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An Introduction to Environmental
Studies
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HUMANS IN THE
LANDSCAPE
3 Commons 45
The Origins of Environmental Problems 45
BOX 3.1: Property and Environment 48
A Parable of the Commons 50
Real Commons, Real Tragedies 52
Coercion 53
Uncertainty 55
BOX 3.2: Commons and Inequality in the Mississippi Delta 56
Institutional Solutions 58
Privatization 59
Regulation and Public Trust 61
Communities 64
Community-Based Governance 65
BOX 3.3: Honor Code 68
Tradition and Policy 69
Responsibility, Mismatch, and Environmental Problems 70
The Role of Ethics 73
vi CON T EN T S
5 The Architecture of the Planet 100
Climate, Life, and the Provinces of Nature 100
Life, and an Apple 102
Heat + Rotation = Weather 103
Water, Sun, Weather 105
Climates and Global Circulation 107
Diverse Life 111
BOX 5.1: Natural Selection: Joining Natural History to a
Simple, Powerful Theory 113
Biogeography and Diversity 114
BOX 5.2: Darwin and Natural Theology 115
BOX 5.3: Genetics and the Invisible Present 117
The World Is Ecosystems 121
BOX 5.4: Net Primary Productivity 122
CON T EN T S vii
Greenhouse Gases and Accounting for Carbon 160
Global Warming 162
A Warming World 164
BOX 7.1: That Sinking Feeling 166
Thaw 169
Energy and the Control of Nature 171
BOX 7.2: Energy and Prosperity 173
Energy Sources 176
Energy and the World without Edges 181
BOX 7.3: Geology, Economics, and Politics 182
Tackling the Grand Challenge of Climate Change 185
International Treaties 188
viii CON T EN T S
Endemism : “Stationary” Species 235
An Invisible Present 237
Pressure: The Sixth Great Extinction 240
BOX 9.2: The Barcode of Life 241
Direct Pressures 243
Indirect Pressures 246
Response: Significant Progress, but a Long Way to Go 250
CON T EN T S ix
BOX 12.2: Democracy 315
Environmental Policy 318
BOX 12.3: Pluralism and the Struggle of Groups 321
Has Environmental Policy Worked? 323
Environmental Politics 324
BOX 12.4: Concentrated and Diffuse Interests 326
Economic Benefits and Environmental Elitists 327
Political Power and Limited Competence 330
Organizing for Social Change 333
Civil Society and Social Capital 335
Creating Civil Society 337
Philanthropy, Charity, and Investment 339
BOX 12.5: Agents, Incentives, and Making a Difference 340
13 Markets 347
Coordinating Human Choices 347
“A Low-Grade Chronic Infection” 347
Prices and Choices 349
BOX 13.1: Reasoning Graphically about Economic Choices 352
BOX 13.2: The Magic of the Market 354
BOX 13.2: Carbon Offsets 358
Markets and Nature 359
Getting Prices (Closer to) Right 362
BOX 13.4: Valuing the Future 364
BOX 13.5: Cap-and-Trade 368
x CON T EN T S
Dematerialization and Decarbonization—Can It Work? 386
“We Have Met the Enemy . . .” 390
Nonmaterial Needs 393
BOX 14.3: Consumerism 394
Responsible Consumption 396
Environmentally Responsible Business 399
15 Learning 402
Where We Have Traveled, How We Need to Press On 402
A Parable: “Havasu” 402
Sustainability Transition 406
BOX 15.1: Environmental Kuznets Curves 411
Desperate People Can Learn 414
Civic Science 416
Modes of Learning 418
BOX 15.2: Linking Knowledge with Action 420
Learning and Social Learning 424
BOX 15.3: “Only Connect”: The Goals of a Liberal Education 426
Notes A-1
Glossary A-9
Credits A-15
Index A-19
CON T EN T S xi
Boxes
xii
BOX 10.1: Gross Domestic Product, Imperfect but Influential 265
BOX 10.2: The Volunteer in the Cow Path 269
BOX 10.3: Nature, Wealth, and Power 271
BOX 10.4: Health and Wealth over Half a Century 275
BOX 11.1: Environmental Justice 304
BOX 12.1: Stealing the Commons from the Goose 312
BOX 12.2: Democracy 315
BOX 12.3: Pluralism and the Struggle of Groups 321
BOX 12.4: Concentrated and Diffuse Interests 326
BOX 12.5: Agents, Incentives, and Making a Difference 340
BOX 13.1: Reasoning Graphically about Economic Choices 352
BOX 13.2: The Magic of the Market 354
BOX 13.3: Carbon Offsets 358
BOX 13.4: Valuing the Future 364
BOX 13.5: Cap-and-Trade 368
BOX 14.1: Technological Change and the Judeo-Christian Tradition 377
BOX 14.2: Industrial Ecology 384
BOX 14.3: Consumerism 394
BOX 15.1: Environmental Kuznets Curves 411
BOX 15.2: Linking Knowledge with Action 420
BOX 15.3: “Only Connect”: The Goals of a Liberal Education 426
BOX E S xiii
About the Authors
xv
The Engineering of Katrina and the Disasters of Tomorrow (Island Press, 2009) and Blow-
out in the Gulf:The BP Oil Spill Disaster and the Future of Energy in America (MIT Press,
2010).
This is a book that our students taught us to write. The three authors each taught
introductory courses in environmental studies programs in our three rather different
institutions. Each of us is, by current disciplinary identification, a social scientist—
political scientist, sociologist, and economist—though we are also, in other profes-
sional contexts, a lapsed physicist, a rural sociologist who contributed to risk analysis,
and an ecological economist who is as much a scientist and philosopher as anything
else. Throughout our careers, we have been, by temperament, scholars more inter-
ested in solving problems than in disciplinary boundaries.
As we worked to articulate an integrated yet accessible introduction to the sprawl-
ing study of the environment, each of us felt uneasy about the prevailing way in
which environmental studies was taught. This is an approach, still common, in which
the biophysical sciences describe and define a “natural” world being transformed by
human activity. Based on that definition of a natural order, human activities are to
be restrained or redirected, mainly through public policies. But a new generation of
teachers, many of them from interdisciplinary backgrounds, have arrived in the class-
room, and their approach is richer by far than this older way of thinking about the
field. However, textbooks have not kept up with these important changes. Teachers
are supplementing textbooks more and more, and some have abandoned textbooks
altogether. The traditional approach isn’t wrong, exactly, but it is seriously incom-
plete, for it leaves out the central actors in the story: the people. It is the people who,
after all, drive the environmental problems of most concern: loss of biodiversity,
climate change, and a perilously unsustainable, increasingly global economy. What
of them—or, rather, us? The courses we devised struggled to impart a fuller picture
of the structure and function of human institutions and the way that humans make
xvii
their homes in landscapes—often by transforming them. Ours is a world in which
the biophysical and the social now intertwine; where humans, for better or worse, are
now responsible for the biosphere that we and our fellow forms of life depend on.
This book is our attempt to introduce readers to that strange and familiar planet, the
one that contains and has the potential to sustain intelligent life.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Textbooks are not original scholarship, and we necessarily stand upon the shoulders
of others. Our intellectual debts are broad in a book that attempts to open a window
on inhabited landscapes—so much that we cannot effectively detail them even to
ourselves. Some of the broad outlines are hinted at in the passages we quote in the
text, in the suggestions for further reading, and in the many images and diagrams we
have appropriated.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge more specific contributions. We thank the autumn
2006 honors section of Environmental Studies 1 at the University of California,
Santa Barbara (UCSB), who read the first draft of Chapter 2 and gave us sound
advice on how to approach it and the other chapters; Tony Gengarelly of the Mas-
sachusetts College of Liberal Arts, whose guest lecture on the Hudson River School
artists laid the groundwork for Chapter 2; Karen R. Merrill of Williams College,
who enlivened the discussion of American environmental history in Chapter 3
and other parts of this book; Antonia Foias of the Department of Sociology and
Anthropology at Williams College, whose clear and thought-provoking lecture on
the fall of the Maya is excerpted in Chapter 4; William T. Fox, Professor Emeritus of
Geosciences at Williams, who read and improved Chapter 5; James T. Carlton of the
Williams-Mystic Maritime Studies Program, whose compelling lecture on introduced
species informed Chapter 9; and Charles Benjamin of the Near East Foundation,
whose discussion of community governance of resources is summarized in Chapter 10.
The students in the spring 2007 section of Environmental Studies 101 at Williams
read most of the chapters and provided detailed suggestions that were provocative
and helpful; we tried to heed them as much as we could.
For the past five years, the Packard Foundation’s conservation and science
program, led by Walter V. Reid, has been a remarkable place for Kai Lee to pursue
a second career; he thanks the Foundation for its encouragement and support for
his work on this book and for providing access to the Stanford University libraries.
Richard Howarth acknowledges the generous support provided by the Pat and John
Rosenwald Professorship during the period when this book was written. We are
grateful for help in the late stages from Robert Gramling of Louisiana State
University; Lisa Berry of UCSB; Raymond Huey, John M. Wallace, and Yen-Ting
Hwang of the University of Washington; and David Peart of Dartmouth College.
All of these benefactors shared their thoughts, time, and knowledge with an open-
xviii PR EFACE
hearted generosity that lies at the heart of our hopes for the sustainability of a world
inhabited by humans.
Aaron Javsicas, our editor at W. W. Norton, and his talented production staff have
turned rough lecture notes into a handsome book. And we are deeply grateful to Leo
Wiegman, who brought this project to Norton and in fact drew the three authors
together as collaborators. Leo was entrepreneur, coach, and therapist; this book exists
because Leo believed in it. We are grateful to the reviewers that Norton brought in,
to test our words against their understandings and their needs as teachers. We thank
them for their candor and rigor, both of which have made a difference:
Our coauthor, fellow teacher, and friend, Bill Freudenburg, died in December 2010
as the first full draft of this book neared completion. That autumn, Bill taught Envi-
ronmental Studies 1 a final time. He finished all the lectures. At a memorial service
for Bill, his sister, Patti Freudenburg, offered some thoughts about her brother. He
was a good listener, she said, and he had known when to let his younger sister make
PR EFACE xix
her own mistakes so that she could learn from them. He also knew to be persistent,
to plant seeds—seeds of doubt among the ignorant and recalcitrant, seeds of enlight-
enment and hope for everyone—knowing that some would grow in time. This book
is one of Bill Freudenburg’s seeds sprung to life. We hope that it is a book that speaks
clearly while also offering a sense of how all three of us have tried to listen. We miss
Bill. His ideas are here, and that is good.
August 2012
xx PR EFACE
HUMANS
— in the —
LANDSCAPE
PART I
Forces
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Tämän jälkeen hän sulkeutui kauppaansa ja heittäytyi sieluineen
ja ruumiineen väkijuomien valtaan. Hautauspäivän jälkeen ei kukaan
kokonaiseen vuoteen tietänyt, asuiko talossa ketään, vai oliko se
autio. Kyläläiset koettivat ohikulkiessaan kurkistaa sisään
alaslaskettujen ikkunaverhojen lomitse, ja menivät sitten menojaan.
Öisin Anghel kuljeskeli koiransa seuraamana talonsa raunioilla, ja
palasi jälleen sisään. Päivisin hän tyhjensi humaltumatta lasin
toisensa jälkeen ja katseli, leuka kämmenen varassa,
ikkunaverhojen raosta palaneen talon törröttäviä seiniä.
Ja hän sai.
*****
Mennessään äitinsä käskystä noutamaan Anghel-enoa Adrien
muisteli hänen kovaa kohtaloaan ja tuumi:
»En palaa tänne etkä sinä tule minun luokseni, ennenkuin suutelet
kaikkien nähden kenkäni anturaa!»
»Jos tuo yksin on syynä itkuusi, niin rauhoitu toki ja kerro minulle,
mitä käyntisi tarkoittaa».
Enon ääni oli yhtä välinpitämätön, kuin jos hän olisi sanonut:
»Leipä on pöydällä» tai: »Ulkona on pimeä».
*****
Pappi Stefan, jonka luona Adrien oli pistäytynyt ohi kulkiessaan, oli
kahdeksankymmenvuotias vanhus eikä enää hoitanut virkaansa.
Mutta hän palveli yhä seurakuntaansa, ollen kyläläisten kesken
riidanratkaisijana ja neuvonantajana. Hänen näkönsä oli heikentynyt,
mutta hän liikkui vielä kuin nuori mies. Hän asui aivan lähellä Dimi-
enoa. Hän otti keppinsä ja lähti siinä tuokiossa kolkuttamaan
viimemainitun ovelle.
*****
»Ei ole veren siteitä: jos katkaisen poikki jalkani, vuotaa minun
vereni, vaan ei sinun».
»Mitään sellaista ei ole. Olkoon vain tyhjää ilmaa, mitä nyt sanon,
mutta jos sinä kadotat huomenna poikasi, tuottaa se minulle
kärsimystä, mutta sinulle se on kuolema».
*****
*****
»Eno», hän sanoi hiukan happamesti, »jos tahdot tietää, mitä teen
tällä haavaa, tarvitsee sinun vain kääntää päätäsi ja katsella minua
mielin määrin eikä sivusilmäyksin kuin salapoliisi. Se on
epämiellyttävää».
»Kerronpa, mitä tapahtui. Noin neljä vuotta sitten eräs lapsi eksyi
kyläämme. Mistä hän tuli, sen Jumala yksin tietää, sillä hän änkyttää
siinä määrin, että kymmenestä sanasta ymmärtää vain yhden.
Hänen vaatteensa olivat rääsyiset ja ruumis täynnä sinelmiä. Kaikki
säälivät häntä. Hyvät ihmiset antoivat hänelle asunnon ja ruokaa
sekä tilaisuuden ansaita leipänsä. Mutta Jumala ei ole ollut kovin
antelias häntä kohtaan, sillä lapsi ei kyennyt paimentamaan edes
kahta vuonaa. Ne eksyivät häneltä, ja hän palasi parkuen kotiin
keppineen ja huitoi kuin noiduttu. Kukaan ei ymmärtänyt sanaakaan
hänen sammaltelustaan. Näin hän kulki ovelta ovelle ja sai tuntea
pakaroissaan monen puukengän suloisen kosketuksen. Viimein hän
joutui maantielle. Anghel korjasi hänet sieltä ja vei kotiinsa. Hän
koetti poliisin avulla päästä selville pojan syntyperästä, mutta
turhaan. Nyt huhutaan, että hän olisi kaikessa hiljaisuudessa
säätänyt pojalle kaiken jälelläolevan omaisuutensa, mikä ei liene
paljoakaan, sillä tynnyrit ovat tyhjät ja kapakka raunioina. Pieni
palvelija pystyy kuitenkin täyttämään isäntänsä vaatimukset, ja
heidän elämänsä on ehkä aivan ainutlaatuista maailmassa. Kesät,
talvet poikanen juoksentelee huvikseen ulkosalla, ehkäpä myöskin
raitista ilmaa kaivaten, sillä muuten hän tukehtuisi veli-parkani
ääressä, joka on vain elävä ruumis. Maaten siinä vuoteeseen
kytkettynä, ruumis yhtenä ainoana turtuneena haavana, on Anghelin
saatava joka neljännestunti pieni viinaryyppy. Hän ei enää jaksa
nostaa pulloa. Ja arvaahan, mitä hän on keksinyt siltä varalta, ettei
hän lapsen ulkona ollessa jaksaisi huutaa kyllin kovaa, saadakseen
hänet luokseen? No niin, hän on yksinkertaisesti hankkinut
vihellyspillin, jollaisia poliisit käyttävät, ja tarpeen tullen hän puhaltaa
pilliin. Poika on tarkka kuin kello. Kun hetki lähestyy, tulee hän
leikkimään avoimen ikkunan läheisyyteen, korva herkkänä
kuulemaan. Näin on laita kesällä. Talvella ovat ikkunat naulatut kiinni
ja tuketut, ja poikaviikari juoksentelee ulkosalla kuten ennenkin. Mitä
nyt on tehtävä? Jos hän kulkee edestakaisin ovessa, jäähtyy huone,
ja palvelija on aivan ymmällä. Mutta silloinpa sairas eräänä päivänä
keksii ikkunan tasalla seinässä juomalasin suun kokoisen reiän.
Mutta reiän tukkeena on aina olkituppu, ja tämän hoitaja tarpeen
tullen vetää pois ulkona ollessaan.
*****