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 GlobAl
eDition

Dynamics of
Structures
Theory and
Applications
to Earthquake
Engineering
Fourth eDition

Anil K. Chopra
 Overview

PART I SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 1

1 Equations of Motion, Problem Statement, and Solution

Methods 3

2 Free Vibration 39

3 Response to Harmonic and Periodic Excitations 65

4 Response to Arbitrary, Step, and Pulse Excitations 125

5 Numerical Evaluation of Dynamic Response 165

6 Earthquake Response of Linear Systems 197

7 Earthquake Response of Inelastic Systems 257

8 Generalized Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 307

vii
 viii Overview

PART II MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 345

9 Equations of Motion, Problem Statement, and Solution

Methods 347

10 Free Vibration 403

11 Damping in Structures 447

12 Dynamic Analysis and Response of Linear Systems 467

13 Earthquake Analysis of Linear Systems 513

14 Analysis of Nonclassically Damped Linear Systems 617

15 Reduction of Degrees of Freedom 657

16 Numerical Evaluation of Dynamic Response 673

17 Systems with Distributed Mass and Elasticity 697

18 Introduction to the Finite Element Method 729

PART III EARTHQUAKE RESPONSE, DESIGN, AND EVALUATION

OF MULTISTORY BUILDINGS 755

19 Earthquake Response of Linearly Elastic Buildings 757

20 Earthquake Analysis and Response of Inelastic Buildings 775

21 Earthquake Dynamics of Base-Isolated Buildings 809

22 Structural Dynamics in Building Codes 835

23 Structural Dynamics in Building Evaluation Guidelines 863

APPENDIX A FREQUENCY-DOMAIN METHOD OF RESPONSE

ANALYSIS 883

APPENDIX B NOTATION 905

APPENDIX C ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 917

Index 933
 Contents

Foreword xxi

Preface xxiii

Acknowledgments xxxi

PART I SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 1

1 Equations of Motion, Problem Statement, and Solution

Methods 3

1.1 Simple Structures 3

1.2 Single-Degree-of-Freedom System 7
1.3 Force–Displacement Relation 8
1.4 Damping Force 12
1.5 Equation of Motion: External Force 14
1.6 Mass–Spring–Damper System 19
1.7 Equation of Motion: Earthquake Excitation 23
1.8 Problem Statement and Element Forces 26

ix
x Contents

1.9 Combining Static and Dynamic Responses 28

1.10 Methods of Solution of the Differential Equation 28
1.11 Study of SDF Systems: Organization 33
Appendix 1: Stiffness Coefficients for a Flexural
Element 33

2 Free Vibration 39

2.1 Undamped Free Vibration 39

2.2 Viscously Damped Free Vibration 48
2.3 Energy in Free Vibration 56
2.4 Coulomb-Damped Free Vibration 57

3 Response to Harmonic and Periodic Excitations 65

Part A: Viscously Damped Systems: Basic Results 66

3.1 Harmonic Vibration of Undamped Systems 66
3.2 Harmonic Vibration with Viscous Damping 72
Part B: Viscously Damped Systems: Applications 85
3.3 Response to Vibration Generator 85
3.4 Natural Frequency and Damping from Harmonic
Tests 87
3.5 Force Transmission and Vibration Isolation 90
3.6 Response to Ground Motion and Vibration
Isolation 91
3.7 Vibration-Measuring Instruments 95
3.8 Energy Dissipated in Viscous Damping 99
3.9 Equivalent Viscous Damping 103
Part C: Systems with Nonviscous Damping 105
3.10 Harmonic Vibration with Rate-Independent
Damping 105
3.11 Harmonic Vibration with Coulomb Friction 109
Contents xi

Part D: Response to Periodic Excitation 113

3.12 Fourier Series Representation 114
3.13 Response to Periodic Force 114
Appendix 3: Four-Way Logarithmic Graph
Paper 118

4 Response to Arbitrary, Step, and Pulse Excitations 125

Part A: Response to Arbitrarily Time-Varying Forces 125

4.1 Response to Unit Impulse 126
4.2 Response to Arbitrary Force 127
Part B: Response to Step and Ramp Forces 129
4.3 Step Force 129
4.4 Ramp or Linearly Increasing Force 131
4.5 Step Force with Finite Rise Time 132
Part C: Response to Pulse Excitations 135
4.6 Solution Methods 135
4.7 Rectangular Pulse Force 137
4.8 Half-Cycle Sine Pulse Force 143
4.9 Symmetrical Triangular Pulse Force 148
4.10 Effects of Pulse Shape and Approximate Analysis
for Short Pulses 151
4.11 Effects of Viscous Damping 154
4.12 Response to Ground Motion 155

5 Numerical Evaluation of Dynamic Response 165

5.1 Time-Stepping Methods 165

5.2 Methods Based on Interpolation of Excitation 167
5.3 Central Difference Method 171
5.4 Newmark’s Method 174
5.5 Stability and Computational Error 180
xii Contents

5.6 Nonlinear Systems: Central Difference Method 183

5.7 Nonlinear Systems: Newmark’s Method 183

6 Earthquake Response of Linear Systems 197

6.1 Earthquake Excitation 197

6.2 Equation of Motion 203
6.3 Response Quantities 204
6.4 Response History 205
6.5 Response Spectrum Concept 207
6.6 Deformation, Pseudo-Velocity, and Pseudo-Acceleration
Response Spectra 208
6.7 Peak Structural Response from the Response
Spectrum 217
6.8 Response Spectrum Characteristics 222
6.9 Elastic Design Spectrum 230
6.10 Comparison of Design and Response Spectra 239
6.11 Distinction between Design and Response
Spectra 241
6.12 Velocity and Acceleration Response Spectra 242
Appendix 6: El Centro, 1940 Ground Motion 246

7 Earthquake Response of Inelastic Systems 257

7.1 Force–Deformation Relations 258

7.2 Normalized Yield Strength, Yield Strength Reduction
Factor, and Ductility Factor 265
7.3 Equation of Motion and Controlling Parameters 266
7.4 Effects of Yielding 267
7.5 Response Spectrum for Yield Deformation and Yield
Strength 274
7.6 Yield Strength and Deformation from the Response
Spectrum 278
7.7 Yield Strength–Ductility Relation 278
 Contents xiii

7.8 Relative Effects of Yielding and Damping 280

7.9 Dissipated Energy 281
7.10 Supplemental Energy Dissipation Devices 284
7.11 Inelastic Design Spectrum 289
7.12 Applications of the Design Spectrum 296
7.13 Comparison of Design and Response
Spectra 302

8 Generalized Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 307

8.1 Generalized SDF Systems 307

8.2 Rigid-Body Assemblages 309
8.3 Systems with Distributed Mass and Elasticity 311
8.4 Lumped-Mass System: Shear Building 323
8.5 Natural Vibration Frequency by Rayleigh’s
Method 330
8.6 Selection of Shape Function 334
Appendix 8: Inertia Forces for Rigid Bodies 338

PART II MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 345

9 Equations of Motion, Problem Statement, and Solution

Methods 347

9.1 Simple System: Two-Story Shear Building 347

9.2 General Approach for Linear Systems 352
9.3 Static Condensation 369
9.4 Planar or Symmetric-Plan Systems: Ground
Motion 372
9.5 One-Story Unsymmetric-Plan Buildings 377
9.6 Multistory Unsymmetric-Plan Buildings 383
9.7 Multiple Support Excitation 387
9.8 Inelastic Systems 392
9.9 Problem Statement 392
xiv Contents

9.10 Element Forces 393

9.11 Methods for Solving the Equations of Motion:
Overview 393

10 Free Vibration 403

Part A: Natural Vibration Frequencies and Modes 404

10.1 Systems without Damping 404
10.2 Natural Vibration Frequencies and Modes 406
10.3 Modal and Spectral Matrices 408
10.4 Orthogonality of Modes 409
10.5 Interpretation of Modal Orthogonality 410
10.6 Normalization of Modes 410
10.7 Modal Expansion of Displacements 420
Part B: Free Vibration Response 421
10.8 Solution of Free Vibration Equations: Undamped
Systems 421
10.9 Systems with Damping 424
10.10 Solution of Free Vibration Equations: Classically
Damped Systems 425
Part C: Computation of Vibration Properties 428
10.11 Solution Methods for the Eigenvalue Problem 428
10.12 Rayleigh’s Quotient 430
10.13 Inverse Vector Iteration Method 430
10.14 Vector Iteration with Shifts: Preferred Procedure 435
10.15 Transformation of kφ = ω2 mφ to the Standard
Form 440

11 Damping in Structures 447

Part A: Experimental Data and Recommended Modal

Damping Ratios 447
11.1 Vibration Properties of Millikan Library Building 447
11.2 Estimating Modal Damping Ratios 452
Contents xv

Part B: Construction of Damping Matrix 454

11.3 Damping Matrix 454
11.4 Classical Damping Matrix 455
11.5 Nonclassical Damping Matrix 464

12 Dynamic Analysis and Response of Linear Systems 467

Part A: Two-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 467

12.1 Analysis of Two-DOF Systems Without Damping 467
12.2 Vibration Absorber or Tuned Mass Damper 470
Part B: Modal Analysis 472
12.3 Modal Equations for Undamped Systems 472
12.4 Modal Equations for Damped Systems 475
12.5 Displacement Response 476
12.6 Element Forces 477
12.7 Modal Analysis: Summary 477
Part C: Modal Response Contributions 482
12.8 Modal Expansion of Excitation Vector
p(t) = s p(t) 482
12.9 Modal Analysis for p(t) = s p(t) 486
12.10 Modal Contribution Factors 487
12.11 Modal Responses and Required Number of Modes 489
Part D: Special Analysis Procedures 496
12.12 Static Correction Method 496
12.13 Mode Acceleration Superposition Method 499
12.14 Mode Acceleration Superposition Method: Arbitrary
Excitation 500

13 Earthquake Analysis of Linear Systems 513

Part A: Response History Analysis 514

13.1 Modal Analysis 514
13.2 Multistory Buildings with Symmetric Plan 520
xvi Contents

13.3 Multistory Buildings with Unsymmetric Plan 540

13.4 Torsional Response of Symmetric-Plan Buildings 551
13.5 Response Analysis for Multiple Support
Excitation 555
13.6 Structural Idealization and Earthquake Response 561
Part B: Response Spectrum Analysis 562
13.7 Peak Response from Earthquake Response
Spectrum 562
13.8 Multistory Buildings with Symmetric Plan 567
13.9 Multistory Buildings with Unsymmetric Plan 579
13.10 A Response-Spectrum-Based Envelope for
Simultaneous Responses 587
13.11 Peak Response to Multicomponent Ground
Motion 595

14 Analysis of Nonclassically Damped Linear Systems 617

Part A: Classically Damped Systems: Reformulation 618

14.1 Natural Vibration Frequencies and Modes 618
14.2 Free Vibration 619
14.3 Unit Impulse Response 620
14.4 Earthquake Response 621
Part B: Nonclassically Damped Systems 622
14.5 Natural Vibration Frequencies and Modes 622
14.6 Orthogonality of Modes 623
14.7 Free Vibration 627
14.8 Unit Impulse Response 632
14.9 Earthquake Response 636
14.10 Systems with Real-Valued Eigenvalues 638
14.11 Response Spectrum Analysis 646
14.12 Summary 647
Appendix 14: Derivations 648
Contents xvii

15 Reduction of Degrees of Freedom 657

15.1 Kinematic Constraints 658

15.2 Mass Lumping in Selected DOFs 659
15.3 Rayleigh–Ritz Method 659
15.4 Selection of Ritz Vectors 663
15.5 Dynamic Analysis Using Ritz Vectors 668

16 Numerical Evaluation of Dynamic Response 673

16.1 Time-Stepping Methods 673

16.2 Linear Systems with Nonclassical Damping 675
16.3 Nonlinear Systems 681

17 Systems with Distributed Mass and Elasticity 697

17.1 Equation of Undamped Motion: Applied Forces 698

17.2 Equation of Undamped Motion: Support
Excitation 699
17.3 Natural Vibration Frequencies and Modes 700
17.4 Modal Orthogonality 707
17.5 Modal Analysis of Forced Dynamic Response 709
17.6 Earthquake Response History Analysis 716
17.7 Earthquake Response Spectrum Analysis 721
17.8 Difficulty in Analyzing Practical Systems 724

18 Introduction to the Finite Element Method 729

Part A: Rayleigh–Ritz Method 729

18.1 Formulation Using Conservation of Energy 729
18.2 Formulation Using Virtual Work 733
18.3 Disadvantages of Rayleigh–Ritz Method 735
Part B: Finite Element Method 735
18.4 Finite Element Approximation 735
18.5 Analysis Procedure 737
 xviii Contents

18.6 Element Degrees of Freedom and Interpolation

Functions 739
18.7 Element Stiffness Matrix 740
18.8 Element Mass Matrix 741
18.9 Element (Applied) Force Vector 743
18.10 Comparison of Finite Element and Exact
Solutions 747
18.11 Dynamic Analysis of Structural Continua 748

PART III EARTHQUAKE RESPONSE, DESIGN, AND EVALUATION

OF MULTISTORY BUILDINGS 755

19 Earthquake Response of Linearly Elastic Buildings 757

19.1 Systems Analyzed, Design Spectrum, and Response

Quantities 757
19.2 Influence of T1 and ρ on Response 762
19.3 Modal Contribution Factors 763
19.4 Influence of T1 on Higher-Mode Response 765
19.5 Influence of ρ on Higher-Mode Response 768
19.6 Heightwise Variation of Higher-Mode Response 769
19.7 How Many Modes to Include 771

20 Earthquake Analysis and Response of Inelastic Buildings 775

Part A: Nonlinear Response History Analysis 776

20.1 Equations of Motion: Formulation and Solution 776
20.2 Computing Seismic Demands: Factors
To Be Considered 777
20.3 Story Drift Demands 781
20.4 Strength Demands for SDF and MDF Systems 787
Part B: Approximate Analysis Procedures 788
20.5 Motivation and Basic Concept 788
20.6 Uncoupled Modal Response History Analysis 790
Contents xix

20.7 Modal Pushover Analysis 797

20.8 Evaluation of Modal Pushover Analysis 802
20.9 Simplified Modal Pushover Analysis
for Practical Application 807

21 Earthquake Dynamics of Base-Isolated Buildings 809

21.1 Isolation Systems 809

21.2 Base-Isolated One-Story Buildings 812
21.3 Effectiveness of Base Isolation 818
21.4 Base-Isolated Multistory Buildings 822
21.5 Applications of Base Isolation 828

22 Structural Dynamics in Building Codes 835

Part A: Building Codes and Structural Dynamics 836

22.1 International Building Code (United States), 2009 836
22.2 National Building Code of Canada, 2010 839
22.3 Mexico Federal District Code, 2004 841
22.4 Eurocode 8, 2004 844
22.5 Structural Dynamics in Building Codes 846
Part B: Evaluation of Building Codes 852
22.6 Base Shear 852
22.7 Story Shears and Equivalent Static Forces 856
22.8 Overturning Moments 858
22.9 Concluding Remarks 861

23 Structural Dynamics in Building Evaluation Guidelines 863

23.1 Nonlinear Dynamic Procedure: Current Practice 864

23.2 SDF-System Estimate of Roof Displacement 865
23.3 Estimating Deformation of Inelastic SDF Systems 868
23.4 Nonlinear Static Procedures 874
23.5 Concluding Remarks 880
xx Contents

A Frequency-Domain Method of Response Analysis 883

B Notation 905

C Answers to Selected Problems 917

Index 933
 Foreword

The need for a textbook on earthquake engineering was first pointed out by the eminent
consulting engineer, John R. Freeman (1855–1932). Following the destructive Santa Bar-
bara, California earthquake of 1925, he became interested in the subject and searched the
Boston Public Library for relevant books. He found that not only was there no textbook
on earthquake engineering, but the subject itself was not mentioned in any of the books
on structural engineering. Looking back, we can see that in 1925 engineering education
was in an undeveloped state, with computing done by slide rule and curricula that did not
prepare the student for understanding structural dynamics. In fact, no instruments had been
developed for recording strong ground motions, and society appeared to be unconcerned
about earthquake hazards.
In recent years books on earthquake engineering and structural dynamics have been
published, but the present book by Professor Anil K. Chopra fills a niche that exists be-
tween more elementary books and books for advanced graduate studies. The author is a
well-known expert in earthquake engineering and structural dynamics, and his book will
be valuable to students not only in earthquake-prone regions but also in other parts of
the world, for a knowledge of structural dynamics is essential for modern engineering. The
book presents material on vibrations and the dynamics of structures and demonstrates the
application to structural motions caused by earthquake ground shaking. The material in
the book is presented very clearly with numerous worked-out illustrative examples, so that
even a student at a university where such a course is not given should be able to study the
book on his or her own time. Readers who are now practicing engineering should have no
difficulty in studying the subject by means of this book. An especially interesting feature
of the book is the application of structural dynamics theory to important issues in the seis-
mic response and design of multistory buildings. The information presented in this book

xxi
xxii Foreword

will be of special value to those engineers who are engaged in actual seismic design and
want to improve their understanding of the subject.
Although the material in the book leads to earthquake engineering, the information
presented is also relevant to wind-induced vibrations of structures, as well as man-made
motions such as those produced by drophammers or by heavy vehicular traffic. As a text-
book on vibrations and structural dynamics, this book has no competitors and can be rec-
ommended to the serious student. I believe that this is the book for which John R. Freeman
was searching.
George W. Housner
California Institute of Technology
 Preface

PHILOSOPHY AND OBJECTIVES

This book on dynamics of structures is conceived as a textbook for courses in civil engi-
neering. It includes many topics in the theory of structural dynamics, and applications of
this theory to earthquake analysis, response, design, and evaluation of structures. No prior
knowledge of structural dynamics is assumed in order to make this book suitable for the
reader learning the subject for the first time. The presentation is sufficiently detailed and
carefully integrated by cross-referencing to make the book suitable for self-study. This fea-
ture of the book, combined with a practically motivated selection of topics, should interest
professional engineers, especially those concerned with analysis and design of structures
in earthquake country.
In developing this book, much emphasis has been placed on making structural dy-
namics easier to learn by students and professional engineers because many find this sub-
ject to be difficult. To achieve this goal, the presentation has been structured around several
features: The mathematics is kept as simple as each topic will permit. Analytical proce-
dures are summarized to emphasize the key steps and to facilitate their implementation by
the reader. These procedures are illustrated by over 120 worked-out examples, including
many comprehensive and realistic examples where the physical interpretation of results is
stressed. Some 500 figures have been carefully designed and executed to be pedagogically
effective; many of them involve extensive computer simulations of dynamic response of
structures. Photographs of structures and structural motions recorded during earthquakes
are included to relate the presentation to the real world.

xxiii
 xxiv Preface

The preparation of this book has been inspired by several objectives:

• Relate the structural idealizations studied to the properties of real structures.

• Present the theory of dynamic response of structures in a manner that emphasizes
physical insight into the analytical procedures.
• Illustrate applications of the theory to solutions of problems motivated by practical
applications.
• Interpret the theoretical results to understand the response of structures to various
dynamic excitations, with emphasis on earthquake excitation.
• Apply structural dynamics theory to conduct parametric studies that bring out several
fundamental issues in the earthquake response, design, and evaluation of multistory
buildings.

This mode of presentation should help the reader to achieve a deeper understanding
of the subject and to apply with confidence structural dynamics theory in tackling practi-
cal problems, especially in earthquake analysis, design, and evaluation of structures, thus
narrowing the gap between theory and practice.

EVOLUTION OF THE BOOK

Since the book first appeared in 1995, it has been revised and expanded in several ways,
resulting in the second edition (2001) and third edition (2007). Prompted by an increasing
number of recordings of ground motions in the proximity of the causative fault, Chap-
ter 6 was expanded to identify special features of near-fault ground motions and com-
pare them with the usual far-fault ground motions. Because of the increasing interest in
seismic performance of bridges, examples on dynamics of bridges and their earthquake
response were added in several chapters. In response to the growing need for simpli-
fied dynamic analysis procedures suitable for performance-based earthquake engineering,
Chapter 7 was expanded to provide a fuller discussion relating the earthquake-induced de-
formations of inelastic and elastic systems, and to demonstrate applications of the inelastic
design spectrum to structural design for allowable ductility, displacement-based design,
and seismic evaluation of existing structures. Chapter 19 (now Chapter 20) was rewritten
completely to incorporate post-1990 advances in earthquake analysis and response of in-
elastic buildings. Originally limited to three building codes—United States, Canada, and
Mexico—Chapter 21 (now Chapter 22) was expanded to include the Eurocode. The addi-
tion of Chapter 22 (now Chapter 23) was motivated by the adoption of performance-based
guidelines for evaluating existing buildings by the structural engineering profession.
In response to reader requests, the frequency-domain method of dynamic analysis
was included, but presented as an appendix instead of weaving it throughout the book.
This decision was motivated by my goal to keep the mathematics as simple as each topic
permits, thus making structural dynamics easily accessible to students and professional
engineers.
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