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r&Jtebook'"
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THE BLUEBOOK I
The is now available
Bluebook@
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and iPod
iPad@, iPhone@, via the o touch@
rul*book" app. o
Reference The Bluebook@ and your court
I
rules in a clear, easy-to-use digitat format. I
(Custom versions of the rulebook'" app are available on an
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O
a
iPad, iPhone, and iPod touch are trademarks of Apple Inc., registered in the U.5. and
other countries. App Store is a service mark of Apple Inc. I
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I
o Preface to the Twentieth Edition

o This edition of Tbe Bluebook retains the same basic approach to legal
citation established by its predecessors. The layout of Tbe Bluebook
has been updated to make the information easier to access. Some cita-

o tion forms have been expanded, elaborated upon, or modilied from pre-
vious editions to reflect the ever-expanding range of authorities used in

o legal writing and to respond to suggestions from the legal community.

Here are some of the more noteworthy changes:

t The Bluepages, introduced in the Eighteenth Edition, have been con-

siderably overhauled for the Twentieth Edition. The Bluepages now
parallel thc Whitepages-helping practitioners cite a broader range of

o soufces and greatly improving cross-references. Typeface rules have

been relaxed to accommodate practitioner use of r.{R(;E ANr) sMAr.r- cAPs.
Bluetable BT2 has also been expanded to include more local court
I citation rules.
In addition to edits for clariry concision, and consistency, theTwentieth

o Edition contains the following significant changes: Rule 1..4(e) clari-

fies the order of authories when federal and state legislative materials

I are citecl together. In rule 1.5(b), the order of parentheticals has been
changed to reflect the removal of the "internal quotation marks omit-
tecf" and "available at" parentheticals. Rule 3.2(A> provides additional

a guidance for citing a range of pages and a single footnote within the
range in the same citation. Rule 3.5 provides guidance on the nam-
ing conventions for subdivisions that are numbered or otherwised des-

o ignated in a piece. Rule 5.2(dXi) no longer requires indicating the

omission of internal quotation marks. Rule 5.2(f) provides guidance

o on the use of internal quotation marks. Rule 1O.2.1(f) requires thc

omission of all geographical terms that follow a comma. Rule 1O.2.2
clarilies that words in a case name that would be abbreviated ie^cord-

I ing to table T6 should not be abbreviated if the words are part of a

state, country, or other geographical unit that is the entire name of a
pafry. Rule l0.9(a)(iii) provides additional guidance on the forma-

o tion of slip opinion short f<rrms. Rule 11 now provides guidance on

the citation of multiple amendments, sections within the same article,

o and clauses within the same section.Rule 12.9.4 combines former

rules 12.9.1 and 12.9.5, provides guidance on citing principles, and
revises the citation fbrmat of model codes, restatements, standards, and

o guidelines. Dean Richard Revesz and Professor Robert Sitkoff provided

valuable advice and assistance in revising this rule . Rule L3.5 clarifies
what year should be cited when a debate occurs in a different year
o from publication in the Congressional Recorcl.Rrile 14.2(b) has been
expanded to include detailed information on citing c()mments to agen-

o cies. Examples of citing guidances and manuals have been included

in rule 14.2(d> as well as detailcd information on citing opinion let-
ters. Rule 14.4 provides detailecl infbrmation on citing administra-

o tive sources found on commercial electronic databases. The citation

firrmats frrr Bar.r.nNtNe's l-tw Dlctton.tnv and Br,lcr's L,tw f)IcLIorl,,rnv
have been updated in rule 15.8(a). Rule 15.9 removes language vtl

o
 O
that requires the use of"available at" in parallel citations. New rule
15.9(c) introduces a citation format for ebooks, stipulating that the
print versions of books are authoritative , but that ebooks may be cited
a
if they are the sole media through which the book is available. Rule
t6.6(a') requires that opinion pieces in newspapers be cited as"Opin-
o
ion" rather than "op-Ed." Rule 16.6(f) clarifies that online newspa-
pers may be used in place of print newspapers. Rule lE has been
updated in a number of areas to account for the increasing use and var-
a
ied forms of Internet sources. The rule no longer separately categorize s
Internet citations as either direct or parallel; all citations are treated as O
direct. Rule 18.2.l(b)(ii) provides for the direct citation of Internet
sources that share the characteristics of a print source such that they
can be fully cited according to another rule, whether or not the source
o
is in print. Rule 18.2.1(d) provides guidance on how to cite Internet
sources using archival tools. Rule 1.8.2.2(a) provides guidance on
citing author information on social media platforms. Rules 1A.2.2(b)
o
(iii) and 18.2.2(b)(v) detail how to cite titles for blogs contained
within a larger website and titles for social media posts, respectiv€ly. O
Rule 18.3 now catalogs where within Tbe Bluebook guidance is
provided for citing various sources found on commercial electronic
databases. Rule 21 has been expanded to include new rules for citinfi
o
materials from the International Monetary Fr-rnd and the International
Criminal Court and has adopted simpler ways of citing United Nations
documents. We are grateful to the American Society of International
o
Law for its assistance with rule 2l and tables T3.T4, and T5.
The tables have been updated and expanded. Table T1 has been
a
revised to reflect the most current titles for the various statutory com-
pilations, session laws, and administrative compilations and registers.
The abbreviations following the states and f)istrict of Columbia in
o
table T1.3 have been revised to follow the abbreviation convention
for jurisdiction names in the date parenthetical of cases. The citation
o
formats for these sources have been updated to reflect as accurately as
possible the uniquc breakdown of information within each. Table T2
has been updated to reflect changes in local law and legal citation. The
O
compilers are indebted to the following experts in foreign legal cita-
tion for their help in enhancing table T2: Zsuzsanna Antal, Francisco o
A. Avalos,Annette L. Demers, Christoph Malliet,Yukino Nakashima, E.
Dana Neacsu, and Charlotte Stichter. The format of table T13 has been
changed from an inclusive list of periodicals to a more general guide
I
to abbreviating periodicals. Table T13.1 contains the abbreviations of
common institutional names and tableTl3.2 lists common words for
in periodical titles. The table also prescribes abbreviating geographi-
o
cal terms according to table T1O. If a word in a periodical title is not
included in any of the previously listed tables, revamped table 13 pre-
O
scribes including the full word. Terms have been added to tables T6,
Ta,Tl4, and T15 as appropriate. o
The compilers wish to thank our Coordinating Editor Mary Miles Prince
for working with us in revising, clarifying, updating, and improving Tbe
o
t
Bluebook. The compilers would also like to acknowledge outside com-
vill mentators who contribute d the ir expe rtise to th€ Twentieth Edition of
I
o Tbe Bluebook. The compilers are grateful to the law journal editors,
law librarians, and practitioners who responded to our call for sr.rgges-
tions with helpful advice and comments.

o Finally, the compilers request that any errors, omissions, or suggestions

for revisions be reported to the Harvard Law Review, (;annett Housc,

o 151 1 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge , Massachusetts 02138.

o Acknowledgements

I Tbe Bluebrxtk: A UniJbrm System of Citation is compiled by the edi-

tors of the Columbia Lau Reuieut,tlr,e Haruard Lau Reuieu,the Uni-
aersit! of Pennqtluania Laut Reuieut, a.nd Tbe Yale Laut Journal. Tbe

o Bluebrx* is published and distributed by the Harvard Law Rcview

Association. The Coordinating Editor of Tbe Bluebook is Mary Milcs
Prince , Associate Director for Library Services, Vanderbilt University

o Law School Library with special editorial assistance on the citatk)ns of

foreign iurisdictions from the Directorate ofLcgal Research ofthe Law

a Library of Oongress.

o
o
o
o
o
a
o
o
o
I
o
o
lx
 o
Contents O
..., vtl

I
Preface
Introduction .7
Structure of The Bluebook . .t
General Principtes of Citation
Cattino qt2ripd
L

2
o
The Bluepages: An Introduction to Basic LegatCitation
lntroduction 3 o
Structure of Legal Citations

o
B1 3
a2 Typeface for Court Documents 6
B3 Subdivisions 7
B4
B5
ShortCitationForms
Quotations
......
Abbreviations, Numerals, and Symbols
8
8
9
I
o
B6
87 Italicization for Styte and in Unique Circumstances 9
B8 Capitalization. 9
B9
810
B11
Titles ofJudges
Cases . .

Constitutions
10
10
77
o
872
813
Statutes, Rules, and Restatements
Legislative Materials
.

AdministrativeandExecutiveMaterials ........22
18
27 o
o
874
815 BooksandOtherNonperiodicMaterials. .......22
815 PeriodicalMaterials. . ..23
877
818
879
Court and Litigation Documents
Thelnternet
Services
. . . 24
. .26
. ..27
I
820
827
ForeignMaterials.....
fnternationalMaterials
.. .28
.......28 o
The Bluepages Tables
BT1 Court Documents. . .

BT2 lurisdiction-Specific Citation Rules

.29
.30
I
8T2.1 Federal Courts .
and Styte Guides
30 O
8T2.2 State Courts.
BT2.3 Territories... .56
t
Rules
Rule
1.1
1 Structure and Use ofCitations
Citation Sentences and Clauses in Law Reviews.
57
57
o
1.2
1.1
lntroductorySignals
Order of Signals
5B
60
O
1.4 Order of Authorities Within Each Signat . . ... 6"t

O
.

1.5 Parenthetical Information 64

1.6 Related Authority. 65
Rute
2.1
2.2
2 Typefaces for Law Reviews
Typeface Conventions for Citations
Tvoeface Conventions for Textual Materia[ . .
67
67
69
o
O
.
o
o Rule
3.1
3.2
3 Subdivisions .

Volumes, Parts, and Supplements

Pages, Footnotes, Endnotes, and Graphical Materials
.77
..71.
..72
o 3.3
3.4
Sections and Paragraphs
Aooended Material
..75
..76

o 3.5 InternalCross-References.....
Rule 4
4.1
Short Citation Forms
"|d.".
.
..78
77
.74

O "Supra"and"Hereinafter" . . . .
Rule 5 Quotations
. ..80
. .42

o 5.7 Formatting of Quotations

5.2 Alterations and Quotations Within Quotations
<? Omissions
.
..83
.82

o
85
Rule 6 Abbreviations, Numerals, and Symbols . .87
6.1 Abbreviations . ..87

o
.

6.2 Numerats and Svmbols .,BB

Rute 7 ltalicization for Style and in Unique Circumstances. .. . .90

a Rule 8 Capitalization .

Rute 9 Titles of Judges, Officials, and Terms of Court

..97
. .94

o 10 Cases
Rule
10.1 Basic Citation
10.2 Case Names.
Forms .
..94
..95
.96
o 10.2.1 General Rules for Case Names
10.2.2 Additional Rules for Case Names in Citations . . .
.96
101

o 10.3 Reporters and Other Sources

10.3.1 Paratlel Citations and Which Source(s) to Cite
10.3.2 Reporters ..
.
..702
102

. 103
.704
O 10.4
10.3.3 Public Domain Format
Court and Jurisdiction
. .
. . 1,04
10.5 Date orYear. .. 106

o 10.5 Parenthetical Information Regarding Cases

10.6.1 Weight of Authority
. ..707
1,07

o 10.7
10.6.2 Quoting/Citing Parentheticals in Case Citations
10.6.3 Order of Parentheticals
Prior and Subsequent History
.
.. 108
.. 109
108

o l.0.7.L Explanatory Phrases and Weight of Authority

10.7.2 Different Case Name on Appeal
. .. 109
. . '111.

o 10.8 Special Citation Forms. . . . '11.'I

10.8.1 Pending and Unreported Cases . !1.

10.8.2 Fifth Circuit Sptit 1,1,3

o 10.9
10.8.3 Briefs, Court Filings, and Transcripts
10.8.4 Court Administrative Orders.
Short Forms for Cases
.
..775
1,13

't'15

O Rule 11 Constitutions.
..720
118

I
Rule 12 Statutes. . .

12.1 Basic Citation Forms . .. "120

12.2 Choosing the Proper Citation Form .. 1.2r

.. xl

o 12.2.1 General Rute . . 1,21

 o
72.2.2 Exceotions...
12.3 Current Officiat and Unofficial Codes. .
122
1,23 o
o
12.3.1 Additional lnformation 1,23
72.3.2 Yearof Code.. 124
12.4 Session Laws... 1,25
12.5
12.6
12.7
Electronic Media and Online Sources
Other Secondary Sources
Invatidation, Repeal, Amendment, and Prior History
726
727
728
I
o
.

'J.2.7.1. lnvalidation. . . . 728

12.7.2 ReoeaI "128
'I28

12.8
12.7.3 Amendment
1.2.7.4 Prior Historv .

Explanatory Parenthetical Phrases

1,29
129
o
12.9 Special Citation Forms.
12.9.1 Internal Revenue Code .
"12.9.2 Ordinances. . .
.

.
729
729
130
o
o
.

12.9.3 Rutes of Evidence and Procedure 130

12.9.4 Modet Codes, Principles, Restatements, Standards,
Sentencing Guidelines, and Uniform Acts . .
12.9.5 ABA Code of Professional Responsibility and
Ooinions on Ethics
. 137

733
a
12.10 Short
13
Rute
Forms for Statutes
Legislative Materials.
1.33

735
o
13.1 Basic Citation Forms .
13.2 Biltsand Resotutions......
13.3 Hearings
. 1.35
136
1.37
o
13.4
13.5
Reports, Documents, and Committee Prints.
Debates
. 138
1,40 o
13.6
13.7
13.8
Separatety Bound Legislative Histories.
Electronic Media and Ontine Sources
Short Forms for Legislative Materials
1,40
1,40
t4't
o
14 Administrative and Executive Materials
Rute
14.1 Basic Citation Forms . .
743
743 o
o
14.2 Rules, Regutations, and Other Publications '143
14.3 Administrative Adiudications and Arbitrations 't45
14.3.1 Names 746
14.3.2 Which Source(s) to Cite
14.3.3 lssuingAgency.
14.4 CommerciaI Etectronic Databases.
.
"r46
1.47
't47
o
14.5 Short Forms for Regutations . . . .
Rule 15
.

Books, Reports, and Other Nonperiodic Materials.

't47

749
o
15.1 Author
15.2 Editor or Translator
15.3 Title
749
151
1,57
a
15.4
15.5
Edition, Pubtisher, and Date
ShorterWorks in Collection. . . . . .
152
1,53
o
15.6
15.5.1 Works in Cotlection Generally.
15.5.2 Coltected Documents
Prefaces, Forewords, Introductions, and Epilogues
L53
754
"t54
o
xtl
15.7 Setial Number 1.55
o
l
lo
o 15.8
15.9
15.10
Speciat Citation Forms. .

Electronic Media and Online Sources

Short Citation Forms .
.155

.
1.56

o
. 757
15.10.1 Short Forms forWorks in Collection . . . . 157
Rule16 PeriodicalMaterials .....759
a 16.1
16.2
16.3
Basic Citation Forms .
Author
Titte
.
...
.

.....1.61.
159
767

o 16.4 Consecutively Paginated.lournats

15.5 NonconsecutivelyPaginatedJournalsandMagazines ........
. . 1.62

t
762
16.6 Newspapers..... ......1,63
16.7 SpeciatCitationForms.. ...1.65
16.7.1 Student-Written Law Review Materials . . 165

o 16.7.2 Non-Student-Written Book Reviews.

16.7.3 Symposia, Colloquia, and Surveys
16.7.4 Commentaries and Other Special Designations. . . .
.
.
.
766
L67

o . L67
16.7.5 MuttioartArticles .........767
15.7.5 Annotations.. ....168

o 1.6.7.7 Prcceedings, Regular Publications by Institutes,

and ABA Section Reoorts
16.7.8 Newsletters and Other Noncommercialtv Distributed
168

o 16.8
Periodicals
Electronic Media and Ontine Sources
1.69
169

o 16.9
Rule
17.1
17
Short Citation Forms . .
Unpublished and ForthcomingSources . .
770
772

o
Basic Citation Forms 1,72
17.2 Unpubtished Materials . . . ...1,72
17.2.1 Manuscripts..... 172

o 1.7.2.2 Dissertations and Theses .

17.2.3 Letters, Memoranda, and Press Reteases. . .

17.2.4 E-mail Correspondence and Listserv Postings
.
1.73
1,73
1,73

o 17.2.5 Interviews.....
17.2.6 SpeechesandAddresses........
17.3 ForthcomingPublications......
1.74
1.74
"t75

o 17.4 Working Papers .

17.5 Electronic Media and Online Sources . . . . .

1.75
L/O

o 17.6 Short Citation Forms .

Rule 18
.

The Internet, Electronic Media, and

........778
176

o Other Nonprint Resources.

18.1 Basic Citation Forms
LB.2 The lnternet.
........ 178
...'179

o 18.3
18.2.1 GenerallnternetCitationPrinciples
18.2.2 CitationstolnternetSources
Commercial ElectronicDatabases
......... 180
.......lB2
...186
a 1.8.4
18.5
CD-ROMandOtherElectronicStorageMedia..
Microform
......
....186
186

a 18.5.1 Microform Coltections Reproducing Preexisting

Materials.
18.5.2 Microform Cottections Containing Original Materiats. . .
....186
187

o 18.6 Fitms, Broadcasts, and Noncommercial Video Materials. . . . . . . 787

xltl
 o
18.7 Audio Recordings
18.7.1 CommercialRecordings......
..
.
188
188 o
o
18.7.2 Noncommercial Recordings . . . 188
18.7.3 Podcasts and Recordings Avaitabte Ontine. ..... . 188
18.8 Short Citation Forms . .... 188

I
.

Rule 19 Services. .. .. 190

19.1 Citation Form for Services . ... 190
....1,97
19.2 Short Citation Forms .
Rule 20 Foreign Materials . .
20.1 Jurisdiction....
.
.

. . ..
.
193
1.93
o
20.2 Non-Engtish-Language Documents.
20.2.1 Documents Appearing in More than One Language ... .
.. 1,93
1,93 o
20.2.2 Titles and Names of Documents in Languages
Otherthan Engtish .

20.2.3 Abbreviations in Languages Otherthan Engtish. . .

.... 793
.... 794 o
20.2.4 Languages That Do Not Use the Roman Alphabet
20.2.5 Citations to Translations of Non-English-
Language Documents.
. ....794
. .
o
o
1.95
20.3 Cases ... 196
20.3.1 Common Law Cases ... L96
20.3.2 Civil Law and Other Non-Common
20.4 Constitutions.
20.5 Statutes.
.. .
Law Cases . . . . .... 196
.. .. 796
.. 797
o
20.5.1 Statutes in Common Law Systems
20.5.2 Statutes in Civit Law and Other Non-Common
Jurisdictions
Law
1.97

1.97
o
20.6
20.7
Non-English-Language and Foreign Periodicals
Short Citation Forms . . ..
.
..
. 1.97
198
O
Rute
21.1
21.2
21 lnternational Materials.
Basic Citation Forms . .
200
200 o
o
Non-Engtish-Language Documents. 202
21.3 Jurisdiction Not Evident from Context 202
21.4 Treaties and Other InternationalAgreements 202
21.4.1 Name of the Agreement . . . .
21,.4.2 Parties to the Agreement , . . .
21.4.3 Subdivisions.
.

.
203
203 o
I
. 204
21..4.4 Date of Signing 204
2L.4.5 fteaty Sources 204
21.5 International Law Cases
21.5.1 The International Court ofJustice and the Permanent
CourtoflnternationalJustice,.. ....206
206
o
Eutooean Union Courts . . 209
21,.5.2
21.5.3 EuropeanCourtofHumanRights.. .. . ... 21.0
InterAmericanCommissionon Human Rights.. ...... 277
21.5.4
.
O
Inter-AmericanCourtofHumanRights.. ..... 271
21.5.5
lnternationalTribunatforthe LawoftheSea .... .... . 272
21.5.6 o
2!.5.7 lnternationalCriminalCourtand OtherTribunals.. . ... 21.2
21.5.8 Other International Courts .
21.5.9 lnternational Cases in National Courts. .
21,3
. . 214
o
xlv 21.5 lnternationalArbitrations and Claims Commissions . . . 274
o
o
o 21.7 United Nations Sources.
21.7.1 Verbatim and Summary Records
21.7.2 Resolutions and Decisions
2't5
21,5
2t5
o 21.7.3 U.N. Reports
21.7.4 Masthead Documents
21.7
278

a 21.7.5 U.N. Press Releases and Memoranda. . . . .

21..7.7 Sales Publications

. 21,9
21.7.6 Adjudicatory Bodies Established by the United Nations 21,9
21.9

o 27.7.8 Yeatbooks and Periodicals

21.7.9 RegionaI Organization Documents.
220
220
220

o
21.7.1.O U.N. Charter
21..7.77 U.N. Internet Materials 220
27.8 League of Nations 221,

o 21.9 European Union..

21,.70 Councit of Europe
21,.17 World Trade Organization
227
225
225

o
.

27.12 International Monetary Fund. . . 227

21,.73 Other Intergovernmental Organizations 228

o 21.74 International Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

27.1.5 Yearbooks
21,.1,6 .
Digests .....
229
229
..230

o 27."17

Tables
ShortCitationForms.. ....23O

I Table T1 United States Jurisdictions

T1.1 Federat Judicial and Legislative Materiats
233
233

o T1.2 FederalAdministrative and Executive Materials.

T1.3 States and the District of Columbia . .
Atabama (Ala.)
236
248
248

o
.

Ataska (Ataska) 249

Arizona (Ariz.). . 250

o Arkansas (Ark.). .
California (Cat.). .
Cotorado (Coto.) .
.

.
25L
252
253
255
O Connecticut (Conn.)
Delaware (Det.). . . 256
257

o
District of Columbia (D.C.)
Ftorida (Fta) 258
Georgia (Ga.) 259

I Hawaii (Haw.)
ldaho (ldaho)
260
loL

I
Ittinois (ltt.) . . 262
Indiana (lnd.) 263
lowa (lowa). . 264

o Kansas (Kan.) 264

Kentucky (Ky.) 265
Louisiana (La.) 266

I Maine (Me.)
Marytand (Md.). .
Massachusetts (Mass.)
.
268
268
270 xv

o
.

I
 o
Michigan(Mich.)..
Minnesota(Minn.).
Mississippi (Miss).
......277
.....272
.....271
I
Missouri (Mo)..
Montana(Mont.).
.......274
......274 o
Nebraska (Neb)..
Nevada (Nev.)
NewHampshire(N.H)..
......275
.
........276
..276 I
NewJersey(N.J.)...
NewMexico (N.M.)..
NewYork(N.Y.)...
.....277
....278
... ..279
o
NorthCarotina(N.C.)..
NorthDakota(N.D.)..
.........283
...285
o
Ohio (ohio).
Oklahoma(Okla.).
Oregon(Or.)
.. ..285
......287
....288
t
Pennsylvanialna.)...
Rhodelsland(R.1.)...
SouthCarolina(S.C.)..
...289
...290
.........29I
o
SouthDakota(S.D.)..
Tennessee(Tenn.)..
...292
.....293
o
Texas0ex.).
Utah (Utah).
Vermont(Vt.) ...
....294
. ..297 o
Virginia(Va.)...
Washington(Wash.)
........298
.....300 O
WestVirginia(W.Va.).
Wisconsin(Wis.)..
Wyoming(Wyo.)..
...300
......301
......302
I
T1.4 OtherUnitedStatesjurisdictions. ........303
AmericanSamoa.
CanalZone
......303
.....303
o
Guam ..
NavaioNation.
.......
.........3O4
303
o
NorthernMarianalstands.
OklahomaNativeAmericans....
Puerto Rico.
.......3O4
........305 o
Table T2
Virginlslands
ForeignJurisdictions ...
...305
........3O7
o
12.7
T2.2
ArgentineRepublic.
Australia
........ 31.6
T2.2.7 AustralianStatesandTerritories.
.....3O7
......310 o
.....
12.3 Austria,Repubticof
T2.3.L AustrianLiinder..
T2.4 Belgium,Kingdomof .....
.......318
......323 o
......323
T2.5 Brazil,FederativeRepublicof..... .......328
T2.6 Canada . ... . ...332
o
T2.7 CathoticChurch. .......341
..341 I
xvl ..344
I
O
o 12.70 Colombia,Repubticof
T2.71, Czech Republic
Egypt, Arab Republic of
. ... 349
J)l
354

o
T2.1.2
12J,3 France, Repubtic of. . . . 356
T2.14 Germany, Federal Republic 362

a I z.t)
12.14.7 German Liinder
Greece
r2.76 Hong Kong
. J67
j68
370

o 12.t7 Hungary, Repubtic of .

12.78 India . . .
. 373
376

I T2.19 lran, lslamic Repubtic of

T2.20 lraq,Repubticof .....
T2.21, lreland (Eire), Repubtic of
379
382
384

o 12.22 lsraeI
12.23 Itaty, Repubtic of
T2.24 J4p4n........
387
390
393

o 12.25 Kenya . .

12.26 Lebanon, Republic of

402
404

t 12.27 Mexico
T2.28 Netherlands, Kingdom ofthe.
I z.z> New Zeatand
.
406
424
429

a r2.30 Nicaragua
T2.31, Nigeria .

1232 Pakistan, lslamic Republic of

434
436
439

o
... .

1233 Phitippines 441.

r234 Roman Law 444

o r235
12.36
Russian Federation
SouthAfrica.....
1237 SouthKorea.....
444
451.
454

o r238 Spain .
12.39 Sweden ..
. 457
460

o T2.40 Switzerland 464

T2.40.1 SwissCantons. ........468
T2.41 Taiwan, Republic of China ... . 469

o T2.42 UnitedKingdom
I2.42.I EnglandandWales
... ....472
.....480
T2.42.2 Northern lretand (and lreland Until 1'924)......... 485

o 12.42.3 Scotland
T2.43 Tambia,Republicof .....
......487
... 489

o TableT3
T3.1
T3.2
IntergovernmentalOrganizations. . . .
United Nations
League of Nations
.. 497
.. 497
.. 491
o T3.3
T3.4
Eurooean Union . .

European Commission of Human Rights .

.. 497
.. 492
.. 492
o T3.5
T3.5
T3.7
European Court of Human Rights.
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.
Inter-American Court of Human Rights.
.

. ..
..
492
493

o T3.8
T3.9
InternationalTribunal forthe Law of the Sea
Intergovernmental Organizations. ..
493
493

o 494
Table T4 Treaty Sources XVll

I
 a
T4.1
T4.2
T4.3
U.SSources
Offficiat .....494
lntergovernmentalTreatySources ........495
UnofficialTreatySources ........495
I
TableT5 ArbitralReporters ......495 O
T6
I
Tabte Case Names and lnstitutional Authors in Citations 496
TabteTT CourtNames ...498
TableTS ExplanatoryPhrases .... 500
TableT9 LegislativeDocuments.
TabteTr0 GeographicalTerms....
......... 501
........ 502
I
T10.1 U.S.States,Cities,andTerritories ........502
T10.2 Austratian States and Canadian Provinces and Territories. . . . 503
T10.3 Countries and regions
o
o
.. . 5O4

TableTll JudgesandOfficials. ....509

TableTr2 Months. .......510
TableTr3 Periodicals
TableTl4 PublishingTerms......
.....510
........517
o
TabteTl5 Services
TabteTl6 Subdivisions
..... .. 518
..522
o
I
.

Index
lndex .. ......525
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THE
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BLUEBOOK
A Uniform System of Citation'
a Twentieth Edition

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o Introduction

o Welcome to The Blueboo&, the delinitive style guide for legal citation in the
Llnitcd States. For generations, law students, lawyers, scholars, iudges, and other
legal professionals have relied on Tbe llluebook's uniform system of citation. In a

o diverse and rapidly changing legal profession, Tl:e Bluebook continucs to provide
a systematic mcthod by which members of the profession communicate impor-

o tant information about the sources and legal authorities upon which thcy rcly in
their work.

o
Tbe Bluebook can oftcn be intimidating for new users. This introduction is meant
to assist yru as you begin what will likely become a lifelong relationship with the
Blueboctk system of legal citation.

o Structure of The Bluebook

o The Bluebook contains three major parts. The lirst part contains the Bluepages,
a how-to guide for basic legal citation. tlnlike the remainder of Tbe Bluebook,

I which is clesigned in a style and at a lcvel of complcxity commensuratc with

the nceds of the law iournal publication process, the Bluepagcs provide casy-to-
comprehend guidance fbr the everyday citation needs of first-year law studcnts,

o sllmmer associates, law clerks, practicing lawyers, and other lcgal professionals.
The examples used throughout the Bluepages arc printed using simple typcface

o convcntions common in the legal profcssion.

The second part, printcd on white paper, is the heart of the Bluebook system
of citation: the rules of citation and style . This pan is subdivided into two main

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dards of citatkrn and style for use in all forms of legal writing. 'l'hc second section,

o consisting of rules 10 through 21, prescnts mles for citation of specific kinds of
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materials. Thc examples used throughout this part arc printed using typeface

O convcntions standard in law journal footnotcs.

The third part consists of a series of tables to be used in coniunction with the

o rules. Thc tables show, among other things, which authorit,v to cite and how to
abbreviate propedy. Individual tables arc refcrenced throughout the b<xrk. Finally,

o
there is a comprehensive indcx.

General Principles of Citation

o The cenral ftlnction ofa legal citation is to allow the relder to efliciently klcate
the cited source. Thns, the citation forms in The Bluebttok are designed to pr<>

o vidc the information necessary to lcad the reader directly to thc specific items
cited. Because of the ever-incrcasing mnge of authorities cited in legal writing, no

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cxplicitly discnsscd in this book, try to locate an analogous type of authority that
is discussed and use that citation form as a model. Always be sure to providc suf-

o ficient information to allow the reacler to find the cited material quickly and easily.

o
Getting Started o
The Bluepages provide the best place to begin your study of Tbe Bluebook ry*
tem of legal citation. Indeed, first-year legal writing professors may wish to rely
on the Bluepages as a teaching aid. The Bluepages provide only an abbreviated
o
introduction to Tbe Bluebook system, however, and do not contain answers to
more difficult citation questions. For this reason, the Bluepages contain references
o
to related rules and tables found in other parts of the The Bluebook.
o
I
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o
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,
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 nri; lr:

[-
o INTRODUCTION
The Bluepages are a guide for practitioners and law clerks to use when citing

o authority in non-academic legal documents. Please keep the following in mind:

Local Rules. Many courts have their own rules of citation that differ

a in some respects from The Bluebook. Make sure to abide by any

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I contained in Bluepages table BT2.

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you may substitute itol'cs wherever underscoring is used in the

o
Bluepages. The remainder of The Bluebook employs a more
complex array of typeface conventions, including ordinary roman
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a explained in Bluepages 82.

The Whitepages. Where the Bluepages and local court rules are

I silent regarding the citation of a particular document, you may use

the other rules in The Bluebook. referred to as the "Whitepages," to
supplement the Bluepages. Keep in mind the typeface differences

O between academic documents and non-academic leqal documents

as explained in Bluepages 82.

o The Elements of a Citation. Generally, a legal citation is composed

of three elements: (1 ) a signal; (2) the source or authority; and (3)

t parenthetical information. The Bluepages explore each of these

elements in detail.

Special Note for Law Students: The Bluebook is primarily written for two

o types of users: academics and practitioners. The Whitepages provide rules

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o Bluepages Tip: The Bluepages parallel the Whitepages in numbering and

content. You may use a Whitepage Rule to supplement a corresponding

I Bluepage Rule.

o Structure of Legal Citations B1

a Citation Sentences and Clauses

In non-academic legal documents, such as briefs and opinions, citations
81.1

I generally appear within the text of the document immediately following the
propositions they support. Footnotes should only be used in non-academic legal
documents when permitted or required by local court rules.
o 3
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 CHAPTER XVII
ARACHNIDA EMBOLOBRANCHIATA
(CONTINUED)—PODOGONA—
PHALANGIDEA = OPILIONES—HABITS—
STRUCTURE—CLASSIFICATION

Order VII. Podogona (Ricinulei).

Tracheate Arachnids with two-jointed chelate chelicerae and

prehensile pedipalpi. The tarsus of the third leg of the male bears a
copulatory organ.
In 1838 Guérin-Méneville[339]
described an Arachnid from West
Africa which he named
Cryptostemma westermannii. At
rare intervals occasional
specimens of allied forms have
been taken in the same region
until six species of Cryptostemma
have been established. In South
America, also, two unique
examples of very similar
creatures are the only known
representatives of the two species
of the allied genus Cryptocellus.
All the examples hitherto found
are of fair size (between ⅕ inch
and ½ inch in length), and bear
Fig. 228.—Cryptocellus simonis, × 4.
(After Hansen and Sörensen.) some general, though superficial,
resemblance to the Trogulidae,
which has led to their being
placed among the Phalangidea by almost all the Arachnologists who
have noticed them. Their claim to this systematic position, however,
is extremely doubtful, and Hansen and Sörensen, who have had the
opportunity of studying the group much more minutely than
previous writers, are of the opinion that they ought to constitute a
separate order of Arachnids, more nearly allied to the Pedipalpi than
to the Phalangidea. In this place it is only possible to indicate some
of their peculiar characteristics. Their integuments are particularly
hard and coriaceous. The cephalothorax is united to the abdomen by
a rather broad pedicle, but there is also a remarkable coupling
apparatus which makes the constriction between cephalothorax and
abdomen appear very slight. There is a movable anterior projection
of the cephalothorax, the “cucullus.” The two-jointed chelicerae
terminate in minute chelae, as also do the five-jointed pedipalps.
There are no spiracles on the abdomen, but two are situated on the
thorax above the coxae of the third pair of legs. Perhaps the most
remarkable fact is that, as in the Araneae, a modified limb is used by
the male for the fertilisation of the female; but in this case it is not
the tarsus of the pedipalp, but of the third leg of the male, which is
specially developed as an intromittent organ.
Ordinal rank is not universally accorded to the group, but
whatever its true position, the known forms fall under a single family
Cryptostemmatidae, including the two genera Cryptostemma and
Cryptocellus.

Order VIII. Phalangidea (Opiliones).

Tracheate Arachnids, with abdomen united to the cephalothorax

by its whole breadth. They are oviparous, and undergo no
metamorphosis. Abdomen always segmented. A pair of odoriferous
glands opening on the thorax. Two simple eyes; three-jointed
chelate chelicerae; pedipalpi not chelate. Spinning organs absent.
“Harvesters,” “Harvestmen,” or “Harvest-spiders,” as these
animals are popularly called, need never be confounded with true
Spiders if the absence of a constriction between the cephalothorax
and abdomen be noted. They are more difficult to distinguish from
Mites, members of which group have sometimes been described as
Phalangids. The Phalangid is, however, generally recognisable by its
segmented abdomen, and as a further point of distinction, it may be
noted that, whereas the anal orifice is always transverse or circular in
Phalangids, it is uniformly longitudinal in the Acarines.
 Members of this group vary
considerably in habit. The best
known forms are exceedingly
active, and trust to their speed in
endeavouring to escape from
danger, at the same time emitting
an odorous fluid from two
apertures situated just above the
coxae of the first pair of legs.
These active Harvestmen are only
found in the mature state at
certain seasons of the year, and
are believed, therefore, to live
only for a single season. Slow-
moving forms, like the
Nemastomatidae and the
Trogulidae, which live amidst
grass and herbage, have a much
longer duration of life. In danger
they remain perfectly still, and
trust to their earthy appearance
to escape observation. Fig. 229.—Oligolophus spinosus. (After
Pickard-Cambridge.)
They are stated to be extremely
thirsty animals, and have been
observed drinking from the dewdrops on herbage. It is probably on
this account that they are sometimes seen attacking juicy vegetable
matter, for without doubt they are essentially carnivorous. The larvae
of insects, young spiders, mites, and myriapods are their customary
food. It is not requisite that the prey should be alive, but they will not
touch anything mouldy.
Notwithstanding their apparently weak mouth-parts, they do not
merely suck the juices of their victims, but masticate and swallow
solid particles. Cannibalism is frequently observed among them.
The males fight fiercely with one another at the breeding time. The
females, with their long extrusible ovipositors, place groups of
twenty to forty eggs in small holes in the ground or under stones or
bark, unprotected by any form of cocoon. The eggs hatch into fully-
formed Phalangids, which are at first white, but attain their
coloration after the first moult. They subsequently moult from five to
nine times.
The distribution of this group is world-wide, and some of the
exotic species are very remarkable in form. Only twenty-four species
have as yet been recorded in this country.
External Structure.—In the Phalangidea there is no constriction
between the cephalothorax and the abdomen, and in the
Ischyropsalidae alone is the distinction between them readily
observable. This is due to the partial or complete fusion of the first
five segments of the abdomen with the carapace or cephalothoracic
shield in most species, these segments being indicated, if at all,
merely by faint striae or successive transverse rows of spines or
tubercles. In the forms possessing hard integuments (Gonyleptidae,
Nemastomatidae, Trogulidae) this fusion results in a dorsal
“scutum,” the component parts of which cannot easily be
distinguished.
The cephalothorax is often surmounted by a turret—usually
grooved dorsally, and beset on its edges with a spiny armature—on
the sides of which are the two simple eyes. The position and shape of
this turret and the arrangement of its spines are of importance in the
classification of the group.
In the Trogulidae the base of
the turret gives rise to a
remarkable, forwardly-directed,
bifurcate structure, furnished
with numerous strong tubular
bristles. This is called the “hood,”
and its hollowed-out under
surface forms a chamber, the
“camerostome,” in which lie the
basal joints of the pedipalpi.
In most European Phalangids
the under surface of the
cephalothorax is almost entirely
concealed by the forwardly-
Fig. 230.—Hood of Metopoctea. (After projecting portion of the
Simon.) abdomen bearing the generative
opening, and by the gnathobases,
not only of the pedipalpi, but of the first and sometimes of the
second legs. As in Spiders, however, there is always present a
“sternum” and generally a “labium.” The sternum is long and narrow
in the Mecostethi, and Cyphophthalmi, but in the Plagiostethi, which
include most of the forms found in temperate regions, it is very short
and transverse, and is hidden by the abdominal prolongation before
mentioned.
The anterior wall of the mouth
is formed by a beak-like plate, the
“epistome,” the basal portion of
which is covered externally by a
second plate, for which Simon[340]
proposes the name “pre-
epistome.” In some Phalangids
there are three little chitinous
plates, one median and two
lateral, on the clypeus, between
the anterior border of the
carapace and the insertion of the
chelicerae. They are best seen in
Nemastoma.
The abdomen always presents Fig. 231.—Mouth-parts of Phalangium.
A, B, C, Gnathobases of pedipalp and
evidences of segmentation, first and second legs; ch, chelicera; ep,
though there is a difference of epistome; lab, labium; m, mouth; ped,
opinion as to the number of pedipalp; pre.ep, pre-epistome; st,
segments of which it is composed. sternum, shown by the removal of the
This is due to the already anterior part of the genital process,
mentioned partial or complete which extends to the dotted line; 1, 2, 3,
fusion of the anterior segments 4, legs.
with the cephalothorax. From the
admirable researches of Hansen and Sörensen[341] it seems likely that
the normal number of abdominal segments is ten. Ventrally, the
abdomen is produced forward into a “sternal process” which is
capped by a genital plate, hardly distinguishable in the Phalangidae,
but readily visible in the other families, which surrounds and masks
the unpaired genital orifice. Two stigmata or breathing pores are
situated on the sides of the first ventral plate, which these authors
consider to be composed of two fused sternites.
 As in other Arachnids there are six pairs of appendages articulated
to the cephalothorax. They are the chelicerae, the pedipalpi, and the
four pairs of ambulatory legs.
The chelicerae are three-jointed and chelate, the second joint
having its inner portion produced into an apophysis to which the
final joint is apposed. In certain forms (Gonyleptidae, Ischyropsalis)
the chelicerae are remarkably long, and may considerably exceed the
total length of the trunk.
The pedipalpi are six-jointed, possessing coxa, trochanter, femur,
patella, tibia, and tarsus. They are leg-like and are never chelate, but
in some forms terminate in a single movable claw. The coxal joints
are provided with maxillary plates.
The legs are normally seven-jointed, as in Spiders, the penultimate
joint being the metatarsus. The tarsus is always multi-articulate, the
number of its joints being variable. It bears terminally one or two
simple claws. “False articulations” (where the parts are not inserted
one into the other, but are only marked off by a membranous ring)
are of frequent occurrence in the legs of these creatures. The first
legs, like the pedipalps, bear maxillary plates, as do also the second
in most Phalangids. The maxillae of the second legs are, however,
entirely absent in Nemastoma, and rudimentary in the Gonyleptidae
and the Ischyropsalidae. The coxae of the legs are all largely
developed, but are not capable of free motion, being soldered to, and
practically forming part of, the cephalothoracic floor. In some forms
they are only separated from one another by slight grooves. The
extreme length of the legs, and their hard and brittle nature, are
characteristic features of the Phalangids, though in some species
(Trogulidae) they are comparatively short. The first pair of legs are
always the shortest, and the second the longest.
The sexual organs of Phalangids are ordinarily concealed, and the
sexes can only be distinguished by certain very variable secondary
characters, the males being usually smaller of body and longer of leg
than the females, besides being more distinctly coloured and being
armed with more numerous and longer spines. Sometimes the male
chelicerae are highly characteristic.
Phalangids are usually destitute of spinning organs, but such have
been discovered, in a rudimentary state, in the Cyphophthalmi,
which are said to spin slight webs.
 Internal Structure.—In Phalangium the mouth leads upwards
into a membranous pharynx, wider than that of Spiders, but
narrowing into an oesophagus which passes between the cerebral
and thoracic ganglionic nerve-masses. It then turns backwards over
the thoracic ganglion, being slightly dilated at that point.
Immediately afterwards it dilates into a flask-like gastric sac which
occupies almost the whole width of the abdomen, and proceeds
straight to the anus. Viewed from above, the shape of this sac is
entirely concealed by the large number of caeca (thirty) to which it
gives rise dorsally and laterally. The two largest of these caeca
extend, parallel to each other, over the whole of the abdominal
portion of the gastric sac, and are flanked by four lateral pairs of
smaller caeca, while there is a cluster of small caeca covering the
anterior and narrower portion of the flask-like stomach.
The large hepatic mass so conspicuous on opening dorsally the
abdomen of a Spider is here entirely absent, but its functions are
believed to be performed by certain wrinkled, tubular, longitudinally
parallel bodies, about seven in number, closely applied to the under
surface of the flask.
The masticating portions of the maxillae of the pedipalpi and the
first pair of legs are hollow distensible sacs, often seen in a swollen
condition in specimens kept in spirits. They are furnished, on the
inner surface, with a horny ridge.
Owing to the fixity of the coxae of the legs, their maxillary plates
are incapable of much lateral motion, but are rubbed against each
other vertically.
Beyond the fact that the heart is a dorsal tube lying along the
anterior two-thirds of the alimentary canal, and divided by
constrictions into three well-marked and equal portions, little is
known of the blood-system of these animals. It is probably
essentially like that of Spiders, but the presence of a pericardial sac
has not yet been established, nor has the course of the blood-vessels
been described in detail.
As in other Arachnids, the principal ganglionic nerve-masses
closely embrace the oesophagus. Immediately anterior to it, forming
a conical mass with its base on the oesophagus, is the cerebral
ganglion, while just behind it is the transverse portion of the large
thoracic nerve-centre. In Phalangium opilio, according to Tulk,[342] a
median nerve is given off from the apex of the cerebral mass (the
paired nature of which is apparent) and bifurcates to the two eyes.
Two lateral nerves proceed to certain organs near the origin of the
second pair of legs, which were thought by the old writers to be
lateral eyes, but which are now known to be glands for the
manufacture of the odorous fluid which these animals can exude.
The thoracic ganglion expands,
on either side of the oesophagus,
into a mass which extends nearly
as far forward as the apex of the
cerebral ganglion. These lateral
masses give off nerves to the
appendages. From the back of the
transverse portion proceed three
nerves. The median nerve passes
above the generative organs, and
soon branches into two nerves
which presently swell out to form
ganglia of considerable size,
beyond which they soon join
again and give off an
anastomosing network of nerve-
fibres. The lateral nerves
immediately branch. The outer
Fig. 232.—Nervous and respiratory
systems of a Phalangid. Nerves black,
branch dilates into a ganglion
tracheae white. c.g, Cerebral ganglion; which supplies the external part
g′, g″, g‴, ganglia supplying viscera; of the generative organ. The inner
m.n, median abdominal nerve; oe, branch, which is longer, also
passage for oesophagus; st, stigma; forms a ganglion the nerves from
th.g, thoracic ganglion; tr, main trunk which are chiefly distributed to
of tracheae. the under surface of the
alimentary canal.
The respiratory organs consist of two large tracheal tubes with
numerous branches, having their external openings or “stigmata”
near the base of the fourth pair of legs. The two main tubes are
directed forwards, and are mainly concerned with supplying the
largely developed muscles of the legs. The distribution of branches to
the abdomen is comparatively feeble. The particular arrangement of
tubes in P. opilio, according to Tulk, may be seen in the
accompanying figure. There are a pair of coxal glands, of excretory
function, opening in the neighbourhood of the coxae of the third pair
of legs.
The Phalangidea are remarkable among Arachnids in the
possession of large protrusible external organs of generation. The
ovipositor of the female may be as long as the whole body of the
animal, and the intromittent organ of the male is of almost equal
length. The pedipalpi take no part in the fertilisation of the female,
which is accomplished directly.
The protrusible organs are concealed under the forwardly-
projecting anterior segment of the abdomen beneath, the genital
orifice being thus in many cases quite near the head region. The
internal sexual organs are not very complex. The ovary re-enters
upon itself, forming a ring, and from the point of re-entry a tube
proceeds towards the centre of the ring, dilating to form an ovisac. It
then narrows, turns forward, dilates once more into a second ovisac,
from which the oviduct proceeds to the base of the ovipositor. This is
a flattened organ, grooved on its upper surface and bifid at its
extremity. The testis of the male is a single sac-like gland, from either
end of which proceeds a vas deferens, which, after several
convolutions, unite into a sperm-sac which opens at the base of the
penis.
Partial hermaphroditism is a very frequent phenomenon among
the Phalangids, the testis often producing ova as well as
spermatozoa.
Though the males fight fiercely at the breeding time, the animals
for the most part live peacefully together. Henking[343] found that the
eggs of Liobunum, which were about half a millimetre in diameter,
were laid during October and hatched out in the following April.
Classification.—The Order Phalangidea is divided into three
Sub-orders: 1, Cyphophthalmi; 2, Mecostethi; 3, Plagiostethi.

Sub-Order 1. Cyphophthalmi

Phalangids with dorsal and ventral scutum, only the last

abdominal segment remaining free. Eyes two or absent. Maxillary
lobe on coxae of first pair of legs rudimentary. Sternum long and
narrow. Anterior segment of abdomen not projecting ventrally
beyond the coxae of the fourth pair. Odoriferous glands open on
prominences.
In 1875 Stecker published a description of a remarkable creature
which he said he had found in Bohemia, and which he named
Gibocellum sudeticum. Among other points it possessed four eyes
and four spinning mammillae, and it differed so much from other
Cyphophthalmi as to necessitate the foundation of a family,
Gibocellidae, for its reception. No one else appears to have seen the
animal, or any of Stecker’s preparations of it, and Hansen and
Sörensen[344] adduce grave reasons for believing that it never existed
at all. If this species is to be disallowed, the Cyphophthalmi all fall
into a single family.
Fam. Sironidae.—These
somewhat Mite-like Phalangids
are rarely met with, partly, no
doubt, because of their retiring
habits and small size, the known
forms ranging from 6 mm. to less
than 2 mm. in length. Of the
seven genera which have been
established, Stylocellus numbers
eight species from Borneo and
Sumatra, and Pettalus two
species from Ceylon. Ogovia,
Miopsalis, and Purcellia have one
species each, from South Africa,
Further India, and the Cape,
respectively. The only European
forms are the two species of Siro
(France and Austria), and
Parasiro corsicus. No species has
Fig. 233.—Parasiro corsicus, enlarged.
yet been found in England. (After Simon.)

Sub-Order 2. Mecostethi.[345]

(LANIATORES).
 Sternum long and narrow. Dorsal scutum leaving at least the last
three segments free. Openings of odoriferous glands not on
prominences. The fourth pair of legs usually long and powerful.
One terminal claw on each of the first two pairs of legs; two on the
last two pairs.
The Mecostethi are essentially tropical forms, though a few
representatives are found in the caves of Southern Europe. One
family (Phalangodidae) has its headquarters in the hot regions of the
Old World, while the other two (Cosmetidae, Gonyleptidae) are
confined to Central and South America.
Fam. 1. Phalangodidae.—Body piriform or triangular,
broadest behind. Last ventral segment of abdomen much the
largest. Very narrow sternum. Eye-turret near anterior border of
cephalothorax. Chelicerae narrow at base. Pedipalpi long and
strong. Maxillary plates on first pair of legs rudimentary. No
stigmata visible.
The only European forms of this family belong to the genus
Phalangodes. They all avoid the light, and are usually found in caves.
Simon[346] records six species found in France. A North American
species, P. armata, is entirely destitute of eyes.
The family has representatives in Australia and in tropical Africa
and Asia. Mermerus, Epidanus, Maracaudus, and Sitalces are some
of the exotic genera.
The other two families of this Sub-order—Fam. 2, Cosmetidae;
Fam. 3, Gonyleptidae—include a large number of species, some of
considerable size (up to an inch in length of body), found in Central
and South America.
Fig. 234.—Phalangodes terricola,
enlarged. (After Simon.)

Sub-Order 3. Plagiostethi.[347]
(PALPATORES.)

First abdominal segment produced forward ventrally to the level

of the first pair of legs, bringing the mouth and the genital opening
very near together. Sternum consequently much reduced. Pedipalpi
thin, with terminal claw absent or rudimentary. Terminal claws of
the legs single.
The Plagiostethi include most of the Harvestmen of temperate
regions, the most familiar examples of these creatures belonging to
the large family Phalangidae, and being much more in evidence than
the slow-moving and ground-living forms included in the other
families.
Fam. 1. Phalangiidae.—Eye-turret always far removed from
anterior border of cephalothorax. Second pair of legs with well-
marked maxillary lobes. Legs similar, without the false joint called
“trochantin.” Multiarticulate tarsi. Simple pedipalpi, with tarsus
much longer than tibia, and possessing terminal claw. Some have
soft, some coriaceous integuments.
The Phalangidae fall naturally into two groups or sub-families,
named by Simon Sclerosomatinae and Phalangiinae. The first
group consists of more or less coriaceous forms living among moss
and herbage. They are not very numerous, there being only about
twelve known European species divided among the three genera,
Sclerosoma, Mastobunus, and Astrobunus.
Two species of Sclerosoma are
found in England, S.
quadridentatum occurring not
uncommonly among moss or
under stones in various parts of
the country. Its back is studded
with wart-like tubercles, which
give it a characteristic
appearance.
The Phalangiinae are soft-
bodied Harvestmen, always with
long legs, which in the genus
Liobunum attain an inordinate
length. There are nine European
genera, Liobunum, Prosalpia, Fig. 235.—Sclerosoma
Gyas, Oligolophus, quadridentatum. (After Pickard-
Acantholophus, Phalangium, Cambridge.)
Dasylobus, Platybunus, and
Megabunus, comprising in all about fifty species. Five of these
genera are represented in England.
The familiar Phalangids, with small, almost spherical bodies and
ridiculously long legs, belong to the genus Liobunum, L. rotundum
being the common species. It is mature in autumn, when it may be
seen scampering at a great pace among the herbage. It very readily
parts with its limbs, and Pickard-Cambridge[348] relates that he once
“saw one running with very fair speed and facility, having lost all but
two legs, an anterior one on one side and a posterior one on the
other.”
The Harvestmen so frequently seen on walls belong, as a rule, to
the genus Phalangium. The best known example is Phalangium
opilio (the P. cornutum of Linnaeus), the male of which possesses a
remarkable development of the chelicerae.
The genus Oligolophus is well represented in this country, nine
species having been recorded. They do not differ greatly from
Phalangium, but have, as a rule, more massive bodies, and rather
stout, though tolerably long legs. The largest English Harvestman,
not rare under stones at Cambridge, is O. spinosus, whose body
measures half an inch in length. O. agrestis is perhaps the
commonest British Phalangid, and is abundant in woods and among
herbage, and on low trees.
Platybunus has two, and Megabunus one British representative.
They are of small size, and are to be sought for among heather or
dead leaves in spring or early summer.
Fam. 2. Ischyropsalidae.—Coriaceous Phalangids, with eye-
turret far removed from anterior border of cephalothorax.
Maxillary lobes of second pair of legs rudimentary, in the form of
tubercles. Legs similar, without “trochantin.” Multiarticulate tarsi.
Tarsus of pedipalp without claw, and shorter than metatarsus.
Pedipalps long and horizontal.
This family includes a small number of large or moderate-sized
Phalangids, which are found occasionally in thick moss, or in caves,
in mountainous regions of the south of Europe, and belong to the
genera Ischyropsalis and Sabacon. There is a North American genus,
Taracus.
 Fam. 3. Nemastomatidae.—
Coriaceous Phalangids, with
cephalothorax fused with the
first five segments of the
abdomen, forming a scutum.
Eye-turret near anterior border.
No maxillary lobe on second
coxae. Similar legs, without
“trochantin.” Multiarticulate
tarsi. Tarsus of pedipalp without
claw, and shorter than
metatarsus.
There is but one genus,
Nemastoma, in this family, and
the members of it are, as a rule,
rather small and dark Phalangids,
which live under stones or in
moss or débris, and are found in
the mature state at all seasons of
the year. There are about twenty
Fig. 236.—Oligolophus spinosus. (After
European species, but only two of
Pickard-Cambridge.) these, N. lugubre and N.
chrysomelas, have as yet been
found in Britain. N. lugubre is a
very common animal, and though it does not obtrude itself upon
public notice, its little black body with two pearly white spots must
be a familiar object to all insect collectors who have occasion to
search under stones or among moss in damp places. Its legs are short
and stout, but those of N. chrysomelas, which is a brighter coloured
Harvestman with spots of dull gold colour, are long and slender.
Fam. 4. Trogulidae.—Coriaceous and very hard integument.
Anterior part of cephalothorax produced into a bifurcate “hood.”
Often a “trochantin.”
The Trogulidae are very slow-moving Phalangids of moderate or
large size (a sixth to half an inch in body), found under stones or in
damp moss and débris. They are Mite-like in general appearance,
and may readily be distinguished from all other Harvestmen by the
presence of the “hood” (Fig. 230, p. 442), the hollowed-out under
surface of which forms a
chamber, called by Simon the
“camerostome,” in which lie the
basal portions of the pedipalps.
Only a single immature
specimen has been found in
England, belonging probably to
the species Trogulus tricarinatus.
It was found in Dorsetshire. Some
members of the family are not
uncommon in various regions of
the Continent. There are four
genera, Dicranolasma,
Anelasmocephalus,
Calathocratus, and Trogulus.
Two other genera, Amopaum and
Metopoctea, have been Fig. 237.—Nemastoma lugubre.
established, but the former is
probably the young of Dicranolasma and the latter of Trogulus.
According to the monograph on the British Phalangidea by the
Rev. O. Pickard-Cambridge, cited above, the following species have
been recorded in this country. They all fall under the sub-order
Plagiostethi:—
Fig. 238.—Trogulus aquaticus. a,
Hood. (After Simon.)

BRITISH PHALANGIDEA.

Phalangiidae.

Sclerosoma quadridentatum, Cuvier.

„ romanum, L. Koch.
Liobunum rotundum, Latr.
„ blackwallii, Meade.
Phalangium opilio, Linn.
„ parietinum, De Geer.
„ saxatile, C. L. Koch.
 „ minutum, Meade.
Platybunus corniger, Meade.
„ triangularis, Herbst.
Megabunus insignis, Meade.
Oligolophus morio, Fabr.
„ alpinus, Herbst.
„ cinerascens, C. L. Koch.
„ agrestis, Meade.
„ tridens, C. L. Koch.
„ palpinalis, Herbst.
„ ephippiatus, C. L. Koch.
„ spinosus, Bosc.

Nemastomatidae.

Nemastoma lugubre, Müller.

„ chrysomelas, Hermann.

Trogulidae.

Anelasmocephalus cambridgii, Westwood.

Trogulus tricarinatus, Linn.
 CHAPTER XVIII
ARACHNIDA EMBOLOBRANCHIATA
(CONTINUED)—ACARINA—HARVEST-BUGS
—PARASITIC MITES—TICKS—SPINNING
MITES—STRUCTURE—METAMORPHOSIS—
CLASSIFICATION

Order IX. Acarina (Acari, Acaridea).

Arachnids with unsegmented,[349] non-pediculated abdomen.

Respiration by tracheae, or by the general surface of the body.
Month parts suctorial, but frequently capable of biting or piercing.
Metamorphosis always observable.
The Acarina or Mites are remarkable not so much for the number
of their species, which is very considerable, as for the vast multitude
of individuals of the Order, which is far in excess of that of any other
Arachnid group. This fact is correlated with their minute size. Very
few Mites exceed half an inch in length, while very many are
microscopic creatures, often measuring less than the hundredth of
an inch. Taken all round, a millimetre may be considered a large size
for a Mite.
There is much variety of habit within the Order. All Mites live
principally on fluid nutriment, but it may be obtained from living
animals or plants or from decaying organic matter. Some are entirely
parasitic upon plants or animals; others attach themselves to
animals in their larval stage, but are free when adults; while others,
again, live an entirely independent and predaceous life.
The greater number of the Mites are too small to strike the eye.
Some of them have, however, contrived to attract attention, in no
very agreeable manner. Every one knows the Mite popularly called
the “Harvest-bug,” but to this day there is some uncertainty as to its
identity. It was described as a separate species under the name of
Leptus autumnalis, and Mégnin was the first to show that it was the
larval form of one of the Trombidiidae (see p. 472). Most authors
have considered it the larva of Trombidium holosericeum, but
Murray referred it to the genus Tetranychus. The difficulty is that
the minute creature cannot be removed from its victim without such
injury as to prevent it from being bred out and the mature form
determined. Brucker[350] has recently compared a large number of
“Harvest-bugs” taken from human beings with the figures and
descriptions of the larvae of certain Trombidiidae given by Henking
and Berlese, and he determined them as the larvae of T.
gynopterorum. Quite possibly, however, more than one genus is
concerned in the production of this pest.
That certain skin-diseases are due to Mites (Demodicidae,
Sarcoptidae) is a fact which is widely known. The fruit-grower, too,
has to take cognisance of the Order, for his trees may suffer from
“Red-spider” (Tetranychus telarius), and his black-currant bushes
fail under the attack of the “Gall-mite” (Eriophyes or Phytoptus
ribis). The curious swellings or galls which disfigure the leaves of
many trees are sometimes of insect origin, but they are often due to
Mites.
Domestic pets suffer greatly from Acarine parasites. A large
number of species confine their attention exclusively to the feathers
of birds (Analges, etc., see p. 466). One curious genus,
Syringophilus, is parasitic within the feathers, feeding upon the pith
of the quill. Heller of Kiel discovered them in 1879, but the
researches of Trouessart first showed their frequent presence and
very wide distribution. He found that they entered by the superior
umbilicus of the feather, and disappeared by the inferior umbilicus
when the feathers moulted or the infested bird died.
It is probable that the comparatively large Mites of the group
Ixodoidea (see p. 468), commonly called “Ticks,” are the most
widely known of the order. They attack wild and domestic animals
and man, and are nearly always acquired from vegetables, such as
brush or herbage. It would seem likely that many of these creatures
can never have the chance of attaching themselves to animals, and it
has been suggested that animal juices are a luxury but not a necessity
to them, and that they can live, if need be, on vegetable sap, but
further investigations have quite dispelled this view.
The suspected connection between the North American Tick,
Boophilus annulatus, and the cattle disease known as Texas fever or
“red water,” since clearly proved by the researches of Smith and