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RECORDING: AUDIO

2nd EDITION
 vii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express deep gratitude for my professional colleagues and students
over the years who have provided encouragement, insight, as well as all-important
corrections along the way. I feel truly privileged to be a part of the rich creative
environment that is Berklee College of Music, where new possibilities for the future
of music and recording are born each day. I would like to thank our colleagues and
heroes in the industry who have enriched our lives with their stellar recordings
and our creative environment as visiting artists at Berklee, including: Elliot
Scheiner, George Massenburg, Al Schmitt, Phil Ramone, Ken Scott, Michael
Brauer, Bob Ludwig, Don Was, Ed Cherney, Chuck Ainlay, Bob Clearmountain, Arif
Mardin (’68), Sir George Martin, Bruce Swedien, Tom Dowd, Russ Titelman, Barry
Eastmond, Tony Maserati (’86), Jimmy Douglass, Kevin Killen, Hugh Padgham,
David Kahne, Trina Shoemaker, Frank Filipetti, Roger Nichols, John Leventhal,
Daniel Lanois, David Hentschel, Ethan Johns, Wendy & Lisa, Sylvia Massy, Kyle
Lehning, Nathaniel Kunkel, Neal Pogue, John Storyk, Dave Way (’87), Kuk Harrel,
Tony Berg, T Bone Burnett, and countless others.
I would like to especially thank all of my colleagues in the Music Production
and Engineering Department whom I hold in the highest regard, in particular
MP&E Chair Rob Jaczko, with whom I have had the pleasure to further develop and
grow the MP&E program at Berklee; Andy Edelstein for his unswerving technical
eye and generosity in reviewing this text (any errors that remain are my own!);
Dr. Susan Rogers, for her invaluable feedback and shared expertise in the area of
psychoacoustics; Jonathan Wyner for his feedback on digital levels, metering, and
loudness normalization; Tom Plsek for additional insights on the topics of sound
and music acoustics; and each of my colleagues from whom I have learned an
immeasurable amount over the years, including: Carl Beatty, Mark Wessel, Leanne
Ungar, Stephen Webber, Mitch Benoff, Prince Charles Alexander, Enrique Gonzalez
Müller, Alejandro Rodriguez, Chad Blinman, Mike Abraham, John Whynot, Ted
Paduck, Richard Mendelson, Jim Donahue, Mike Denneen, Matthew Ellard, Sean
Slade, Marty Walsh, Dan Cantor, Jason Stokes, Tony Carbone, Mike Moss, Brad
Berger, Brian McKeever, Sean McLaughlin, Matt Beaudoin, Bill Gitt, Burt Price, and
the late Terry Becker and Robin Coxe-Yeldham.
viii acknowledgment

Finally, a special recognition to the late Ivan Tcherepnin and Luise Vosgerchian
at Harvard, who were formative in my own studies of music and music technology,
MP&E founder and visionary Wayne Wadhams, and to Don Puluse, David Moulton,
and Bill Scheniman, former chairs of Music Production and Engineering at Berklee,
each of whose presence is felt within these pages.

PREFACE
It has been over a decade since the original edition of this text was first published.
This revised second edition is long overdue. Obviously, a lot has happened in the
intervening time, as reflected in this update, both in audio and recording and in
the recording industry itself. Audio has moved significantly away from the physical
to the virtual, as well as from analog to digital, and these two are interwoven to
a much greater extent here, as they are naturally in every recording session. This
shift in focus has necessitated changing the order of some previous chapters, in
addition to adding new chapters looking more specifically at DAW signal flow,
digital interconnections, levels and metering, and digital control systems.
It is a funny business that we are in, this music business. Whether producers,
recording engineers, or recording musicians, our common bond is that we love
music, and we love recording music. We have come a long way from the days in
which audio engineers wore lab coats, and musicians were not allowed to enter
the control room. In part, we have artists like the Beatles to thank for that. By
insisting on being involved in the technical and creative aspects of the recording
and production process itself, and by applying to it their own musical and artistic
sensibilities, they, and countless other creative artists, producers, and engineers,
helped give birth to a process that is eminently creative on both sides of the glass.
Since then, we have seen the advent of digital recording, MIDI, the project
studio, hard-disk recording and the digital audio workstation (DAW), high-
resolution audio recording, desktop mixing and mastering, and Audio over IP
networking, audio streaming, and online distribution. These developments have
made music recording and dissemination accessible to all.
But in the process of jumping into the audio soup, we often take it upon ourselves
to know everything about everything related to making music—composition,
songwriting, arranging, production, acoustics, recording engineering, mixing and
mastering, and perhaps even marketing, sales, and distribution. In trying to do
the job of ten people, it is easy for us to lose some fundamentals along the way.
The intent of this book is to try to fill in some of those gaps in our understanding
of audio and the recording process. This is not a book about recording techniques,
per se; there are a number of good titles available. It is also not a book about circuit
design, architectural acoustics, or how to design, build, and operate your own
P reface ix

studio, integrating MIDI, DAWs, and synchronization for video postproduction.

However, if you plan to do any of these things, read this book first.
Understanding Audio explores the fundamentals of audio and acoustics that
impact every stage of the music-making process. Whether you are a musician
setting up your first Pro Tools project studio, or you are a seasoned professional
recording engineer or producer eager to find one volume that will fill in the gaps in
your understanding of audio, this book is for you.
The intent of this text is to give anyone interested or involved in audio and
recording a thorough understanding of the underlying principles of sound,
acoustics, psychoacoustics, and basic electronics, as well as recording studio,
console, and DAW signal flow. It is meant to be of use as a reference, but the topical
flow should also allow the reader to proceed straight through, from beginning to
end, and hopefully come out with a much deeper understanding of audio and how
it relates to sound and the recording process.
Recording, as both an art and a science, is somewhat disorienting in its very
nature. Anyone with experience both producing and engineering knows what
it is like to be constantly swapping hats, from art to technical and back again.
While traditionally the recording industry has afforded one the opportunity
to fully identify as either a creative type or a more technical type, the kind of
duality and fluidity just described is increasingly demanded of all participants.
Further, with the growing scarcity of technical staff and traditional recording
studio infrastructure, even the more technically minded recording practitioner
needs a broadened understanding of audio theory and the ability to both set up
and troubleshoot analog and digital recording setups and signal flow. This text
represents an attempt to bridge the gap—to make the technical aspects accessible
to the practitioner, and to give a practical context to keep the discussion from
remaining purely theoretical.
Do not be put off by any of the mathematical equations. They are included to
deepen your understanding of the concepts being discussed, and are thoroughly
explained and worked through to be accessible to even the uninitiated. We have
attempted, to the extent possible, to include graphical representations of each of the
concepts discussed. The old cliché “a picture is worth a thousand words” certainly
applies here, and the reader is strongly encouraged to take the time to understand
each picture or graph; within them is encapsulated a wealth of information.
We have also taken care to follow each topical discussion with practical studio
applications, as well as occasional end-of-chapter problems to work through for
additional reinforcement of concepts learned.
x acknowledgment

Where mathematical discussions are necessary, especially with respect to

the decibel, we have tried to give the reader enough background and additional
information to make the discussion accessible to all. Mathematics, as a language,
has the advantage of being extremely succinct while simultaneously being capable
of generalizing a truth to a broad range of possible situations. To take an extreme
view, Lord Kelvin once wrote that until you can explain something mathematically,
in numbers, your understanding of that concept is “of a meager and unsatisfactory
kind . . . [only] the beginning of knowledge.” Food for thought.
 1

CHAPTER 1

The Recording Studio:

A Brief History and
Overview
To better understand audio in the context of recording and the recording studio, we
must understand the process first. What is it that we are trying to accomplish? To
appreciate this fully, it is beneficial to look at how we have gotten to where we are
today. Technology and recording has always been a two-way street from the point
of view of development. The emergence of new technologies, such as multitrack
recording, MIDI, and digital audio workstations (DAWs), not only radically changes
the way we do things but also opens up new creative possibilities previously
unimagined. At the same time, the drive for new creative directions and for easier,
faster ways to do what we need to do often inspires and spawns new technologies.
Let’s take a brief look at how recording has evolved over the last century or so.

EARLY RECORDING
Recording through the 1920s
Throughout the latter part of the nineteenth and into the twentieth century,
recordings were made “direct to disc.” The storage/playback media were either wax
cylinders or shellac discs that were cut live, one at a time. These discs were then
played back on one form or another of phonograph (predecessors to the “modern”
turntable). The recording studio setup consisted of a room in which musicians
were arranged around a horn. This horn gathered sound and fed it acoustically
to a vibrating diaphragm and cutting stylus (figure 1.1). As the musicians played,
the disc or cylinder rotated, and a pattern corresponding to the acoustic pressure
changes of the original signal was cut into the wax or shellac. The cylinder could
then be loaded onto a phonograph with a lighter stylus (needle) and the process
reversed. The pattern on the cylinder caused the needle and diaphragm assembly
2 Chapter 1

to vibrate, and the resulting air pressure changes were acoustically amplified
by the horn. From beginning to end, this was a fully acoustic process, with no
electronics involved.

Horn
Horn
Live
Live Music
Music Stylus
Stylus
Cylinder
Cylinder

Edison
Edison

FIG. 1.1. Audio Recording Setup through the 1920s. By the turn of the century, the flat disc coexisted
with, and then eventually replaced, the cylinder.

Initially, making multiple copies required having several horn-loaded cutting

machines lined up and run simultaneously, as well as having the musicians play
the piece multiple times (each time resulting in a slightly different performance,
of course). Thus, one could say that the recording, mixing, mastering, and
manufacturing processes were all rolled into one; it all happened simultaneously
at the initial recording session. “Mixing” simply consisted of arranging the
musicians and instruments at varying distances (and heights) from the main
recording horn(s).
Further development of Emile Berliner’s flat disc as well as Thomas Edison’s
cylinder eventually allowed for the manufacture of multiple copies from the one
master. The flat disc would win out commercially in the 1910s.
The Recording Studio: A Brief Histor y and Over view 3

Mid 1920s to 1950

With the development of the vacuum tube amplifier and the condenser microphone
in the 1920s came a new setup, shifting away from a purely acoustical recording
process to an electrical one. The microphone could transduce (convert one form
of energy into another) the acoustical vibrations of the source into an alternating
electrical current. This current would then feed a drive amp and a cutting stylus
(figure 1.2). The development of the moving coil loudspeaker allowed for the
playback process also to be electrified.

Mics
Mics Preamps
Preamps Levels
Levels Drive Amp Level
Drive Amp Level Cutting
Cutting Stylus
Stylus

FIG. 1.2. Audio Recording Setup through the 1940s. Mics feed individual preamps and level controls,
which collectively feed a drive amp and cutting stylus. Still direct-to-disc and mono.

Before long, driven by both radio and film industries, working in the electrical
realm would allow for the possibility of having a setup that included multiple
microphones, each accenting a different portion of the ensemble, each feeding its
own dedicated preamplifier and associated circuitry, and collectively feeding the
drive amp and cutting stylus. This development in turn gave rise to the need for,
or usefulness of, one device or platform that might group together all level controls
and switches—namely, the mixer or recording console (figure 1.3). It also gave rise
to the development of a two-room studio setup: the studio where the musicians
and mics are set up, and the control room where the engineer and producer can
monitor the performance through the console and speakers under more critical
listening conditions. Note that in the late 1940s, magnetic tape recording took hold
in the United States and began to be used initially as a safety backup to direct-to-
disc recording, and as the standard for prerecorded radio broadcast. During this
same time period, the ribbon microphone became standard in both broadcast and
studio recording.
4 Chapter 1

STUDIO

Mics

Preamps/Amps
Speaker

(Glass)

Amp
CONTROL ROOM
Cutting Lathe
(Channel Levels)
(Master
Level)

Drive
Amp

(Channel On/Off switches)

Console
(Passive)

Tape Machine

FIG. 1.3. Audio Recording Setup through the Early 1950s. Mics feed preamps and amps through a
passive console with level controls (stepped resistor networks) and cutting lathe direct to disc
(and/or tape after 1946).

The 1950s
Up through the early 1950s, the console typically consisted of a small black
tabletop box, with initially just four large rotary knobs (with level markings 1 to
10) for respective input levels, one larger knob for overall level, and a few switches.
The tube amplifiers for each channel were located in separate racks accessible via
a patch bay. These amps would eventually be integrated into the console, as in the
radio-style “consolette” of the late 1930s. Equalization (EQ) originally consisted of
self-contained plug-in cassettes (the original plug-in!) made up of passive resistors
tailored to specific microphones. Rather than being used for creative purposes,
they were meant to flatten out the frequency peaks and roll-offs inherent in the
sonic characteristics of specific microphones. These equalizations would result in
The Recording Studio: A Brief Histor y and Over view 5

a signal “more equal” to the original sound source being captured. Eventually, EQ
would also make it into the console as a series of stepped switches that could be
manipulated as desired.
Magnetic tape recording had arrived in earnest after the war (W WII) and
coexisted with direct-to-disc recording for about a decade, sometimes playing the
role of backup for the main disc master. The great advantage of tape, of course,
was that it could be rerecorded as well as edited. Thus, the best segments of several
performances could be cut together and presented as a single performance, a feature
that alone ensured the demise of direct-to-disc recording. This editing practice
remains with us to this day, even for classical music recording, which we often think
of as representing a live unedited performance. This is, in fact, rarely the case.
Artificial reverb was generally added to the final tape rather than to individual
signals, and was in the form of an acoustical echo chamber. (Both “echo” and
“chamber” are words that linger today on some consoles and patch bays to designate
reverb.) The signal from the original tape was sent to the chamber via speaker
lines, and allowed to reverberate in the chamber. The result was captured using
a microphone(s), and recorded onto the final tape or disc. Before long, because of
its increased fidelity, decreased surface noise, and ease of editing (not to mention
rerecordability), magnetic tape recording replaced direct-to-disc altogether. The
1950s also saw the widespread adoption of “exotic” tube condenser mics, including
the Neumann U47, AKG C12, and Telefunken ELA M 250/251, leading to greatly
improved fidelity and detail in recording. Artificial mechanical plate and spring
reverbs also came to light in the late 1950s.

Late 1950s to 1980: Stereo and Multitracking

With the advent of stereo recording in the late 1950s came the need for ganged
(stereo) faders and equalizers, and of course, stepped pan pots (panoramic
potentiometers), which direct a signal towards the left or right channel. These
last—consisting of two level controls (resistors) ganged in inverse proportion
(as one level is increased the other decreases proportionally)—were employed
mainly to direct individual spot mics, placed to enhance instrument groups
within orchestral ensembles, to coincide with their physical placement within the
stereo field. Toward the end of the previous decade, legendary musician and audio
pioneer Les Paul had conceived of recording using more than one disc cutter to
“bounce” back and forth while adding musical parts, giving rise in the 1950s to the
practice of overdubbing or “sound on sound”—recording new parts to coincide
with and enhance previously recorded tracks (as heard in Les Paul’s classic 1950s
recordings with Mary Ford)—as well as “bouncing.” With the advent of 3-track and
then 4-track analog magnetic tape recording (again Les Paul led the field here with
6 Chapter 1

a prototype 8-track recorder!) came the need for selective synchronization, or sel
sync, to be able to monitor previously recorded tracks off of the record head, thus
maintaining time synchronization with any newly added live tracks.
The birth of this new technology and approach to recording also marks the
beginnings of the modern recording studio, as well as the concept of recording
as a creative art form, rather than pure documentation of a live event. With the
widespread adoption of 4-track analog tape recording in the 1960s (with 8-tracks
soon to follow), a whole new approach to music production was born, as evidenced
in the Beatles classic Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, a seminal album
whose intricate and creative production was astoundingly all done using 4-track
recording. Monitoring was typically accomplished using four speakers, tracks 3
and 4 being sent to the inner pair of speakers. The possibility of sending more than
one input signal to a given track necessitated the use of combining networks, or
busses, which allowed the operator to combine input signals and assign them to
a given destination track. Busses were also now used to send signals from each
channel via individual level controls to the reverb chamber or device, the output
of which returned to the console and could be mixed in with the final 2-track
(stereo) mix.
Because of overdubbing, it also became necessary for the musician in the
studio to hear what had previously been recorded so as to know when and what
to play. This necessitated the inclusion of a “foldback ” or cue system, which
generally consisted of an on/off switch on each channel (including the reverb
return channel). This switch allowed that channel’s signal to be sent back into the
studio for the musician(s) to hear. At this point, level controls were also gradually
moving away from stepped rotary pots (circular knobs) and towards linear faders
and continuously variable resistor rotary pots. The emergence of the transistor as a
much smaller (and cooler-running!) alternative to the tube for amplification made
it easier for the console to include all level or gain stages internally, first in cassette
plug-in form, and ultimately in either discrete or integrated circuit (IC) chip form.
Few consoles exist with all tube rather than transistor stages.
With the advent of 8-track analog tape recording, and given the implausibility
of using eight speakers, it was found that virtually any position could be reproduced
using just two speakers through phantom imaging.1 It is really at this point that
the modern studio setup and recording console were born in earnest (figure 1.4).
We see the emergence of the monitor mix path for the return of tape track outputs.
Here, every level control, mute, and solo of the record path is duplicated in a path

1 T
 hrough psychoacoustics, a sound reaching both ears simultaneously (from two equidistant loudspeakers,
for instance) will be perceived by the listener as emanating from a phantom source directly in front of the
listener, in between the two speakers. This is the principle upon which two-speaker stereo playback is
based. More on this in a later chapter.
The Recording Studio: A Brief Histor y and Over view 7

independent of the recording, for the sole purpose of creating a preview mix for
the producer or engineer. This development allows for significant experimental
manipulation during the recording session without disturbing the actual recording
to multitrack. At this point, equalization also became available in both the record
and the monitor path, as did reverb. Foldback switches became cue mix rotary
controls, and as tracks multiplied so did the complexity of the cue mix system.
And just like that, glossing over a few developmental details along the way, and
followed by further (and ever-increasing) proliferation of track counts, the gradual
substitution of analog in favor of digital recording beginning in the late 1980s, and
the move to fully-computer-based recording and digital signal processing systems,
we arrive at the modern-era recording studio.

STUDIO
Mics

(Glass)
Preamp/ Fold-Back (Cues)
Amp
Levels Cue Sends

Track Reverb Return

Assign
Reverb Sends
EQ EQ EQ EQ EQ EQ EQ

Mute/
Solo

Speaker(s)

Record Monitor Master

Levels Levels Level

Mono/Stereo
CONTROL ROOM Master Tape Machine

MULTITRACK

FIG. 1.4. The Emergence of the Modern Studio in the 1960s

8 Chapter 1

THE MODERN-ERA (POST-1960s) RECORDING STUDIO

Figure 1.5 shows what a multitrack recording session setup might look like in a
modern-era studio. The console or desk is the heart of the studio. Through it, all
signals pass to be properly balanced, processed, and routed to the appropriate
destination. It also provides a means of communication between the studio and
the control room. The engineer or producer can communicate with the musicians
in the studio via a talkback mic or engineer’s mic on the console. This mic is
routed either through the musicians’ cues (headphones) or to the studio speakers.
A communication or “com” mic (or several) is also set up in the studio and routed
through the console to the control room speakers to allow the musicians to talk to
the engineer or producer.

Multitrack 2-Track
Bass
Amp
Mic Input
Drums Patch Panel

Outboard Gear
Gobos

Console
Glass

Gobos Iso Booth

Guitar
Studio Amp Control Room

FIG. 1.5. Modern-Era Recording Studio Layout (Post 1960s)

Instruments can be acoustically isolated from one another using either isolation
(“iso”) booths or movable barriers called baffles or gobos. Microphones positioned
on individual instruments in the studio are patched into mic input patch panels,
which are connected by cables running through the wall, to the mic inputs on the
console. Within the console, each low-level mic signal is boosted to a usable line
level by a mic preamplifier. The signals can then be processed as needed using
equalizers or “EQs” to adjust tone or “timbre,” compressors for dynamic level control
and/or “punch,” and faders and pan pots, respectively used for level balancing
and stereo (or surround) placement or “imaging.” These effects can be part of the
console itself, or they can be accessed along with artificial reverberation, delay,
and other effects, as outboard gear via a patch bay.
The Recording Studio: A Brief Histor y and Over view 9

Beginning in the 1990s with the advent of digital audio workstations or DAWs
(computer-based hard disk recording and mixing systems such as Pro Tools),
signal processing could increasingly be done within the DAW environment, using
computer-based software plug-ins as part of the DAW workflow. While most large-
scale professional projects will typically use a combination of traditional and
DAW workflows, in more modest setups such as home or smaller project studios,
all recording, signal processing, and mixing might occur “inside the box.” A
small-format mixer or DAW control surface might also replace the console, with
a computer interface and/or monitor controller taking up the task of the console’s
monitoring and cue functions, if in somewhat more limited fashion.
The primary destination for signals is typically individual tracks of the
multitrack recorder, again most commonly a computer-based DAW. (These
recorders can also take the form of traditional analog reel-to-reel tape machines
as pictured in figure 1.5, for either multitrack recording or 2-track stereo mixdown,
though their use has become increasingly rare and specialized.) In addition, the
main stereo output signal from the console or mixer feeds power amplifiers that
boost the signal level enough to drive the control room speakers or monitors. In the
case of self-powered monitors, these amplifiers are built in to the speaker cabinets
themselves.

BASIC RECORDING STUDIO SIGNAL FLOW

A basic global studio signal flow is shown in figure 1.6. Input signals are grouped
and routed to the multitrack via the track busses, where bus 1 out is normalled to
track 1 in, bus 2 to track 2, etc. A bus is a signal path where audio signals can be
combined and jointly routed to a particular destination. A normal is a connection
that has been set up between an audio source and destination such that it does not
require repeated patching. The outputs of the multitrack are normalled back to the
line-level inputs of the console. The main stereo output of the console is normalled
to the control room outputs (speakers), and back to a stereo track of the DAW, or
possibly to a dedicated 2-track machine (as pictured). The specifics of the signal
flow will depend on the type of session occurring. Recording studio sessions will
tend to break down into four general categories: basics, overdubs, mixdown, and
live-to-2. Mastering, which represents the final stage of the production process, is
typically done in a dedicated mastering studio specializing in this type of work.
10 Chapter 1

Multitrack

(Multitrack
Busses)

(Mic
Inputs)

Console
(Control Room Outputs)

(Tape (Stereo Bus)

Returns)

Outboard Effects

2-Track

FIG. 1.6. Basic Modern-Era Recording Studio Flow. Inputs are routed to the multitrack via the track
busses, track outputs are normalled to the line inputs of the console, and the main stereo bus feeds the
control room outputs to the speakers (and may be normalled to the inputs of a 2-track.)

The most straightforward of these sessions is the live-to-2 (figure 1.7). This type
of session is reminiscent of pre-multitrack productions of the ’40s, ’50s, and ’60s,
and is also applicable to the production of a live performance or live broadcast.
Essentially, all musicians are in the studio at the same time, microphones are routed
directly to the main stereo mix bus, and the music is recorded to the stereo master
track live, as it happens (hence the term “live-to-2”). All level adjustments, effects,
and other production decisions are made in real time. Figure 1.7 shows the basic
flow for a live-to-2 session. The idea is to make the flow as direct as possible from
source to stereo master, as if it were a mixdown session. The difference is that the
source signals are coming from live microphones rather than prerecorded tracks.
The Recording Studio: A Brief Histor y and Over view 11

2-TRACK
(Mic
Inputs)

(Stereo Bus)
Console

Control Room
Monitors

Outboard Effects

FIG. 1.7. “Live-to-2” Session Signal Flow. Mics are the source, stereo master track and monitors are the
destination.

The advantage of this type of session is that it tends to be very time-efficient,

has a definite immediacy, and captures the natural and spontaneous interaction
between the musicians that is sometimes lost in the course of lengthy isolated
overdubs. The downside is that decisions made about sounds, effects, and levels,
cannot easily be changed. A common alternative, live-to-multitrack, overcomes
this limitation, as it allows for later mixdown (and even potential overdubs), and
is probably the most typical recording situation for jazz as well as classical music.
Most live concerts, when recorded, are also captured in this fashion.
A basics session (figure 1.8) is the initial recording session in a traditional
multitrack production project where the basic rhythm section (drums, bass, and
perhaps guitar or piano) might be recorded. In this case, our source is still the
microphone, but our destination is now the multitrack (as well as the control room
speakers, so that we can hear what we are doing). Individual microphones are
routed to individual tracks or can be subgrouped via busses to individual tracks or
pairs of tracks. Some console and outboard processing such as EQ or compression
may be recorded at this point, or may be included in the monitor mix only, along
with reverb or delay, as a preview. In the case of the DAW environment, software
plug-in effects at this stage are typically preview (monitor) only.
12 Chapter 1

Multitrack

(Multitrack
Busses)
(Mic
Inputs)

Console

(Control Room Outputs)

Outboard Effects

FIG. 1.8. “Basics” Session Signal Flow. Source is mics; destination is multitrack (and monitors).

The overdub session(s) occurs once the basics sessions are completed. Tracks
are typically added one by one, in isolation, to fill out and complete the production.
In this case, we have two different sources. On one hand, we have the live mic
(or alternatively, a line input) for the signal currently being recorded; on the other
hand, we have the previously recorded tracks, which must be monitored and
performed to. We also have two different destinations: the live mic is routed to
the multitrack to be recorded (and control room monitors to be heard), while the
previously recorded tracks are arranged in a rough mix, along with the current
track, to be sent to the control room monitors, as well as to headphones for the
musician(s) via a cue mix. The principal flow for an overdub session is shown in
figure 1.9.
The Recording Studio: A Brief Histor y and Over view 13

Multitrack

(Multitrack
Busses)
(Mic/Line Input)

Console

(Previously
Cues
Recorded
Tracks)

Outboard Effects
Control Room
Monitors

FIG. 1.9. “Overdub” Session Signal Flow. Sources are mic(s) and previously recorded tracks, destination
is multitrack for the mic only (and monitors) as well as headphone mix (cues).

The mixdown session occurs once all material has been recorded (hopefully!).
The source is the multitrack; the final destination is the stereo mix track, most
typically a designated stereo track within the multitrack DAW session, or possibly
a dedicated half-inch or quarter-inch analog reel-to-reel machine (as pictured
in figure 1.10). At this point, final effects are included and will be recorded as
part of the final mix to the stereo master. Several passes may be performed with
minor alterations, such as vocal slightly up (louder) and vocal slightly down, or
an instrumental version without vocals. Additional editing may follow to create a
composite or “comp” mix using favorite sections from the various “passes,” as well
as a shorter “radio edit” version, etc. The principal mixdown session signal flow
is shown in figure 1.10. In the case of an “in-the-box” mix, the signal flow is similar,
but may be entirely contained within the DAW environment, up to the stereo mix
monitoring (figure 1.11).
14 Chapter 1

2-TRACK

Multitrack
(Previously
Recorded
Tracks) (Stereo
Bus)

Console

Control Room
Outboard Effects Monitors

FIG. 1.10. Mixdown Session Signal Flow. Source is multitrack, destination is 2-track master recorder
(generally DAW, or possibly ½-inch reel-to-reel analog tape) as well as control room monitors. All signal
processing effects are finally captured along with the mix.

The mastering session, which generally occurs in a studio specializing in

this type of work, consists of taking all of the final 2-track stereo mixes for the
entire project (or multi-channel mixes, in the case of surround-sound masters),
and making global sonic refinements, including EQ, compression/limiting, level
matching, and song sequencing and timing. Mastering is most commonly done
using a dedicated mastering DAW. The stereo mixdown master tracks are imported
into the mastering DAW; any analog mixdown master tapes are transferred onto
hard disk through a mastering-grade hardware analog-to-digital (A/D) converter
or ADC, possibly preceded by choice analog processing, such as EQ and
compression/limiting. The tracks are then manipulated in the digital domain (or
depending on the style and sound desired, using a combination of analog and
digital signal processing), edited, sequenced, and finally saved as a master stereo
mix file. This file can then be uploaded for duplication, most commonly in the
form of a Disc Description Protocol (DDP) file, which contains not only the audio
files but also the metadata describing the audio (track names, durations, etc.).
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 “His plea for tolerance is marked by intolerance, for good-nature
with ungenerosity in weighing the motives of others, for
nonpartisanship and detachment with evident animus and one-sided
advocacy rather than fairness and breadth of vision. Hence the value
of the work as a critique of American liberalism is very seriously
impaired for the general reader and the serious student.” C. E.
Merriam

− Am Pol Sci R 14:511 Ag ’20 520w

“While one cannot altogether agree with the conclusions of the

author of this extremely readable exposition of liberalism, the
arguments are in most cases clear, and fairly presented.”

+ − Bookm 52:173 O ’20 200w

“But for all the flat contradictions with which the book seems to
abound, it is interesting for the variety of subjects of current interest
it touches notwithstanding the author does not seem to have
completely assimilated these—as, indeed, who has? One thing that
can be said about the book in general is that it is liberal.” W. A. M.

− + Boston Transcript p6 F 25 ’20 800w

“Herein lies the fundamental weakness of the discussion. One

gathers no clearly defined impression of what liberalism is or expects
to do, and who are the liberals. Mr Stearns writes impassionately and
with a refreshing verve that carries the reader headlong with him.”

+ − Cath World 111:254 My ’20 340w

Ind 102:234 My 8 ’20 170w
 “One inclines to a wish that the writer had brought to his task a
little more sympathy, a little more humility, and a great deal more
information, and the wish becomes very strong when one reaches his
discussion of Mr Wilson. In a considered estimate by a liberal
thinker one looks for a fair and balanced examination of causes and
results. Mr Stearns simplifies the president’s problems so that any
departmental clerk might have overcome them. He imputes low
motives without the least apparent justification.” Jacob Zeitlin

− Nation 110:238 F 21 ’20 850w

“The book is of great value. Its analysis of American tendencies is

more balanced and inclusive than any contemporary work upon the
subject.” C. W.

+ N Y Call p6 Ja 9 ’21 230w

Reviewed by W. J. Ghent

− Review 2:229 Mr 6 ’20 1150w

R of Rs 61:336 Mr ’20 50w

“It is no engaging picture of our American war mind that Mr

Stearns paints, and twenty months ago it would have been hotly
resented by the great majority of our people. That the average man of
intelligence is likely to find himself mainly in agreement with it now
(although he may hesitate to admit the fact, even to himself) is the
best evidence that the picture is essentially true.” F: A. Ogg

+ Survey 44:308 My 29 ’20 350w

 “As a volume of broad discussions, enriched by much reflection on
books and events, and by brilliant insight into motives, this book is a
success. Yet as an ordered analysis of the basic problem of liberty the
book fails, and its chief value will be lost unless it becomes the
starting point of a much needed discussion.” G: Soule

+ − Yale R n s 10:197 O ’20 500w

STEBBING, EDWARD PERCY. Diary of a

sportsman naturalist in India. il *$5 Lane 799

20–22627

This diary is published with a purpose. The author says: “The

sporting anecdotes and material selected from my note-books, which
form the greater part of the book, are designed to lead up to and
emphasize the necessity which exists of affording an adequate
protection to the game and other animals of India.” (Preface) The
book is in two parts: Sport in the big game jungles of India; and
Game protection and the provision of sanctuaries for the
preservation of the Indian fauna. There are illustrations from
photographs and sketches by the author and others.

“He describes his experiences fairly graphically, although, after a

few pages, we have too much confidence in his shooting to be
seriously alarmed for him.”

+ − Ath p473 O 8 ’20 260w

“There is a chapter on ‘Jungle lore,’ and several real tiger stories

that outdo most of those common to fiction. All the photographs are
very good, and the little pen and ink drawings, which are the
productions of five different persons, while not equal to Mr Seton’s,
carry their own individuality, and give new life to the already
entertaining text.”

+ Boston Transcript p2 D 11 ’20 210w

“A most interesting collection of reminiscences. His tiger stories

are capital.”

+ Spec 124:245 Ag 21 ’20 250w

“As a faithful account of conditions as they have been during the

last quarter of a century, Mr Stebbing’s book is likely to have a
definite and permanent value; and he knows well how to entertain as
well as to instruct.”

+ The Times [London] Lit Sup p497 Ag 5

’20 750w

STEELE, DAVID MCCONNELL. Papers and

essays for churchmen; being a series of studies on
topics made timely by current events. *$1.50 (2½c)
Jacobs 204

20–1134

The only unity that the author claims for this collection of papers is
that “they were all written to be read either to or by churchmen.”
(Foreword) The author’s mental tenor is conservative and his
thinking along the lines of his convictions is vigorous. He holds that
the war has dispelled the mist of immoral emotionalism that had
begun to envelop the churches, a form of this emotionalism being the
literal interpretation of “Love thy neighbor as thyself.” He repudiates
woman’s suffrage as wholly bad, hurls anathema against labor
organisations and socialism and advises that the poor, as the
“economically sick,” are properly the charges, not of the church, but
of the state. The contents are: Effect of the war on religion; Wanted,
an American Sunday; Woman suffrage and religion; Men’s clubs and
the churches; The poor, with you always; The church and labor
agitation; Socialism—Christian and pagan; Revelation—final or
progressive; The Episcopal church; Change of name of the church;
Proportionate representation.

[2]
STEELE, HARWOOD ELMES ROBERT.
Canadians in France, 1915–1918: with 8 sketch maps.
il *$8 Dutton 940.371

(Eng ed 20–10382)

“A detailed history of the operations of the Canadian Army corps,

consisting of four divisions and ‘corps troops.’ In writing this account
Captain Steele is describing in the main events that occurred under
his own observation in 1915 to the close of the war in 1918.”—R of Rs

“Captain Steele has the gift of clear, straightforward description;

and there is little to be desired in the succinctness and clarity with
which he etches in a number of Homeric incidents.”

+ Ath p816 Je 18 ’20 80w

 + Boston Transcript p8 D 1 ’20 420w
R of Rs 62:671 D ’20 60w

“Captain Steele’s book is admirably written and full of vivid detail.”

+ Spec 124:49 Jl 10 ’20 200w

STEINER, RUDOLF. Four mystery plays. 2v *$3

Putnam 832

20–6848

H. Collison, one of the translators of these plays, describes them as

representing “the psychic development of man up to the moment
when he is able to pierce the veil and see into the beyond.” (Introd.)
They embody the author’s occult philosophy and form one
continuous series. The characters are represented on their physical
as well as on their spiritual plane and include many types—the occult
leader, the seeress, the artist, scientist, philosopher, historian,
mystic, and man of the world, also the forces of evil in Lucifer and
Ahriman. Collaborators with the translator are S. M. K. Gandell and
R. T. Gladstone. The plays are: The portal of initiation; The soul’s
probation; The guardian of the threshold; The soul’s awakening.

“‘Four mystery plays’ will doubtless command the attention of the

author’s disciples, but they are too formidable to win the interest of
the average outsider. The blank verse translation is adequate, but
hardly inspired.”
 + − Dial 69:321 S ’20 70w

“The only advantage gained by the play form is, perhaps, a little
simplicity in the treatment of very abstract subjects.”

− + Springf’d Republican p7a N 28 ’20 180w

The Times [London] Lit Sup p780 N 25
’20 110w

[2]
STEPHENS, JAMES. Irish fairy tales. il *$5
(6½) Macmillan

20–21207

The first of these ancient folk-tales tells of the subduing of Tuan

mac Cairill, the powerful heathen, by Finnian, the Abbott of Moville.
Finnian lays siege to Tuan’s stronghold by seating himself before its
gates and fasting. Heathen etiquette forbade the attack of a
defenceless man and heathen hospitality a man’s starving before the
gates. So Finnian is admitted and at once proceeds to convert Tuan.
Thereupon Tuan, the grandson of Noah, tells his story which dates
back to the beginning of time in Ireland and is wonderful indeed. The
other tales are: The boyhood of Fionn; The birth of Bran; Oisin’s
mother; The wooing of Becfola; The little brawl at Allen; The Carl of
the drab coat; The enchanted cave of Cesh Corran; Becuma of the
white skin; Mongan’s frenzy. The full page illustrations in color and
the chapter vignettes are by Arthur Rackham.
 “This book is written by a man who has a touch a little beyond
talent.” R. E. Roberts

+ Ath sup p783 D 3 ’20 180w

+ Booklist 17:164 Ja ’21

“It is unfortunate that in the arrangement of his book he does not

give greater heed to the various cycles in which nearly all Irish stories
belong. But lack of unity is almost the only adverse criticism that can
be brought against the book. Mr Stephens has re-told Irish legends in
a volume that should take a permanent place in literature.” N. J.
O’Conor

+ − Boston Transcript p3 D 18 ’20 1350w

“James Stephens’ writing has the gift of everlasting youth. Arthur

Rackham’s drawings have inherent magic. Wherefore the two are
fortunately met in a new book, primarily for children, but also full of
appeal to grown-ups with a sense of humor.”

+ Ind 103:442 D 25 ’20 90w

“Though some of the stories as told by Mr Stephens appear to be

more in the nature of historic legends rather than fairy tales, the
collection provides good reading in which humour of a subtle kind
abounds.”

+ Int Studio 72:206 Ja ’21 60w

“There is enough of the hard line of beauty in his work to make one
rejoice in its amplitude.” F. H.
 + New Repub 25:111 D 22 ’20 1700w

“Humor shines, here, riots in wild fancy, extravagance rides by the

side of beauty.” Hildegarde Hawthorne

+ N Y Times p8 D 19 ’20 60w

“Stephens has put a lot of himself into the telling of these tales;
they are moulded by his story-telling instinct, given finish by his
English and burnished by his humor.” D. W. Webster

+ Pub W 98:1200 O 16 ’20 200w

“Children may enjoy it, but, like Arthur Rackham’s exquisite

illustrations, it will be fully appreciated only by more sophisticated
readers.” E. L. Pearson

+ Review 3:619 D 22 ’20 170w

+ Spec 125:784 D 11 ’20 60w

“There is much good narrative, much humour, and, usually,

unstrained simplicity in the book, but above all there are passages of
enchanting beauty.”

+ The Times [London] Lit Sup p830 D 9

’20 310w
 STERRETT, FRANCES ROBERTA. Nancy
goes to town. *$2 (5c) Appleton

20–18766

Nancy goes to town to take nurses’ training, telling all her friends
in Mifflin that she intends to marry a rich patient. She meets two rich
patients, one an old woman, the other an old man. The two are
business rivals and they become rivals also for Nancy’s favor. One
has a nephew, the other a grandson, both put forward as candidates
for Nancy’s hand. So the rich husband is within her reach, but Nancy
chooses, after some faltering, to marry Dr Rolf Jensen, the poor
young doctor.

“The description of hospital life from the point of view of a lively

girl, with quick wit and a keen sense of humor, is capital.”

+ N Y Times p24 Ja 16 ’21 420w

STEVENS, WILLIAM OLIVER, and

WESTCOTT, ALLAN FERGUSON. History of sea
power. il *$6 Doran 359

20–18945

This volume covers the evolution and influence of sea power from
the beginnings to the present time and treats naval history not from
the point of view of a sequence of battles but as a vital force in the
rise and fall of nations and in the evolution of civilization. It traces its
beginnings from the Island of Crete in the Mediterranean long before
the dawn of history to its present significance. The book is indexed,
has a list of references at the end of each chapter and ninety-six
maps, diagrams and illustrations. Contents: The beginnings of
navies; Athens as a sea power; The sea power of Rome; The navies of
the middle ages (two chapters); Opening the ocean routes; Sea power
in the North; England and the Armada; Rise of English sea power
(two chapters); Napoleonic wars (three chapters); Revolution in
naval warfare; Rivalry for world power; The world war (three
chapters); Conclusion.

“Though surprisingly condensed, an informative and authoritative

work.”

+ Booklist 17:143 Ja ’21

“It is a more objective and less theoretical study [than Mahan’s

‘Influence of sea power on history,’] with more interest for the
general reader; in addition to which it is a convenient reference
book.”

+ Springf’d Republican p8a D 5 ’20 620w

STEVENSON, GEORGE. Benjy. *$1.75 (*7s)

(2c) Lane

20–5234

The book recounts the fortunes of the Ainsworth family from the
time when young Dr Ainsworth drives his bride Priscilla home in the
gig, to the coming of the children—up to the number of thirteen—
with its resultant poverty; and the varied careers and fortunes of all
these in turn. Benjy, the youngest, his mother’s favorite, follows his
father into the medical profession. Outwardly his life is drab, all its
important happenings being of the nature of disappointments. The
more brilliantly endowed brother, Basil, wins and weds Benjy’s own
beloved Clara who dies in childbirth through Basil’s light-hearted
want of foresight. When Uncle Benjy adopts little Clara to save her
from a bad step-mother, death robs him of her also. Then comes the
war and offers him a welcome escape from himself.

“It is only when the children grow older and come into touch with
the world that Mr Stevenson fails lamentably. The quaint, old-
fashioned children are replaced by plain, strange young men and
women, and the author in his effort to convince us of Benjy’s purity
of heart pours over him such a great pale flood of sentimentality that
he is drowned before our eyes.” K. M.

+ − Ath p1371 D 19 ’19 420w

Reviewed by R. M. Underhill

+ Bookm 51:443 Je ’20 130w

“An almost masterly understanding of human (and English)

limitations pervades the story. It is told always with a sure judgment
and reticence.”

+ Boston Transcript p4 My 19 ’20 130w

“A calm tale; interesting incident and fairly interesting characters,

but no particular point.”
 + − Ind 103:323 S 11 ’20 20w

“Such is the charm of Mr Stevenson’s insouciant style that we lose

consciousness of the fact that we are listening to an ‘author.’ The
author’s powers of characterization are, in fact, responsible for a
minor fault in ‘Benjy’—the diffusing of interest in too many
characters.”

+ − N Y Times p25 Ag 1 ’20 550w

Outlook 124:657 Ap 14 ’20 20w

“It is well conceived and full of appreciation of individual

character.”

+ Sat R 129:234 Mr 6 ’20 60w

“Though the reader may become rather bewildered in trying to

follow each particular thread, the book is illuminated with many of
the author’s quiet touches of humour and is written with his usual
distinction of style.”

+ − Spec 124:53 Ja 10 ’20 60w

The Times [London] Lit Sup p633 N 6
’19 80w

STEVENSON, ROBERT LOUIS BALFOUR.

Learning to write; ed. by J: W: Rogers, jr. *$1.35
Scribner 808
 20–6692

“This book is a compilation of everything R. L. S. has said on

writing, both in his essays on literary art and in the casual
observations made in his letters.”—Booklist

+ Booklist 16:306 Je ’20

+ Freeman 2:94 O 6 ’20 380w

“You cannot learn much about electricity by watching the lightning

in the thunder cloud. Even if Stevenson did teach himself to write as
he says he did, which is nothing more than an improbable
hypothesis, reading his extremely characteristic and technically
complex descriptions of his methods will not help a single youngster
out of the toils and troubles of the early days of his probation.” W:
McFee

− N Y Evening Post p9 My 8 ’20 1300w

“It is to be feared that Stevenson’s confidences in regard to his own

literary processes have done all too much to foster hope in the bosom
of ‘would-be’ authors.... One is inclined to take it with several grains
of salt.” R: Le Gallienne

+ − N Y Times 25:8 Je 27 ’20 2250w

+ School R 28:628 O ’20 110w
 “Likely to prove a gold mine of interesting information not only to
aspiring writers, but to people who are interested in books as well.”

+ Springf’d Republican p8 Jl 24 ’20 240w

STEWART, BASIL. Japanese color prints and

the subjects they illustrate. il *$20 Dodd 761

“Mr Stewart knows just what collectors of Japanese prints want

and do not want. But they want a handbook of 300–odd pages, with
reproductions of signatures, lists of important sets, chronological
tables, brief biographical information; of handy format and popular
style. And such is the book before us. There are a glossary, a chapter
on ‘Forgeries and imitations,’ another on ‘Actor prints’ in general,
and an excursus on the ‘Forty-seven rōnins’ in history and on the
stage.”—The Times [London] Lit Sup

“It is no serious condemnation to say that ‘Japanese colour prints’

is not the book on Japanese colour prints for which we are all
looking.”

+ − Int Studio 72:33 N ’20 200w

“The ground covered is so vast that the treatment in certain cases

inevitably seems somewhat cursory. One or two inaccuracies may be
noted.”

+ − The Times [London] Lit Sup p464 Jl 22

’20 640w
 STEWART, WENTWORTH. Making of a
nation. $1.50 (3c) Stratford co. 325.7
 20–3491

In this discussion of Americanism and Americanization the author

holds that we cannot make American citizens of aliens by formal
educational programs, that we must take into consideration the
psychology of Americanization and treat Americanism as a thing of
the spirit rather than of naturalization papers. Certain undesirable
features in our alien population—such as foreign language
newspapers, religious worship in a foreign tongue—should be treated
by a process of elimination rather than coercion, while “all
anarchistic agitators,” and unamerican labor agitators should be
summarily dealt with. As one of the educational factors for
Americanization a modified form of the open forum is
recommended. Contents: The nation’s awakening; The nation’s task
of unification; Eliminating the handicaps to Americanism;
Constructive government and nation building; Providing conditions
for Americanism—or the application of constructive government;
The neighborhood and the nation; International sentiment and
nationalism.

STILL, JOHN. Poems in captivity. *$2 Lane 821

20–5612

The author discovered the poet in himself during his three years of
captivity in Turkey, “where each one of us was driven to seek inside
himself some alleviation of the daily dullness, many of us there found
things we had not suspected to exist.... I found these verses, all of
which were written there, and their discovery made more happy
many of the eleven hundred and seventy-nine days I spent as a
prisoner of war.” (Foreword) The poems are in five groups: Prison
verses; Woodcraft and forest lore; Tales from the Mahawansa;
Various songs and sketches. The frontispiece is a facsimile of a part
of the ms. which was concealed in a hollow walking-stick, and some
explanatory notes are appended.

“Mr Still’s work is undeniably interesting, and his chosen vehicle

seems to be the right one.”

+ Ath p1018 O 10 ’19 100w

Boston Transcript p4 Ap 21 ’20 280w

“He writes fluently and the Ceylonese legends that he relates are
interesting in themselves, but his medium hardly ever touches the
authentic heights of poetry.”

+ − N Y Times 25:16 Je 27 ’20 100w

“The merit of Mr Still’s work is that it gives aptly and agreeably a

full, warm picture of scenes picturesque and historic.”

+ The Times [London] Lit Sup p534 O 2

’19 160w

STOCKBRIDGE, MRS BERTHA EDSON

(LAY). What to drink; the blue book of beverages. il
*$1.50 Appleton 641.8

20–2272
 In these days of prohibition this book solves the hostess’ problem
of what to serve to drink. All she needs is a stock of syrups, shrubs
and vinegars, says the author. “If, however, she is inclined to think it
an arduous task, let her turn to these recipes, and she will be
convinced that the labor and the time expended bring their own
reward in ... a delicious drink delightfully made.” (Foreword) The
contents present an exhaustive array of recipes for fruitades and
punches and drinks hot and cold—non-alcoholic cocktails, syrups,
grape juice, root beer and cider, hot drinks such as coffee, chocolate,
etc., drinks for invalids and children, sundaes and sauces, ice-
creams, sherbets, etc. There is an index.

Booklist 17:18 O ’20

Springf’d Republican p13a Ap 18 ’20
250w
The Times [London] Lit Sup p241 Ap
15 ’20 50w

STOCKBRIDGE, FRANK PARKER. Yankee

ingenuity in the war. il *$2.50 Harper 623

20–8261

It was as a reaction of the author’s patriotic pride to the slanderous

disparagements of America’s participation in the war that the book
was written and for that reason it is limited to the consideration of
distinctly American enterprise. It has, however, not been written for
the scientist or the technologist, but for the average American,
neither skilled nor interested in technical details. A partial list of the
contents is: The mobilization of science and industry; The Liberty
motor; American military airplanes; The chemical conquest of the
air; Potash, sulphuric acid, and dyestuffs; Poison gas; Some
extraordinary ship-building feats; Some Yankee tricks in undersea
warfare; The wonders of war wireless; Medical and surgical
achievements. The book is profusely illustrated from official
photographs.

“Interesting and informative.”

+ Booklist 17:67 N ’20

Wis Lib Bul 16:234 D ’20 70w

STOCKLEY, CYNTHIA. Pink gods and blue

demons. *$1.50 (9c) Doran

20–10303

A story of South Africa. The pink gods and blue demons are the
lightning flashes of temptation from the facets of diamonds. Loree
Temple, a young and much indulged wife, falls under their spell. Her
husband has gone north on business leaving her alone in Kimberley.
She falls under the spell of the diamonds and so into the power of the
man who can give them to her. She is extricated through the loyalty
and generosity of another woman, and, her lesson learned, goes to
join her husband.

“The tale is interesting and moves swiftly forward to a sufficiently

dramatic climax.”