Plain 15
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3.3.1 The Bhabar 16
3.3.2 The Terai 16
3.3.3 The Bhangar 16
3.3.4 The Khadar 17
3.4 Regional Divisions of the Plains of India 17
3.4.1 The Rajasthan Plain 17
3.4.2 The Punjab-Haryana Plain 18
3.4.3 The Ganga Plain 18
3.4.4 The Brahmaputra Plain 18
3.5 The significance of the Plain 19
4. The Indian Desert 20
4.1 Introduction 20
4.2 Geological History and Features 20
4.3 The climate of Thar desert 20
4.4 Vegetation 20
4.5 Drainage 20
4.6 Agriculture 20
4.7 Features of The Indian Desert 21
5. The Peninsular Plateau 22
5.1 Features 22
5.2 Plateaus of Peninsular India 22
5.2.1 Marwar upland 22
5.2.2 Central Highland 22
5.2.3 Bundelkhand Upland 23
5.2.4 Malwa Plateau 23
5.2.5 Baghelkhand Plateau 23
5.2.6 Chota Nagpur Plateau 24
5.2.7 Meghalaya Plateau 24

5.2.8 Deccan Plateau 24
5.3 Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau 25
5.3.1 Aravalli Range 25
5.3.2 Vindhya Range 26
5.3.3 Satpura Range 26
5.4 Western Ghats 26
5.4.1 Sahyadri 26
5.4.2 Middle Western Ghats 26
5.4.3 Southern Western Ghats 26
5.5 Eastern Ghats 27
6. The Coastal Plains 28
6.1 Introduction 28
6.2 Western Coast of India 28
6.3 The eastern coastal plains 28
7. The Indian Islands 30
7.1 Introduction 30
7.2 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands 30
7.3 The Lakshadweep Islands 31
7.4 Development Issues in these islands 31
7.5 Development of Island territory of India 32
CHAPTER 3: DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA 33-46
1. Drainage System 33
1.1 Factors influencing the drainage pattern of a region 33
1.2 Important Drainage Patterns 33
2. Characteristics of Himalayan and Peninsular Drainage System 33
3. The Himalayan Drainage System 34
3.1 Evolution 34
3.2 The Indus System 34

3.3. The Ganga River System 36
3.4 The Brahmaputra River System 38
4. Peninsular India’s Drainage System 38
4.1 The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System 38
4.2 Godavari River System 39
4.3 Krishna River System 39
4.4 Kaveri River System 40
4.5 Narmada River System 40
4.6 Tapi River System 40
4.7 Mahanadi River System 40
5. Smaller Rivers Flowing towards the West 41
6. Small Rivers Flowing Towards the East 41
7. Ready Reference Data 41
8. Interlinking of Rivers 42
9. Inland Waterways of India 44
9.1 Navigation through waterways has been advantageous in following ways 44
10. Water Woes 44
10. 1 Water Woes in India 45
10.2 River Pollution in India 46
10.3 How to control river pollution? 46
CHAPTER 4: INDIAN MONSOON 48-59
1. Burst of Monsoon (Onset of Monsoon) 48
1.1 Development of Low Pressure over North-western India and Shift of ITCZ 48
1.2 Role of Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream (STWJS) in the Monsoon Burst 49
1.3 Easterly Jet Stream 50
1.4 Entry of Monsoon into India 50
2. Rain Bearing System and Rainfall Distribution 50
2.1 Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea 51

2.1.1 Somali Jet Stream 51
2.1.2 Branches of the Arabian Sea Branch 51
2.2 Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal Branch 52
3. Monsoon Break 53
4. Retreating Monsoon Season 54
5. North East Monsoon 54
6. Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall 55
7. Climatic Phenomenon Affecting the Indian Monsoon 56
7.1 El-Nino and Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 56
7.2 Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) 57
7.3 Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) 58
8. Monsoon and Climate Change 58
9. Rainfall in India 59
CHAPTER 5: CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA 61-65
1. Introduction 61
2. Koeppen’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India 61
3. Natural Vegetation 63
4. Social Forestry 63
5. Social forestry and Agroforestry can be a better solution for deforestation 65

Chapter 1: INDIA: LOCATION
1. INTRODUCTION
The mainland of India extends from Kashmir in the north to Kanyakumari in the south and Arunachal Pradesh in the east to
Gujarat in the west. India’s territorial limit further extends towards the sea up to 12 nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the
coast.
Figure 1: Map of India
● The Tropic of Cancer almost bifurcates the country into two equal halves.
● Our southern boundary extends up to 6°45' N latitude in the Bay of Bengal.
● latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India are roughly about 30 degrees, whereas the actual distance measured from
north to south extremity is 3,214 km, and that from east to west is only 2,933 km.
● This difference is based on the fact that the distance between two longitudes decreases towards the poles whereas
the distance between two latitudes remains the same everywhere.
From the values of latitude, it is understood that the southern part of the country lies within the tropics and the northern part
lies in the sub-tropical zone or the warm temperate zone. This location is responsible for large variations in land forms,
climate, soil types and natural vegetation in the country.
From the values of longitude, it is quite discernible that there is a variation of nearly 30 degrees, which causes a time difference
of nearly two hours between the easternmost and the westernmost parts of our country and therefore
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● While the sun rises in the north-eastern states about two hours earlier as compared to Jaisalmer, the watches in
Dibrugarh, Imphal in the east and Jaisalmer, Bhopal or Chennai in the other parts of India show the same time
because, India has selected 82°30' E longitude as the ‘standard meridian’. Our entire country follows same time zone
Points to Remember
● Standard Meridian of India, 82.5 °E longitude is just west of the town of Mirzapur, near Allahabad in
the state of Uttar Pradesh.
● Standard Meridian of India which is 82°30′ East longitude passes through Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
● Tropic of Cancer is passes through 8 (eight) Indian states. They are Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, Mizoram.
● The prominent cities located near Tropic of Cancer are: Gandhinagar (23.2156° N), Bhopal (23.2599° N),
Ranchi (23.3441° N), Agartala (23.8315° N), Aizwal (23.7271° N).
● India is seventh largest country in the world by area: Russia > Canada > China > United States > Brazil
> Australia > India.
● Five largest Countries by population: China > India > United States > Indonesia > Brazil.
● India with its area of 3.28 million sq. km accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s land surface area and stands as the
seventh largest country in the world.
● India has a coastline of 6,100 km in the mainland and 7,517 km in the entire geographical coast of the mainland plus
the island groups Andaman and Nicobar located in the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea.
2. INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOURS
India has 15,106.7 km of land border and a coastline of 7,516.6 km including island territories. The length of our land borders
with neighbouring countries is as under
Country Length of Border (km)
Bangladesh 4,096.7
China 3,488
Pakistan 3,323
Nepal 1,751
Myanmar 1,643
Bhutan 699
Afghanistan 106
Figure 2: Extent of India's boundary with its neighbours.
Chapter 2: PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA
1. INTRODUCTION
● Physiography is the subfield of geography that studies physical patterns and processes of the Earth. It aims to
understand the forces that change the pattern of rocks, oceans, weather, and global flora and fauna.
● The present surface features of India are due to the changes brought by the endogenic and exogenic forces.
● The unique physiographic diversity of India consists of lofty young fold mountain, flat plains and one of the oldest
plateaus of the world.
● India is divided into following five physiographic divisions: -
1. The Himalayan Mountains
2. The Northern Plains
3. The Peninsular Plateau
4. The Coastal Plains
5. The Islands
2. THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS
2.1 Introduction
● The Himalayan mountain consists of the North mountains, North-eastern mountains and the North-eastern hills.
● The Himalayas are formed out of a series of parallel mountain ranges. Example: The great Himalayas, the Trans-
Himalayan range, the Middle Himalayas and the Shiwalik.
● The Himalayas consist of the youngest and the loftiest fold mountain chains in the world.
● The approximate length of the Great Himalayan range, also known as the central axial range, is 2,500 km from east
to west, and their width varies between 160-400 km from north to south.
● The Himalayas have attained a unique personality owing to their high altitude, steep gradient, and youthful drainage.
2.2 Origin of the Himalayas
● Plate tectonics is the most recent and widely acclaimed theory which give us the most satisfactory answers to the
formation of Himalayas.
● The Himalayas have been built by the convergent boundary Interaction of two continental plates. When two
convergent plates composed of continental crusts collide against each other, the denser plate is subducted under the
lighter plate and it leads to the formation of folds mountains.
● The Himalayas are formed due to the convergence of Asiatic plate in the north and the Indian plate in the south.
● Around 70 million year ago, The Indian Plate started moving towards the Asian plates and the Tethys sea began to
contract due to the Movement of Indian and Asian plates towards each other.
● According to some Geologists, the sediments got folded in three successive phases giving rise to the three important
ranges of the Himalayas.
● The Indian plate is still moving northwards, and the Himalayas continue to rise further.
Figure 3: The Northward Movement of Indian Plate and its collision with the Asian plate
2.3 Distribution of the Himalayas
Geographers generally tend to divide the Himalayas on geographical, regional and geological bases. Geographically the entire
Himalayan region has been divided into: -
● The Himalayan Ranges

● The Trans-Himalayas
● The Eastern Hills
Figure 4: Overview of Himalayas
2.4 The Himalayan Ranges
● The Himalayas doesn’t contain a single chain or ranges of mountain, but a series of several, more or less parallel or
converging ranges.
● All these mountains are young fold mountains.
● The most important one in the Himalayan regions are the valley of Kashmir and Karewas, the Kangra and Kullu
valley in Himachal Pradesh, the Dun valley, Mandakini valley, and Bhagirathi valley in Uttarakhand and the
Kathmandu valley in Nepal.
● The Peaks of Kanchenjunga and Everest are found in these ranges.
● Most part of Himalayan ranges falls in India, Nepal, and Bhutan but northern slopes are partly situated in Tibet while
the western part lies in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia.
A. The Shiwalik Range:
● Shiwalik is the outermost range of the Himalayas and is formed after the formation of Himalayas.
● The chief characteristic features of this range are that it has Flat scarps, anticlinal crests, and synclinal
valleys.
● They are the almost unbroken chain of low hills except for a gap of 80-90 km which is occupied by the
valley of the Tista River and Raidak River.
● When the river cut their courses through the Shiwalik Ranges, the lakes were drained away leaving behind
plains called ‘Duns’ in the west and ‘Duars’ in the east. Example: Dehradun in Uttarakhand.
● Shiwalik range from North-East India up to Nepal are covered with thick forests but the forest cover
decreases towards west from Nepal
B. The Middle or the Lesser Himalaya
● The middle Himalayas is found between the Shiwalik in the south and the Great Himalayas in the North.
● The important ranges found in these regions are:
o Pir Panjal in Kashmir is the longest range.
o Dhauladhar range (Himachal Pradesh)
o The Mussoorie Range (Uttarakhand)
o The Nag Tibba (Uttarakhand)
o Mahabharat Lekh (Southern Nepal)
● Most hill resorts are found in Middle Himalayas. e.g. Shimla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet, Nainital, Almora, and
Darjeeling.
● Pir Panjal
o The Pir Panjal range in Kashmir is the longest and the most important range.
o It extends from the Jhelum river to the upper Beas river for over 300 km.
o It rises to 5,000 meters and contains mostly volcanic rocks.
● Passes in Pir Panjal

○ Pir Panjal Pass, the Bidil, Golabghar Pass and Banihal Pass.
○ The Banihal Pass is used by the Jammu-Srinagar highway and Jammu-Baramulla railway.
○ Southeast of the Ravi, the Pir Panjal continues as Dhauladhar range, passing through Dalhousie,
Dharamshala, and Shimla.
C. The Great Himalaya
● It is also known as Inner Himalaya, Central Himalaya or Himadri.

● It is the northernmost of all the Himalayan ranges.
● It has an average elevation of 6100 m above sea level.
● It is the loftiest and most continuous mountain range of the world.
● The folds in this range are asymmetrical with steep south slope and gentle north slope giving ‘hog back (a
long, steep hill or mountain ridge)’ topography.
● This mountain arc convexes to the south terminates abruptly in the Nanga Parbat in the north-west and
the other in the Namcha Barwa in the north-east.
● The regional name of Mount Everest is:
o Nepal = Sagarmatha (The Goddess of the Sky)
o China (Tibet) = Chomolungma (Mother of the World)
● In these regions, there are several peaks over 8000 m and some of the peaks are mentioned in the following
table:
Name of the Peak Height
Mount Everest 8848
Kanchenjunga 8598
Lhotse I 8501
Figure 5: Peaks of Himalayas
2.5 Passes in the Greater Himalayas
State Passes of Greater Himalayas
Jammu and Kashmir o Burzil Pass

o Zoji La [La means passes]
Himachal Pradesh o Baralacha La

o Shipki La [The Hindustan-Tibet Road connecting
Shimla with Gartok in Western Tibet]
Uttarakhand o Thaga La
o Niti Pass
o Lipu Lekh
Sikkim o Nathu La
o Jelep La [important trade route connecting

Kalimpong (near Darjeeling) with Lhasa in Tibet,
passes through Jelep La (4,386 m)]
Figure 6: State wise Important Passes in Himalayas in India
o Zoji La: It is in the Zaskar range of Jammu & Kashmir. The road route from Srinagar to Leh goes through this pass.
o Banihal Pass: The national Highway No. 1A that links Srinagar to Jammu goes through it.
o Shipki La: The road from Shimla to Tibet goes through this pass. The Sutlej river flows through this pass.
o Bara Lacha Pass: It links Mandi and Leh by road.
o Mana Pass: The land route to the Kailash and the Manasarovar passes through it.
o Nathu La: It gives way to Tibet from Darjeeling and Chumbi Valley. The Chumbi river from through this pass.
o Jalep La: It is also in Sikkim and gives way to Bhutan. The Tista river has created this pass.
2.6 The Trans Himalayas
● The Trans Himalayas lies immediately to the north of the Great Himalayas.
● It is also known as Tibetan Himalayas because most of its parts lies in Tibet.
● The Zaskar, the Ladakh, the Kailash, and the Karakoram are the main ranges.
● The Zaskar Range branches off from the great Himalayan Range near 80° E longitude and runs more or less parallel
to it.
● The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is an important range which is in The Zaskar Range.
● The Kailas Range (Gangdise in Chinese) in western Tibet is an offshoot of the Ladakh Range. The highest peak is
Mount Kailas (6714 m). River Indus originates from the northern slopes of the Kailas range.
● The northernmost range of the Trans Himalayan Ranges in India is the Great Karakoram Range.
● K2 (8,611 m) is the second highest peak in the world and the highest peak in the Indian Union.
Figure 7: Different ranges of Himalayas
2.7 The Eastern Hills or The Purvanchal
● Purvanchal, also called the Eastern Highlands, mountain ranges in eastern India.
● They extend over an area of about 98,000 square km in Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura,
and eastern Assam states.
● The Patkai and other associated mountain ranges (including the Mishmi, Naga, Manipur, Tripura, and Mizo hills)
that run through this region are referred to collectively as Purvanchal (Purva, “east,” and achal, “mountain”).
● The area is bounded by Bangladesh to the southwest, Myanmar (Burma) to the southeast, and China to the northeast.
● At the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take a sudden southward bend and form a series of comparatively low hills
which are collectively called as the Purvanchal.
Figure 8: Different Hills in The Purvanchal
2.8 Subdivisions of Himalayas
There are large-scale regional variations within the Himalayas. On the basis of relief, alignment of ranges and other
geomorphological features, the Himalayas can be divided into the following subdivisions:
1. Kashmir or North-western Himalayas

2. Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas
3. The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
4. The Arunachal Himalayas
5. The Eastern Hills and Mountains
2.8.1 Kashmir or North-western Himalayas
● In these regions, several ranges are found like Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar and Pir Panjal.
● The cold desert is found in the North Eastern part Kashmir Himalayas.
● “Dal Lake”, is found in this region and is between Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal range.
● Some Important glacier is also found in this region like Baltoro and Siachen.
● Some of the important fresh lakes such as Dal and Wular and saline lakes such as Pangong Tso and Tso
Moriri are also in this region.
● Soil
o The Kashmir valley lies in the temperate zone with an alluvial soil rich in nitrogen and organic
matter. There are different types of soils in the valley which include the slit (Gurti), loam (Bahil),
sandy (Sekil), vegetable soil, kerewa soil and peaty (Nambal soil).
● Climate
o Altitude determines the degree of coolness, precipitation and summer temperature. The valley
receives an average rainfall of about 65cm.
o In the valley of Kashmir, winter is chilling cold and lasts from December to March with
minimum temperature falling down up to -2ºC and maximum rise up to 14ºC. There are strong
winds, snowfall, and rainfall during this period. Warmer weather starts in April and lasts till
November with the maximum temperature of 36ºC and minimum of 14ºC.
● Drainage
o Indus and its tributaries Jhelum and Chenab.
● Forests
o Tropical Moist deciduous forests
o Himalayan Moist Temperate Forest
o Subalpine forest
● Vegetation
○ Sal and teak, mango, bamboo, rosewood, Oak, brown oak, walnut, rhododendron, Juniper,
Willow, and black currant.
● Mountain Ranges
o Karakoram
o Ladakh
o Zaskar
o Pir Panjal
● Passes
o Zoji la, Banihal, Photu la, and Khardung La
● Agriculture
o The Jammu plain has a high concentration of wheat, rice, maize, pulses, fodder, and oilseeds,
while the Valley of Kashmir is well known for its paddy, maize, orchards (apples, almond,
walnut, peach, cherry, etc.) and saffron cultivation.
o In Ladakh, barley, wheat, maize, vegetables, berseem, and fodder are the main crops.
o Cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and ponies are kept and reared in large number in Jammu and
Kashmir and Leh is well known for the production of fine wool.
● Mines and Minerals
➢ The Kashmir valley comprises of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks ranging from
Salkhala age (Precambrian) to Recent.
➢ Minerals found in this area are Limestone found in All districts of Valley, Kathua, Udhampur,
Rajouri, Poonch, Kargil and Leh, Granite in Kargil, Leh, Ganderbal, Baramulla, Poonch, and
Doda.
➢ Coal found in Udhampur, Rajouri (Kalakot).
➢ Graphite in Baramulla.
Figure 9: Ranges in North Western Himalayas
2.8.2 Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas
● The Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas lies between Ravi in the west and the kali ( a tributary of
Ghaghara) in the east.
● ‘Dun formations’ is the very important characteristics of this regions and some of the duns found in this
region are Chandigarh-Kalka dun, Nalagarh dun, Dehradun, Harike dun and the Kota dun, etc. Dehradun
is the largest of all the duns.
● The famous ‘Valley of flowers’ is also situated in this region.
● Drainage:
o Indus and its tributaries Ravi, the Beas, and the Satluj.
o Ganga and its tributaries Yamuna and Ghagra.
● Ranges:
o The Great Himalayan Range
o The Lesser Himalayas (which is locally known as Dhauladhar in Himachal Pradesh and Nag
tibba in Uttarakhand).
o The Shiwalik range.
● Hill Station:
o Mussoorie
o Shimla
o Dharamshala.
● Tribes:
o Bhotia tribes are nomadic groups who migrate to ‘Bugyals’ (the summer grasslands in the higher
reaches) during summer months and return to the valleys during winters.
● Soil
o Mountain Soils: Mountain soils are formed due to the accumulation of organic matter which is
derived from the forest growth and is generally shallow in depth and immature. This type of soil
is rich in humus but has poor lime, potash and phosphorus content. It is generally sandy and has
gravels. This soil is acidic with low humus and is found in Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh.
● Vegetation
o Rhododendron, Rosewood, and Juniper.
● Climate
o There is great diversification in the climatic conditions of Himachal Pradesh due to variation in
elevation. It varies from hot and sub-humid tropical to warm and temperate to cool and temperate
to cold alpine and glacial in different parts of the state.
● Agriculture
o Agriculture is the mainstay of more than 75 percent people in Himachal Pradesh. The most
important Agricultural produce in this area is Wheat, Maize, Potato, Shimla Mirch.
o Major Agricultural produce of Uttarakhand are Wheat, Rice, Potato, and Apple
● Mines & Minerals
o The state has considerable mineral resources which include rock salt, limestone, gypsum, silica-
sand, and baryte. Traces of iron, gold, lignite, pyrite, natural gas and slates have been found in
some districts like Bilaspur, Kangra, Mandi, and Solan.
o Important minerals found in Uttarakhand are Limestone, Dolomite and Marble.
2.8.3 The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
● The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas lies between Nepal in the west and Bhutan in the east and it is the
part of the Eastern Himalaya.
● Sikkim is a state in northeast India. It borders Tibet in the north and northeast, Bhutan in the east, Nepal
in the west, and West Bengal in the south.
● Sikkim Himalayas is notable for its biodiversity as well as being a host to Kanchenjunga, the highest peak
in India and third highest on Earth.
● The Passes of Nathu-La and Jelep-La connect Gangtok (Sikkim) with Lhasa (Tibet, China).
● Climate
o The climate of the state has been roughly divided into the tropical, temperate and alpine zones.
o For most of the period in a year, the climate is cold and humid as rainfall occurs in each month.
The area experience heavy rainfall due to its proximity to the Bay of Bengal.
● Drainage:
o Teesta River: The Teesta River (or Tista River) is a 309 km long river flowing through the Indian
states of West Bengal and Sikkim through Bangladesh before emptying to the Bay of Bengal.
o Rangeet River: The Rangeet or Rangit is a tributary of the Teesta river, which is the largest river
in the Indian state of Sikkim. The Rangeet river originates in the Himalayan mountains in West
Sikkim district. The river also forms the boundary between Sikkim and Darjeeling district.
● Tribes:
o Lepcha Tribe
o Bhutia Tribe
● Agriculture:
o It is noteworthy that Sikkim produces the highest amount of Cardamom in India.
o Sikkim is known for producing a special variety of tea that is known for its taste and quality
throughout the world
o In Darjeeling, Tea plantation is very much Famous.
2.8.4 The Arunachal Himalayas

● The Arunachal Himalayas extends from the east of the Bhutan Himalayas up to the Diphu pass.
● The direction of mountain ranges in Arunachal Himalayas is from southwest to northeast.
● Due to the rugged topography, the inter-valley transportation linkages are nominal. Hence. most of the
interactions are carried through the “duar” regions along the Arunachal-Assam border.
● Climate
o The climate in Arunachal Himalayas shows different feature owing to the difference in the
topography and altitude of the land.
o The climate here ranges from subtropical to temperate depending on the altitude of the land.
o The higher regions of Arunachal Pradesh witness snowfall during the winter.
● Drainage
o The Brahmaputra and its tributaries flow through these regions like:
o The Kameng, the Subansiri, the Dihang, the Dibang, and the Lohit.
● Vegetation
o Orchids, fern, bamboo, cane, rhododendrons, oak, hedychiums, and various medicinal plants.
● Tribes
o Some of the prominent ones from west to east are the Monpa, Abor, Mishmi, Nyishi and the
Nagas.
o Most of these community practices Jhumming (Shifting cultivation).
● Agriculture
o The agriculture in Arunachal Himalaya mainly focuses on Jhuming and are dependent on this
field of agriculture for their livelihood.
o Some major crops of Arunachal Pradesh are paddy, millet, wheat, pineapple, apple, oranges, and
Rice.
● Mines and Minerals
o Arunachal Pradesh has a vast reserve of mineral oils and gas. This state has also coal reserves.
o Coal is explored from Namchik - Namphuk mines in Tirap district.
o Besides coal oil and gas there is a huge reserve of dolomite, limestone, graphite, marble, lead, and
zinc etc. It is also assumed that there is a reserve of iron and copper.
o The main mineral-rich districts are Lohit, Tirap, Chanlang, West Kameng, Upper Subansiri,
Dibangghati etc.
2.8.5 The Eastern Hills and Mountains
● The Himalayas bend sharply to the south beyond the Dihang gorge and move outwards to form a covering
the eastern boundary of the country. They are known as ‘the Eastern or Purvanchal Hills’.
● In this regions Himalayan Mountain System has had their alignment from north to south direction.
● It extended in the north-eastern states of India.
Figure 10: Major Hills of North East
● Major Hills of Purvanchal Hills
o Dafla Hills: It is situated to the north of the Tezpur and North Lakhimpur, and is bounded on
the west by the Aka Hills and on the east by the Abor Range.
o Abor Hills: It is located in a region of Arunachal Pradesh in the far north-east of India, near the
border with China. It is bordered by the Mishmi Hills and Miri Hills. This region is drained by
the Dibang River, a tributary of the Brahmaputra.
o Mishmi Hills: These hills are located in the southward extension of the Great Himalayan ranges
and its northern and eastern parts touches China.
o Patkai Bum Hills: It is situated India's North-Eastern border with Burma. It is originated by the
same tectonic processes that resulted in the formation of the Himalayas in the Mesozoic. These
hills are crammed with conical peaks, steep slopes, and deep valleys but they are not as rough as
the Himalayas.
o Naga Hills: It is located in India extending into Myanmar which forms a divide between India
and Myanmar.
o Manipur Hills: It is located in the north of Nagaland, Mizoram in the south, upper Myanmar in
the east and Assam in the westbound Manipur Hills.
o Mizo Hills: It is formerly called Lushai Hills. It is located to in south-eastern Mizoram state,
north-eastern India, forming part of the north Arakan Yoma system.
o Tripura Hills: These hills are a series of parallel north-south folds, decreasing in elevation to the
south until they merge into the greater Ganges-Brahmaputra lowlands (also called the Eastern
Plains).
o Mikir Hills: It is located to the south of the Kaziranga National Park. It is part of the Karbi
Anglong Plateau. Radial drainage pattern is the best characteristic of this region where Dhansiri
and Jamuna being the main rivers.
o Garo Hills: It is located in Meghalaya state and part of Garo-Khasi range which is considered one
of ‘the wettest places on earth’. Nokrek Peak is the highest peak of this region.
o Khasi Hills: It is a part of Garo-Khasi Range in the Meghalaya and got its name Khasi tribes
which are found in this region. Cherrapunji is situated in the East Khasi Hills and Lum Shyllong
is the highest peak near Shillong.
o Jaintia Hills: It is located further to the east from the Khasi Hills.
2.9 The Significance of the Himalayas
The Himalayas comprise the most dominating geographical feature of India. No other mountain range anywhere in the world
has affected the lives of people and shaped the destiny of a nation as the Himalayas have in respect of India. The following
few points will bring out the significance of the Himalayan Mountains to India.
1. Climatic Influence:
● The Himalayas play a very significant role in influencing the climate of India. By virtue of their high
altitude, length, and direction, they effectively intercept the summer monsoons coming from the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea and cause precipitation in the form of rain or snow.
● It also prevents the cold continental air masses of central Asia from entering India.
2. Defence:
● The Himalayas have been protecting India from outside invaders since the early times thus serving as a
defence barrier.
3. Source of Rivers:
● Almost all the great rivers of India have their sources in the Himalayan ranges. Abundant rainfall and vast
snow-fields, as well as large glaciers, are the feeding grounds of the mighty rivers of India.
● Snowmelt in summer provides water to these rivers even during the dry season and these are perennial
rivers.
● The Himalayan Rivers, along with hundreds of their tributaries, form the very basis of life in the whole of
north India.
4. Agriculture:
● The Himalayas do not offer extensive flatlands for agriculture but some of the slopes are terraced for
cultivation. Rice is the main crop on the terraced slopes. The other crops are wheat, maize, potatoes,
tobacco, and ginger.
5. Hydroelectricity:
● The Himalayan region offers several sites which can be used for producing hydroelectricity.
● Example: The Rampur Hydropower Project (Himachal Pradesh), Kishanganga Hydroelectric Plant
(Jammu and Kashmir).
6. Mineral Resources:
● The Himalayan region contains many valuable minerals. There are vast potentialities of mineral oil in the
Tertiary rocks. Coal is found in Kashmir. Copper, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt, antimony, tungsten, gold,
silver, limestone, semi-precious and precious stones, gypsum and magnesite are known to occur at more
than 100 localities in the Himalayas.
2.10 Occurrence of landslides in Himalayas
Himalayas witness more frequent occurrence of landslides than in Peninsular Hills. This is because: -
1. Physiography: Himalayas are young fold mountains of tertiary period. Himalayas are of great height, have steep
slopes. Peninsular hills, on the other hand, are Eroded and denuded. Western Ghats have steep slopes on western
sides but gentle slopes on eastern Ghats. Average relief of Eastern Ghats is low and marked by gentle slope.
2. Structure: Western Ghats are made up of stable basaltic rocks. Himalayas are result of folds of sedimentary rocks
which are softer than basalt, making them vulnerable to landslides.
3. Himalayas have not yet reached isostatic equilibrium and are rising continuously. Western Ghats are located on
stable part of Indian plate, deccan plateau and are far stable than Himalayas.
4. Himalayas are located on boundary interaction of moving plate. Western Ghats, though located on moving Indian
plate, are not affected by boundary interaction and are stable.
5. Climate: Himalayas receive snowfall during winters and melting of glaciers during summer produces large flow of
debris. Western Ghats receive high rainfall only on western sides from south west monsoon. But eastern side has
very low rainfall and no landslides.
6. In recent times, Himalayas are undergoing massive deforestation because of industrialization which is aggravating
rate of debris flow and landslides. Unplanned growth of houses and growing tourism industry has also put pressure
on land resources of Himalayas more than Western Ghats.
3. THE NORTHERN PLAINS
3.1 Introduction
● Indo-Gangetic Plain, also called North Indian Plain, the extensive north-central section of the Indian subcontinent,
stretching westward from (and including) the combined delta of the Brahmaputra River valley and the Ganges
(Ganga) River to the Indus River valley.
● It is an aggradational plain formed by the depositional work of three major siver systems- the Indus, the Ganga and
the Brahmaputra.
● The region contains the subcontinent’s richest and most densely populated areas. The greater part of the plain is
made up of alluvial soil, deposited by the three main rivers and their tributaries.
● The eastern part of the plain has light rains or drought in the winter, but in summer rainfall is so heavy that vast areas
become swamps or shallow lakes.
● The plain becomes progressively drier toward the west where it incorporates the Thar (Great Indian) Desert.
Figure 11: Distribution of Great Plains in North India
3.2 Origin of the Plain
● The Great plain of Northern India was formed by the sediments brought down by the Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra
and their tributaries and it is popularly known as the Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra plain.
● Geologists suggest that there was a shallow trough or geosyncline in between the Himalayas and the Deccan plateau
during the later geological period of the formation of the Himalayas.
● After the upliftment of the Himalayas, sediments, and debris brought down by the rivers, began to accumulate there
to form the vast alluvial plain of northern India.
3.3 Geomorphology of the Plain
The Northern Plain has its own geomorphological varieties which have their own significance. The following
geomorphological features may be noticed depending upon the nature of relief and soil structure:
Figure 12: Schematic Representation of Bhabar, Tarai, Khadar, Bhangar.
3.3.1 The Bhabar
● It is a narrow belt about 8-16 km wide running in the east-west direction along the foot of the Shiwaliks with
remarkable continuity from Indus to the Teesta.
● This belt has been formed by the boulders and pebbles brought by the energetic action of rivers.
● In this belt mostly, the streams flow below the ground because of the high permeability provide by the pebbles
and coarse particles. Therefore, the area is marked by dry river courses except for the rainy season.
● They are the Alluvial fans of the Shiwaliks.
● The Bhabar region is not suitable for agriculture and only big trees with large roots thrive in this belt.
3.3.2 The Terai
● It is 15-30 km wide marshy tract in the south of Bhabar running parallel to it.
● In this belt, smaller sized particles are deposited.
● Here the streams re-emerge onto the surface making the region very moist and marshy.
● The Terai is more marked in the eastern part as compared to the west because the eastern part receives more
rainfall.
● Most of the Terai land, especially in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand has been converted into the
agricultural land which gives good crops of sugarcane, rice, and wheat.
● This thickly forested region provides shelter to a variety of wildlife. [Jim Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand
and Kaziranga National Park in Assam lie in Terai region]
3.3.3 The Bhangar
● It has been formed during the middle Pleistocene by the older alluvium brought by the rivers and is very fertile.
It is called as the older alluvial belt.
● The terraces are often impregnated with calcareous concretions known as ‘KANKAR’.
● ‘The Barind plains’ in the deltaic region of Bengal and the ‘bhur formations’ in the middle Ganga and Yamuna
doab are regional variations of Bhangar.
● The Remnants of the bhangar are eroded by every change in the direction of river channels and are being leveled
down by their meandering tendencies.
● Bhangar contains fossils of animals like rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elephants, etc.
3.3.4 The Khadar
● It is formed by the newer or fresh deposits and is called younger alluvial belt.
● It is the renewed belt and lies along the present river channels because it is characterized by the occurrence of
fresh deposits.
● The clays have less kankar, which makes it the most fertile soils of Ganges.
3.4 Regional Divisions of the Plains of India
Although the Plains of North India is treated as a geographical unit with low elevation and gentle slope, this vast area exhibits
the distinctive fluvial pattern, the direction of flow and geomorphology in different parts allowing it to be divided into the
following four major regions:
Figure 13: The Great Plain of North India
3.4.1 The Rajasthan Plain
● The Western extremity of the Great plain of India consists of the Thar or the Great Indian Desert which
cover western Rajasthan and the adjoining parts of Pakistan.
● Around two-thirds of the Indian desert lies in Rajasthan, west of the Aravalli Range, and the Remaining
parts lie in the neighbouring states of Haryana, Punjab, and Gujarat.
● The desert region is called Marusthali and forms a greater part of the Marwar plain.
● In general, the eastern part of the Marusthali is rocky while its western part is covered by shifting sand
dunes locally known as dhrain.
● It is drained by a number of short seasonal streams originating from the Aravali and supports agriculture
in some patches of fertile tracts.
● Luni is an important seasonal stream which flows into Rann of Kachchh. The tract north of the Luni is
known as thali or sandy plain.
● Saline lakes lie North of the Luni Basin and are a great source of Common salt.
● Some important lakes like the Sambhar (Largest lake), the Didwana, the Degana, the Kuchaman, the
Sargol, and the Khatu.
3.4.2 The Punjab-Haryana Plain
● Punjab Plain, large alluvial plain in north-western India. It covers the states of Punjab and Haryana and the
union territory of Delhi, except for the Shahdara zone.
● It is bounded by the Shiwalik Range to the north, the Yamuna River to the east, the arid zone of Rajasthan
state to the south, and the Ravi and Sutlej rivers to the northwest and southwest, respectively.
● The Plain is formed as a result of alluvial deposits by five rivers. i.e. - the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the
Chenab, and the Jhelum.
● The Punjab plains- the land of five rivers. It is primarily made up of ‘doabs’ - the land between two rivers.
From east to west these doabs are as under:
o Bist-Jalandhar Doab, lying between the Beas and the Sutlej.
o Bari Doab, between the Beas and the Ravi.
o Rachna Doab, between the Ravi and the Chenab.
o Chaj Doab, between the Chenab and the Jhelum.
o Sind Sagar Doab, between the Jhelum-Chenab and the Indus.
● The depositional process by the rivers has united these doabs giving a homogenous appearance.
● The northern part of this plain adjoining the Shiwalik hills has been intensively eroded by numerous
streams called Chos. This has led to enormous gullying and lead to erosion.
● The area between the Ghaggar and the Yamuna rivers lies in Haryana and often termed as ‘Haryana Tract’.
It acts as water-divide between the Yamuna and the Satluj rivers.
3.4.3 The Ganga Plain
● It is the largest unit of the Great Plains of India stretching from Delhi to Kolkata in the states of Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal.
● The Ganga along with its large number of tributaries originating in the Himalayas have brought large
quantities of alluvium from the mountains and deposited it here to build this extensive plain.
● The Peninsular river system has also contributed to the formation of this plain.
● The general slope of the entire plain is to the east and south-east.
● Rivers flow sluggishly in the lower sections of Ganges as a result of which the area is marked by local
prominences such as levees, bluffs, oxbow lakes, marshes, ravines, etc. {Fluvial Landforms, Arid
Landforms}
● Almost all the rivers keep on shifting their courses making this area prone to frequent floods. The Kosi
river is very notorious in this respect. It has long been called the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.
3.4.4 The Brahmaputra Plain
● This is also known as the Brahmaputra valley or Assam Valley or Assam Plain as most of the Brahmaputra
valley is situated in Assam.
● This Plain is formed due to the depositional work of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
● Its Physical unit is demarcated by Eastern Himalayas of Arunachal Pradesh in the north, Patkai Naga Hills
in the east and the Garo-Khasi-Jaintia and Mikir Hills in the south and western boundary is formed by the
Indo-Bangladesh border.
● The Brahmaputra river enters this plain near Sadiya and flows farther to Bangladesh after turning
southward near Dhubri.
● Alluvial Fans are formed in this plain because of the tributaries of Brahmaputra river coming from the
north debouch abruptly upon the mani valley and due to these tributaries bifurcates out in many channels
giving birth to meandering river leads to the formation of the bill and ox-bow lakes.
● The Terai or semi-terai condition is present in this region, due to the alluvial fans formed by the coarse
alluvial debris.
3.5 The significance of the Plain
1. It is the most Populous region of India and accounts for the half the Indian Population.
2. Fertile alluvial soils, flat surface, slow-moving perennial rivers, and favourable climate facilitate the intense
agricultural activity.
3. This plain is marked by agro-based economy and most of the people depend upon agriculture for their sustenance.
4. Due to the extensive use of irrigation some parts of this plain, especially Punjab, Haryana, and western part of Uttar
Pradesh became “The Granary of India”.
5. The entire plain except the Thar Desert has a close network of roads and railways which has led to large-scale
industrialization and urbanization.
6. Cultural tourism: There are many religious places along the banks of the sacred rivers like the Ganga and the
Yamuna which are very dear to Hindus. Here flourished the religions of Buddha and Mahavira and the movements
of Bhakti and Sufism.
4. THE INDIAN DESERT
4.1 Introduction
● The Thar Desert, also called Great Indian Desert, arid region of rolling sand hills on the Indian subcontinent. It is
located partly in Rajasthan state, north-western India, and partly in Punjab and Sindh provinces, eastern Pakistan.
● It is bordered by the irrigated Indus River plain to the west, the Punjab Plain to the north and northeast, the Aravalli
Range to the southeast, and the Rann of Kachchh to the south.
● The subtropical desert climate there results from persistent high pressure and subsidence at that latitude.
● The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture.
Figure 14: The Indian Desert
4.2 Geological History and Features
● It is believed that during the Mesozoic era, this region was under the sea. This can be corroborated by the evidence
available at wood fossils park at Aakal and marine deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer.
● The presence of dry beds of rivers (e.g. Saraswati) indicates that the region was once fertile.
● Geologically, the desert area is a part of peninsular plateau region but on the surface, it looks like an aggradational
plain.
4.3 The climate of Thar desert
● The Climate in the Thar desert is like any other desert. Hot in the day and cool at night.
● The summer days are really hot, and the nights are cool but the winter days are warm and the nights are cold.
● This region receives low rainfall below 150 mm per year; hence, it has an arid climate with low vegetation cover.
● In the summer there is little to no rain.
● The prevailing southwest monsoon winds that bring rain to much of the subcontinent in summer tend to bypass the
Thar to the east.
4.4 Vegetation
● The desert vegetation is mostly herbaceos or stunted shrub; drought-resistant trees occasionally dot the landscape,
especially in the east. On the hills, gum arabic acacia and euphorbia may be found. The khejri tree grows throughout
the plains
4.5 Drainage
● Most of the rivers in this region are ephemeral.
● The Luni river flows in the southern part of this Desert.
4.6 Agriculture
● The Thar is one of the most heavily populated desert areas in the world with the main occupations of its inhabitants
is agriculture and animal husbandry.
● Animal husbandry, trees, and grasses, intercropped with vegetables or fruit trees, is the most viable model for arid,
drought-prone regions.
● Agricultural production is mainly from Kharif crops, which are grown in the summer season and seeded in June and
July include bajra, pulses such as guar, jowar, maize, sesame and groundnuts.
● Over the past few decades, the development of irrigation features including canals and tube wells have changed the
crop pattern with desert districts in Rajasthan now producing Rabi crops including wheat, mustard, and cumin seed
along with cash crops.
4.7 Features of The Indian Desert
1. The desert is called as Marusthali (dead land) because this region has an arid climate with low vegetation cover. In
general, the Eastern part of the Marusthali is rocky, while its western part is covered by shifting sand dunes.
2. The desert presents an undulating surface, with high and low sand dunes separated by sandy plains and low barren
hills, or bhakars, which rise abruptly from the surrounding plains.
3. Some of the well pronounced desert lands feature present here are mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis (mostly
in its southern part).
4. The desert can be divided into two parts: the northern part is sloping towards Sindh and the southern part towards
the Rann of Kachchh.
5. Low precipitation and high evaporation make it a water deficit region.
6. Older dunes, however, are in a semi-stabilized or stabilized condition, and many rises to a height of almost 150 metres
above the surrounding areas. Several playas (saline lake beds), locally known as dhands, are scattered throughout the
region.
7. The thinly populated grasslands support blackbucks, chikara (gazelles), and some feathered game, notably francolins
(partridges) and quail. Among the migratory birds, ducks, and geese are common. The desert is also the home of the
endangered great bustard.
5. THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU
Figure 15: Plateaus of India
5.1 Features:
● Peninsular plateau of India has a shape of irregular triangle with an average elevation of 600-900m.
● The Peninsular plateau is a tabular bock composed mostly of the Archean gneiss and schist.
● Its geographical extent is the Delhi ridge in northwest, Rajmahal hills in east, Gir range in the West and Cardamom
hills in the the south. Its extension in the north-east can be seen in the form of Shillong and Karbi-Anglong plateau.
● The general slope of the plateau is from west to east that’s why most of the peninsular rivers drain into the Bay of
Bengal, with exception of Narmada and Tapi which flow in rift valley in the westward direction.
5.2 Plateaus of Peninsular India:
5.2.1 Marwar upland:

● Located in the east of Aravali range.
● Banas is the main river which is run for about 400 km before joining the Chambal river.
● Minerals: Region is famous for Makrana marbles, Copper is found on the Punagar hills in Pali, Sojat, and
Jodhpur. Tin and lead are found at Sojat, alum about Pali and iron is obtained from Bhinmal
5.2.2 Central Highland:

● Located in the east of Marwar plateau, also known as Madhya Bharat Pathar.
● The region comprises of the basin of river Chambal which flows in rift valley through it.
● The plateau is made up of old rocks which are interspaced with rounded hills of sandstone.
Figure 16: Central Highland
5.2.3 Bundelkhand Upland:

● Located between south of Yamuna river and Madhya Bharat Pathar.
● The plateau is mainly made up of granite and gneiss.
● The region is rain deficit and receives only 40-45 cm annual rainfall during the last six years. The region faces
frequent drought-like conditions.
● Soil: Soil of Bundelkhand can be divided into two major categories. These soils are locally called Rakar, Parua,
Kabar, and Mar.
● Vegetation: Due to less rainfall vegetation here are thorny here. Acacia, Khair, Palash, Semal, Tendu, Mahua,
and Ber are the main trees of the region. Sal and Teak trees are found in fewer numbers.
Figure 17: Bundelkhand
5.2.4 Malwa Plateau:

● Malwa plateau roughly forms a triangle with Vindhyan Hills in south forms the base, bounded by Aravali range
in the west and by Bundelkhand in the east.
● Here rainfall is uneven, in the western part of Malwa the average rainfall is 75 cm whereas in eastern part the
average is 75 – 125cm.
● Soil: The Malwa plateau is made up of basalt rocks due to which black cotton soil present in the region.
5.2.5 Baghelkhand Plateau:
● The Baghelkhand plateau is bounded by Son river in the north and, in the south by anticlinal uplands and
synclinal valleys of sandstone and limestone.
● The central part of plateau acts as the water divide between river Son and Mahanadi river system.
● Here the main element of physiography are scarps of the Vindhyan sandstones between Gangetic plain and
Narmada-Son trough.
5.2.6 Chota Nagpur Plateau:

● Situated in the east of Baghelkhand, Chota Nagpur plateau represents the north-eastern projection of the
Peninsular plateau.
● The Chota Nagpur plateau covers most of the Jharkhand, northern Chhattisgarh and Purulia district of West
Bengal. The plateau is mainly comprised of mainly Gondwana rocks with patches of Archean granite and gneiss
and Deccan lava.
● Chota Nagpur plateau represents radial drainage system.
● Entire Chota Nagpur plateau is made up of Dharwar rocks but in Damodar rift valley Gondwana rocks present.
● Minerals: 40 percent of India’s metallic and non-metallic minerals are found here. The region is rich in
minerals like mica, bauxite, copper, limestone, iron ore and coal. The Damodar valley is rich in coal and it is
considered as the prime centre of coking coal in the country. Important coalfields are Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro,
and Karnapura.
5.2.7 Meghalaya Plateau:

● Meghalaya plateau is an extension of the peninsular plateau, separated by Garo-Rajmahal fault or Malda
Gap. The gap was formed by downfaulting and later filled by sediments deposited by Ganga.
● Due to the funnelling effect of wind this region receives heavy rainfall and some of the world’s highest rainfall
receiving places (Mawsynram, Cherrapunji) are situated in this region. The average annual rainfall is 1200 cm.
● Minerals: Meghalaya plateau have huge reserves of Coal and Uranium, Darangiri coalfield is situated in
Meghalaya.
5.2.8 Deccan Plateau:

● Deccan plateau is the largest part of the peninsular plateau of India, which covers an area about five lakh square
kilometers, it is formed by Fischer volcanism.
● The plateau is roughly triangular in the shape which is bounded by Satpura and Vindhya ranges in the north-
west, Mahadev and Maikal in the north, the western ghats in the west and eastern ghats in the east.
● The entire Deccan plateau is covered by black soil with some patches of red soil.
● The Deccan plateau is subdivided into three smaller plateaus viz. Maharashtra plateau, Karnataka plateau, and
Telangana plateau.
a) Genesis of Deccan plateau:

o The volcanic basalt beds of the Deccan were laid down in the massive Deccan Traps eruption, which
occurred towards the end of the Cretaceous period between 67 and 66 million years ago.
o The volcanic activity deposited layer after layer and when the volcanoes became extinct, they left a region
of highlands with typically vast stretches of flat areas on top like a table.
o It is hypothesized that earlier Indian plate was situated in southern hemisphere and during northward
movement it came across a volcanic hotspot which presently lie under Reunion Island in the Indian Ocean.
b) Maharashtra Plateau:
o It is the northern part of the Deccan plateau and lies in the Maharashtra state.
o The region is mostly underlain by basaltic rocks of lava origin.
o The entire region is covered by black cotton soil known as regur.
o Here, horizontal lava sheets have led to the formation of typical Deccan trap topology.
c) Karnataka Plateau:
o It is located in the south of Maharashtra plateau, also known as Mysore plateau.
o Karnataka plateau is mainly formed of Archean rock-system.
o The average elevation of the Plateau is 600-900 m.
o The highest peak of Karnataka plateau is Mullayanagiri (1913 m) in Baba Budan Hills.
o Karnataka plateau is divided into two parts viz. Malnad and Maidan.
o Malnad stands for the region of hills in Kannada, which is dissected into deep valleys covered with dense
forest. The Maidan region is formed of rolling plains with low granite hills.
o Karnataka plateau tapers between Eastern and Western ghats toward the south and merges with Nilgiri
hills.
o The most famous hill range of Karnataka plateau is Baba Budan Hills, which is made up of entirely
magnetite ore.
d) Telangana plateau:
o Located in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
o Made up of Archean gneiss rocks.
o The average elevation of the Telangana plateau is 500-600 m. The southern part of the plateau is higher
than the northern part.
o Godavari, Krishna, and Penner are the major rivers of the Telangana plateau.
o It is divided into two major physiographic regions viz, the ghats and the peneplains.
o It is the second biggest region of Tendu leaves.
5.3 Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau
The different plateaus of the peninsular region are separated by hill ranges and river valleys. The hill ranges of the peninsular
plateau are much less in height as compared to the Himalayan ranges.
Figure 18: Mountain Ranges of Peninsular Region
5.3.1 Aravalli Range:

● It runs in a north-east to the south-west direction for 800 km from Delhi to Palanpur.
● Aravalli range was formed at the close of the Archean era and now stands in form of a relict mountain. Aravalli
is India’s oldest fold mountain.
● Its general elevation is only 400-600 m, but it rises well above 1100 m in some parts. Guru Shikhar (1,722) is the
highest peak of the Aravali range.
● Pipli Ghat, Barr, Dewair, and Desuri are the important passes which allow movements by roads railways.
● Delhi Ridge is the divider of Indus and Gangetic plain.
● Aravalli gives seasonal rivers like Banas, Luni and Mahi.
5.3.2 Vindhya Range:

● The Vindhya Range rises as an escarpment flanking the northern edge of the Narmada-Son trough. It runs
parallel to the Narmada valley in the east-west direction from Jobat in Gujarat to Sasaram in Bihar.
● It is mostly comprised of horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks of ancient age, its western part is covered by
lava.
● It is extended in the eastward direction as Bharner and Kaimur hills.
● Vindhya range acts as a watershed between the Gangetic river system and the river systems of south India.
5.3.3 Satpura Range:

● Satpura is a series of seven mountains, which is situated between Narmada and Tapti rivers and runs in the east-
west direction to the south of Vindhya range.
● The evidence of folding and upheaval due to tectonic disturbance has been found in the Satpura range.
5.4 Western Ghats:
5.4.1 Sahyadri:
● In Maharashtra, Western Ghats is known as Sahyadri.
● It forms the western edge of the peninsular plateau, runs parallel to Arabian Sea coast from Tapi valley to
Kanyakumari.
● Kalsubai near Nasik is the highest peak of Sahyadri.
● Mahabaleshwar is the highest plateau of Sahyadri. Panchgani is the part of Mahabaleshwar is an example of
table top plateau.
● Matheran, Mahabaleshwar, Panchgani etc are hill stations of Sahyadri.
● Thal ghat and Bhorghat are important passes in the region which connects Konkan plain to Deccan plateau.
5.4.2 Middle Western Ghats:

● This part of Western Ghats is made up of granite and gneiss rocks.
● The windward side receives heavy rainfall and covered with dense forest.
5.4.3Southern Western Ghats:

● The southern part is separated through main part of Sahyadri through Palghat Gap. the gap is used for several
roads and railways to connect the plains of Tamilnadu with coastal plains of Kerala.
● Anamudi (2695 m) is the highest peak of south India. It is a nodal point from which three mountain range
radiates in the different directions, which are Anaimali to north, palani to the north-east and Cardamom hills
to the south.
● Nilgiri mountains are made up of blue granite rocks. Doda Betta (2637 m) is the highest peak of Nilgiri
mountains.
● Silent valley in the Kerala doesn't have crickets and remain silent in night.
● Shencottah separates Cardamom hills from Anaimalai.
5.5 Eastern Ghats:
● It marks the eastern boundary of the peninsular plateau and runs almost parallel to the East coast.
● Unlike western ghats, it is a chain of highly broken and detached hills.
● The hills of Western Ghats have neither structural unity nor physiographic continuity.
● The Godavari valley divides Eastern ghats into the northern and southern part.
● The Eastern Ghats loses its hilly character between Godavari and Krishna river which is occupied by rocks of
Gondwana formation.
6. THE COASTAL PLAINS
1. Introduction
● A coastal plain is a flat, low-lying piece of land next to the ocean. Coastal plains are separated from the rest of the
interior by nearby landforms, such as mountains.
● The coastal plains of India are located along the Arabian Sea coast in the west and along the Bay of Bengal coast in
the east.
● The coastline of India extends from Rann of Kachchh in the west to the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in the east.
● India has a coastline of 7516.6 Km [6100 km of mainland coastline + coastline of 1197 Indian islands] touching 13
States and Union Territories (UTs).
● The Indian coastal plain is divided into two plains:
o West Coastal plain that lies between the Western Ghats and the Arabian sea coast.
o East Coastal Plain that lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Coast of the Bay of Bengal.
Figure 19: Coastal Plains of India
2. Western Coast of India
● The Western Coast of India stretches from Rann of Kachchh in the north to Kanyakumari in the south.
● It is wider in the northern and southern part but narrow in the middle.
● It is an example of submerged coastal plain and because of this submergence it is a narrow belt and
provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbors.
● Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Navha Sheva, Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are some of the important
natural ports located along the west coast.
● The rivers don’t form any delta while flowing through this coastal plain.
3. The eastern coastal plains
● The Eastern Coastal Plains extends between the Eastern Ghats and the sea coast from Subarnarekha River
to Kanyakumari.
● It is wider than Western Coastal Plain because the rivers like Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri formed
the delta over there.
● It is marked by number of deltas.
● The continental shelf extends up to 500 km into the sea, which makes it difficult for the development of
good ports and harbours.
● In Eastern Coastal plain, there is the Kolleru lake which situated in the delta region of Godavari and the
Krishna Rivers. Chilka lake and Pulicat lake are best example of lagoon which is also found in this region.
● The Orissan plain is also known as the Utkal Plain.
● The plain between the Godavari and the Mahanadi is known as the Northern Circar whereas the eastern
coast of Tamil Nadu is called the Coromandel Coast.
● Due to varying degree Physiography, the entire plain is divided into three regions:
Figure 20: East and West Coast of India
7. THE INDIAN ISLANDS
India has varied types of islands ranging from continental, volcanic, corals, deltaic, riverine, etc.
1. Introduction
● There are large number of islands near the Indian coast, but there are two main groups of islands in the Indian Ocean.
● One of them is the Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago in the Bay of Bengal and the other is a group of tiny islands
known as the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian sea.
2. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands

● Andaman and Nicobar Islands, consisting of two groups of islands at the south-eastern edge of the Bay of Bengal.
● The Andaman Archipelago is an oceanic continuation of the Burmese Arakan Yoma range in the North and of the
Indonesian Archipelago in the South.
● The entire chain consists of two distinct groups of islands. The great Andaman group of islands in the north is
separated by the Ten Degree Channel from the Nicobar group in the south.
● The Andaman Islands are divided into three main islands i.e. North, Middle and South.
● Duncan passage separates Little Andaman from South Andaman.
● Among the Nicobar Islands, the Great Nicobar is the largest. It is the southernmost island and is very close to Sumatra
island of Indonesia. The Car Nicobar is the northernmost.
● Most of these islands are made of tertiary sandstone, limestone and shale resting on basic and ultrabasic volcanoes
[Similar to Himalayas].
● THE BARREN AND NARCONDAM ISLANDS, north of Port Blair, are volcanic islands [these are the only active
volcanoes in India] [There are no active volcanoes in mainland India].
● Some of the islands are fringed with coral reefs. Many of them are covered with thick forests. Most of the islands
are mountainous.
● Saddle peak (737 m) in North Andaman is the highest peak.
Figure 21: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands
3. The Lakshadweep Islands
● It is scattered in the Arabian sea between 8°N-12°N and 71°E-74°E longitude and is south-west of the Kerala
coast.
● The islands north of 11°N are known as Amindivi Islands those south of this latitude are called Cannanore
islands.
● The Minicoy island lies in the extreme south.
● All are tiny islands of coral origin {Atoll} and are surrounded by fringing reefs.
● The largest and the most advanced is the Minicoy island with an area of 4.53 sq km.
● Most of the islands have low elevation and do not rise more than five metre above sea level (Extremely
Vulnerable to sea level change).
● Their topography is flat and relief features such as hills, streams, valleys, etc. are absent.
● The Shallow lagoon are seen on their western side, while on the eastern seaboard the slopes are steeper.
Figure 22: Lakshadweep Islands
4. Development Issues in these islands:
1. Extinction of tribes and languages: Development programs leads to tourism which in turn affects the culture and
customs of indigenous and particularly vulnerable tribal groups.
2. Destruction of biodiversity: Construction programs leads to destruction of mangroves, equatorial rainforests,
marine biomes, development of edge species, etc.
3. Natural Hazards: These islands constantly face the wrath of natural hazards like tropical cyclones, tsunamis, etc.
5. Development of Island territory of India:
● Fishing Sector: The fishing industry on the Islands is an important means of livelihood, offering favorable
employment opportunities and economic well-being to the people. Currently, the fish resources are considered to
be underexploited. Development of cold chain storage and processing infrastructure is needed for further
development. Tuna Fish processing industry is located in Minicoy island which is important source of livelihood.
● Tourism: Islands are endowed with natural environment and scenic beauty. There are two marine protected areas
for reefs in the Andamans: the Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park and the Rani Jhansi Marine National Park.
Lakshadweep islands are famous for their coral reefs. Development of infrastructure and connectivity with
mainland will help in promotion of tourism.
● Development of national parks and biosphere reserves.
● Conservation of Ecology: Island areas have number of protected areas National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries. Early
efforts are needed for protection of pristine ecological environment of island region from developmental
destruction.
● Mangroves swamps and wetlands in the inland creeks and and inland waters which are facing great threat needs to
be safeguarded so as to maintain the ecosystem balance. The corals need to be conserved.
● Industries: Agro-based industry, fish processing industries, small cottage industries need to be set up to
commercialize culture and tradition of tribal people in islands. It will help in providing livelihood security and
conservation of tribal tradition.
● Forest based cottage industries: Industries based on coconut, plantations, etc, handicraft industries, rope
industries, etc. needs to be promoted. They will also provide employment to the inhabitants.
● Agriculture: Development of agriculture through cultivation of coconut, Paddy, arecanut. Islands have potential for
development of eco-farming. Especially separate set of development measures are needed for hill tribes who
mostly depend on Jhum cultivation.
● Horticulture Development: Promotion of organic farming of coconuts, fruits, etc. so as to make farming
remunerative in these islands.
● Ayush: Undisturbed ecology and presence of medicinal herbs makes island territory from medical perspective.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are considered to be a hotspot of biodiversity of medicinal plants. Documentation of
medicinal herbs and their regulated commercialization as forest produce can provide income for tribals.
● Buildings of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands should be made earthquake resistant because Andaman and Nicobar
group of islands lies in the highest seismic risk zone V.
● Preservation of tribal diversity through tribal development programs needs to be strengthened. Tribes such as
Jarawas, Onges, Sentinelese, Nicobarese, etc. should be provided with adequate facilities so as to preserve their
identities and cultures.
● Human Resource Development: Skill building of tribals will help to provide them meaningful opportunities in
tourism, fishing, agriculture and small-scale industries.
Chapter 3: DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA
1. DRAINAGE SYSTEM
The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as ‘drainage’ and the network of such channels is called a ‘drainage
system’.
● A natural drainage system is developed by the rivers and their tributaries.
● A drainage pattern is referred to the geometrical form of the rivers of a particular area and spatial arrangement.
● A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its ‘catchment area’.
● An area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a drainage basin.
● The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the other is known as the watershed.
1.1 Factors influencing the drainage pattern of a region
1. Geological time period

2. Nature and structure of rocks
3. The topography of the region
4. Slope
5. Amount of water flow
6. The periodicity of water flow
1.2 Important Drainage Patterns
1. The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree is known as “dendritic” the examples of which are the rivers
of the northern plain.
2. When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions, the drainage pattern is known as ‘radial’. The rivers
originating from the Amarkantak range present a good example of it.
3. When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to each other and secondary tributaries join them at right angles,
the pattern is known as ‘trellis’.
4. When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a lake or depression, the pattern is known as
‘centripetal’.
On the basis of the origin, Indian drainage system can be divided into the Himalayan drainage system and Peninsular India’s
drainage system.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF HIMALAYAN AND PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM
The Himalayan River System The Peninsular River System
● The Himalayan rivers are perennial in nature. ● Peninsular rivers are seasonal. Their water level
They receive water both from rainfall and melting increases only once in the year during the south-
of glaciers. The water level of these rivers increases west monsoon. The exception is eastern coastal
twice in the year i.e. during south-west monsoon regions of Tamil Nadu where rainfall occurs due
and in summer due to the melting of ice. to north-east monsoon and water level in river
Kaveri increases twice in lower riches
● The Basins of Himalayan rivers are often large, e.g. ● The peninsular river basins are smaller in
The Ganga River Basin and The Brahmaputra comparison to Himalayan rivers, e.g. Godavari
River Basin. basin, Narmada basin, Kaveri Basin.
● The Himalayan rivers often change their course ● The course of peninsular rivers is mostly stable as
due to deposition of silts. they move through hard rocks.
● The Himalayan rivers are often long due to their ● The Peninsular rivers are comparatively smaller in
large distance of the source from the ocean. length.
● Less number of rivers flow into the sea as most of ● Most of the rivers flow into the ocean because of
the rivers are tributaries of one or the other river. the high peninsular slope.
● Himalayan rivers cover large distance in plain and ● The peninsular rivers are not navigable due to the
receive water throughout the year which makes it uneven terrain of their course and fluctuation in
navigable. the quantity of water in the rivers. Peninsular
rivers are navigable in deltaic region.
● Himalayan rivers form deep valleys and gorges in ● Peninsular rivers are often shallow.
source reason.
● Himalayan rivers form natural levee, meanders ● These landforms are not visible in peninsular
and oxbow lakes, because they move through rivers as the flow through hard rocky areas.
friable land.
● Himalayan rivers often form large deltas at their ● Peninsular rivers often form estuaries or small
mouths. deltas at their mouths.
3. THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE SYSTEM
3.1 Evolution:
● Geologists believed that that a mighty river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the entire longitudinal extent
of the Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and onwards to Sindh, and finally discharged into the Gulf of Sind near lower
Punjab during the Miocene period some 5-24 million years ago.
● It is opined that in due course of time Indo–Brahma river was dismembered into three main drainage systems: (i) the
Indus and its five tributaries in the western part; (ii) the Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries in the central part; and
(iii) the stretch of the Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan tributaries in the eastern part.
● The dismemberment was probably due to the Pleistocene upheaval in the western Himalayas, including the uplift
of the Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted as the water divide between the Indus and Ganga drainage
systems, the downthrusting of the Malda gap during the mid-pleistocene period, diverted the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal.
3.2 The Indus System
● It is one of the largest river basins of the world, covering an area of 11,65,000 sq. km.
● It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu (near Mansarovar lake) in the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m
in the Kailash Mountain range.
● In upper course it flows between Ladakh and Zaskar range in north-west direction. It cuts across the Ladakh range,
forming a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and Kashmir.
● The Shyok, the Gilgit, the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, the Gasting and the Dras are the tributaries of
Indus in Himalayan region.
● It comes out of hills near Attock in Pakistan where it receives the Kabul river on its right bank.
● Other important right bank tributaries are the Khurram, the Tochi, the Gomal, the Viboa and the Sangar. It flows in
south direction afterward and receives Panjnad (Name given to five rivers of Punjab i.e. the Jhelum, the Chenab, the
Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj) at Mithankot.
● Indus river meets with Arabian Sea near Karachi.
Figure 23: Indus River Drainage
The Jhelum: rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of
Kashmir. It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge. It joins the
Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan.
The Chenab: Chenab is formed by two streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal
Pradesh. Chenab is the largest tributary of Indus with a length of 1180 km.
The Ravi: It rises west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through the Chamba valley of the
state. It joins the Chenab near Sarai Sindhu. It drains the region between the Dhauladhar range and the Pir Panjal range.
The Beas: Beas river originates from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass. The river flows through the Kullu valley and forms
gorges at Kati and Largi in the Dhauladhar range. It meets with Satluj in Punjab near Harike.
The Satluj: The Satluj river originates in the Rakas lake near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in Tibet where it is known
as Langchen Khambab. It is an antecedent river which cut through the himalayas at Shipki La and enters India. The Bhakra
Nangal project has been constructed over this river.
3.3. The Ganga River System
Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from Gangotri glacier near Gomukh in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand.
The other important headstream is Alaknanda, originates from Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. It is an antecedent river
which meets Bhagirathi at Devprayag and from here the combined stream of both these rivers are called Bhagirathi. Alaknanda
meets with five important rivers and their confluence jointly called Pancha Prayaga.
Place Confluence of rivers
Vishnuprayag Dhauliganga and Alaknanda
Nandaprayag Mandakini and Alaknanda
Karnaprayag Pindar and Alaknanda
Rudraprayag Mandakini and Alaknanda
Devprayag Bhagirathi and Alaknanda
Figure 24: Ganges River System
The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar. From here, it flows first to the south, then to the south-east and east before splitting
into two distributaries, namely the Bhagirathi and the Hugli. The main river goes to Bangladesh where it is called Padma and
after confluence with river Brahmaputra it is known as Meghna.
Yamuna:
● Yamuna is the longest tributary of Ganga, which originates from Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of
Bandarpunch range. It joins Ganga at Allahabad.
● Its major right bank tributaries are the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken, while the Hindan, the Rind, the
Sengar, the Varuna, etc. join it on its left bank.
● The Chambal rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and flows northwards through a gorge
upwards of Kota and finally joins Yamuna near Etawah. Chambal is famous for its badland topography.
Figure: Yamuna River System
• Karmanasa: the river originates from the Kaimur range in Mirzapur and joins the Ganga on its right banks at Chausa.
• Punpun: It originates from the plateau regions of Madhya Pradesh and joins the Ganga on its right bank near Patna.
• Son: It is a major right bank tributary of Ganga, which originates from Amarkantak hills of Madhya Pradesh. It joins
Ganga at Patna; its major tributaries are Rihand and North Koel.
• Damodar: It originates from Chota Nagpur plateau in Jharkhand. It passes through a rift valley and joins Ganga at Fulta.
• Ramganga: It originates near Nainital and joins the Ganga near Kannauj.
• Gomati: Originates from Pilibhit and joins Ganga near Gazipur.
• Ghaghra: Originates from Mapcha Chung glacier in Tibet region. It joins Ganga near Chhapra.
• Sarda: Originates from Milam glacier from Nepal. It is known as Kaliganga upto Indo-Nepal border.
• Gandak: It originates from Nepal and joins Ganga Sonepur near Patna.
• Kosi: it is an antecedent river which originates in Nepal. Its mainstream is Arun which originates from Gosaithan Kosi
joins Ganga at Kadhagola in Bihar. Kosi changes its course very frequently and causes heavy flooding.
o Mahananda: It originates from the hills of Darjeeling and It joins the Ganges at Godagiri in Nawabganj district in
Bangladesh,
Figure 25: Brahmaputra River System
3.4 The Brahmaputra River System:
● The Brahmaputra river originates from Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake.
● It is known as Yarlung Zangbo or Tsangpo in Tibet, The Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank tributary of this
river in Tibet.
● After traversing 1200 k.m. in eastward direction in Tibet it carves a deep gorge near Namcha Barwa. The river
emerges from the foothills under the name of Siang or Dihang.
● After its confluence with two major left bank tributaries viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit; it is known as the
Brahmaputra.
● Its major left bank tributaries are the Burhi Dihing, Dhansari (South) and Kalang whereas the important right bank
tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh.
● The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward.
● River Teesta joins Brahmaputra on right bank in Bangladesh from where the river is known as the Yamuna.
● Brahmaputra finally merges with river Padma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal.
● The world’s largest riverine island- Majuli island, is situated in the middle of river Brahmaputra.
4. PENINSULAR INDIA’S DRAINAGE SYSTEM
● The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan river system, which is evident from the broad, largely-
graded shallow valleys, and the maturity of the rivers.
● The Western Ghats acts as water divide between major Peninsular rivers, discharging their water in the Bay of Bengal
and as small rivulets joining the Arabian Sea.
● The general slope of peninsular plateau is toward east and south-east due to which most of the peninsular rivers
drains into Bay of Bengal, two major rivers Narmada and Tapi exceptionally drains into Bay of Bengal.
● Peninsular rivers are characterised by fixed course, absence of meanders and non-perennial flow of water.
4.1 The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System:
The present form of drainage systems of Peninsular India is shaped by three major geological events,
1. Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to its submergence below the sea during the early tertiary
period. This event has disturbed the symmetrical plan of the river on either side of the original watershed.
2. Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the Peninsular block was subjected to subsidence and the
consequent trough faulting. The Narmada and The Tapi flow in trough faults and fill the original cracks with their
detritus materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers.
3. Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from northwest to the southeastern direction gave orientation to the entire
drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period.
4.2 Godavari River System:
Figure 26: Godavari River System
● The Godavari is the largest river system of peninsular India.

● It rises from a place called Trayambak in the Nasik district of Maharashtra and discharges its water into the Bay of
Bengal.
● It is 1,465 km long with a catchment area spreading over 3.13 lakh sq. km. The catchment area of the river lies in
Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
● Its major tributaries are Indrawati, Pranhita, Purna, Dudhna, Manjara etc.
4.3 Krishna River System:
● The Krishna is the second largest east-flowing Peninsular river which rises near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. Its
length is 1401 k.m.
● Tungabhadra are Bhima are its major tributaries, other tributaries are Koyna, Verna, Panchganga, Ghataprabha,
Malaprabha, Dudhganga and Musi.
● Its catchment area lies in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
Figure 27: Krishna River System
4.4 Kaveri River System:

● The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills of Kodagu district in Karnataka.
● The length of Kaveri river is 800 k.m. and its catchment area is spread over 81,155 sq. km.
● Its upper catchment area receives rainfall during the southwest monsoon season (summer) and the lower part during
the northeast monsoon season (winter), the river carries water throughout the year with comparatively less
fluctuation than the other Peninsular rivers.
● The river basin of Cauvery mainly falls in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu but 3 percent of its basin also lies in Kerala.
● Its major right bank tributaries are Laxman Tirtha, Kabani, Suvarnavathi, Bhavani and Amravati. Herangi, Hemavati,
Shimsha and Akrawati joins it on left bank.
● In the course of river Kaveri, there are a number of natural waterfalls lies out of which Shivasamudram and
Hogenakkal are most important.
4.5 Narmada River System:

● The Narmada originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau.
● It flows in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the Vindhyan range.
● It meets with sea at Gulf of Cambay near Bharuch where it forms a broad 27 km long estuary.
● It forms the Dhuandhar waterfall by cutting the marble rocks of Bhedaghat near Jabalpur.
● The length of Narmada river is 1,312 km and its catchment area are about 98,796 sq. km.
4.6 Tapi River System:

● It originates from Multai in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.
● It is 724 km long and drains an area of 65,145 sq. km.
● Its river basin is lies in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
● It flows through a rift valley and drains into Gulf of Cambay.
4.7 Mahanadi River System:

● The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in Dhamtari district of Chhattisgarh.
● It flows through Odisha and drains into Bay of Bengal.
● Its length is 851 km and its catchment area spreads over 1.42 lakh sq. km.
● Its river basin is lies in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Odisha.
5. SMALLER RIVERS FLOWING TOWARDS THE WEST
The small west-flowing rivers of peninsular India are also important.

These rivers have steep slope and waterfalls which are important for generation of hydro-electricity.
1. The Shetrunji river which rises near Dalkahwa in Amreli district and drains into Arabian sea after flowing through
Bhavnagar district.
2. The Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village in Panchmahal district.
3. The river Bhadra originates from the Porbandar district and drains into the Arabian sea.
4. The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district and drains into the Arabian sea near Valsad.
5. The Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district and falls in the Karwar Bay.
6. The Bedti river originates from the hills of Hubli-Dharwad of Karnataka.
7. The Sharavati originates in Shimoga district of Karnataka and drains a catchment area of 2,209 sq. km. The famous
Jog (Gersoppa) falls lies in its course.
8. Mandovi and Zuari are the two major rivers of Goa.
9. Bharathapuzha is the longest river of Kerala which drains an area of 5,397 sq. km. It rises near Anamalai hills and
flows into the Arabian Sea. This river is also known as Ponnani.
10. The Periyar is the second largest river of Kerala. Its catchment area is 5,243 sq. km. it originates from Anamalai hills
and flows into the Arabian sea to the north of Vembanad lake.
11. The river Pamba originates from Anamalai hills and joins Vembanad lake.
6. SMALL RIVERS FLOWING TOWARDS THE EAST
There are many rivers which flowing east and joins Bay of Bengal.
1. The Subarnarekha river originates from the Chota Nagpur plateau, flowing through the districts of Ranchi and
Singhbhum, it drains into Bay of Bengal.
2. The Baitarani river originates from hills of Kendujhar in Odisha. It drains into Bay of Bengal after flowing towards
the south-west.
3. The rivers Shankh and Koel together near Rourkela and after confluence the river is known as Brahmani, which
drains into Bay of Bengal near Wheeler island.
4. Vamshadhara originates in the southern part of Odisha and drains Bay of Bengal after flowing through Andhra
Pradesh.
5. River Palar originates from Kolar district of Karnataka and drains in Bay of Bengal after flowing through Andhra
Pradesh and Tamilnadu.
6. Vaigai river originates from the Varshanad hills in Madurai district. It drains into Bay of Bengal near Mandapam.
7. READY REFERENCE DATA
River Length Tributaries
Brahmaputra 2900 km Dibang, Lohit, Burhi Dihing,

Dhansari, Kelang. (left bank)
Subansiri, Kameng, Manas, Sankosh
(right bank)
Indus 2880 km (709 km in India) Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, Beas,

Shyok, Gilgit, Hunza, Nubra, Kabul,
Shigar etc.
Ganga 2525 km Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara,

Gandak, Burhi Gandak, Baghmati,
Kosi, Mahananda (left bank)
Yamuna, Son, Tons, Karmanasa,
Punpun, Damodar, Ajai (right bank)
Godavari 1465 km Indravati, Pranhita, Dudhna, Manjara,

Pravara
Satluj 1450 km (1050 in India) Beas, Baspa, Spiti, Nogli, Soan etc.
Krishna 1400 km Tungabhadra, Bhima, Koyna, Verna,

Panchaganga, Ghataprabha,
Malaprabha, Dudhganga, Musi
Yamuna 1376 km Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken (right

bank)
Tons, Hindon, Sangar, Rind (left bank)
Narmada 1310 km Orisang, Burhner, Banjar, Tawa,

Hiran, Kolar
Ghaghara 1080 km Karnali, Saryu, Sarda, Rapti, Chhoti

Gandak
Chambal 1050 km Banas, Kalisind, Parvati, Kshipra
Mahanadi 857 km Seonath, Hasdo, Mand, Ib, Jonk, Tel
Son 784 km Rihand, North Koel, Zohila, Gopat,

Kanhar
Tapti 730 km Purna, Veghar, Girna, Bori, Panjhar,

Aner
Damodar 592 km Barakar, Konar, Nunia, Jamunia, Sali
8. INTERLINKING OF RIVERS: -
Although India has vast surface water resources, the same are very unevenly distributed over time and space. most of the
Himalayan rivers are large and originate in the snow-covered high-altitude areas of the Himalayan ranges. Therefore, they
carry sufficient water throughout the year and are perennial in nature. In contrast, the rivers of the Peninsular India are
seasonal. They carry very little water in dry summer. India therefore witnesses chronic problem of floods in one part and
droughts in other part of the country.
Keeping these factors in mind, idea of interlinking rivers through interface in linkages through national grid has been mooted.
Interlinking of river can be advantages to solve problem of floods, drought, power generation and It will be useful for inland
navigation.
National water Grid as shown in following map has been proposed in 1980. The national perspective plan as well as national
water development agency have two components of the project first Himalayan rivers development component and second
peninsular rivers development component and both can be linked on the Mahanadi river.
Figure 28: National Water Grid
9. INLAND WATERWAYS OF INDIA
India has an extensive network of inland waterways with total navigable length of 14,500 km. Share of waterways in total
transport of India is far below its potential. There are total 106 waterways in India. Of which five major waterways are shown
in following map.
Figure 29: Important Waterways of India
9.1 Navigation through waterways has been advantageous in following ways
1. Inland Water Transport (IWT) mode is widely recognized as an environment friendly and cost effective mode of
transport. As per RITES Report of 2014 on “Integrated National Waterways Transportation Grid (INWTG)”, one
litre of fuel moves 24 tonne - km on road, 95 tonne-km on rail and 215 tonne-km on IWT.
2. Waterway has comparatively more capability to transport huge cargo from one place to other.
3. Initial cost of developing waterways is lower than roadways and railways as land acquisition cost is incurred only for
setting up of ports and terminals.
4. Developing waterways helps in de-congestion of roads and railways. Which can solve problem of traffic and also
address problem of air pollution caused by vehicle exhausts.
10. WATER WOES
A) Water Scarcity
Water is a finite resource and the total quantity of water available on the globe is same as it was thousands of years
ago. Over the years increasing population, growing industrialisation, expanding agriculture and rising standards of
living have pushed up the demand for water.
Demands for water has been increasing whereas the supply of fresh water remains more or less constant.
Quality of existing water resources has also been diminishing because of pollution and the additional requirements
of serving Industrial and agricultural growth.
● When the annual per capita of renewable freshwater in a country falls below 1700 cubic metres it is held
to be situation of water stress.
● If the availability of water is below 1000 cubic metres, the situation is labelled as that of water scarcity.
● and when the per capita availability Falls below 500 cubic metres, it is said to be a situation of absolute
scarcity.
10. 1 Water Woes in India
● India has only four percent of the world's water resources, and she has to support over 17% of the world's population
and over 15% of livestock.
● At the time of independence, the per capita availability of water in India was around 6000 cubic metres near which
has come down to around 1500 cubic metres per year.
● According to World Bank, 30% it of rural how Indians lack drinking water supply.
Figure 30: Declining Availability of Water in India
B) Pollution of Rivers
Rapid growth in industrialization to support the country’s growing population and economy has polluted our rivers
like never before. Studies show that domestic and industrial sewage, agricultural wastes have polluted almost all of
Indian rivers
Causes of Pollution
1. Acid Rain: Rain falling through polluted air absorbs some of the pollutants. Polluted air contains many poisonous
gases such as sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxide of nitrogen (NOx) etc. that react with rainwater to form acids. We call
this acid rain.
2. Industrial pollution: Lot of industrial wastes discharged into water are mixtures of chemicals, which are difficult
to clean up. Increase of the heavy metals in industrial wastewater that drains into rivers has resulted in severe river
pollution.
3. Agricultural pollution: The extensive uses of chemicals in the form of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture have
left the water bodies contaminated with heavy metals
4. Oil Pollution: Pouring things like used car oil and paint into drains reduces amount of dissolved oxygen in water.
10.2 River Pollution in India
● Almost all rivers of India are facing pressure of urbanization and industrialization and are polluted with varying
levels of effluents.
● Yamuna and Ganga are severely polluted. There source of pollution can be located in the cities located on the banks
of these rivers.
● Increasing River pollution puts pressure on limited water resources of our country.
Figure 31: State Wise River Pollution
10.3 How to control river pollution?
● Industries should install machineries to remove contaminants from their effluents and wastewater. One way to do
so is installation of Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP). This way we can control pollution at the source itself.
● The towns and cities should also have facilities to clean the sewage effluent. All towns and cities must have Sewage
Treatment Plants (STPs) that clean up the
● sewage.
● Farmers should use chemical fertilizers most judicially.
● Community participation and awareness generation.
● River has self-cleaning capability and therefore natural flow of river should be maintained.
● Rain water harvesting and Watershed Management.
Chapter 4: INDIAN MONSOON
Monsoon connotes the climate associated with seasonal reversal in the direction of winds. India has hot monsoonal climate
which is the prevalent climate in South and Southeast Asia.
The monsoon acts as a binding agent and emphasises the unity of India with the rest of Southeast Asian region. Monsoon
holds significant importance for the whole of India in terms of agriculture, hydro-electricity projects, inland navigation,
drinking water and industrial and domestic uses.
The monsoonal climate of India has many regional variations expressed in the pattern of winds, temperature, rainfall, rhythm
of seasons and the degree of wetness or dryness. These regional variations also manifests itself in terms of floods and droughts.
The nature of monsoon in itself is very complex. Various studies worldwide has tried to understand the exact nature and
causation of monsoon, but so far, no single theory has succeeded in explaining the monsoon completely. It is only when the
monsoon is being studied at global rather than regional level, the mysteries involving monsoon are being unravelled.
Systematic studies involving monsoon helps in understanding the salient features of monsoon, particularly some of the
important aspects such as:
1. Burst of Monsoon (Onset of Monsoon)

2. Rain bearing systems (E.g. Tropical Cyclones) and the relationship between their frequency and distribution of
monsoonal rainfall.
3. Break in the monsoon.
The complete story involving monsoon can be understood by identifying interlinkages between various climatic phenomena.
The story of monsoon every year in India begins with torrential rainfall in Malabar Coast, termed as Monsoon Burst.
1. BURST OF MONSOON (ONSET OF MONSOON)
Initially it was believed that differential heating of land and water is responsible for the phenomena of monsoon. However,
recent studies has revealed that monsson encompasses several climatic phenomena and is deeply complex.
Monsoon Burst refers to the sudden onset of the moisture-laden winds associated with violent thunder and lightning. It brings
down the temperature substantially. The monsoon may burst in the first week of June in the coastal areas of Kerala, Karnataka,
Goa and Maharashtra.
Occurrence of monsoon burst is due to the combination of following phenomena:
a. Development of low pressure over north-western India and shift of ITCZ.

b. Withdrawal of subtropical westerly jet stream from north plains of India.
c. Easterly Jet Stream
1.1 Development of Low Pressure over North-western India and Shift of ITCZ
During April and May, due to apparent movement of Sun over the Tropic of Cancer, the large landmass in the north of the
Indian Ocean gets heated up. It leads to the formation of a intense low pressure in the northwestern part of the Indian
subcontinent. By the middle of July, the low pressure belt near the surface [Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)] shifts
northwards, roughly parallel to the Himalayas between 20°N and 25°N. Since, the water gets heated up slowly, the Indian
Ocean has relatively lesser temperature than the heated landmass. It leads to formation of high pressure in the Indian Ocean.
Figure 32: Location of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone during summers.
Figure: Location of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone during summers.
Low pressure attracts the trade winds of the Southern Hemisphere coming from the Indian Ocean. The southwest monsoon
can thus be seen as a continuation of the southeast trade winds deflected towards the Indian subcontinent after crossing the
equator. These winds cross the equator between 40°E and 60°E longitudes.
The southeast trade winds crosses the equator and enters Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Passing over the equatorial warm
currents, they bring with them moisture in abundance. After crossing equator, they follow a southwesterly direction.
1.2 Role of Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream (STWJS) in the Monsoon Burst
During summer and summer monsoon months the STWJS is located at around 35°N-40°N but in winters till as late as May,
the STWJS is around 30°N-35°N latitudes. The Stream coming from the Mediterranean Sea gets bifurcated by the Himalayan
and Pamir elevation.
Figure 33: Location of STWJS during winter and Summer
However, the coming trade winds enter India only when the subtropical westerly jet stream (STWJS) withdraws from the
Indian region and shifts north of the Himalayas. The shift in the position of the ITCZ is related to the phenomena of the
withdrawal of the STWJS from its position over the north Indian plain.
1.3 Easterly Jet Stream
The final push to the monsoon burst is provided by the easterly jet stream. During summer Tibet Plateau receives intense
insolation and develops a strong low pressure. This seasonal Tibetan low pressure induces a strong jet stream aloft with a
subsiding limb over Mascarene High along the Madagascar Coast.
A strong Mascarene High energises the surface winds towards India and provides the required push to the southeast trade
winds waiting along the Malabar coast. The easterly jet stream sets in only after the western jet stream has withdrawn itself
from the region. This easterly jet stream is held responsible for the burst of the monsoon in India.
Figure 34: Tropical Easterly Jet Stream
1.4 Entry of Monsoon into India
The strong monsoon winds that had built up along Malabar Coast accelerates and causes sudden heavy rainfall in Kerala by 1st
June. Then it moves swiftly to reach Mumbai and Kolkata.
Monsoon burst is not just related to differential heating of land and water but are also controlled by the upper tropospheric
circulations. Monsoon bursts results due to complex atmospheric phenomena that involves jet streams too.
2. RAIN BEARING SYSTEM AND RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION.
The south westerly direction of the monsoon winds gets modified by the relief and thermal low pressure over the north west
India. The monsoon approaches the landmass through two branches:
A. The Arabian Sea Branch

B. The Bay of Bengal Branch
2.1 Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea
The rains in the western coast of India is is orographic along Western Ghats as the moist air is obstructed and forced to rise
along the Ghats. The intensity of rainfall over the west coast of India is, however, related to two factors:
● The offshore meteorological conditions.

● The position of the equatorial jet stream (Somali jet stream/Findlater jet stream) along the eastern coast of Africa.
2.1.1 Somali Jet Stream
The progress of the southwest monsoon is greatly aided by the onset of Somali jet stream that transits Kenya, Somalia and
Sahel and exits the African coast at 9°N at low level and very fast. J.Findlater observed that this low jet stream was found to be
more pronounced between 1.0 and 1.5km above the ground.
Figure 35: Somali Jet Stream
The strengthening of Somali Jet stream pushes the surface air further towards the Indian west coast. It results in strengthening
the intensity of rainfall along the western coast of India.
2.1.2 Branches of the Arabian Sea Branch
The Arabian Sea branch is three times stronger than the Bay of Bengal branch. The monsoon winds originating over the
Arabian Sea further split into three branches:
BRANCH 1:
One of the branches gets obstructed by the Western Ghats. The winds ascends the Western Ghats and gets adiabatically
cooled. As a result the windward side of the Sahyadris and Western Coastal Plain receive very heavy rainfall ranging between
250 cm and 400 cm.
Whereas while descending on the leeward side,it gets adiabatically warmed up. As a result, the winds loses moisture and causes
very little rainfall. This region of low rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area.
Figure 36: Branches of the Arabian Sea Branch
BRANCH 2:
Another branch strikes the coast north of Mumbai. The winds then move along the Narmada and Tapi valleys and causes
extensive rainfall in Central India. The Chotanagpur plateau gets 15 cm rainfall from this part of the branch. Then they move
towards Gangetic Plain and mixes with the Bay of Bengal branch.
BRANCH 3:
The third branch strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula and Kachchh. It then enters West Rajasthan and move along Aravalis. It
causes only a scanty rainfall. This branch merges with the Bay of Bengal branch over Punjab plains and causes rain in the
western Himalayas.
2.2 Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal Branch
The Bay of Bengal branch causes rainfall over the plains of North India. This branch strikes the coast of Myanmar and part of
Southeast Bangladesh. The presence of Arakan Hills in the Myanmar deflects a large portion of this branch towards the Indian
subcontinent.
Figure 37: Movement of Bay of Bengal Branch
The monsoon then enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from south and southeast instead from south-westerly direction. The
influence of the Himalayas and thermal low in northwest India splits this branch into two sub branches.
One branch moves towards the Gangetic Plains and reaches upto the Punjab Plains. The other branch moves up to the
Brahmaputra valley in the north and northeast causing widespread rains. Its sub branch strikes the Garo and Khasi Hills of
Meghalaya. Mawsynram located on the crest of Khasi Hills, receive the highest average annual rainfall in the world.
The Tamil Nadu region do not receive any rainfall during southwest monsoon because of:
● The Tamil Nadu coast is located parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch.
● It lies in the rain shadow region of the Arabian Sea branch.
The frequency of the tropical depressions in the Bay of Bengal branch plays significant role in determining the intensity of
rainfall on the eastern coast of India. Their paths over India are mainly determined by the position of the ITCZ which is
generally termed as monsoon trough.
As the branches moves forward towards the north-western part, it displays a declining trend in the intensity of rainfall from
west to east over the west coast and from southeast towards the northwest over the northern Indian Plain and northern part
of the Peninsula.
3. MONSOON BREAK
During southwest monsoon period after having rain for a few days, if rain fails to occur for one or two weeks, it is known as
the break in the monsoon. These breaks in different regions are for different reasons:
● The Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream (STWJS) may get intercepted by the Pamirs and Himalayas. The re-
establishment of STWJS leads to break in the monsoon.
● In northern India rains are likely to decline if the rain bearing storms are not very frequent along the monsoon trough
or ITCZ.
● The west coast of India witnesses breaks when the Arabian Sea branch flows parallel to the coast.
4. RETREATING MONSOON SEASON
The months of October and November are known for retreating monsoons. By the end of September, the monsoon trough
over the northern plains gets weakened and starts moving in southward direction in response to the southward march of the
Sun. By middle of December, the centre of low pressure is completely removed from the Peninsula.
The retreating monsoon is marked with clear skies and high temperature. The soil is still moist. Because Of high temperature
and high humidity, the weather becomes oppressive in nature and is termed as ‘October heat’.
Figure 38: Winds movement during Retreating Monsoon
The weather in retreating monsoon is dry in northern India but the eastern parts of the Peninsula is associated with rains.
October and November are the rainiest months of the year. These rains are due to development of widespread cyclonic
depressions in the Bay of Bengal Sea. it crosses the eastern coast of the Peninsula and causes immense destruction in coastal
states. A bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is derived from these depressions and cyclones.
5. NORTH EAST MONSOON
By the end of December, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere. At the same time,
Central Asia is extremely cold resulting in development of high pressure over land. Now, the South West monsoon winds gets
replaced by North-East trade winds. On crossing the equator, the winds are attracted to the low pressure center in Australia
and arrive in north Australia as the North-West Monsoon.
Figure 39: Climatic conditions during winter in South Asia - North East Monsoon
Winter monsoons do not cause rainfall as they move from land to sea. Possibility of rainfall from them reduces because they
have less humidity and due to presence of anticyclonic conditions on the land.
However, the northern part of India receives rainfall under the influence of temperate cyclones originating from the
Mediterranean Sea. The amount is meagre, but they are beneficial for rabi crops. This snowfall sustains the flow of water in
the Himalayan rivers during the summer months.
The coastline orientation along Tamil Nadu coast is such that it intercepts the Northeast monsoon winds. Due to coastline
orientation, these winds absorb moisture from the Bay of Bengal and causes rainfall over the Tamil Nadu coast, southern
Andhra Pradesh, southeast Karnataka and southeast Kerala.
6. CHARACTERISTICS OF MONSOONAL RAINFALL
● India receives 80%-90% of its total rainfall from southwest monsoon.

● Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by relief or topography. Example: Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas.
● The intensity of monsoonal rainfall declines as the distance from the coast increases.
● There are days when there are no rains called as breaks. These breaks are related to the cyclonic depressions mainly
formed at the head of the Bay of Bengal and their crossing into the mainland.
● The summer rainfall leads to considerable runoff and soil erosion.
● The spatial cover of monsoons is very uneven.
● Sometimes the beginning of monsoon rains are delayed.
● Monsoon holds great significance for agrarian economy of India as 55-60% of cultivation is still rainfed.
7. CLIMATIC PHENOMENON AFFECTING THE INDIAN MONSOON
7.1 El-Nino and Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
ENSO is a complex weather system. It is a recurring climate pattern that involves changes in the temperatures of waters in the
central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
Under normal year, the trade winds of the Pacific are strong. It results into piling up of warm saline waters along the western
Pacific and is called Warm West Pacific Pool. Whereas, the Peru coast has strong cold Peru current associated with strong
upwelling.
Figure 40: Coupling of Pacific Walker Cell with the Mascarene High
The low pressure off Australian coast gets coupled with the high pressure off Peru coast creating a vertical latitudinal air
circulation cell called Walker Cell. This Walker Cell gets coupled with another Walker Cell formed with the descending limb
at Mascarene High. The sinking limb at Mascarene High intensifies Mascarene High Pressure and therefore the South-west
monsoon wind accelerates towards India causing good rains.
The pressure condition of the normal year is represented by the pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin. This is
Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) which is positive for normal years.
In El-Nino Year, the trade winds of the Pacific weaken. As a result, the warm west Pacific Pool weakens and flows back
strengthening the counter current and El-Nino current. They extend up to the Peru coast and weakens Peru current. It warms
up the Peruvian waters and weakens upwelling.
The weakening of Warm West Pacific Pool and upwelling off Peru coast weakens the walker cycle. Ultimately, the walker cell
reverses, with development of high pressure off Australian coast. This weakens/reverses the Indian component of the Walker
Cell. The development of rising limb at the Mascarene High weaken the monsoon winds towards India and therefore results
into droughts. The SOI is negative.
Figure 41: Arrangement of Walker Cell during El-Nino years
In La-Nina years, the normal Walker Cell intensifies. This in turn intensifies the sinking limb at Mascarene High. It
strengthens the monsoon winds and causes strong rains and floods in India. The SOI is extremely positive.
However, El-Nino and La-Nina years do not definitely mean droughts and floods respectively. There are other phenomena
which can counter the impacts of El-Nino such as Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO).
7.2 Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
The Indian Ocean Dipole is also known as ‘Indian Nino’. It is an irregular oscillation of sea surface temperatures in which the
western Indian Ocean becomes alternatively warmer and then colder than the eastern part of the Ocean.
Figure 42: Diagrammatic representation of Positive IOD and Negative IOD
During positive IOD, the unusual warming of the western Part of Indian Ocean off the coast of Somalia leads to increased
convection. It gets coupled with the descending winds off the coast of Indonesia where water is cooler than normal. Such an
event is beneficial for the monsoon rains.
While the opposite happens during negative IOD. This effect obstructs the progress of monsoon rains in India. The IOD can
also weaken or strengthen the impact of El-Nino on Indian Monsoon. It can bring good rains over India despite an El-Nino
year.
7.3 Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)
The MJO is characterized as an eastward moving pulse of cloud and rainfall near the equator that typically occurs every 30 to
60 days. It is mainly observed over the Indian Ocean and Pacific ocean. Unlike the standing pattern like El-Nino, the Madden
Julian Oscillation (MJO) is a travelling pattern that propagates eastward.
Figure 43: Diagrammatic representation of Madden Julian Oscillation.
It influences the timing, development and strength of the major global monsoon patterns, including the Indian and Australian
monsoons.
The enhanced rainfall phase of the MJO can bring the onset of the Monsoon seasons in India. Conversely, the suppressed
convection phase can delay the onset of the Monsoon season. MJO also influences the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
cycles. It can contribute to the speed of development and intensity of El-Nino and La-Nina episodes.
8. MONSOON AND CLIMATE CHANGE
The pattern of monsoonal rainfall has been changing lately. Though floods and droughts are integral to Indian monsoon, but
frequent floods and recurrent droughts has forced the scientific community to understand the changing behaviour of
monsoons.
The changing behaviour and pattern of monsoon is attributed to global warming and climate change. In 2017, the northeast
received 25% less rainfall than the annual average whereas torrential downpours in Rajasthan and Gujarat due to formation of
depressions caused floods in various districts.
The devastating Kerala floods in 2018 is the best example to understand the changing pattern. Kerala received 162% more
rainfall than the monthly average within 18 days in the month of August. The increasing sea surface temperatures of the
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal have further assisted in heavy downpours over coastal areas.
Areas suffering with recurrent droughts have increased in last few years. The frequency of El-Nino years have increased and
so the droughts. Years 2014 and 2015 were El-Nino years. Regions like Vidarbha, northern Karnataka, etc. have witnessed
consecutive drought years and in 2018 eastern India has witnessed droughts.
The Indian monsoon typically gets over by the middle of September,but climate projections suggest that under future
warming conditions, monsoon precipitation will increase and the monsoon season could end later in the year.
To predict the arrival of monsoon more accurately, government has undertaken various steps like National Monsoon Mission,
collaboration with Germany, shift from the traditional ensemble model to dynamic model through use of supercomputers,
etc.
9. RAINFALL IN INDIA
India has a tropical monsoonal climate since the larger part of the nation lies within the tropics, and the climate is influenced
by the monsoons. The summer season in India falls from April to June and the winter season falls between November to mid-
March and summer season from April to June.
Precipitation in India is extremely irregular over a period of time in a year. The western coasts (Western Ghats) and North
East India receives precipitation of nearly 400 cm. The precipitation is less than 60 cm in Western Rajasthan and adjacent
areas of Punjab, Gujarat, and Haryana. Likewise, rainfall is little in the insides of the Deccan Plateau and eastern parts of
Western Ghats. Then, Leh is also an area of low precipitation.
Northern India region remains arid, dusty, and hostile during the summer months. The nature of monsoon is unpredictable
where certain regions experience heavy precipitations the others area experience scarcity and still others get flooded. The
location of the mountain ranges and the direction of the rain-bearing winds are the two major elements that decide the climate
of India. India can conveniently be divided into the following regions depending upon the annual average rainfall received by
these regions:
1. Area of very high rainfall: Areas receiving an annual rainfall of 200 cm and above are called the area of very high
rainfall. These include the west coast from Thiruvananthapuram in the south to Mumbai in the north. Meghalaya
is the wettest part of the country with Mawsynram and Cherrapunji getting 1221 and 1102 cm of annual rainfall.
Almost the whole of Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, parts of Manipur, Tripura
and north-eastern tip of West Bengal also receives 200 cm or more.
2. Areas of high rainfall: It receives 100-200 cm annual rainfall. It includes eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, major
parts of northern plain, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
3. Areas of low rainfall: It receives 50-100 cm annual rainfall and includes areas like Gujarat, Maharashtra, western
M.P, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Eastern Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, and parts of Uttar Pradesh.
4. Areas of very low rainfall: It includes desert and semi-desert areas receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall. Areas
like Western Rajasthan, Kachchh, and most of the Ladakh regions of Jammu and Kashmir.
Figure 44: Rainfall Distribution in India
Chapter 5: CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA
1. INTRODUCTION
● Although India has a tropical monsoon climate as a whole, there are large variations in important climatic elements
such as rainfall and temperature.
● The Climate of India comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied
topography, making generalizations difficult.
● In India Variations in rainfall are much more marked than those of temperature. Due to this, most geographers have
given more importance to rainfall than to temperature.
● India’s meteorological department follows the international standard of four climatological seasons with some local
adjustments: winter (December, January, and February), summer (March, April, and May), a monsoon rainy season
(June to September), and a post-monsoon period (October to November).
2. KOEPPEN’S CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA
Koppen classified climatic regions of India based on annual and monthly means of temperature and precipitation. He also
accepted the native vegetation, in order to demarcate the climatic boundaries based upon vegetation.
Koppen also considered that the growth of vegetation not only depends upon precipitation but also on the intensity of
evaporation and transpiration.
Koppen has suggested five major types of climate which correspond with five principal vegetation group. Each climatic type
is represented by a capital letter explained as under:
A - Tropical Moist Climates: all months have average temperatures above 18° Celsius.
B - Dry Climates: with deficient precipitation during most of the year.
C - Moist Mid-latitude Climates with Mild Winters.
D - Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with Cold Winters.
E - Polar Climates: with extremely cold winters and summers.
The above mentioned major climatic types further subdivided depending upon the seasonal distribution of rainfall or degree
of dryness or cold. They are discussed below:
a: hot summer, the average temperature of the warmest month over 22℃.
c: cool summer, the average temperature of the warmest month under 22°C.
f: no dry season
w: dry season in winter.
s: dry season in summer
g: Gange's type of annual march of temperature; hottest month comes before the solstice and the summer rainy
season.
h (Heiss): average annual temperature under 18°C.
m (monsoon): short dry season.
The capital letters S and W are employed to designate the two subdivisions of dry climate: semi-arid or Steppe (S)
and arid or desert (W). Capital letters T and F are similarly used to designate the two subdivisions of polar climate:
tundra (T) and icecap (F).
Figure 45: Koppen's Climatic Regions in India
Koeppen divided India into nine climatic regions making use of the above Scheme and they are discussed below:
Climate Type Regions Rainfall & Temperature
Amw (Monsoon type with short dry The western coastal region, south of Over 300 cm of annual rainfall in summer
winter season) Mumbai. from the south-west monsoons.
As (Monsoon type with the dry season Coromandel coast including Coastal Tamil Rainfall mostly in winter is 75-100 cm and
in high sun period) Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra is received from the retreating monsoons.
Pradesh
Aw (Tropical Savanah type) Most parts of the peninsular plateau barring 75 cm which is received in the summer
Coromandel and Malabar coastal strips. season from the southwest monsoons.
The northern boundary of this climatic Winter season remains dry.
region roughly coincides with the Tropic of
Cancer.
BShw (Semi-arid Steppe type) Some rainshadow areas of Western Ghats, 12 to 25 cm and mostly in summer. Winter
the large part of Rajasthan and contiguous dry.
areas of Haryana and Gujarat
BWhw (Hot desert type) Western Rajasthan Less than 12 cm

Temperature is very high in summer.
Cwg (Monsoon type with dry Ganga Plain, Eastern Rajasthan, Assam and Between 100 and 200. Most of the rainfall
winters) in Malwa Plateau. occurs in summer and winter is dry.
The summer temperature rises to 40°C
and fall to 27°C in winter.
Dfc (Cold, Humid winters type with Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Average 200 cm
shorter summer) Assam The temperature in winter is 10°C.
Et (Tundra Type) Mountain areas of Uttarakhand. Rainfall varies.

The average temperature varies from 0 to
10°C. Temperature decreases with altitude.
E (Polar Type) Higher areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Rainfall in the form of snow.
Himachal Pradesh The temperature of the warmest month
varies from 0°C to 10°C.
3. Natural Vegetation
Natural vegetation refers to a plant community that has been left undisturbed over a long time, so as to allow its individual
species to adjust themselves to climate and soil conditions as fully as possible. India is a land of great variety of natural
vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked with temperate vegetation; the Western Ghats and the Andaman Nicobar Islands
have tropical rainforests, the deltaic regions have tropical forests and mangroves; the desert and semi desert areas of Rajasthan
are known for cacti, a wide variety of bushes and thorny vegetation. Depending upon the variations in the climate and the soil,
the vegetation of India changes from one region to another.
Note: Natural Vegetation of India is covered in detail under Economic Geography Handout.
4. Social Forestry
Social forestry is management and development of forest with afforestation on barren lands to achieve environmental benefit
and rural development. It helps in taking the pressure off the forests and making use of all unused and fallow land. And it is
also important to control growing soil erosion and soil degradation. Social forestry encourages forest plantation in common
lands, wastelands, along roads, railways, around water bodies & any other lands which can be diverted for replantation.
Social Forestry
Urban Forestry Farm Forestry
Rural Forestry
Agro Forestry Community Forestry
Figure 46: Types of Social Forestry
(A) Farm forestry: Individual farmers are being encouraged to plant trees on their own farmland to meet the domestic needs
of the family.
(B) Urban Forestry: It is raising and management of trees on private or publicly owned lands in and around urban centres for
the purpose of improving urban environment.
(C) Rural Forestry:
Community forestry: It is the raising of trees on community land and not on private land as in farm forestry. All
these programmes aim to provide for the entire community and not for any individual.
Agroforestry: Agroforestry is defined as a land use system which integrates trees and shrubs on farmlands and rural
landscapes to enhance productivity, profitability, diversity and ecosystem sustainability.
It is a dynamic, ecologically based natural resource management system that through integration of woody perennials on farms
and in the agricultural landscape diversifies and sustains production and builds social institutions.
It combines forestry with:
1) Production of multiple outputs with protection of the resource base;

2) Places emphasis on the use of multiple indigenous trees and shrubs;
3) Particularly suitable for low-input conditions and fragile environments;
4) It involves the interplay of socio-cultural values more than in most other land-use systems.
● Agroforestry systems include both traditional and modern land-use systems where trees are managed together with
crops and or/ animal production systems in agricultural settings.
● Agroforestry is practiced in both irrigated and rainfed conditions where it produces food, fuel, fodder, timber,
fertilizer and fibre, contributes to food, nutritional and ecological security, sustains livelihoods, alleviates
poverty and promotes productive and resilient cropping and farming environments.
● Agroforestry also has the potential to enhance ecosystem services through carbon storage, prevention of
deforestation, biodiversity conservation, and soil and water conservation.
● In addition, when strategically applied on a large scale, with appropriate mix of species, agroforestry enables
agricultural land to withstand extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts, and climate change.
5. Social forestry and Agroforestry can be a better solution for deforestation
1. Urban forestry will help in make cities greener and achieve target of minimum forest area requirement.
2. It can reduce problem of air pollution faced by our cities.
3. People’s involvement in forest conservation project will have long term impact in arresting deforestation and
creating environmental awareness.
4. Around 48 percent of people still depend on agriculture for employment. Agroforestry can be suitable for achieving
twin goal of employment and sustainable environment.
5. Climate change has increased variability of monsoon and agricultural productivity is on fast decline. Agroforestry
can be practised in rainfed areas and has better capability to withstand water stress.
6. Agroforestry can lead to industrial development of paper and furniture industry.
7. Biofuel can be produced from jatropha and other species which can help in assured income of farmers and
environmental sustainability as well as reduction in oil imports.
Considering potential of Agroforestry in development of our country, government has adopted National Agroforestry Policy
in 2014 which aims to meet the increasing demand for timber, food, fuel etc.; conservation of natural resources, protection of
environment and increasing forest cover.

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PHYSICAL

CONTENT BUILDING BOOKS

CHAPTER 1: INDIA: LOCATION 1-2

2. India and its Neighbours 2

CHAPTER 2: PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA 3-32

2. The Himalayan Mountains 3

2.2 Origin of the Himalayas 3

2.3 Distribution of the Himalayas 4

2.4 The Himalayan Ranges 4

2.5 Passes in the Greater Himalayas 6

2.6 The Trans Himalayas 7

2.7 The Eastern Hills or The Purvanchal 7

2.8 Subdivisions of Himalayas 8

2.8.1 Kashmir or North-western Himalayas 8

2.8.2 Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas 10

2.8.3 The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas 11

2.8.4 The Arunachal Himalayas 11

2.8.5 The Eastern Hills and Mountains 12

2.9 The Significance of the Himalayas 13

2.10 Occurrence of landslides in Himalayas 14

3. The Northern Plains 14

3.2 Origin of the Plain 15

3.3 Geomorphology of the Plain 15

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3.3.2 The Terai 16

3.3.3 The Bhangar 16

3.3.4 The Khadar 17

3.4 Regional Divisions of the Plains of India 17

3.4.1 The Rajasthan Plain 17

3.4.2 The Punjab-Haryana Plain 18

3.4.3 The Ganga Plain 18

3.4.4 The Brahmaputra Plain 18

3.5 The significance of the Plain 19

4. The Indian Desert 20

4.2 Geological History and Features 20

4.3 The climate of Thar desert 20

4.7 Features of The Indian Desert 21

5. The Peninsular Plateau 22

5.2 Plateaus of Peninsular India 22

5.2.1 Marwar upland 22

5.2.2 Central Highland 22

5.2.3 Bundelkhand Upland 23

5.2.4 Malwa Plateau 23

5.2.5 Baghelkhand Plateau 23

5.2.6 Chota Nagpur Plateau 24

5.2.7 Meghalaya Plateau 24

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5.3 Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau 25

5.3.1 Aravalli Range 25

5.3.2 Vindhya Range 26

5.3.3 Satpura Range 26

5.4 Western Ghats 26

5.4.2 Middle Western Ghats 26

5.4.3 Southern Western Ghats 26

5.5 Eastern Ghats 27

6. The Coastal Plains 28

6.2 Western Coast of India 28

6.3 The eastern coastal plains 28

7. The Indian Islands 30

7.2 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands 30

7.3 The Lakshadweep Islands 31

7.4 Development Issues in these islands 31

7.5 Development of Island territory of India 32

CHAPTER 3: DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA 33-46