(Ebook PDF) (Ebook PDF) Human Development: A Cultural Approach, Australian and New Zealand Edition All Chapter

(eBook PDF) Human Development: A
Cultural Approach, Australian and New

Zealand Edition
Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-human-development-a-cultural-approach-
australian-and-new-zealand-edition/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
(eBook PDF) Human Development: A Cultural Approach,

Australian and New Zealand Edition
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-human-development-a-
cultural-approach-australian-and-new-zealand-edition/
(eBook PDF) Human Development: A Cultural Approach 2nd

Edition
cultural-approach-2nd-edition/
(eBook PDF) Human Development: A Cultural Approach 3rd

Edition
cultural-approach-3rd-edition/
Psychology: Australian and New Zealand edition Douglas

A. Bernstein - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/psychology-australian-and-new-
zealand-edition-ebook-pdf/
(eBook PDF) Social Psychology Australian and New
Zealand Edition
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-social-psychology-
(eBook PDF) Psychology, 5th Australian and New Zealand

Edition
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-psychology-5th-
(eBook PDF) Psychology Australian and New Zealand

Edition 3rd Edition
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-psychology-australian-
and-new-zealand-edition-3rd-edition/
(Original PDF) Campbell Biology 11th Australian and New

Zealand Edition
http://ebooksecure.com/product/original-pdf-campbell-
biology-11th-australian-and-new-zealand-edition/
(eBook PDF) Campbell Biology 10th Australian New

Zealand Edition
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-campbell-biology-10th-
australian-new-zealand-edition/
Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2019— 9781488619465 — Arnett/Human Development 1e
CO N T E N T S vii
Section 3: Emotional and social development 161 Section 3: Emotional and social development 247
Temperament 161 Emotional regulation and gender socialisation 247
■ Research focus: Measuring temperament 162 Early childhood education 254
Infants’ emotions 165 Parenting 257
The social world of the infant 168 The child’s expanding social world 267
Summary: Emotional and social development 172 ■ Research focus: Shyness in China and Canada:
Chapter quiz 173 cultural interpretations 271
Summary: Emotional and social development 277
CHAPTER 5 Chapter quiz 278
Toddlerhood 175
CHAPTER 7
Section 1: Physical development 176 Middle childhood 281
Growth and change in years 2 and 3 176
■ Cultural focus: Gross motor development
Section 1: Physical development 282
across cultures 181 Growth in middle childhood 282
Socialising physical functions: toilet training Health issues 286
and weaning 183 Summary: Physical development 290
Summary: Physical development 185 Section 2: Cognitive development 292
Section 2: Cognitive development 186 Theories of cognitive development 292
Cognitive development theories 186 Language development 304
Language development 190 School in middle childhood 307
■ Cultural focus: Language development ■ Cultural focus: School and education in middle
across cultures 197 childhood across cultures 309
Summary: Cognitive development 199 Summary: Cognitive development 313
Section 3: Emotional and social development 200 Section 3: Emotional and social development 314
Emotional development in toddlerhood 200 Emotional and self-development 314
Attachment theory and research 207 The social and cultural contexts of
middle childhood 320
■ Cultural focus: Stranger anxiety across
cultures 208 ■ Research focus: TV or not TV? 333
■ Research focus: Can a therapeutic intervention Summary: Emotional and social development 335
change attachment? 211 Chapter quiz 336
The social world of the toddler 215
CHAPTER 8
Chapter quiz 224 Adolescence 338
CHAPTER 6 The metamorphosis: biological changes
Early childhood 226 of puberty 340
Health issues in adolescence 348
Summary: Physical development 352
Growth from age 3 to 6 228
Motor development 234 Section 2: Cognitive development 353
Summary: Physical development 237 Adolescent cognition 353
Education and work 359
Section 2: Cognitive development 238
Summary: Cognitive development 365
Theories of cognitive development 238
■ Cultural focus: Theory of mind across Section 3: Emotional and social development 367
cultures 241 Emotional and self-development 367
Language development 243 Cultural beliefs: morality and religion 372
Summary: Cognitive development 246 The social and cultural contexts of adolescence 376
viii CO N T E N T S
■ Research focus: The daily rhythms of adolescents’ CHAPTER 11

family lives 376
Middle adulthood 496
■ Cultural focus: Adolescent conflict with parents 378
Problems and resilience 389 Section 1: Physical development 497
Physical changes in middle adulthood 497
Chapter quiz 395 Health and disease 501
CHAPTER 9
Emerging adulthood 398 Intelligence, expertise and career development 508
Section 1: Physical development 399 ■ Research focus: Intelligence in middle adulthood:
The emergence of emerging adulthood 399 two research approaches 509
■ Cultural focus: The features of emerging adulthood 404 Information processing in middle adulthood 515
Physical changes of emerging adulthood 405 Summary: Cognitive development 517
Risk behaviour and health issues 408 Section 3: Emotional and social development 518
■ Research focus: Graduated driver licensing 410 Emotional and self-development 518
Summary: Physical development 413 The social and cultural contexts of
middle adulthood 525
■ Cultural focus: Family relationships in middle
Post-formal thinking 414
adulthood across cultures 529
Education and work 416
Summary: Cognitive development 423 Chapter quiz 540
Section 3: Emotional and social development 425
CHAPTER 12
Emotional and self-development 425
Cultural beliefs 433 Late adulthood 542
The social and cultural contexts of Section 1: Physical development 544
emerging adulthood 436 Cultural beliefs about late adulthood 544
■ Cultural focus: Media use in emerging adulthood Physical changes 550
across cultures 446
Health in late adulthood 554
Summary: Emotional and social development 447 ■ Cultural focus: Physical health in Indigenous
Chapter quiz 448 Australians 557
CHAPTER 10
Young adulthood 451 Cognitive changes and decline 562
Section 1: Physical development 452 Alternative views of cognitive changes 567
The transition to adulthood 452 Summary: Cognitive development 572
Physical health 456 Section 3: Emotional and social development 573
■ Research focus: What is ‘overweight’? What is Emotional and self-development 573
‘obesity’? 457
The social and cultural contexts of
Summary: Physical development 461 late adulthood 576
Section 2: Cognitive development 462 ■ Research focus: Do North Americans become
Adult intelligence 462 more religious with age? 586
Cognitive changes in young adulthood 464 Summary: Emotional and social development 590
Chapter quiz 591
Summary: Cognitive development 467
Section 3: Emotional and social development 468 CHAPTER 13

Emotional development in young adulthood 468 Death and afterlife beliefs 593
young adulthood 471 Section 1: Physical aspects of death 594
■ Cultural focus: Marriage and love relationships The biological processes of death and ageing 594
across cultures 474 ■ Research focus: Growing telomeres 599
Summary: Emotional and social development 492 The sociocultural contexts of death 602
Chapter quiz 493 Summary: Physical aspects of death 607
CO N T E N T S ix
Section 2: Emotional responses to death 609 Summary: Beliefs about death and the afterlife 626
Bereavement and grief 609 Chapter quiz 626
Confronting death 612

Summary: Emotional responses to death 614
Answers 628
Glossary 630
Section 3: Beliefs about death and the afterlife 615 References 640
Beliefs about death throughout the life span 615 Name index 720
Afterlife beliefs and mourning rituals 617 Subject index 749
■ Cultural focus: Mourning the dead across
cultures 625
Preface
Welcome to the first edition of Human Development: A Cultural Approach, Australian and New
Zealand Edition.
This edition features current research throughout, as well as a focus on the cultural diversity
that exists around the world, with particular attention to Australia and New Zealand. We
have worked closely with the Pearson team to develop a wide range of features that make
the content and cultural approach engaging. However, what sets this book apart, more than
anything else, is that it presents a portrayal of development that covers the whole amazing
range of human cultural diversity. As individuals who have taught human development
in higher education for years, and being familiar with the available textbooks, we were
struck by how narrow they all seemed to be. Many textbooks focus on human development
in the United States as if it were the typical pattern for people everywhere, with only the
occasional mention of people in other parts of the world. With this adapted textbook, we
have carefully scrutinised the applicability of the mainstream American model for students
in Australia and New Zealand. In some cases, the research is similar; sometimes, the
content is very different; and sometimes American research serves as an interesting contrast
for development patterns in New Zealand and Australia.
So, in writing and adapting this textbook for an Australian and New Zealand audience, we
decided to take a cultural approach, and one that pays close attention to development in our
own part of the world as well as beyond. We set out to portray human development as it
takes place across all the different varieties of cultural patterns that people have devised in
response to their local conditions and the creative inspiration of their imaginations. Our goal
was to teach students to think culturally, so that when they apply human development to the
work they do or to their own lives, they understand that there is, always and everywhere, a
cultural basis to development. The cultural approach also includes learning how to critique
research for the extent to which it does or does not take the cultural basis of development
into account. We provide this kind of critique at numerous points throughout the book, with
the intent that students will learn how to do it themselves by the time they reach the end.
By exploring a balance of examples of research from Australia, New Zealand, the United
States and throughout the world, students studying with this textbook will learn how culture
shapes human development at all stages of the life span.
We know from our experiences as university lecturers that students find it fascinating to
learn about the different forms that human development takes in various cultures, but
there are also practical benefits to the cultural approach. It is more important than ever
for students to have knowledge of the wider world because of the increasingly globalised
economy and because so many problems, such as disease and climate change, cross borders.
Whether they travel the globe or remain in their home towns, in a culturally diverse and
globalised world, students will benefit from being able to apply the cultural approach
and think culturally about development, whether in social interactions with friends and
neighbours, or in their careers, as they may have patients, students or co-workers who come
from different cultures.
P R E FAC E xi
Did you notice that the front cover is a woven mat? We have taken as inspiration the whāriki
from indigenous Māori culture. Whāriki are usually the result of many people working together
who are valued for their artistry. There is also a symbolic meaning. The individual strands of
the whāriki represent the aspects of life that describe and support human development, and
the completed whāriki represents ‘a woven mat for all to stand on’ (Ministry of Education,
2017, p. 10). The weaving metaphor is also present in other cultures. There is a Tongan
saying that ‘society is like a mat being woven’, and the Malagasy from Madagascar have a
proverb that says, ‘All who live under the sky are woven together like one big mat’. The
cover image captures the interwoven nature of culture, experiences and historical context for
individuals in their development, as well as biological, cognitive and psychosocial aspects of
development. As individuals, we need to look beyond our own experiences and not assume
that what is true for ourselves is true for others. We have grown up in a certain cultural
context. We have learned to think about life in a certain way. Most of us do not realise how
broad and diverse our world really is. Our hope is that this book will help more students
identify the strands of the weaving that represent an individual’s development, and appreciate
the wonderful diversity of human development.
The cultural approach makes this textbook much different from other life span textbooks,
but there are other features that make this textbook distinct. This is the only major textbook
to include a separate chapter on toddlerhood, the second and third years of life. We have
always been puzzled by the way other textbooks gloss over toddlerhood, usually including
the second year of life as part of ‘infancy’, and the third year of life as part of ‘early childhood’.
Yet, any parent knows that years 2 and 3 are very different from what comes before or after,
and we know this well from our own experiences as parents. Infants cannot walk or talk, and
once toddlers learn to do both in years 2 and 3, their experience of life—and their parents’
experience—changes completely. Toddlers are also different from older children in that their
ability for emotional self-regulation and their awareness of what is and is not acceptable
behaviour in their culture is much more limited.
This textbook is also alone among major textbooks in dividing the adult life span into stages
of emerging adulthood, young adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood. Emerging
adulthood, roughly ages 18–29, is a new life stage that has arisen in developed countries over
the past 50 years, as people have entered later into the commitments that structure adult
life in most cultures: marriage, parenthood and stable work. Other textbooks either call the
whole period from age 18 to 40 ‘young adulthood’ (which makes little sense, in that for most
people in developed countries ages 18–29 are vastly different from ages 30–40), or they have
an emerging adulthood chapter and then lump young and middle adulthood together as
‘adulthood’ (which also makes little sense, given that it means applying one life stage term
to ages 25–60). Arnett originally proposed the theory of emerging adulthood in 2000, and it
has now become widely used in the social sciences. We think it is a fascinating and dynamic
time of life, and we know students enjoy learning about it, as many of them are in that life
stage or have recently passed through it.
This textbook is somewhat shorter than most other texts on human development. There is one
chapter devoted to each phase of life, for a total of 13 chapters. Each chapter is divided into
three main sections, which correspond to the physical, the cognitive and the emotional and
social domains of development. This is an introductory textbook, and the goal is not to teach
students everything there is to know about every aspect of human development, but rather
to provide them with a foundation of knowledge on human development that hopefully will
inspire them to learn more, in other courses and throughout life.
Middle childhood 7
Across cultures, the transition from early childhood to middle childhood is recognised SECTION 1
as an important shift in children’s development, when they become capable of greater PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
cognitive challenges and personal responsibility (Sameroff & Haith, 1996).
Features
Growth in middle childhood
In developing countries, middle childhood is often the age when children are first given important family Physical growth and sensory
development
duties, such as taking care of younger siblings, buying or selling goods, maintaining a fire or caring for
Motor development
domestic animals (Gaskins, 2015; Weisner, 1996). According to Roy D’Andrade (1987), middle childhood
is when children first show a grasp of cultural models, which are cognitive structures pertaining to common Health issues
activities; for example, buying something at the market, herding cattle, taking care of an infant, making Malnutrition and obesity
bread or delivering a message to a relative’s house. Children in both developed and developing countries Illness and injuries
begin formal schooling in middle childhood, which includes cultural models of ‘listen to the teacher’, ‘wait
your turn’ and ‘do your homework’. Children begin to grasp cultural models as early as toddlerhood, but SECTION 2
during middle childhood their understanding of cultural models acquires greater complexity, so that they COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
become capable of taking on a much broader range of tasks (Gaskins, 2015; Weisner, 1996). Theories of cognitive development
C H A P T E R
Concrete operations
Middle childhood 7 Here, as elsewhere in the human life span, how we experience a given stage of life depends greatly on
cultural context. Children in all cultures become more capable of useful work in middle childhood, but the Information processing
Across cultures, the transition from early childhood to middle childhood is recognised
as an important shift in children’s development, when they become capable of greater
SECTION 1
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
nature of their work varies greatly. For many children throughout human history it has been mainly farm Intelligence and intelligence tests
cognitive challenges and personal responsibility (Sameroff & Haith, 1996). Growth in middle childhood
Language development
Physical growth and sensory
work—tending the fields, herding the cows and feeding the chickens. For today’s children, it might be school
In developing countries, middle childhood is often the age when children are first given important family
development
duties, such as taking care of younger siblings, buying or selling goods, maintaining a fire or caring for
Motor development
domestic animals (Gaskins, 2015; Weisner, 1996). According to Roy D’Andrade (1987), middle childhood
is when children first show a grasp of cultural models, which are cognitive structures pertaining to common Health issues
work or household work in developed countries, and any of a wide range of work in developing countries,
activities; for example, buying something at the market, herding cattle, taking care of an infant, making Malnutrition and obesity
bread or delivering a message to a relative’s house. Children in both developed and developing countries
begin formal schooling in middle childhood, which includes cultural models of ‘listen to the teacher’, ‘wait
your turn’ and ‘do your homework’. Children begin to grasp cultural models as early as toddlerhood, but
Illness and injuries
SECTION 2
Vocabulary, grammar and
during middle childhood their understanding of cultural models acquires greater complexity, so that they
become capable of taking on a much broader range of tasks (Gaskins, 2015; Weisner, 1996).
Here, as elsewhere in the human life span, how we experience a given stage of life depends greatly on
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Theories of cognitive development
Concrete operations
from household work to factory work to feeding domestic animals. In this chapter we explore a wide range pragmatics
Multilingualism
cultural context. Children in all cultures become more capable of useful work in middle childhood, but the Information processing
of cultural variations in children’s experiences of middle childhood.

nature of their work varies greatly. For many children throughout human history it has been mainly farm Intelligence and intelligence tests
work—tending the fields, herding the cows and feeding the chickens. For today’s children, it might be school Language development
work or household work in developed countries, and any of a wide range of work in developing countries, Vocabulary, grammar and
from household work to factory work to feeding domestic animals. In this chapter we explore a wide range pragmatics
School in middle childhood

of cultural variations in children’s experiences of middle childhood. Multilingualism
School in middle childhood
School experiences and
achievement
School experiences and

Learning the cognitive skills of
school: reading and mathematics
SECTION 3
EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
Emotional and self-development
achievement
Learning the cognitive skills of
Smooth sailing: advances in
emotional self-regulation
Self-understanding
Gender development
middle childhood
Family relations
school: reading and mathematics
Chabraszewski/Shutterstock
Friends and peers

Work
source to go here
Media use
SECTION 3
Opening vignettes begin EMOTIONAL
Caption
each chapter ANDand SOCIAL

Jacek
M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 281 07/08/18 11:26 AM

DEVELOPMENT
provide an overview of the developmental stage
Emotional and self-development
being covered. The vignettes feature people from
Smooth sailing: advances in
diverse backgrounds and discuss
emotional their lives,
self-regulation
experiences, and the role that culture has played
Self-understanding
Gender development
in their development.
middle childhood
Family relations
Chabraszewski/Shutterstock
Friends and peers
Work
source to go here
Media use
Caption
Jacek
S e c t i o n 1 P h y s i c a l d e v e lo P m e n t 285
two-dimensional figures. However, in the course of middle childhood

children learn to indicate three-dimensional depth by overlapping
objects and making near objects larger than distant ones (Braine,
Schauble, Kugelmass & Winter, 1993). They also learn to draw
objects in greater detail and to adjust the size and relation of objects
S e c t i o n 1 P h y s i c a l d e v e lo P m e n t 285 in a drawing so that they fit together into one coherent whole (see
Figure 7.1; Case & Okamoto, 1996).
With regard to writing, in early childhood most children learn to write a
few letters and numbers in rough form. In middle childhood, their skills
M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 281 greatly advance (Berninger et al., 2006). Even by age 6, most children are
07/08/18 11:26 AM
Research two-dimensional
and artwork figures.
have However,
been incorporated to childhood
able to write the letters of the alphabet, their own name, and numbers
from 1 to 10. In the course of the next several years, as their fine motor
in the course of middle abilities develop, they are able to make their letters smaller and neater
with more consistent height and spacing. By age 8 or 9, most children
help students appreciate the diversity that exists

can learn to write in cursive. By the end of middle childhood their fine
children learn to indicate three-dimensional depth by overlapping motor abilities have nearly reached adult maturity, whereas gross motor
development will continue to advance for many years to come.
objects and making near objects larger than distant ones (Braine,
within countries, and to understand the role
Schauble, Kugelmass & Winter, 1993). They also learn to draw
pr actice QUiZ
1 During middle childhood _________________.

a girls are usually taller and heavier than boys
of culture,objects
ethnicity, socioeconomic
in greater status
detail and to adjust the sizeand
and relation of objects
b girls and boys are more likely to be slim than at any other time
c the incidence of myopia decreases
d ear infections are more likely than they were earlier in the life span
because of more exposure to germs during the school years
other factors
in a in human
drawing development.
so that they fit together into one coherent whole (see 2 During middle childhood, ______________.
a bodies are pudgier than they were in toddlerhood with a
higher body mass index
Figure 7.1; Case & Okamoto, 1996).

b children run longer and faster because of expanded lung capacity
c the proportion of body fat is identical for girls and boys
d growth continues at the same rate as in infancy
3 During middle childhood, there is an increase in myelination of
With regard to writing, in early childhood most children learn to write a

the ______________ that accelerates the reaction time for both
boys and girls.
a Broca’s area c corpus callosum FIGURE 7.1 Change in drawing abilities from early to
few letters and numbers in rough form. In middle childhood, their skills
b Wernicke’s area d pituitary gland middle childhood
4 For 6-year-old emmanuel, which of the following fine motor Drawings become more realistic as fine motor development
advances during middle childhood. Here are drawings made
tasks is developmentally appropriate?
at ages 3 (top), 5 (middle) and 7 (bottom).
greatly advance (Berninger et al., 2006). Even by age 6, most children are a Writing complete sentences and spelling multi-syllable words,
such as ‘hippopotamus’
b Running a 4-minute mile, jumping over hurdles and dribbling a
Source: Case & Okamato (1996).
basketball
able to write the letters of the alphabet, their own name, and numbers c Writing the letters of the alphabet, writing his name and
writing numbers from 1 to 10
d Writing in cursive
from 1 to 10. In the course of the next several years, as their fine motor
abilities develop, they are able to make their letters smaller and neater M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 285 07/08/18 11:26 AM
with more consistent height and spacing. By age 8 or 9, most children

can learn to write in cursive. By the end of middle childhood their fine
motor abilities have nearly reached adult maturity, whereas gross motor
development will continue to advance for many years to come.
pr actice QUiZ
1 During middle childhood _________________.

a girls are usually taller and heavier than boys
b girls and boys are more likely to be slim than at any other time
c the incidence of myopia decreases
d ear infections are more likely than they were earlier in the life span
because of more exposure to germs during the school years
2 During middle childhood, ______________.

a bodies are pudgier than they were in toddlerhood with a
higher body mass index
b children run longer and faster because of expanded lung capacity
c the proportion of body fat is identical for girls and boys
d growth continues at the same rate as in infancy
3 During middle childhood, there is an increase in myelination of
behaviour at age 11 across countries, even controlling statistically for initial aggressiveness at age
6. Studies by other researchers in South Africa and the Netherlands have reported similar results
(Coyne, 2007).
Some effects might be long lasting. In a longitudinal study in Dunedin, New Zealand, television
viewing was measured in childhood and adolescence (Hancox, Milne & Poulton, 2004). Adult
health was measured at age 26, and more television was related F EtoAT U Rrates
higher xiii daily
E S of obesity,
smoking, poorer fitness and higher cholesterol. In addition, further research from this longitudinal
study found links between television viewing and criminal convictions and antisocial personality
S e c t i o n 3 e m ot i o n a l a n d s o c i a l d e v e lo P m e n t 333
vulnerability to the effects of media violence, some of the most important studies linking media
(Robertson, McAnally & Hancox, 2013). Although it is not possible to imply causation, and
violence to children’s aggression have focused on middle childhood. The key studies have
included field experiments, longitudinal studies and natural experiments.
In field experiments, children’s social behaviour has been observed following exposure to
outcomes
S e c t i o nlike
2 cohealth
G n i t status
i v e d eand criminal
v e lo 309 have many contributing factors, this longitudinal
P m e n tactivity
study provides interesting insight.
violent television. For example, in one field experiment, there were two groups of boys at a
summer camp (Bushman & Chandler, 2007). One group was shown violent films every evening
for 5 nights; the other group watched non-violent films during this period. Subsequently,
Research focus features offer a detailed

observations of the boys’ social behaviour showed that the boys who watched the violent films
relationships with teachers that more resemble family were more likely than the boys in the non-violent film group to display physical and verbal
aggression.
Perhaps the most persuasive evidence that watching television causes aggression in children
Several longitudinal studies by Rowell Huesmann and colleagues have shown that watching high
relationships; second, distinct spaces or rooms, often called

description of a research study, including its comes from a natural experiment in a Canadian town. That experiment is the subject of the
amounts of violent television in middle childhood predicts aggressive behaviour at later life
stages (Coyne, 2007; Huesmann, Moise-Titus, Podolski & Eron, 2003). One study involved boys
and girls in five countries: Australia, Finland, Israel, Poland and the United States. The children’s
the ‘Aboriginal room’, that allow for cultural practices and television-watching patterns and aggressive behaviour were assessed at age 6 and then 5 years
later at age 11. High levels of exposure to television violence at age 6 predicted aggressive Research focus: TV or not TV? feature.
premises, methods, results and limitations.
connecting to other students; and third, including Aboriginal
behaviour at age 11 across countries, even controlling statistically for initial aggressiveness at age
6. Studies by other researchers in South Africa and the Netherlands have reported similar results
(Coyne, 2007).
Some effects might be long lasting. In a longitudinal study in Dunedin, New Zealand, television
Multiple-choice review questions at the end

cultural knowledge (like music, art, dance, stories and camps). viewing was measured in childhood and adolescence (Hancox, Milne & Poulton, 2004). Adult
health was measured at age 26, and more television was related to higher rates of obesity, daily
smoking, poorer fitness and higher cholesterol. In addition, further research from this longitudinal
study found links between television viewing and criminal convictions and antisocial personality
Māori students in New Zealand are also behind their non-

of the feature ensure that students have a
(Robertson, McAnally & Hancox, 2013). Although it is not possible to imply causation, and
outcomes like health status and criminal activity have many contributing factors, this longitudinal
TV or not TV?
study provides interesting insight.
Māori classmates in measures of achievement, and they are Perhaps the most persuasive evidence that watching television causes aggression in children
RESEARCH FOCUS
solid understanding of the research study and
comes from a natural experiment in a Canadian town. That experiment is the subject of the
Research focus: TV or not TV? feature.
more likely to be suspended, to be in special education for

methodology. behavioural problems and to leave school early (Bishop, RESEARCH FOCUS TV or not TV?
Researchers on human development are limited in the one human development topic for which natural
Researchers on human development are limited in the one human development topic for w
Berryman, Cavanagh & Teddy, 2009). Starting in 2001, a methods they can use because they have to take into account
methods they can use because they have to take into account
ethical issues concerning the rights and wellbeing of the
experiments have been available is the effect of television on
children’s behaviour. television use spread all over the world
experiments have been available is the effect o
people they involve in their studies. For instance, the with remarkable speed after it was invented in the 1940s, but
project called Te Kōtahitanga sought to understand the

environments of human beings cannot be changed and there are still parts of the world that do not have television or
ethical issues concerning the rights and wellbeing of the

manipulated in the same way as those of animals, especially if
the change would involve a condition that is potentially
have received it only recently.
in the early 1980s, a group of canadian researchers, led
children’s behaviour. television use spread all o
unhealthy or dangerous. by tannis macBeth (2007), observed that there were areas of
experiences of students and to develop solutions. Māori people they involve in their studies. For instance, the
one way that researchers can obtain information about
human development despite this restriction is to look for
canada that still did not have television, although it was
spreading rapidly. they decided to take advantage of this
with remarkable speed after it was invented in t
opportunities for a natural experiment. a natural experiment is natural experiment to observe children’s behaviour before and
students in Years 9 and 10, their parents, teachers and environments of human beings cannot be changed and
a condition that takes place without the researcher’s
manipulation or involvement, but that nevertheless provides
after the introduction of television.
three towns were included in the study: ‘notel’ (as the there are still parts of the world that do not hav
important information to the perceptive observer. researchers dubbed it), which had no television at the
principals were among the first the researchers interviewed manipulated in the same way as those of animals, especially if have received it only recently.
the change would involve a condition that is potentially in the early 1980s, a group of canadian re
(Bishop, Berryman, Taikiwai & Richardson, 2003). A
M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 333 07/08/18 11:26 AM
unhealthy or dangerous. by tannis macBeth (2007), observed that there

common theme was that teachers had a deficit perspective
one waySome
that researchers can obtain information about
Australian schools canada that still did not have television, alth
when it came to Māori students, and this contributed to poor achievement; better relationships
human development despite
have developed this restriction is to look for
cultural spreading rapidly. they decided to take adva
in the classroom were identified by students, parents and principals as an important key opportunities
(Bishop, spaces
for a natural experiment. a natural experiment is
for Indigenous natural experiment to observe children’s behavio
Berryman, Wearmouth, Peter & Clapham, 2012). Following this phase of research, a new students,
a condition that takeslike this
placeoutdoor
without the researcher’s after the introduction of television.
pedagogy was developed. Teachers participated in professional development training and were learning
manipulation area at a but
or involvement, highthat nevertheless provides three towns were included in the study: ‘
important school in New South Wales. researchers dubbed it), which had no tele
observed and given feedback about their teaching. Te Kōtahitanga aimed at empowering them information to the perceptive observer.
to change the deficit thinking in their own classrooms that was impacting on their day-to-day Courtesy School
of Hunter River High
interactions with students. Evaluations found improved teacher–student relationships; more

group and individual activities (less whole-class instruction), allowing more time for quality
dialogue with students; less teaching from the front of the classroom, increasing expectations
for Māori students; and higher rates of engagement and work completion. Te Kōtahitanga also
S e c t i o n 2 co G n i t i v e d e v e lo P m e n t 309
M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 333
relationships with teachers that more resemble family
relationships; second, distinct spaces or rooms, often called
the ‘Aboriginal room’, that allow for cultural practices and
connecting to other students; and third, including Aboriginal
contributed to improved scores on standardised tests compared to schools that did not participate
cultural knowledge (like music, art, dance, stories and camps).
Māori students in New Zealand are also behind their non- in this program, and the gains were long lasting. Researchers and educators plan to continue to
Māori classmates in measures of achievement, and they are
more likely to be suspended, to be in special education for
behavioural problems and to leave school early (Bishop, work on ways to improve teachers’ relationships with students.
Berryman, Cavanagh & Teddy, 2009). Starting in 2001, a
project called Te Kōtahitanga sought to understand the
experiences of students and to develop solutions. Māori
Cultural focus features highlight

students in Years 9 and 10, their parents, teachers and
principals were among the first the researchers interviewed
(Bishop, Berryman, Taikiwai & Richardson, 2003). A
common theme was that teachers had a deficit perspective
School and education in middle childhoodhow

across cultures
Some Australian schools
CULTURAL FOCUS
when it came to Māori students, and this contributed to poor achievement; better relationships
culture impacts various aspects

have developed cultural
in the classroom were identified by students, parents and principals as an important key (Bishop, spaces for Indigenous
Berryman, Wearmouth, Peter & Clapham, 2012). Following this phase of research, a new students, like this outdoor
pedagogy was developed. Teachers participated in professional development training and were learning area at a high
school in New South Wales.
observed and given feedback about their teaching. Te Kōtahitanga aimed at empowering them
of development, such as breastfeeding

Courtesy of Hunter River High
to change the deficit thinking in their own classrooms that was impacting on their day-to-day School
interactions with students. Evaluations found improved teacher–student relationships; more
attending primary school has become a near-universal in asian countries such as Japan, china and south Korea,
group and individual activities (less whole-class instruction), allowing more time for quality
dialogue with students; less teaching from the front of the classroom, increasing expectations
practices, gross motor development,

for Māori students; and higher rates of engagement and work completion. Te Kōtahitanga also
contributed to improved scores on standardised tests compared to schools that did not participate
in this program, and the gains were long lasting. Researchers and educators plan to continue to experience of middle childhood. however, in some countries, there are cultural traditions going back over 2 millennia
work on ways to improve teachers’ relationships with students.
there are many children who attend for only a few years emphasising the importance and value of education, and the
CULTURAL FOCUS School and education in middle childhood across cultures
attending primary school has become a near-universal in asian countries such as Japan, china and south Korea,
because their labour is desperately needed by their families traditions remain strong today. high standards are applied to marriage and family relationships, and work
for economic survival. all children because people in these countries believe that
and retirement. Students read an overview
experience of middle childhood. however, in some countries, there are cultural traditions going back over 2 millennia
there are many children who attend for only a few years emphasising the importance and value of education, and the
because their labour is desperately needed by their families traditions remain strong today. high standards are applied to
for economic survival.
all primary schools teach children reading, writing and
all children because people in these countries believe that
educational success is derived mainly from hard work and that all primary schools teach children reading, writing and educational success is derived mainly from hard work and that
of the topic and then answer a review
maths, but there are many variations in how children are any child can succeed who tries hard enough (stevenson, lee
taught and in what is expected of them.
Until recently, boys were more likely than girls to attend
primary school. school attendance requires school fees in
& mu, 2000; sun, dunne, hou & Xu, 2013). the same beliefs
are characteristic of asian migrant families (Fuligni, tseng &
lam, 2005). several features of asian schools reflect
maths, but there are many variations in how children are any child can succeed who tries hard enough (stevenson, lee
many countries, and some poor families would use their collectivistic cultural beliefs emphasising obedience and
taught and in what is expected of them. & mu, 2000; sun, dunne, hou & Xu, 2013). the same beliefs
extremely limited resources for the boys’ education. Girls were
often kept at home because it was believed that boys’
education would be of greater benefit to the family. however,
in recent years this gender difference has disappeared, and
cooperation. children are required to help to maintain the
cleanliness and order of the school, emphasising the
collectivistic cultural value of contributing to the wellbeing of
the community. Furthermore, children often work in groups, Until recently, boys were more likely than girls to attend are characteristic of asian migrant families (Fuligni, tseng & question.
boys and girls are now equally likely to obtain primary with students who have mastered a concept instructing those
primary school. school attendance requires school fees in lam, 2005). several features of asian schools reflect
education (UniceF, 2014a). who have yet to grasp it (shapiro & azuma, 2004).
many countries, and some poor families would use their collectivistic cultural beliefs emphasising obedience and
M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 309 07/08/18 11:26 AM
extremely limited resources for the boys’ education. Girls were cooperation. children are required to help to maintain the
often kept at home because it was believed that boys’ cleanliness and order of the school, emphasising the
education would be of greater benefit to the family. however, collectivistic cultural value of contributing to the wellbeing of
in recent years this gender difference has disappeared, and the community. Furthermore, children often work in groups,
boys and girls are now equally likely to obtain primary with students who have mastered a concept instructing those
education (UniceF, 2014a). who have yet to grasp it (shapiro & azuma, 2004).
M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 309 07/08/18 11:26 AM
S e c t i o n 2 co G n i t i v e d e v e lo P m e n t 303
c r i t i c a L-t h i n K i n G Q U e S t i o n
Do you agree that all the mental abilities described by Gardner are different types of
intelligence? if not, which types would you remove? are there other types you would
add?
Sternberg’s (1983, 1988, 2002, 2003, 2005) triarchic theory of intelligence includes three triarchic theory of
intelligence
distinct but related forms of intelligence. Analytical intelligence is Sternberg’s term for the
Sternberg’s theory that there are
kind of intelligence that IQ tests measure, which involves acquiring, storing, analysing and three distinct but related forms
S e c t i o n 2 co G n i t i v e d e v e l
retrieving information. Creative intelligence involves the ability to combine information in of intelligence
original ways to produce new insights, ideas and problem-solving strategies. Practical
Critical thinking questions encourage students

intelligence is the ability to apply information to the kinds of problems faced in everyday
life, including the capacity to evaluate social situations. Sternberg has conducted extensive
research to develop tests of intelligence that measure the three types of intelligence he
proposes. These tests involve solving problems, applying knowledge and developing
creative strategies. Sternberg’s research on Americans has demonstrated that each person
to think more deeply and critically about a

has a different profile on the three intelligences that can be assessed (Sternberg, 2005,
2007a). He proposes that the three components are universal and contribute to intelligent
c r i t i c a L-t h i n K i n G Q U e S t i o n
performance in all cultures (Sternberg, 2005), but so far the theory has been tested little
outside the United States. Neither Sternberg’s nor Gardner’s tests are widely used among
developmental topic. These questions appear in

psychologists, in part because they take longer to administer and score than standard IQ
tests do.
The underlying issue in judging alternative theories of intelligence is the question of how
intelligence should be defined. If intelligence is defined simply as the mental abilities required Do you agree that all the mental abilities described by Gardner are different types of
to succeed at school, the traditional approach to conceptualising and measuring intelligence is
every main section and often focus on the role of generally successful. However, if one wishes to define intelligence more broadly, as the entire
range of human mental abilities, the traditional approach may be seen as too narrow, and an
approach such as Gardner’s or Sternberg’s may be preferred.
intelligence? if not, which types would you remove? are there other types you would
add?
culture in human development. pr actice QUiZ
1 Maurice is 8 years old and is shown two round balls 2 Marina is 9 years old and is capable of concrete
of clay that are equal in size. he watches as the operational thought. Like most other children her
experimenter rolls one ball into a long sausage age, she should ______________.
shape. When asked, ‘Which has more clay?’, he will
a fail the three mountain task, but pass the abstract
likely reply: ______________. thinking task
a ‘the ball.’ b still have great difficulty with seriation tasks, such as
b ‘the long one that looks like a sausage.’
c ‘i’m not sure; i’ll need to weigh them.’
d ‘they’re both the same.’
arranging items from shortest to longest
c be able to organise and manipulate information
mentally
Sternberg’s (1983, 1988, 2002, 2003, 2005) triarchic theory of intelligence includes three triarchic theory of
intelligence
distinct but related forms of intelligence. Analytical intelligence is Sternberg’s term for the
d think in terms of hypotheticals
Sternberg’s theory tha

kind of intelligence that IQ tests measure, which involves acquiring, storing, analysing and three distinct but rela
M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 303 07/08/18 11:26 AM
retrieving information. Creative intelligence involves the ability to combine information in of intelligence
original ways to produce new insights, ideas and problem-solving strategies. Practical
intelligence is the ability to apply information to the kinds of problems faced in everyday
life, including the capacity to evaluate social situations. Sternberg has conducted extensive
research to develop tests of intelligence that measure the three types of intelligence he
proposes. These tests involve solving problems, applying knowledge and developing
creative strategies. Sternberg’s research on Americans has demonstrated that each person
has a different profile on the three intelligences that can be assessed (Sternberg, 2005,
2007a). He proposes that the three components are universal and contribute to intelligent
performance in all cultures (Sternberg, 2005), but so far the theory has been tested little
outside the United States. Neither Sternberg’s nor Gardner’s tests are widely used among
psychologists, in part because they take longer to administer and score than standard IQ
tests do.
The underlying issue in judging alternative theories of intelligence is the question of how
Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2019— 9781488619465 — Arnett/Human
intelligence should be defined. If intelligence isDevelopment 1emental abilities required
defined simply as the
xiv F E AT U R E S
290 ch a p t e r 7 m i d d l e ch i l d h o o d
pr actice QUiZ
1 What is the current understanding of how genetics b as long as they emphasise that ‘beauty is from
influences obesity? within’, they should not be concerned about
emotional problems.
a Genetics is a good explanation for recent rises in
obesity rates during childhood; however, it does c they should be concerned because she is at
little to explain the rates of obesity for adulthood. heightened risk for kidney failure and blindness.
d they should be concerned because of an increased
pr actice QUiZ
b Genetics only explains obesity with regard to
females. chance of adhd correlated with the stress of being
obese.
c obesity is more likely to be caused by genetics than
the environment. 4 in developed countries, ______________.
d Genetics cannot explain recent rises in obesity a lead poisoning continues to be one of the top
rates; rather, it provides only a risk for overweight
Practice quizzes appear at the end 1 of each

causes of death during middle childhood
and obesity. b middle childhood is the least safe time of life
p r‘beauty
a c istfrom
ice QUiZ
2 rates of childhood obesity ______________. because of an increased need for independence at
What is the current understanding of how genetics b as long as they emphasise that a vary among ethnic groups in new Zealand
b are lower in new Zealand compared to asia
this period in development
c even children who do not receive vaccinations are
section within the chapter to test knowledge

less susceptible to fatal diseases in middle
within’, they should not be concerned about

c have stayed relatively stable in the past decade
influences obesity?
childhood than they were earlier in their
d are highest among new Zealand children from development
economically advantaged backgrounds who have
d rates of minor illnesses have increased during
emotional problems.
access to more foods
recent decades, even though rates of more serious
gained during the topic. a Genetics is a good explanation for recent rises in
illnesses have declined
3 Your neighbours eat out quite a bit, and most of it is
fast food. their 8-year-old daughter is obese with a 5 Which of the following is a risk factor for asthma?
obesity rates during childhood; however, it does c they should be concerned because she is at BMi of 24. Which of the following statements is
a Being male
within’, they should not be concerned about

most accurate?
influences obesity?heightened risk for kidney failure and blindness.

b living in a colder climate
a they should not be concerned because most c having european ancestry
children outgrow their obesity.
little to explain the rates of obesity for adulthood.

d Being underweight
emotional problems.
b Genetics only explains obesity with regard to a
Genetics is da good explanation
they should for recent
be concerned rises inof an increased
because
females. chancechildhood;
obesity rates during
SUMMARY of adhd correlated
however,with
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT the stress of being c they should be concerned because she is at
it does
little to explainobese.
the rates of obesity for adulthood.
LO 7.1 Identify the changes in physical and sensory heightened risk for kidney failure and blindness.
greater agility and faster reaction time. As their gross motor

development that take place during middle development advances, children improve their performance in
childhood. a wide range of games and sports, and many of them
In middle childhood, physical growth continues at a slow but
Genetics b
only explains countries,
obesity with regard to d they should be concerned because of an increased
participate in organised sport. Fine motor development
reaches nearly an adult level at this age, and across cultures,
the environment. 4 in developed ______________.

steady pace—about 5–8 cm per year in height and about 2.5–3
advances are especially evident in two areas: drawing and
kg per year in weight. Children lose all 20 primary teeth and
writing.
chance of adhd correlated with the stress of being

their permanent teeth begin to grow in. Ear health improves,
females. a lead poisoning continues to be one of the top

but one-quarter of children become nearsighted during middle
d Genetics cannot explain recent rises in obesity

LO 7.3 Describe the negative effects of both malnutrition
childhood.
and obesity on development and identify the causes
obese.
LO 7.2 Explain how motor development advances in middle of obesity.
childhood and how these advancements are related
rates; rather, it provides only a risk for overweight c

Studies have shown that better nourished children are more
obesity is more likelyof

todeath
be caused
duringby genetics than
to new skills and participation in games and sports.
causes middle childhood

Children’s gross motor skills improve in middle childhood due
to improved balance, increased strength, better coordination,
energetic, less anxious, show more positive emotion and score
higher than malnourished children on a wide range of cognitive
measures in middle childhood. Across countries, rates of
and obesity. b middle childhood is the least safe time of life 4 in developed countries, ______________.
the environment.
2 rates of childhood obesity ______________. d Genetics cannot
M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 290
because
explainof recent
an increased
rises inneed for independence at
obesity a lead poisoning continues to be one of the top 07/08/18 11:26 AM
a vary among ethnic groups in new Zealand rates; rather, it this periodonly
provides in development
a risk for overweight causes of death during middle childhood
and obesity.c even children who do not receive vaccinations are
b are lower in new Zealand compared to asia b middle childhood is the least safe time of life
2 rates of childhoodchildhood
obesity ______________.
than they were earlier in their
because of an increased need for independence at
d are highest among new Zealand children from development this period in development
a vary among ethnic groups in new Zealand
economically advantaged backgrounds who have c even children who do not receive vaccinations are
access to more foods b are lower indnew rates of minorcompared
Zealand illnesses have increased during
to asia
recent decades, even though rates of more serious less susceptible to fatal diseases in middle
3 Your neighbours eat out quite a bit, and most of it is illnesses have declined childhood than they were earlier in their
BMi of 24. Which of the following statements is d rates of minor illnesses have increased during
access to morea Beingfoods male
most accurate? recent decades, even though rates of more serious
a they should not be concerned because most 3 Your neighbours eat out quite a bit, and most of it is illnesses have declined
290 ch a p t e r 7 m i d d l e ch i l d h o o d c having european ancestry
children outgrow their obesity. fast food. their 8-year-old daughter is obese with a 5 Which of the following is a risk factor for asthma?
pr actice QUiZ d Being underweight
BMi of 24. Which of the following statements is
a Being male
influences obesity? within’, they should not be concerned about
most accurate?
emotional problems.
a Genetics is a good explanation for recent rises in
c they should be concerned because she is at

obesity rates during childhood; however, it does
little to explain the rates of obesity for adulthood. heightened risk for kidney failure and blindness.
b Genetics only explains obesity with regard to d they should be concerned because of an increased
a they should not be concerned because most

females. chance of adhd correlated with the stress of being
c having european ancestry

obese.
the environment. 4 in developed countries, ______________.

d Genetics cannot explain recent rises in obesity a lead poisoning continues to be one of the top
d Being underweight
rates; rather, it provides only a risk for overweight causes of death during middle childhood
and obesity. b middle childhood is the least safe time of life
2 rates of childhood obesity ______________. because of an increased need for independence at
this period in development
a vary among ethnic groups in new Zealand
SUMMARY PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

c even children who do not receive vaccinations are
b are lower in new Zealand compared to asia
childhood than they were earlier in their
d rates of minor illnesses have increased during
access to more foods
recent decades, even though rates of more serious
3 Your neighbours eat out quite a bit, and most of it is illnesses have declined
BMi of 24. Which of the following statements is
LO 7.1 Identify the changes in physical and sensory

a Being male
most accurate?
a they should not be concerned because most
b living in a colder climate greater agility and faster reaction time. As their gross motor
c having european ancestry
development advances, children improve their performance in

d Being underweight
development that take place during middle
SUMMARY PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT S U M M participate
A R Y in organisedP H Y S Isport.
C A LFineD Emotor
V E Ldevelopment
OPMENT
LO 7.1 Identify the changes in physical and sensory greater agility and faster reaction time. As their gross motor reaches nearly an adult level at this age, and across cultures,
development that take place during middle development advances, children improve their performance in
participate in organised sport. Fine motor development advances are especially evident in two areas: drawing and
reaches nearly an adult level at this age, and across cultures,
writing.the changes in physical and sensory
advances are especially evident in two areas: drawing and
LO 7.1 Identify greater agility and faster reaction time. As their gross motor
writing.

but one-quarter of children become nearsighted during middle
development advances, children improve their performance in

childhood.
but one-quarter of children become nearsighted during middle development that take place during middle
LO 7.2 Explain how motor development advances in middle of obesity.
LO 7.3 Describe the negative effects of both malnutrition a wide range of games and sports, and many of them
Children’s gross motor skills improve in middle childhood due

energetic, less anxious, show more positive emotion and score
higher than malnourished children on a wide range of cognitive childhood. childhood.
to improved balance, increased strength, better coordination, measures in middle childhood. Across countries, rates of
participate in organised sport. Fine motor development
LO 7.2 Explain how motor development advances inIn middle childhood,ofphysical
middle
childhood and how these advancements are steady
obesity. growth continues at a slow but
related pace—about 5–8 cm per year in height and about 2.5–3
reaches nearly an adult level at this age, and across cultures, Summary boxes at the end each section cover
Studies have shown that better nourished children are more advances are especially evident in two areas: drawing and
the key points associated with each learning
M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 290 07/08/18 11:26 AM
to new skills and participation in games and kg

sports.
per year energetic,
in weight.less
Children lose allmore
20 primary teeth and
anxious, show positive emotion and score
writing.
theirdue
Children’s gross motor skills improve in middle childhood permanent
higherteeth
but one-quarter
begin to grow
than malnourished
of children become
in. Ear
children onhealth
nearsighted
a wide improves,
range of cognitive objective within the section.
to improved balance, increased strength, better coordination, measures in middle childhood. Acrossduring middle
countries, rates of
childhood. 336 ch a p t e r 7 m i d d l e ch i l d h o o d and obesity on development and identify the causes
LO 7.2 Explain how motor development advances in middle
of obesity.
LO 7.17 Describe theenergetic, less children
kinds of work anxious,do show more positiveLO
in middle emotion
7.18 and score
Summarise the rates of dail
Children’s gross motor skills improve in middle childhood due and
childhood higher thanwhy
explain malnourished
work patterns children
differ on a wide range of cognitive
children worldwide and desc
M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 290 to improved balance, increased strength, better coordination, measures
between developed in middle
and 07/08/18 11:26childhood.
developing AM
countries. Across countries, rates of effects of media, es
negative
related to violence.
About 73 million children in developing countries perform paid
work by the time they reach middle childhood in a wide variety Children’s media use stays about the sam
336 ch a p t e r 7 m i d d l e ch i l d h o o d of jobs ranging from agricultural work to factory work. Children to middle childhood, except for a rise in
in developing countries work more than children in developed
LO 7.17 Describe the kinds of work children do in middle LO 7.18 Summarise the rates of daily screen media among
games. A causal link between media vio
childhood and explain why work patterns differ children worldwide and describe the positive and
countries in middle childhood because their contribution to the

between developed and developing countries.
About 73 million children in developing countries perform paid

middle childhood has been established
negative effects of media, especially the hazards
related to violence.
family income is needed. longitudinal studies and natural experime

work by the time they reach middle childhood in a wide variety Children’s media use stays about the same from early childhood
of jobs ranging from agricultural work to factory work. Children to middle childhood, except for a rise in time playing electronic
in developing countries work more than children in developed games. A causal link between media violence and aggression in
M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 290 07/08/18 11

countries in middle childhood because their contribution to the middle childhood has been established through field studies,
family income is needed.
content promotes qualities such
longitudinal studies and natural experiments. Prosocial television
content promotes qualities such as altruism and self-control. as altru
Chapter quizzes at the end of each chapter chapter quiz

1 Which best describes sensory changes during 5 By the end of middle childhood, ______________.
consist of multiple choice questions covering

middle childhood? a fine motor development has nearly reached adult
a hearing problems increase due to higher rates of maturity
ear infections. b children’s drawings look about the same as they did
b the incidence of myopia increases. in early childhood in terms of level of detail
c Vision and hearing both improve dramatically. c improvements in fine motor skills are seen primarily
topics raised in all sections of the chapter to d rates of farsightedness increase, while myopia among children who were educated in a formal
decreases. school setting
chapter quiz
d most children are just beginning to learn to tie their
2 Rates of overweight and obesity ______________.
shoelaces
a are rising worldwide
ensure good knowledge of content.

6 When capable of concrete operational thought,
b are lowest among pacific islanders compared to all
children ______________.
other ethnic groups in new Zealand
c vary little between ethnic groups in the same country a still have great difficulty with seriation tasks, such
as arranging items from shortest to longest
d are lowest in the most affluent regions of the world,
such as north america and europe b can organise and manipulate information
mentally
3 In developed countries, ______________.
c can reason about abstractions
a rates of lead poisoning in children have fallen over d are likely to be misled by appearances
1 Which best describes sensory changes during 5 By the end of middle childho
the past several decades
7 In Australia, about ______________ of children
b middle childhood is one of the least safe and
between ages 4 and 10 are diagnosed with ADHD.
healthy times of life because of children’s increased
need for independence a 1%
c the most common cause of injury is poisoning
d asthma rates are at their lowest point in decades
b 4%
c 7% middle childhood? a fine motor development ha
d 15%
4 In middle childhood, ______________.
maturity
8 The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
a hearing problems increase due to higher rates of

a girls are more likely than their male counterparts to be
on a sport team because they are more collaborative (WISC-V) ______________.
b children are more likely to be involved in organised a is the most widely used intelligence test for children
sport than they were when they were younger b has been criticised for focusing too much on
c children are less coordinated than they were in
early childhood because they are going through an
creativity and not enough on core skills of reading
and writing ear infections. b children’s drawings look ab
awkward phase c has both maths and performance subtests
d children have a slower reaction time than they did
early in childhood because they are less impulsive
d has only been predictive of the future outcomes of
gifted children b the incidence of myopia increases. in early childhood in terms
c Vision and hearing both improve dramatically. c improvements in fine motor
among children who were e
M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 336 07/08/18 11:26 AM
d rates of farsightedness increase, while myopia

decreases. school setting
d most children are just begin
2 Rates of overweight and obesity ______________.
shoelaces
a are rising worldwide
6 When capable of concrete op
b are lowest among pacific islanders compared to all
children ______________.
other ethnic groups in new Zealand
c vary little between ethnic groups in the same country a still have great difficulty wit
as arranging items from sho
d are lowest in the most affluent regions of the world,
such as north america and europe b can organise and manipula
mentally
3 In developed countries, ______________.
c can reason about abstractio
a rates of lead poisoning in children have fallen over d are likely to be misled by ap
the past several decades
7 In Australia, about _________
Copyright © Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2019— b middle—
9781488619465 childhood is one of the
Arnett/Human least safe and 1e
Development between ages 4 and 10 are d
healthy times of life because of children’s increased
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to all of the talented and dedicated people who have contributed to this first
edition. Anna Carter, Development Editor at Pearson Australia, deserves a massive thank you
for her support and encouragement throughout the writing process. Another big thank you
to Stephen Heasley, Senior Portfolio Manager, who initiated this project and supported the
team throughout.
We would like also to thank the reviewers who reviewed chapters, sections and other material
in the course of the development of the book. We benefited greatly from their suggestions and
corrections, and now instructors and students reading the book will benefit too.
Reviewers include:
Dr Jessica Paynter, Griffith University
Professor Harsha Perera, University of Southern Queensland
Dr Natasha Loi, University of New England
Dr Disa Smee, University of Canberra
Ms Rebecca Burns, Edith Cowan University
Associate Professor Karen Waldie, University of Auckland
Dr Belinda Davis, Macquarie University
Dr Cat Pause, Massey University
Dr Kate Mulgrew, University of the Sunshine Coast
Dr Mariann Martsin, Queensland University of Technology
Ms Marilyn Casley, Griffith University
Dr Prathyusha Sanagavarapu, Western Sydney University
Dr Jennifer Cartmel, Griffith University
Associate Professor Katherine Johnson, University of Melbourne
Dr Tess Knight, Deakin University
Finally, we thank everyone who participated in ways great and small, and hope that you are as
pleased with the finished product as we are!
About the authors
Jeffrey Arnett
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett is a Research Professor in the Department of Psychology at Clark
University in Worcester, Massachusetts. He received his PhD in developmental psychology
in 1986 from the University of Virginia, and did 3 years of postdoctoral work at the
University of Chicago. From 1992 to 1998, he was Associate Professor in the Department of
Human Development and Family Studies at the University of Missouri, where he taught a
300-student life span development course every semester. In the autumn of 2005, he was a
Fulbright Scholar at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark.
His primary scholarly interest for the past 20 years has been in emerging adulthood. He
coined the term, and he has conducted research on emerging adults concerning a wide variety
of topics, involving several different ethnic groups in American society. He is the Founding
President and Executive Director of the Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood (SSEA;
www.ssea.org). From 2005 to 2014, he was the editor of the Journal of Adolescent Research
(JAR), and currently he is on the Editorial Board of JAR and five other journals. He has
published many theoretical and research papers on emerging adulthood in peer-reviewed
journals, as well as the books Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach (2015,
6th edition, Pearson) and Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road from the Late Teens Through the
Twenties (2015, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press).
He lives in Worcester, Massachusetts, with his wife Lene Jensen and their twins, Miles and
Paris. For more information on Dr Arnett and his research, see www.jeffreyarnett.com.
Laurie Chapin
Laurie Chapin is a psychology lecturer at Victoria University in Melbourne, Australia.
Originally from the United States, in 2010 she completed her PhD in applied social
psychology, with an emphasis on life span development, at Colorado State University. She
started teaching adolescent and life span development when she was a Master’s student at
Charles Sturt University, and this began her passion for teaching in higher education. She
moved to Australia in 2011, and currently teaches a variety of psychology units at Victoria
University.
Her research interests and publications focus on young people from vulnerable backgrounds
and resilience associated with positive outcomes. She supervises student research projects at
all levels of study related to resilience, wellbeing and community programs in Melbourne and
regional Victoria to support youth development.
She lives in a suburb of Melbourne with her husband Sasanka and their two young children,
Quinn and Avery.
Charlotte Brownlow
Charlotte Brownlow is an Associate Professor in the School of Psychology and Counselling
at the University of Southern Queensland, Australia. Originally from the United Kingdom,
she received her PhD in 2007 from The University of Brighton, focusing on the identity
construction of people with autism/autistic people. She has written many research papers
within the field of autism and has a particular interest in the concept of ‘difference’. She
A B O U T T H E AU T H O R S xvii
has recently, with international colleagues, co-edited the books Different Childhoods: Non/
normative Development and Transgressive Trajectories (2017) and Work and Identity: Contemporary
Perspectives on Workplace Diversity (2018).
Charlotte’s main teaching interests are developmental psychology and qualitative research
methods; she supervises several PhD students who are completing their research within these
areas.
She lives in Toowoomba, Queensland, with her husband Neil, their three children and two
dogs.
Educator resources
Instructor Resource Manual

The Instructor Resource Manual provides detailed concepts and activities to enrich lessons.
Test Bank
The Test Bank provides a wealth of accuracy-verified testing material. Each chapter offers a
wide variety of question types, arranged by learning objective and tagged by APAC graduate
standards.
Lecture slides
A comprehensive set of PowerPoint slides can be used by educators for class presentations or
by students for lecture preview or review. They include key figures and tables, as well as a
summary of key concepts and examples from the course content.
Digital image PowerPoint slides

All the diagrams and tables from the course content are available for lecturer use.
C H A P T E R
A cultural approach to human
development 1
The Chinese have an expression for the limited way all of us learn to see the world: SECTION 1
jing di zhi wa, meaning ‘frog in the bottom of a well’. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
The expression comes from a fable about a frog that has lived its entire life in a small well. The frog
TODAY AND ITS ORIGINS
assumes that its tiny world is all there is, and it has no idea of the true size of the world. It is only when A demographic profile
a passing turtle tells the frog of the great ocean to the east that the frog realises there is much more to of humanity today
the world than it has known. Population growth and change
Variations across countries
All of us are like that frog. We grow up as members of a culture and learn, through direct and indirect
Variations within countries
teaching, to see the world from the perspective that becomes most familiar to us. Because the people
around us usually share that perspective, we seldom have cause to question it. Like the frog, we rarely Human origins and the birth
suspect how big and diverse our human species really is. of culture
Our evolutionary beginnings
The goal of this book is to lift you out of the well, by taking a cultural approach to understanding human
The origin of cultures and
development—the ways people grow and change across the life span. This means that the emphasis of the civilisations
book is on how people develop as members of a culture. Culture is the total pattern of a group’s customs, Human evolution and human
beliefs, art and technology. In other words, a culture is a group’s common way of life, passed on from one development today
generation to the next. From the day we are born, all of us experience our lives as members of a culture
(sometimes more than one), and this profoundly influences how we develop, how we behave, how we see SECTION 2
the world and how we experience life. THEORIES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
Biology is important too, of course, and at various points we will discuss the interaction between biological
and cultural or social influences. However, human beings everywhere have essentially the same biological Ancient conceptions
Scientific conceptions
Freud’s psychosexual theory
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory
A cultural-developmental model for
this book
SECTION 3
HOW WE STUDY HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
The scientific method
The five steps of the scientific
method
Ethics in human development
research
Research methods and designs
Research methods
Research designs
Colau/Alamy Stock Photo
human development constitution, yet their paths through the life span are remarkably varied depending on the culture in which their
ways people grow and change development takes place.
across the life span; includes
people’s biological, cognitive, The book will introduce you to many variations in human development and cultural practices you did not know
psychological and social about before, which may lead you to see your own development and your own cultural practices in a new light. We
functioning will also learn to analyse and critique research based on whether or not it takes culture into account. By the time
culture you finish this book, you should be able to think culturally.
total pattern of a group’s
In this chapter, we set the stage for the rest of the book. The first section provides a broad summary of human life
customs, beliefs, art and
technology today around the world as well as an examination of how culture developed out of our evolutionary history. In the
second section, we look at the history of theoretical conceptions of human development along with a new
cultural-developmental theory that will be the framework for this book. Finally, the third section provides an
overview of human development as a scientific field.
S e ct i on 1 H u m an d e v e lop m ent to day an d i ts or i g i ns 3
SECTION 1 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT TODAY AND ITS ORIGINS
LEARNING LO 1.1 Describe how the human population has changed over the past 10 000 years and
OBJECTIVES explain why some developed countries are following a different demographic path
from other developed countries.
LO 1.2 Distinguish between the demographic profiles of developed countries and
developing countries in terms of cultural values, income and education.
LO 1.3 Define the term socioeconomic status (SES) and explain why SES, gender and
ethnicity are important aspects of human development within countries.
LO 1.4 Explain the process of natural selection and trace the evolutionary origins of the
human species.
LO 1.5 Summarise the major changes in human cultures since the Upper Palaeolithic period.
LO 1.6 Apply information about human evolution to how human development takes
place today.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT TODAY AND ITS ORIGINS:

A DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF HUMANITY TODAY
Since the goal of this book is to provide you with an understanding of how human development
takes place in cultures all around the world, let’s begin with a demographic profile of the world’s
human population in the early 21st century.
Population growth and change LO 1.1

Perhaps the most striking demographic feature of the human population today is the sheer size Describe how the human
of it. For most of history the total human population was under 10 million (McFalls, 2007). population has changed
Women typically had from four to eight children, but most of the children died in infancy or over the past 10 000 years
and explain why some
childhood and never reached reproductive age. The human population began to increase notably
developed countries are
around 10 000 years ago, with the development of agriculture and domestication of animals
following a different
(Diamond, 1992). demographic path from
Population growth in the millennia that followed was very slow, and it was not until about other developed countries.
400 years ago that the world population reached 500 million people. Since that time, and
especially in the past century, population growth has accelerated at an astonishing rate (see
Figure 1.1). It took just 150 years for the human population to double from 500 million to
1 billion, passing that threshold around the year 1800. Then came the medical advances of
the 20th century, and the elimination or sharp reduction of deadly diseases like smallpox,
typhus, diphtheria and cholera. Subsequently, the human population reached 2 billion by
1930, then tripled to 6 billion by 1999. The 7-billion threshold was passed just 12 years
later, in early 2011.
How high will the human population go? This is difficult to say, but most projections indicate it
will rise to 10 billion by about 2090 and thereafter stabilise and perhaps slightly decline. This
forecast is based on the worldwide decline in birth rates that has taken place in recent years. The
total fertility rate (TFR) (number of births per woman) worldwide is currently 2.5, which is total fertility rate (TFR)
substantially higher than the rate of 2.1 that is the replacement rate of a stable population. However, in a population, the number of
births per woman
the TFR has been declining sharply for over a decade and will decline to 2.1 by 2050 if current
trends continue (Population Reference Bureau, 2014).
4 Chapt e r 1 A cu ltura l approach to hu m an d e v e lop m ent
FIGURE 1.1 World 10

population growth (projected)
9 billion in 2040
What happened in recent 9 (projected)
(projected) 10 billion in 2090
human history to cause
8 billion in 2022
population to rise so 8
dramatically? 7 billion,
2011
Source: Based on Population 7
Reference Bureau (2014). 6 billion,
1999
Population (billions)
6
5 billion,
1987
5
4 billion,
???
1974
4
2 1 billion, 3 billion,
1804 1960
1 2 billion,
1927
0
1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100
Year
The population increase from now to 2090 will not take place equally around the world. On the
contrary, there is a stark ‘global demographic divide’ between the wealthy, economically
developed countries that make up less than 20% of the world’s population and the economically
developing countries that contain the majority of the world’s population (Kent & Haub, 2005).
Nearly all the population growth in the decades to come will take place in the economically
developing countries. In contrast, nearly all wealthy countries are expected to decline in
population during this period and beyond because they have fertility rates that are well below the
replacement rate.
developed countries For the purposes of this text, we will use the term developed countries to refer to the most
world’s most economically affluent countries in the world. Classifications of developed countries vary, but usually this
developed and affluent
countries, with the highest
designation includes the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Australia, New
median levels of income and Zealand, Chile and nearly all the countries of Europe. (The term ‘Western countries’ is
education sometimes used to refer to most developed countries because they are in the Western
hemisphere, except Japan and South Korea, which are considered Eastern countries.) For our
developing countries discussion, developed countries will be contrasted with developing countries, which have less
countries that have lower levels wealth than the developed countries but are experiencing rapid economic growth as they
of income and education than
developed countries but are
join the globalised economy.
experiencing rapid economic Many developing countries are changing rapidly today. For example, India is a developing
growth
country, and most of its people live on an income of less than US$2 a day (United Nations
Development Programme [UNDP], 2014). About half of Indian children are underweight
and malnourished (World Bank, 2011). Less than half of Indian adolescents complete
secondary school. Only about half of adult women and about three-quarters of adult men
are literate. About two-thirds of India’s population live in rural villages, although there is
a massive migration occurring from rural to urban areas, led mostly by young people.
However, India’s economy has been booming for the past 2 decades, lifting hundreds of
millions of Indians out of poverty (UNDP, 2014). India is now a world leader in
manufacturing, telecommunications and services. If the economy continues to grow at its
S e ct i on 1 H u m an d e v e lop m ent to day an d i ts or i g i ns 5
present pace, India will lead the world in economic

production by 2050 (PricewaterhouseCoopers,
2011). Life is changing rapidly for Indians, and
children born today are likely to experience much
different economic and cultural contexts than their
parents or grandparents have known.
The current population of developed countries is
1.3 billion, about 18% of the total world population,
and the population of developing countries is about
6 billion, about 82% of the world’s population
(Population Reference Bureau, 2014). Generally,
populations are steadily increasing, particularly in
the developing world. The 2016 Australian Census
counted 23.4 million people currently living in
Australia, an increase of 8.8% since the 2011 Census
Nearly all the world population
and a doubling since the 11.6 million count in 1966 (Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS], growth from now to 2050 will take
2016a). Like Australia, the United States is one of the few developed countries likely to gain, place in developing countries.
rather than lose, population in the next few decades. Currently there are about 316 million Pictured here is a busy street in
people in the United States, but by 2050 there will be more than 400 million. Nearly all the Jodhpur, India.
other developed countries are expected to decline in population between now and 2050. The Pavel Gospodinov/Alamy Stock Photo
decline will be steepest in Japan, which is projected to drop from a current

population of 120 million to just 97 million by 2050, due to a low fertility rate
and virtually no immigration (Population Reference Bureau, 2014). 439
million
There are two reasons why the United States is following a different 4%
demographic path than most other developed countries. First, the United 8%
States has a total fertility rate of 1.9, which is slightly below the replacement 310
12%
rate of 2.1, but still higher than the TFR in most other developed countries 2% million
(Population Reference Bureau, 2014). Second, and more importantly, the 5% 12% 30%
United States allows more legal immigration than most other developed
16%
countries, and there are millions of undocumented immigrants as well (Suarez-
Orozco, 2015). The increase in population in the United States between now Other
and 2050 will result entirely from immigration (Martin & Midgley, 2010). Asian American
African American
Both legal and undocumented immigrants to the United States come mainly 65%
46%
Latino
from Mexico and Latin America, although many also come from Asia and other White
parts of the world. Consequently, as Figure 1.2 shows, by 2050 the proportion
of the US population that is Latino is projected to rise from 16% to 30%.
Canada, the United Kingdom and Australia also have relatively open 2010 actual 2050 projected
immigration policies, so they too may avoid the population decline that is FIGURE 1.2 Projected ethnic changes in the
projected for most developed countries (DeParle, 2010). The 2016 Census in US population to 2050
Australia demonstrated an increase since 2011 of almost 1 million in the Which ethnic group is projected to change the
number of people born overseas, with China seeing the most increase in most in the coming decades, and why?
migration to Australia (ABS, 2016a). Source: Based on Kaiser Family Foundation (2013).
C R I T I C A L-T H I N K I N G Q U E S T I O N
What kinds of public policy changes might be necessary in Australia in the future to
enable it to adapt to a changing cultural environment?
6 Chapt e r 1 A cu ltura l approach to hu m an d e v e lop m ent
LO 1.2 Variations across countries

Distinguish between the The demographic contrast between developed countries and the rest of the world is stark not only
demographic profiles of with respect to population, but also in other key areas such as income and education (see Map 1.1).
developed countries and
With respect to income, about 40% of the world’s population live on less than US$2 per day, and
developing countries in
80% of the world’s population live on a family income of less than US$6000 per year (Population
terms of cultural values,
income and education. Reference Bureau, 2014). At one extreme are the developed countries, where 9 in 10 people are in
the top 20% of the global income distribution, and at the other extreme is southern Africa, where
half the population are in the bottom 20% of global income. Africa’s economic growth has been
strong for the past decade, but it remains the poorest region in the world (McKinsey Global
Institute, 2010; UNDP, 2014).
MAP 1.1 Worldwide variations in population and income levels

Developed countries represent only 18% of the world population yet they are much wealthier than developing countries. At what point in
its economic development should a developing country be reclassified as a developed country?
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
At times I felt as if the doctors at the contests were introducing
mothers to their babies, for hundreds of intelligent, affectionate, well-
intentioned mothers did not really know their babies. Oh, yes, they
knew Baby’s name, the color of his hair and his eyes, the exact point
where his cheek or his chin broke into a delightful dimple, the side of
his family from which Babykins inherited his many good points and
his few bad ones, the day when he first sat up or toddled across the
floor; these and many other things the mothers knew, but still they
did not know what was going on inside of Baby, in the digestive
apparatus on which so much of his health and happiness depend.
At one contest, I saw a physician penalize an attractive eighteen-
months baby because of a rash. The mother protested.
“Why,” she cried, “Baby has always had that rash. It’s a sort of
birthmark.”
“No,” answered the physician; “it’s a symptom of rich food. You are
either overfeeding this baby or giving him food that is too heavy, milk
that is too rich for him to digest.”
That mother learned how to modify milk.
Another mother presented a doll-like baby girl for examination,
perfectly proportioned but under-weight, and under-height for its age.
With silky curls and rose-petal cheeks, Baby leaned wearily against
her mother, watching the doctors languidly from eyes around which
there were blue circles. Think of that! Blue circles round the eyes of
a baby that had not yet celebrated its first birthday!
It did not take the doctors long to analyze this baby’s trouble and
to introduce Mother to her child’s true condition.
“Mrs. S——,” said the doctor, “you are starving your baby.”
The mother was shocked and hurt.
“I nurse her every three hours,” she protested.
“No doubt,” answered the doctor; “but your milk is not nourishing
her. Perhaps you are not strong enough. Perhaps your baby should
have both the breast and modified milk. We will find out.”
They did. That mother learned that her baby was drifting toward
the dangerous rock of anemia. Her lesson was how to alternate the
breast milk with a bottle feeding of modified milk.
A third baby was what you would call a “fat boy.” He was covered
with the most “pattable” creases, and his complexion was blooming,
but he had an ugly scowl on his round face and he shoved
everything and everybody away from him as if the entire world were
distasteful. Mother said he had never been a really good-natured
baby, and she didn’t know why. But the doctors found out. The plump
stomach of which his mother was so proud was not an indication of
health but of undigested, unassimilated food, overfeeding.
At sixteen months, a baby’s head, chest and abdomen should
measure just the same, 18½ inches. This poor little laddie had an
eighteen-inch head, a seventeen-inch chest and an abdomen
measuring twenty inches. And just by exploring with his finger, the
doctor found an ugly little mass of undigested food down in one
corner of that bulging abdomen. Of course, Baby wanted to shove
people away. So do grown-ups when they have a sick headache or a
bilious attack.
Here was a baby being overfed with milk, just milk, but milk not
properly prepared.
And there you have it, rash, malnutrition, and indigestion, all
because three mothers did not know what was going on inside of
Baby’s stomach. Mothers often think that so long as Baby has milk
and nothing else he is safe; but milk, even mother’s milk, needs
watching.
Nature provides signs when milk does not agree with the baby. Of
course, if the baby could talk, mother would know exactly how he
feels, because he could explain where the ache is located. But when
one’s means of communication is limited to wriggling, and rolling up
the eyes, and emitting disturbed yaps, mother must look for signs or
symptoms to take the place of worded complaints.
It is estimated that 300,000 infants under one year of age die in
the United States each year. Of this frightful number, it is also
estimated that fully 50 per cent. could be saved by proper care. Men
and women who specialize in the care and feeding of infants affirm
that practically all of these unnecessary, preventable deaths can be
charged to improper feeding. Is it not vitally important, therefore, that
every mother should make an earnest, unremitting study of infant
feeding as health-insurance for her family circle?
The nourishment of the child begins before it is born. Ailments in
digestion accompany it into the world. For this reason, in Chapter I,
special stress was laid on diet for the pregnant mother. But it is not
enough to bring the baby into the world blessed with a sound
digestion. The mother must study the science of keeping her child’s
digestion sound.
Half her battle for baby’s good health will be won if she nurses it.
The natural, the almost unfailingly safe food for the new-born babe is
mother’s milk. The Creator, who made woman the mother of the
human race, provided also the first means of nourishing the children
brought into the world. The average woman has the strength to
nourish her child in the natural way; and only a real physical inability,
admitted by the family physician, should lead her to deprive the child
of its rightful nourishment.
It is often said that the lack of maternal instinct in the modern
woman is responsible for the large proportion of bottle-fed babies. I
think that this charge against my sex is undeserved. Women are far
more apt to stop nursing their babies as the result of ailments in
themselves which they do not know how to cure or control, or
because they accept the word of those who are not in a position to
give medical advice or even offer common-sense suggestions.
Sometimes, directly after the baby’s birth, when the mother is
extremely weak, well-meaning but interfering relatives or neighbors
urge her to wean the baby at once. So another baby’s life is
endangered and another mother is induced to undertake the grave
responsibility of artificial feeding, when, with a little patience at the
time of the baby’s birth, the supply of mother’s milk could be
increased and strengthened.
The mother who suffers or has suffered from tuberculosis,
epilepsy, persistent anemia, kidney disease, or any grave mental
disturbance should not attempt to nurse her baby. If a fever, such as
scarlet fever, typhoid, etc., develops shortly after the birth of the
child, it must be weaned promptly. An operation which will greatly
weaken the mother is another cause for discontinuing breast-milk.
The reappearance of menstruation does not necessitate weaning the
child; but pregnancy makes it desirable. Thus it will be seen that only
the gravest conditions in the mother justify her in placing the new-
born baby on the bottle until she is convinced by symptoms in the
child itself that breast milk does not nourish.
The mother of her first-born, beset by a thousand fears, is very apt
to regard the first flow of milk from her breast with suspicion. For two
or three days it is a thin, colorless, watery fluid. The frightened young
mother decides that it cannot possibly satisfy her baby. The very
thought of the precious little creature being hungry terrifies her, and
she accepts the advice of an untrained nurse or a fussy neighbor to
give him sweetened water, or diluted and sweetened cow’s milk. So
the new baby starts life all wrong on artificial food, when the thin,
watery fluid provided by nature is precisely what he needs at this
time. Naturally, if he is fed artificially, he will not draw on the breast,
for he is not hungry, and so the flow of milk is discouraged. The new-
born baby should be given the breast every four hours, whether he
seems hungry or not, whether the flow of milk is established or not.
It is most important that at this time the mother should not worry.
Nervousness and hysteria of themselves react on the baby’s
digestion.
As the mother gains strength and begins to move about, she
should guard her health carefully, because upon this depend the
quantity and quality of the milk she furnishes her baby. At this time
she requires plenty of sleep; and while her rest is broken at night to
nurse the baby, she should have regular naps during the day. Eight
hours’ sleep at night and a short nap in the middle of the afternoon
form a good rule.
As far as possible, she should lead what, to her, is a normal life,
free from excesses or any wide deviation from her habits before the
birth of the baby. Unhappiness and discontent unsettle the nerves of
the mother and injure the quality of the milk. The woman who is
accustomed to much outdoor exercise should not shut herself up in
the house, nor should the woman of sedative habits plunge into
violent outdoor exercise. The latter needs fresh air as a mother,
precisely as she should have had it as a girl, but she should form the
habit gradually, not start with exhausting walks. Moreover, the
woman who is fond of society and accustomed to going out, should
not deprive herself of all social pleasures because she has become
a mother. Within reason, she should enjoy them. The moment
motherhood becomes a hateful burden, an altar on which the woman
sacrifices all personal preferences and pleasures, the drastic
changes entailed affect the health of the mother and react on the
child.
The same is true of diet for the nursing mother. Deprivation and
excess alike are undesirable. A well-balanced diet, made up from a
variety of foods which the mother craves under normal conditions,
will nourish both the mother and the child.
In this connection, the young mother should be warned against
what might be termed superstitions in diet, “old women’s tales.”
While attending Better Babies Contests, I have often been shocked
at the superstition and ignorance which interfere with the
nourishment, comfort, and contentment of the nursing mother. One
young mother said that she was drinking malt to make her milk more
nourishing for the baby. And how she did hate that malt! It nauseated
her every time she drank it.
When the doctors told her that anything which nauseated her
would affect the baby in the same way, she was actually relieved. Yet
she had been forcing herself to drink the malt, because an elderly
neighbor told her what wonders it had done for other women.
Doctors, not neighbors, should be consulted on these problems.
Another woman told me that she did not see why her baby could
not retain her milk. It curdled on his stomach. And she assured me
quite solemnly that she never ate anything acid. She did love pickles,
salads and lemonade, but her nurse had told her she must not eat
sour things while she nursed the baby. I heard the sensible doctor in
charge of that contest tell her to go straight home and make herself a
good fresh salad.
Her digestion craved acid, and her child actually suffered because
her system was denied it. Excessive indulgence in acids, as in
anything else, would not be good for the mother or the baby; but,
well balanced with other foods, sweet pickles, properly sweetened
lemonade, and salad dressing prepared with plenty of good olive oil,
would not hurt this mother.
The same judgment must be shown in the matter of drinking. The
woman of German parentage and customs should not give up the
moderate use of beer to which she has been accustomed; but, on
the other hand, the woman who is not accustomed to drinking beer,
and does not care for it, will not improve the quality of milk for her
child by forcing herself to drink beer. The Italian mother, habituated
to the use of light wine with her meals, would miss it sorely if
deprived of it while nursing her child; but the average American
would find it stimulating only. The woman who drinks coffee and tea
in moderation may increase the supply of milk by drinking to excess;
but the milk will not gain in quality, and her nerves will suffer from
overstimulation. Milk, cocoa, and chocolate in moderation increase
the quantity of milk and improve the quality, except in the rare cases
where the mother cannot digest them. The woman who can sip
gruel, plain or with cream, will find the supply of breast milk gaining
in both quantity and quality; but when the gruel is disliked, when it
actually nauseates the mother, it does not have a good effect on the
milk.
In fact, sanity, good judgment, ordinary common sense, should
govern the planning of diet for the nursing mother. It should include
cereals, soups, meat at least once a day, fish, eggs, macaroni or
spaghetti, fresh vegetables, salads, fruits, and light, wholesome
desserts. The fresh vegetables and salads prepared with olive oil are
particularly good, as they prevent constipation. Stewed fruit is better
than fresh, especially when the fruits are highly acid. No dessert like
pies, pastries, or puddings made from heavy dough, which are apt to
lie undigested on the stomach, should be eaten; but custards and all
desserts with fruit for a foundation are desirable. Nuts are highly
recommended by vegetarians, but they must be well chewed.
The nursing mother must bear in mind that she is eating for two. If
she depends upon the three daily meals served to the balance of her
family, she is apt to become very hungry and to overeat at the table.
It is better for her to eat wisely between meals, in the mid-morning
and mid-afternoon. These lunches should consist of milk, cocoa, a
cup of soup or gruel, or a little stewed fruit, with zwieback or toast.
Crackers do not make more or better milk. The nursing mother who
must prepare breakfast for her family should eat a little fruit, or a
slice of bread, or drink milk, before taking up her task, and she
should also have a nourishing drink just before retiring.
The busy house-mother who is nursing her baby is particularly
warned against nursing the child when greatly exhausted. It is far
better to keep the baby waiting a few minutes, while the mother sits
down and rests or sips a glass of milk. Nursing a baby when
overtired or overheated, or extremely nervous and angry, is
positively injurious and unjust to the child.
Of the utmost importance in regulating the condition of the baby’s
health through breast milk is the condition of the mother’s bowels.
These should move once daily and, if possible, the movement
should be natural. Drastic cathartics disturb both mother and child. If
constipation in the mother does not yield to careful diet, including
fresh vegetables and fruit, she should consult her physician and not
dose herself. If the mother’s bowels are in good condition and the
baby’s are not, the physician should be consulted about the baby.
The care of the breast and nipples is extremely important, for
many ills, notably the very painful abscess of the breast, may spring
from lack of cleanliness. The tugging of the baby’s mouth on the
nipple makes it soft and tender, often laying it open in tiny cracks
which are easily infected. The nipple, therefore, should never be
handled by mother or nurse unless the hands have first been
scrubbed with soap and a nailbrush.
Not only for cleanliness but for hardening them, the nipples should
be washed after each nursing with a solution of boracic acid and
very hot water, in the proportion of one teaspoon of the acid to one
pint of water. When thoroughly dried with soft old linen or gauze kept
for the purpose, they should be covered with a piece of sterilized
gauze to prevent any possible infection from clothing. If, in spite of all
these precautions, the nipple shows cracks or fissures, and nursing
becomes torture, the baby must not be permitted to suck at the
nipple, but a nipple shield should be used. There are various kinds,
the best being of glass with a rubber nipple on the end. When the
nipple is as sore as this, boracic acid in solution will not effect a cure.
Zinc ointment must be used instead; but only when the nipple shield
is used, never when the baby’s mouth touches the breast.
Another aid to baby’s digestion is regularity in feeding. Directly
after birth, the feedings should be regulated by the doctor and the
nurse, who are better able to determine the strength and needs of
the baby. If it is a normal, healthy child, for the first few days it will
spend most of its time in sleep, but it should be given the breast at
least once in four hours. A small, weak baby should nurse once in
two hours, between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m., with one nursing in the
middle of the night between 1:30 and 2:30.
After the first week, a strong baby may be nursed every three
hours, between 6 a.m. and 9 p.m., with one night feeding. At three
months, a healthy baby is nursed every three hours, and at four
months the night feeding is dropped. That is, he is not nursed
between 9 p.m. and 6 a.m.
Feeding a baby every time he cries is bad for both mother and
child. It ties the nursing mother to her baby’s side. It injures the
baby’s digestion. It is the first misstep in molding the baby’s
character.
If, in spite of the care here outlined for mother and baby, the child
does not thrive on breast milk, the cause must be ascertained and
artificial feeding must be considered.
CHAPTER IV
ARTIFICIAL FEEDING
WHEN ARTIFICIAL FEEDING IS NECESSARY—WEIGHT THE TEST OF
PROPER NOURISHMENT—COW’S MILK, CAREFULLY MODIFIED, IS THE
BEST SUBSTITUTE FOR MOTHER’S MILK—SOURCE OF SUPPLY AND
CARE—CARE OF THE BOTTLES AND NIPPLES
S UCCESSFUL artificial feeding of infants is one of the big

problems which the medical profession strives unceasingly to
solve. It has never found a perfect substitute for mother’s milk, but it
has greatly reduced the rate of infant mortality, due to artificial
feeding, by working out formulas that combine the food properties
provided by breast milk. And not the least valuable result of its
investigations has been the agitation for pure milk supply, the
sanitary care of milk and dairies.
Any mother who has followed the reports of pure milk
commissions, and heard the talks and lectures given by specialists in
infant feeding, must realize the tremendous chance she takes in
weaning her baby. Therefore, she will not take the step unless
convinced that her milk positively disagrees with her child.
The most important test is the child’s development or lack of
development, gain or loss in weight. This cannot be determined
during the first week, for the average normal child loses from four to
eight ounces during the first six or seven days of its life. Thereafter it
should gain at the rate of from four to eight ounces a week, until it is
six months old. After that the gain per week runs from two to four
ounces, until the child is a year old, when the first danger-period of
feeding is past.
During this time—and, in fact, throughout its childhood—an
accurate record of its weight and measurements should be kept by
the mother. For this purpose, the well-equipped nursery should
contain a good pair of scales and a measuring board. The scales
should record at least forty pounds. They are of the platform, not the
spring, variety, with a basket for holding the baby while it is small and
helpless. Later, when the child is able to sit up, the basket is
replaced by a pad.
The measuring board used at the Better Babies Contests is a
great convenience and can be made by any carpenter. It consists of
a smoothly planed board forty inches long and eleven inches wide,
with a firm, upright headpiece, and a sliding footboard which runs on
grooves on the outer edges of the board. On one of these edges is
tacked a steel tape, in the inch-scale. The baby, up to eighteen
months of age, is laid on the board with the back of the body
touching the board all along, from head to foot. The nurse makes
sure that the little head is placed firmly against the headpiece. Then,
while the mother or some other assistant holds the baby’s knees
firmly in place, the nurse adjusts the sliding board until it touches the
flat soles of the baby’s feet. The child is then lifted up, without
moving the footboard, and the measurement is read from the tape
where the footboard stops.
After the child is eighteen months old it is measured standing. For
this purpose the board is reversed. The firm headpiece is placed on
the floor for the child to stand on, and the sliding footboard is brought
down to touch the top of the child’s head.
After its third year, the child may be measured according to good
old nursery tradition, by a pencil mark against the woodwork.
Measuring a baby with a tape-line is not accurate. While the height
is not so important a factor as the weight in determining the
development and especially the nutrition of the baby, it should be
watched; and this measuring board, which represents an investment
of only a dollar or so, will be found very useful.
The baby that is thriving on mother’s milk should show a gain of at
least two pounds at the end of thirty days. The baby which weighed
seven pounds at birth should weigh nine pounds when one month
old; ten and one-half pounds at two months; twelve pounds at three
months. When the gain is less than these figures, the baby’s diet
needs attention. The following symptoms point to the fact that the
mother’s milk does not agree with the child:
(1) Excessive vomiting, with loss of weight or no increase of weight for two
weeks or more.
(2) A persistent diarrhea, with loss of weight or no increase of weight for two
weeks or more. If there is a progressive gain in weight, however, loose bowels are
not a danger signal.
(3) Steady loss of weight extending over a period of three weeks or more, in
spite of the fact that otherwise the child seems normal.
Sometimes the trouble can be corrected by a change in the
mother’s diet; and this must be discussed with the family physician.
Sometimes the mother is too much exhausted by household duties
to provide the amount and quality of milk needed to nourish the child.
If it is possible to lighten the mother’s burdens, and thereby
strengthen the breast milk, this is better economy than investing in
bottles and artificial food.
If, in spite of the doctor’s efforts to build up the mother’s strength
and improve the quality of the breast milk, the baby does not thrive,
then mother and doctor together must work out the problem of
artificial feeding.
The scientific and successful raising of a baby on the bottle
depends upon two distinct lines of care and caution: the selection of
the food to be supplied, and the care of the bottles. The best of food
in an unsanitary bottle or drawn through an unclean nipple becomes
dangerous to baby’s health.
In choosing artificial food for your baby, remember that even
physicians differ on this question. Most American specialists for
children insist that fresh cow’s milk, properly modified, is the only
substitute for mother’s milk. European authorities recommend goat’s
milk. And there are other recognized authorities on baby-health who
have found it advisable to prescribe for delicate bottle-fed babies a
combination of milk and patent food. Not only must the mother
consult her family physician on this question, but, with the physician,
she must watch the effect of the chosen food on the baby.
Vomiting, restlessness, sleeplessness, and the condition of the
bowels, all tell the tale of food that is not being assimilated.
In this connection the inexperienced mother must understand that
there are two forms of vomiting in the young baby; or, more properly
speaking, there is a difference between vomiting and regurgitation—
slight, to be sure, but worth watching. Regurgitation is merely the
overflow of milk when the baby has taken too much. It follows almost
immediately upon having the breast or bottle taken away, and the
milk is in practically the same condition as when it entered the
stomach. But when the baby vomits habitually after feeding, and the
milk is curdled or tough or sour, there is something wrong with the
bottle diet.
The bowels are a sure indication of the way in which the bottle diet
agrees or disagrees with the baby. When the passage is hard and
bullet-like, when it shows curds or white lumps like cheese, or when
mucus is present or there is diarrhea, the mother may be sure that
the food does not agree with her baby, and the doctor should be
consulted immediately.
No medicine should be given in such cases without consulting a
doctor. What the baby needs is not dosing, but the right sort of food,
the food its stomach will digest.
At one contest in the midwest the mother of a little prize winner
told me that, at eleven months, she almost lost her baby. She had
changed diet time and time again, varying from certified cow’s milk to
a well-known patent food. The baby was reduced to a skeleton when
the physician decided to try not milk, but cream, diluted with barley
water. The change in baby’s condition was immediate, and it
continued to thrive without further change of diet. On the other hand,
some babies fed on this modified cream would not thrive.
Frankly, feeding a baby deprived of breast milk often resolves itself
into an experiment; but an experiment which must be conducted in
an intelligent manner, with the advice of a physician. Do not consult
your neighbor, no matter how many babies she has raised
successfully. The bottle food which was nourishment to her babies
may be poison to yours. There are no hard and fast rules for bottle
foods. Each baby is a case unto itself and requires the most delicate
attention and unrelenting vigilance. Even two babies in one family
may require different forms of artificial nourishment, or at least
different modifications of cow’s milk.
Perhaps there is no phrase familiar to the maternal ear which is so
generally misunderstood and abused as “modified milk.” It is
confused with sterilized, pasteurized, and condensed milk, and with
patent foods. In reality the phrase means any milk, other than
mother’s milk, so modified by the addition of elements like water and
sugar as to bring it as near as possible to the quality of breast milk.
The substitute for mother’s milk most generally approved by
American pediatrists or specialists in the care of children is cow’s
milk, carefully modified.
The safety of the child that is to be fed on modified cow’s milk
depends largely upon the source of milk supply. The mother should
acquaint herself with this source of supply and the conditions under
which the cows are housed and milked. If you had to hire a wet
nurse, you would not choose a tubercular or personally unclean
woman. Why permit your baby to drink milk that comes from a
tubercular cow, or one which is milked in a filthy stable?
If you live in a city, write to your department of health or your
health officer for information regarding properly inspected dairies. If
no such information can be furnished you, then it is high time that
you started a campaign for dairy inspection in your town. If you live
in the country, find a dairyman or a neighbor whose cows will stand
the test and whose stables are clean. Do not buy baby’s milk at a
grocery-store or dairy whose source of supply you cannot trace.
Cow’s milk which comes from a herd of healthy cows, or at least
several cows, is preferred to that which comes from a single animal,
as it varies less in quality and elemental proportions. It is not
necessary to order rich milk from highly bred Jersey and Alderney
cows. In fact, physicians agree that the milk produced by ordinary
grade cows in the herd is better suited to the needs of the child. You
should be quite sure, however, as to the age of the milk. In cold
weather it must not be fed to the child after it is forty-eight hours old.
In summer it should never be more than twenty-four hours old.
In nearly all large cities are now found agencies of dairies which
specialize on milk for infants. This is sometimes known as certified or
guaranteed milk. The cows from which it is drawn are carefully
inspected, the stables and milkers are clean, all the utensils, pails,
cans, etc., are sterilized before use, and the milk is cooled
immediately after it is drawn from the cows and kept at or near a
temperature of 50° F. until delivered to the purchaser. Milk produced
in this way saves the mother anxiety and trouble. It costs only a few
cents more a quart than milk which is not certified.
When certified milk is received in the home, the stoppered bottles
should be placed immediately in the refrigerator or set in a pail of
ice-water to remain until it is modified for use during the next twenty-
four hours.
The city mother, with her stationary refrigerator and convenient ice
supply, has no possible excuse for not keeping the baby’s milk in
perfect condition. Some of the new refrigerators have separate
compartments. One of these should be used for the baby’s milk. In
many well regulated homes you will find special nursery refrigerators
which can be bought at any department or house-furnishing store.
These have their own supply of ice and nothing but the baby’s milk is
stored in them.
The small town or country mother, whose ice supply is irregular
and who depends upon an old-fashioned ice-chest or perhaps a
spring or cool well for chilling the baby’s milk, faces a more difficult
problem. It is especially important that she keep the milk bottle tightly
stoppered. If she uses the old-fashioned ice-chest, where food and
ice are not separated and where germs lodge easily, she had best
pack the stoppered bottles in a covered pail and set them next to the
ice. If she has no refrigerator at all, she should induce her men-folk
to provide a substitute, if it is only one strong wooden pail set within
another, the sawdust and ice packed between. Then she can thrust
her stoppered bottles into the inner pail, cover all with heavy felting
or burlap, and feel tolerably safe.
At one of the contests a mother told me how sad experience had
taught her the importance of having such a safeguard in her home.
With her first baby she kept the milk in a tin pail, hung in the cool
water of an old well. The milk absorbed germs and the doctor traced
the baby’s death from acute bowel trouble to these germs.
Next in importance to the supply and storing of milk comes the
care of the utensils for modifying it and feeding it to the child. These
should be kept in a sanitary condition that is absolutely above
suspicion. If the mother herself does not take charge of this task, she
must delegate another member of the family or a servant upon
whose faithfulness she can depend. The supply of milk for the
ensuing day should be cared for at a certain hour each morning,
soon after the milk is delivered. The utensils should be used for this
purpose alone, and should not be kept in a cupboard with ordinary
cooking equipment.
For the ordinary modifying of milk the following utensils are
needed:
A strong measuring glass, holding sixteen ounces, divided into
ounces, which can be bought at any hospital supply house and in
many department and drug stores; a two-quart pitcher with a wide
neck; a glass funnel, which fits easily into the neck of the nursing
bottle; an enameled tablespoon; an enameled saucepan for boiling
the water or gruel; a quart glass jar, with an air-tight cover, in which
the boiled water or gruel is set away until it is cool; a wire rack, which
will hold eight or ten nursing bottles; eight or ten plain, round,
cylindrical bottles with a narrow neck; a half dozen plain nipples of a
size to fit around the neck of the bottles; a long-handled brush for
washing the bottles; soap, washing-powder and borax for cleaning
purposes.
The shape of the bottles is extremely important, for a round bottle
offers no corners in which germs can lodge; square bottles have this
disadvantage. The number of the bottles is governed by the number
of feedings in twenty-four hours, one for each feeding. The wire
bottle-rack protects the bottles from breakage and is an economical
investment. The nipple changes in size with the age of the baby; for
the small baby care should be taken that the nipple is not long
enough to choke the baby and make it vomit.
The size of the hole in the nipple also is important. If it is too small
the baby has to work too hard for its nourishment. If the hole is too
large the baby will gulp the feeding, which may cause colic,
indigestion, or vomiting. Test the nipples by holding the filled bottle in
a horizontal position and watch how the milk drops from the nipple:
the drops should be an inch or more apart.
New bottles and nipples should be put into a cheese-cloth bag and
then into boiling water to be sterilized before using. After the baby
has been fed, the bottle should be washed out with the long-handled
brush with soap or washing-powder. When the soap has been rinsed
out with hot water, a teaspoonful of borax and a little warm water are
turned into the bottle and shaken vigorously. When the borax is
dissolved, the bottle is filled to the brim with water and permitted to
stand in this way until needed the following morning. When the borax
solution has been thrown away, and the bottles rinsed with clear
water, they are ready for use. It is not necessary to boil bottles cared
for in this way; and borax will be found a more satisfactory antiseptic
than the bicarbonate of soda which the average mother uses in
cleansing her bottles.
The nipples must be cleansed with equal care. After the feeding, a
pinch of borax should be dropped into the nipple, then a little water
added and the nipple gently rubbed between the thumb and fingers.
It is then rinsed out and laid on a clean saucer, with a clean glass
turned over it, to protect it from dust.
It is a time saver to prepare the boiled water or gruel several hours
before it is to be used for modifying the milk—even the night before.
It can then be placed in the quart jar, tightly covered, and set in the
ice-chest.
Now comes the important hour for mixing the food. The bottles are
emptied of the borax water and turned upside-down in the wire rack
to drain. Next they are filled with hot water for rinsing out the borax,
emptied and again turned upside-down in the rack to drain. By the
time the food is mixed the bottles are cool enough to fill.
In mixing the food the process is the same whatever the
proportion. The bottle of milk is turned into the pitcher so that the
cream will be mixed in well. It is then poured into the glass measure
and, when the right amount has been secured, it is poured back into
the emptied pitcher. Next is measured the boiled water or gruel, and
this is then turned into the pitcher. The sugar must be measured very
carefully with a tablespoon. If a level spoonful is ordered, it must be
leveled off carefully with a knife. A heaping spoonful means all that
the spoon will hold. Stir the mixture together—milk, gruel or water,
and sugar—until the last is dissolved. Now, using the funnel to avoid
waste, pour into each bottle the exact amount of this modified milk
which has been prescribed for a single feeding. Cork the bottles with
rolls of clean absorbent cotton, set the bottles in the wire rack, and
place it in the ice-chest.
As the hour for each feeding approaches, one of these bottles is
taken from the ice-chest, placed in a pan of hot water, or in any
patent bottle heater, to be warmed for the baby’s use.
It will be seen that by following this process the milk is never
touched by any hand, and if the utensils are kept immaculately
clean, there can be no danger from germs or contagion. And right
here a word of caution: After keeping the nipple in borax water, do
not test the heat of the milk by tasting it through the nipple. Never put
the baby’s nipple in your own mouth or allow any one else to do so.
The food should be what is known as body temperature, and it can
be tested by letting a little drop upon the bare forearm. Remember
that a baby’s mouth is very tender and easily burned. Never give the
baby the bottle without testing the temperature of the food.
It should take about twenty minutes for the baby to drink the
prescribed amount of either breast milk or artificial food. In cold
weather it is a good idea to cover the bottle with a little flannel or
crocheted bag, to keep it warm until the last drop is drained. Food
which becomes chilled may cause colic.
CHAPTER V
FORMULAS FOR ARTIFICIAL FOODS
FORMULAS FOR MODIFYING MILK—MILK SUGAR, CANE SUGAR, OR MALT
SUGAR—HOW TO TELL WHEN THE BABY IS PROPERLY NOURISHED—
LIME WATER IN THE MILK—CONDENSED MILK—PATENT FOODS
F ORMULAS for the preparation of artificial food for infants will

some day form a vital feature in the practical education of girls
for motherhood. Chemistry, physiology and dietetics, all subjects
which are taught to young women in high schools and colleges, will
contribute to a better understanding of this very important subject.
The mother who is able to nurse her child has no conception of the
difficulties which confront her sister or neighbor who must raise a
baby on the bottle. She should be profoundly grateful that she is
spared the study and working out of food formulas by the gracious
dispensation of Providence which supplies her child with the natural
form of nourishment. Certainly no woman who reads the chapters of
this book, devoted to the sanitary and scientific care required to carry
a baby through the period of bottle feeding, will wean her baby
unless such a step is absolutely necessary.
The mother whose family physician has specialized in diseases of
children and infant feeding has half the battle fought for her. The
physician who has made a study of artificial feeding knows exactly
the proportions necessary for producing a nourishing modified milk,
and the quantity to be given at each feeding. But there still remain all
over the country a large number of busy and successful general
practitioners who have given little or no study to formulas for infant
feeding, a condition fortunately due to the fact that the majority of the
mothers whom they attend nurse their babies.
Again many mothers are so situated, geographically and
economically, that they cannot place the baby to be artificially fed
under the constant supervision of a physician. It is for such mothers
that this chapter has been written, and the material which it contains
represents the best ideas of men who have long specialized on the
feeding of infants.
These physicians have decided that the simple formula which
includes plain cow’s milk, with the cream stirred in, water and sugar,
is the best substitute for mother’s milk until the baby has passed its
sixth or seventh month. Then barley or oatmeal gruel may be used
instead of the water. Cream, top milk, whey, lime water and patent
foods should not be used except with the approval of a physician.
The mother who finds herself forced to work out alone the problem of
artificial feeding, should give the simple formula a thorough trial
before trying more elaborate experiments, and, above all things,
before taking the advice of her neighbors.
Mother’s milk is composed of thirteen parts solids and eighty-
seven parts water. The solids are fat, sugar, proteids and salts. The
fat is represented by cream; the sugar by lactose or milk sugar; the
proteids by the milk-curd. The fat encourages bone growth and fat in
the baby’s body; it produces heat and is good for the nerves. The
sugar also produces fat and heat and has a laxative effect on the
bowels. The proteids go to make body cells in the blood, the muscles
and the various organs. The salts are needed for bone-making. The
water serves two purposes: it keeps the solids in solution so that the
food can be easily digested; it forms the medium through which the
body throws off its waste material.
Formulas for artificial food should follow the proportions found in
mother’s milk by expert analysis. Plain cow’s milk unmodified is too
rich in solids to be given to an infant. On the other hand, the nursing
baby, or the baby fed on properly modified milk, does not require
much plain water, as it receives an ample supply of water in its
feedings to quench thirst and keep the body in good condition.
For the baby which is to be artificially fed at one month or less,
plain cow’s milk, boiled water, and malt sugar form the best possible
combination.
Milk sugar, once very popular with dietitians, has been condemned
by specialists in infant feeding. Cane sugar is preferred to milk sugar,
and pediatrists recommend most highly the Dextri-Maltose, or malt
sugar, manufactured by Mead, Johnson & Company, Jersey City,
New Jersey.
Having decided on these ingredients, the next problem is their
proper combination in correct proportions. These are governed by
the baby’s weight. In twenty-four hours a baby should be fed twice
as much plain cow’s milk in ounces as he weighs in pounds; this
means that a baby weighing twelve pounds should be fed twenty-
four ounces of plain cow’s milk in twenty-four hours.
In preparing this quantity of cow’s milk for the baby’s consumption,
it must be borne in mind that this milk contains only half as much
sugar as mother’s milk, while it holds three times as much proteids
and salts, and both the proteids and the fat are less digestible than
those found in breast milk. This explains why water must be used to
dilute the heavier cow’s milk. For the new-born baby the following
proportions are recommended when what is known as plain milk is to
be used:
Four ounces of milk.
One ounce, or two rounded tablespoonfuls, of Dextri-Maltose.
Sixteen ounces of boiled water.
In two or three days this formula may be changed to:
Five ounces of milk.
One ounce, or two rounded tablespoonfuls, of Dextri-Maltose.
Fifteen ounces of boiled water.
If the baby is digesting this food without trouble, about the tenth
day, increase the milk by one ounce and decrease the water by one
ounce.
A normal child, with whom modified milk agrees, is able at the end
of a month to digest its food in the following proportions:
Eight ounces of plain milk.
One ounce, or two tablespoonfuls, of Dextri-Maltose.

(Ebook PDF) (Ebook PDF) Human Development: A Cultural Approach, Australian and New Zealand Edition All Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

(Ebook PDF) (Ebook PDF) Human Development: A Cultural Approach, Australian and New Zealand Edition All Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

(Ebook PDF) (Ebook PDF) Human Development: A Cultural Approach, Australian and New Zealand Edition All Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

(eBook PDF) Human Development: A

Cultural Approach, Australian and New

(eBook PDF) Human Development: A Cultural Approach,

(eBook PDF) Human Development: A Cultural Approach 2nd

(eBook PDF) Human Development: A Cultural Approach 3rd

Psychology: Australian and New Zealand edition Douglas

(eBook PDF) Psychology, 5th Australian and New Zealand

(eBook PDF) Psychology Australian and New Zealand

(Original PDF) Campbell Biology 11th Australian and New

(eBook PDF) Campbell Biology 10th Australian New

■ Research focus: The daily rhythms of adolescents’ CHAPTER 11

Section 3: Emotional and social development 468 CHAPTER 13

Confronting death 612

of cultural variations in children’s experiences of middle childhood.

School in middle childhood

School experiences and

Friends and peers

each chapter ANDand SOCIAL

M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 281 07/08/18 11:26 AM

two-dimensional figures. However, in the course of middle childhood

help students appreciate the diversity that exists

1 During middle childhood _________________.

Figure 7.1; Case & Okamoto, 1996).

With regard to writing, in early childhood most children learn to write a

with more consistent height and spacing. By age 8 or 9, most children

1 During middle childhood _________________.

2 During middle childhood, ______________.

Research focus features offer a detailed

relationships; second, distinct spaces or rooms, often called

Multiple-choice review questions at the end

Māori students in New Zealand are also behind their non-

more likely to be suspended, to be in special education for

project called Te Kōtahitanga sought to understand the

ethical issues concerning the rights and wellbeing of the

unhealthy or dangerous. by tannis macBeth (2007), observed that there

interactions with students. Evaluations found improved teacher–student relationships; more

Cultural focus features highlight

School and education in middle childhoodhow

culture impacts various aspects

of development, such as breastfeeding

practices, gross motor development,

M07_ARNE9465_01_SE_C07.indd 309 07/08/18 11:26 AM

Critical thinking questions encourage students

to think more deeply and critically about a

developmental topic. These questions appear in

Sternberg’s theory tha

Practice quizzes appear at the end 1 of each

section within the chapter to test knowledge

within’, they should not be concerned about

within’, they should not be concerned about

influences obesity?heightened risk for kidney failure and blindness.

little to explain the rates of obesity for adulthood.

c obesity is more likely to be caused by genetics than

In middle childhood, physical growth continues at a slow but

the environment. 4 in developed ______________.

chance of adhd correlated with the stress of being

females. a lead poisoning continues to be one of the top

d Genetics cannot explain recent rises in obesity