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Global Marketing, 7e (Keegan/Green)
Chapter 7 Segmentation, Targeting, and Positioning
1) "Frugal Engineering" and "Reverse Innovation" are some of the terms that GE, Proctor & Gamble,
Siemens, and Unilever are using to describe efforts to penetrate more deeply into emerging markets.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 192
AACSB: Reflective Thinking
Objective: 1
Question Type: Definitional
2) Global market segmentation is based on the premise that companies should attempt to identify
consumers in different countries who share similar needs and desires.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 1
3) Sushi, Falafel, Tandoori Chicken or Pizza are in demand in many parts of the world. This
phenomenon can be due to pluralization of consumption and segment simultaneity.
Answer: TRUE
AACSB: Multicultural and Diversity
Objective: 1
4) The fact that significant numbers of pizza-loving consumers are found in many countries indicates
that they are eating the exact same thing in all parts of the world.
Answer: FALSE
Objective: 1
Question Type: Application
5) Global marketers must determine whether a standardized or an adapted marketing mix is required to
best serve the wants and needs of the consumers.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 1
1
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall
6) The process of global market segmentation begins with the choice of one or more variables to use as a
basis for grouping customers.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 1
7) A fact found by demographic segmentation is that by the year 2030, 20% of the U.S. population or 70
million will be 65 years old or older.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 1
8) For some consumer products such as cigarettes, soft drinks, and candy that have a low per-unit cost,
income is often a more valuable segmentation variable than population.
Answer: FALSE
Objective: 1
9) About two-thirds of world GNI is generated in the Triad countries, whereas only about 12% of the
world's population is located in those countries.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 1
10) The United States ranks number one among nations in terms of both per capita income and in terms
of income adjusted for purchasing power for the year 2009.
Answer: FALSE
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: 1
11) Ideally, GDP and other measures of national income converted to U.S. dollars should be calculated
on the basis of purchasing power parities or through direct comparisons of actual prices for a given
product.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 2
2
12) In industrialized countries, a significant portion of national income is the value of goods and
services that would be free in a poor country.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 2
13) In 2009, the 10 most populous countries in the world account for just under 50% of world income;
whereas the 10 most populous countries in the world account for roughly 60% of the world's population.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 1
14) The concentration of income in the high-income and large-population countries means that a
company can be "global" by targeting buyers in 10 or fewer countries.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 1
Question Type: Critical thinking
15) Using averages alone, it is possible to underestimate a market's potential, for example, fast-growing,
higher-income segments are present both in India and China.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 1
16) The vast majority of India's population comprises a "bullock cart" segment whose households lack
most comforts but typically own a television.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 2
17) A psychographic study showed that Porsche buyers could be divided into several distinct categories,
one consisting of "Top Guns" who buy Porsches and expect to be noticed.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 2
3
18) Categories such as "successful idealists" and "affluent materialists" can be used to describe
psychographic segments.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 201-202
Objective: 2
19) Sometimes it is preferable to market to a particular age group rather than a mind-set; in such an
instance psychographic studies can help marketers arrive at a deeper understanding of consumer
behavior than is possible with traditional segmentation variables.
Answer: FALSE
Objective: 2
20) For behavior segmentation, marketers use the 80/20 rule when assessing the consumers' usage rate,
which means that 20% of the company's revenues or profits are accounted for by 80% of the firm's
products or customers.
Answer: FALSE
Objective: 2
21) Global benefit segmentation is based on a marketer's understanding of the problem a product solves,
the benefit it offers, or the issue it addresses, regardless of geography.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 2
22) Pareto's Law suggests that 80% of a company's revenues or profits are account for by 20% of a
firm's products or customers.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 3
23) America's Hispanic population shares a common language, and so in ethnic segmentation they can
be grouped as one segment.
Answer: FALSE
Objective: 3
4
24) Marketers must understand that many Hispanic Americans live in two worlds; although they identify
strongly with the United States, there is also a sense of pride associated with brands that connect to their
heritage.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 3
Question Type: Synthesis
25) When assessing potential country target markets, management should rely heavily on its network of
contacts as a primary criterion for targeting.
Answer: FALSE
Objective: 4
26) About 1.3 million cars are sold each year in India; in absolute terms, this is a relatively small
number.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 4
27) India is the world's fastest growing cell phone market with the industry expanding at a rate of 50%
annually with 5 million new subscribers added every month. This is an indication of continued private-
sector growth.
Answer: FALSE
Objective: 3
28) One of the advantages of targeting a market segment globally is that although the segment in a
single-country market might be small, even a narrow segment can be served profitably if the segment
exists in several countries.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 4
29) In China, only about 1% of the population currently owns a credit card. Thus Visa is targeting
persons with a monthly salary equivalent to $300 or more.
Answer: TRUE
AACSB: Dynamics of Global Economy
Objective: 5
5
30) Germany's DHL tried to enter the U.S. package-delivery market in 2003; to achieve scale, DHL
acquired Airborne Express. However they could not compete with entrenched incumbents FedEx and
UPS. This is an example of incorrect position and product mix.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 5
31) In India, refrigeration is not widely available and this restricts many foreign companies from
marketing items that need refrigeration. This can be considered as one of the "enabling conditions" that
needs to be considered in a marketing model.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 5
32) When making a decision about market entry timing, a company's management team should
understand that the first-mover always becomes the market leader.
Answer: FALSE
Objective: 5
33) One of the first-mover disadvantages is that a late-mover competitor may reap benefit from the
investments made in marketing and establishing in a country.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 5
34) BMW's slogan "the ultimate driving machine," is an example of an attribute or benefit which has
proven successful in their positioning strategy.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 5
35) Standardized global marketing is analogous to mass marketing in a single country and is also known
as differentiated target marketing.
Answer: FALSE
Objective: 5
6
36) Differentiated global marketing represents a more ambitious approach than concentrated target
marketing.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 5
37) There is a significant difference between the "mass market" and the "premium market." In the
premium market customers are looking for a good deal whereas in the mass market customers are
looking for a product that fulfills their expectations.
Answer: FALSE
Objective: 5
38) IKEA, the home furnishings retailer based in Sweden, wraps itself in the Swedish flag — literally,
since inside and out, their stores are decorated in the national colors of blue and yellow. This is an
example of local consumer culture positioning.
Answer: FALSE
Objective: 5
39) Benetton uses the slogan "United Colors of Benetton" to position itself as a brand concerned with
the unity of humankind. This type of strategy is referred to as GCCP (global consumer culture
positioning).
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 5
40) Lack of scale and a shortage of capital are just two of the problems associated with reaching the
world's poor. Prices can also be a problem. There is an ample evidence that world's best known global
marketers recognize this. For example, Adidas has developed a sneaker priced at one euro that it hopes
to sell in Bangladesh.
Answer: TRUE
Objective: 5
7
41) The efforts of global companies to reach low-income consumers in emerging markets highlight the
importance of skillful global market segmentation and targeting. Market segmentation represents:
A) targeting prospective customers.
B) finding customers who can respond to advertisement.
C) promoting products and services internationally.
D) identifying customers who can help in promoting products.
E) an effort to identify and categorize customers based on common characteristics.
Answer: E
Objective: 1
42) When identifying global market segments, a fundamental guiding principle should be the need to
determine:
A) shared demographic characteristics.
B) similar languages.
C) similar needs and buying behavior.
D) similar ethnic backgrounds.
E) similar geographic regions.
Answer: C
Objective: 1
43) One writer suggested that some themes are universal and could be used in advertising around the
globe. Examples of this theme include all of the following except:
A) the desire to be beautiful.
B) the desire to be healthy.
C) the desire to be free of pain.
D) the desire to copy others.
E) the love of mother and child.
Answer: D
Objective: 1
8
44) Global marketing authority Theodore Levitt has noted that many ethnic and regional foods sushi,
for example are enjoying popularity in many countries of the world. This observation is known as:
A) the pluralization of consumption.
B) the ethnicitization of consumption.
C) the democratization of consumption.
D) the sophistication of consumption.
E) the domestication of consumption.
Answer: A
Objective: 1
45) A. Coskun Samli had developed a useful approach to global market segmentation that compares and
contrasts “conventional” versus “unconventional” wisdom. An example of unconventional wisdom is:
A) since per capita income in India is about $1,180, assuming that all Indians have low incomes.
B) assuming that consumers in Europe and Latin America are interested in World Cup soccer whereas
Americans are not.
C) assuming that there is a presence of a higher-income middle-class segment in India.
D) assuming that the potential Indian customer base for a McDonald's is larger than the size of entire
developed countries.
E) assuming that there is no running water and electricity in India.
Answer: C
Objective: 1
46) The process of global market segmentation begins with the choice of one or more variables to use as
a basis for grouping customers. All of the following are variables that are commonly used except:
A) demographics.
B) polycentrics.
C) behavioral characteristics.
D) benefits sought.
E) psychographics.
Answer: B
Objective: 1
9
47) Based on 2009 projections, the top ten nations ranked by per capita income do not include:
A) United States.
B) Japan.
C) Russia.
D) Spain.
E) Italy.
Answer: C
Objective: 2
48) Ericsson, IKEA, Saab, and other companies based in Sweden have looked beyond their borders for
significant growth market because:
A) Sweden has high total annual income.
B) Sweden has low total annual income.
C) Sweden has a smaller population.
D) Sweden is land locked geographically.
E) Sweden has relaxed export policies.
Answer: C
Objective: 2
49) The concentration of income in the high-income and large-population countries means that a
company can be "global" by targeting buyers in:
A) just 50 countries.
B) just 20 countries.
C) just 10 or fewer countries.
D) just 30 countries.
E) none of the above
Answer: C
Objective: 2
50) A global segment is referred to as "global elite" which includes:

A) people between the ages of 12 and 19.
B) affluent, well-traveled persons.
C) graying population.
D) technology professionals.
E) persons having power.
Answer: B
Objective: 2
10
51) McDonald's operates in over 118 countries; however, 80% of its restaurants are located in nine
countries which does not include the following country market:
A) Australia.
B) Brazil.
C) Germany.
D) India.
E) Japan.
Answer: D
Objective: 2
52) Psychographic segmentation involves grouping people in terms of their:

A) combined household income.
B) age and income.
C) attitudes, values and lifestyle.
D) psychological well being.
E) gender.
Answer: C
Objective: 2
53) Porsche AG uses the label "Top Guns" to describe one segment of its customers, namely those who
care about power and control and who expect to be noticed. Such a profile would be based on which
type of segmentation?
A) demographic
B) occupational
C) psychographic
D) behavioral
E) gender
Answer: C
Objective: 2
11
54) In the study entitled "The Euroconsumer: Marketing Myth or Cultural Certainty?" the researchers
identified four lifestyle groups. The group that represent mainstream European consumers was labeled
as:
A) Successful Idealists.
B) Affluent Materialists.
C) Young Professionals.
D) Trendy Teens.
E) Disaffected Survivors.
Answer: E
Objective: 2
55) Sony's U.S. Consumer segments included all of the following except:
A) Affluent.
B) Zoomers.
C) SoHo.
D) Gen Y.
E) Fashionists.
Answer: E
Objective: 2
56) "Usage rates" and "user status" are important criteria for which segmentation variable?
A) demographic
B) occupational
C) psychographic
D) behavioral
E) benefit
Answer: D
Objective: 2
12
57) Campbell Soup is making significant inroads into Japan's $500 million soup market as time-pressed
homemakers place a premium on convenience. This type of consumer segmentation by Campbell Soup
is referred to as:
A) demographic.
B) occupational.
C) psychographic.
D) benefit.
E) behavioral.
Answer: D
Objective: 2
58) Diageo PLC, V&S Vin & Spirit AB, and Seagram and other marketers know that Russians consume
a great deal of vodka. This type of market segmentation can be classified as:
A) demographic.
B) behavioral.
C) psychographic.
D) occupational.
E) benefit.
Answer: B
Objective: 2
59) Several years ago, the DMBB agency created a single-country psychographic profile that includes
segment labels such as "Cossacks" and "kuptsy." What country does the survey cover?
A) India
B) Japan
C) Russia
D) China
E) Vietnam
Answer: C
Objective: 2
13
60) In response to increasing worldwide concerns about obesity, diabetes, and other food-related health
issues, some of the world's largest food companies are developing new products. Nestle and Groupe
Danone SA have developed several health-foods which include all of the following except:
A) Souvenaid.
B) Activa.
C) NutriChoice.
D) Nutraceuticals.
E) Medical Foods.
Answer: C
Objective: 2
61) Procter & Gamble has identified a group of consumers in Europe who are willing to pay premium
prices for pet food that will improve the health of their pets. This is an example of ________
segmentation:
A) demographic
B) psychographic
C) ethnic
D) behavioral
E) benefit
Answer: E
Objective: 2
62) Three Mexican retailers Famso, Grupo Gigant SA, and Grupo Commercial Chedraui SA have
opened stores in the United States. This is an indication of:
A) U.S. retailers were lagging behind in collecting demographic information.
B) the Mexican retailers provide better products than American stores.
C) the Hispanic American segments represent a great opportunity for marketers.
D) American businesses cannot compete with Mexican retailers.
E) the Mexican retailers would like to compete with businesses like Best Buy and Circuit City.
Answer: C
Objective: 2
14
63) Which of the following is true about efforts by automakers to target the Hispanic segment in the
United States?
A) Honda, Toyota, Ford, and GM all began targeting the segment years ago.
B) Honda and Toyota began targeting the segment years ago; Ford and GM launched their efforts more
recently.
C) Ford and GM began targeting the segment years ago; Honda and Toyota launched their efforts more
recently.
D) Only Ford and GM are targeting the Hispanic segment.
Answer: B
Objective: 2
64) Which of the following criteria should marketers use when assessing opportunity in global target
markets?
A) current size of the segment
B) anticipated growth potential
C) competition
D) compatibility with company's overall objectives
E) all of the above
Answer: E
Objective: 3
65) Global automakers are targeting the U.S. market with SUVs. All of the following SUVs are
assembled or manufactured in the listed country except:
A) Porsche in Germany.
B) Honda in Japan.
C) Volkswagen in Slovakia.
D) Kia in India.
E) Mercedes-Benz in the United States.
Answer: D
Objective: 3
15
66) Managers must decide how well a company's product fits the country market by asking the
following questions except:
A) Will adaptation be required?
B) Will import restriction drive up the product price?
C) Is it advisable to source locally?
D) Will strong home currency have an adverse impact on product price?
E) Will it be possible to neglect home-country regulations?
Answer: A
Objective: 3
67) The feasibility of targeting a particular market segment can be negatively impacted by various
factors which does not include:
A) regulatory hurdles.
B) cultural barriers.
C) lack of distribution system.
D) time required to establish business.
E) surplus demand.
Answer: E
Objective: 4
68) The basis for global marketing expert David Arnold's framework for screening intercountry
comparisons include:
A) demographic data.
B) "top-down" segmentation analysis.
C) "bottom-up" segmentation analysis.
D) income level.
E) population data.
Answer: C
Objective: 4
16
69) Basic criteria that marketers should keep in mind while assessing opportunities in global markets
include all of the following except:
A) current size of the market segment.
B) anticipated growth potential of the market.
C) compatibility with company's overall objectives.
D) competition in the market.
E) securing first mover advantage.
Answer: E
Objective: 4
70) Companies like Coca-Cola had the first-mover advantage since they were the first company to enter
a global market. However, there are also first-mover disadvantages which include:
A) best chance of becoming world leader.
B) advantage in adapting to the local culture.
C) lead in advertising and promotion exposure.
D) gain business experience.
E) substantial investments in marketing.
Answer: E
Objective: 3
71) The Swatch Group markets watches in all price ranges, from the Swatch brand at the low end to
luxury brands such as Longines, Blancpain, and Breguet. Which target market strategy does this
illustrate?
A) standardized global marketing
B) concentrated global marketing
C) differentiated global marketing
D) psychographic global marketing
Answer: C
Objective: 3
17
72) Positioning refers to the act of:
A) determining on what points on the globe to target.
B) ensuring a choice retail shelf location.
C) differentiating a brand in customer's mind.
D) formulating a private label strategy.
E) formulating a companion product.
Answer: C
Objective: 5
73) For years, ads for Volvo automobiles stressed safety features and protection in the event of a crash.
Thus, Volvo automobiles developed a reputation based on which positioning strategy?
A) use/user
B) attribute/benefit
C) competition
D) high touch
E) quality/price
Answer: B
Objective: 5
74) Ads by BMW advertise it as the "ultimate driving machine" which is described as positioning based
on:
A) high touch.
B) use/user.
C) attribute/benefit.
D) competition.
E) quality/price.
Answer: C
Objective: 5
18
75) Some of Body Shop's recent advertising has emphasized the difference between the company's
principles and those of "mainstream" cosmetics companies on such issues as animal testing. As
described here, Body Shop's ads illustrate positioning by ________.
A) competition
B) niche
C) quality/price
D) attribute/benefit
E) culture
Answer: A
Objective: 5
76) Which of the following is generally true about the marketing of high-touch products such as fine
china and crystal?
A) It relies equally on specialized information and image.
B) It relies less on image and more on specialized information.
C) It relies less on specialized information and more on image.
D) Neither image nor specialized information is relevant to the marketing of high-touch products.
E) It relies partially on specialized information and partially on image.
Answer: C
Objective: 5
77) Consumers shopping for high-touch products such as fine perfume are generally energized by
________ motives.
A) emotional
B) rational
C) both emotional and rational
D) neither emotional nor rational
E) high tech
Answer: A
Objective: 5
19
78) When a marketer understands that a product satisfies a buyer's rational criteria while also evoking an
emotional response, the marketer should:
A) only target consumers in high-income countries.
B) utilize a multitiered targeting strategy rather than a concentrated strategy.
C) commission psychographic segmentation studies to augment demographic data.
D) create advertising that reflects a bipolar, high-tech and high-touch approach.
E) follow normal targeting strategy.
Answer: C
Objective: 5
79) Which of the following is true of advertising for the Heineken and Foster's brands in the United
States?
A) Both Heineken and Foster's utilize the GCCP strategy.
B) Both Heineken and Foster's utilize the FCCP strategy.
C) Heineken utilizes the GCCP strategy; Foster's utilizes the FCCP strategy.
D) Heineken utilizes the FCCP strategy; Foster's utilizes the GCCP strategy.
E) Heineken utilizes the LCCP strategy; Foster's utilizes the GCCP strategy.
Answer: C
Objective: 5
80) The world's best-known cosmetics companies are setting their sights on a lucrative new market
segment: the emerging middle classes in countries such as Brazil, Russia, India, and China. However
these companies have to understand:
A) that women's preferences in those countries are almost similar.
B) that Chinese consumers are not willing to invest in beauty products.
C) what beauty means to Chinese women.
D) that working Indian women prefer only local brands.
E) cosmetics are preferred mostly by the top end of the market in China.
Answer: C
Objective: 5
20
81) What is psychographic segmentation, and how do marketers use it in targeting different world
markets?
Answer: Psychographic segmentation involves grouping people in terms of their attitudes, values, and
lifestyles. Respondents are carefully selected by asking questions to assess their attitudes, values, and
lifestyles. There are different companies that provide services and help in assessing these psychographic
variables. Different groups are given names based on the attributes which describe their attitudes,
values, and lifestyles. Automakers rely on this segmentation since the purchase behavior of a
considerable size of consumers is dependent on psychographic values. A psychographic study showed
that Porsche buyers could be divided into several distinct categories. One of the categories, "Top Gun"
was found to buy Porsches and expect to be noticed. Proud Patrons and Fantasists, on the other hand,
found such conspicuous consumption as irrelevant. Thus, automakers can design autos based on the
preferences of populations grouped under each category. It is preferable to market to a mind-set rather
than a particular age group. For finding such a group, psychographic studies are important. These
analyses are expensive and require careful interpretations. SRI International, one of the market research
organizations, has developed VALS/VALS 2 analyses of consumers based on psychographic values. A
research team in Europe identified four lifestyle groups: Successful Idealists, Affluent Materialists,
Comfortable Belongers and Disaffected Survivors. The first two groups represent the elite, while the
latter two represented the mainstream European consumers. It should be noted that the segmentation and
targeting approach used by a company can vary from country to country. Methods that can truly assess a
population segment of a country should be employed for psychographic segmentation.
Objective: 1
82) Due to globalization "it is a small world after all." Also, vast scale migration of populations due to
various reasons, including opportunities, has created large segments of ethnic population. Considering
these facts, highlight the ethnic segmentation and its importance.
Answer: Due to several reasons, in many countries the population consists of ethnic groups. For
example, in the United States there are three major ethnic segments African/Black Americans; Asian
Americans; and Hispanic Americans. In other countries there are different combinations of ethnic
population. Each segment shows great diversity and can be further subdivided. Even those coming from
one country may have differences in language, culture, religion, and other attitudinal aspects. Their
purchasing behavior is different within groups and sub-groups. From a marketing standpoint these
groups offer great opportunity. Companies in a variety of industry sectors, primarily food and beverages,
household goods, and financing services can benefit by targeting these groups. For example, Japanese
automakers have been successful in targeting ethnic populations in different parts of the world.
Objective: 2
21
83) What are some of the pitfalls in assessing market potential and choosing target markets or segments?
Answer: After segmenting the market, the next important step is to assess the attractiveness of the
identified segments. This is an important part when assessing emerging country markets as potential
targets. Several potential pitfalls in assessment should be taken into account. In general, there is a
tendency to overstate the size and short-term attractiveness of individual country markets. This can
happen if estimates are based primarily on demographic data such as income and population. For
example, the population figures in India and China can create a bloated image. Short-term profitability
may be hard due to prevailing conditions in these emerging markets. Persistence and long-term outlook
often pays off in new markets. A second pitfall may originate from pressures placed on marketers by
shareholders or competitors. The possibility of missing out on entering a condition is in itself a stress-
causing factor. Marketers may find themselves overwhelmed at times by such pressures and the urge to
react quickly. Another factor may be the decisions made based on convenience or opinion of
persons/advisors not residing in the home country. The right representatives or distributors should be
selected in order to be successful.
Objective: 3
84) In India, 60 million middle-class men and women earn more than $275 per month. The segment is
growing rapidly and is expected to increase to 73 million by 2010. Young consumers are buying
international brands and the economy is strong. India is also the world's fastest growing cell phone
market. The industry is expanding at a rate of 50% annually, with 5 million new subscribers added every
month. Still, barriers originating in the political and regulatory environments have shackled private-
sector growth. Considering all of the above-mentioned aspects, is the market segment large enough for a
company to utilize the opportunity and make a profit? Does it have enough potential for future growth to
make it attractive for any company to pursue a long-term strategy?
Answer: All of the influencing factors should be taken into consideration before targeting any country.
It is possible that the segment in a single-country market might be small; even a narrow segment can be
served profitably if the segment exists in several countries. One of the major factors that should be
considered is the purchasing power. In India, the purchasing power is seen by the purchasing of
international branded items, although there is a big disparity among income levels. The segment of the
population is considerable to portray profit by selling goods and services. Percentages, therefore, can be
deceiving in such situations. Also, by virtue of its size and purchasing power, the global segment can be
extremely attractive to consumer goods companies. The huge country market prevalent in India or
China, combined with the segment size and growth potential, has to be taken into account. There may
also be differences between populations residing in urban areas compared to the ones in rural areas.
Although the majority of population resides in rural areas in India, the numbers of urban consumers are
large enough and will be able to afford different consumer goods. The fact that there is a huge market
for cell phones is indicative of the potential business opportunities. Consideration should be given to all
these factors before entering into India or any other similar country.
Objective: 3
22
85) Assume that the market segment is judged to be large enough, and the strong competitors are either
absent or deemed to be vulnerable, then is it safe to enter the country? Justify your answer by giving
reasons.
Answer: If the market segment is judged to be large enough, and there are no strong existing or
potential competitors, one should not assume that it is safe to enter the country. There are several other
factors that can negatively impact a business. For example, significant regulatory hurdles may be present
that limit market access. The company may also encounter cultural barriers or religious restrictions.
Other marketing-specific issues can arise. For example, in India, three to five years are required to build
an effective distribution system for many consumer products. Also, the approvals may take a
considerably long period of time. Thus, apparent potential does not guarantee success. Managers have a
difficult decision in such conditions. If there are certain prevailing conditions that require adaptation of
products, then that should be taken into account. Also, it is important to consider the question of whether
targeting a particular segment is compatible with the company's overall goals, its brand image, or
established sources of competitive advantage.
Objective: 3
86) Discuss the basics of a framework for selecting target markets highlighting the salient features of
David Arnold's framework.
Answer: A framework for selecting target markets should take into account the market size of the
targeted market. The market size should then be multiplied by the competitive advantage in that country.
Multiplying the market size and competitive advantage index yields a market potential. The next step in
the analysis requires an assessment of the various market access considerations. Finally, multiplying the
market potential by the terms of access index gives the final market potential. This framework takes into
account the competitive advantage, market potential and the terms of access. This framework should
prove useful as a preliminary screening tool for intercountry comparisons. However, it does not go far
enough in terms of assessing actual market potential. Global marketing expert David Arnold has
developed a framework that goes beyond demographic data and considers other marketing-oriented
assessments of market size and growth potential. Thus, instead of a "top-down" segmentation analysis
beginning with, for example, income or population data from a particular country, Arnold's framework
is based on a "bottom-up" analysis that begins at the product-market level. The product-market refers to
a market defined by a product category. For example, in the automotive industry that would refer to
luxury car market. Arnold's framework incorporates two core concepts: marketing model drivers and
enabling conditions. Marketing model drivers are key elements or factors required for a business to take
root and grow in a particular country market environment. The drivers may differ depending on whether
a company serves consumer or industrial markets. Enabling conditions are structural market
characteristics whose presence or absence can determine where the marketing model can succeed. For
example, in India, refrigeration is not widely available in shops and market food stalls. This creates
challenges for storing dairy products and confections. So the enabling conditions are very important.
After marketing-model drivers and enabling conditions have been identified, the management should
weigh the estimated costs associated with entering and serving the market with potential short- and long-
term revenue streams. One way to determine the marketing model drivers and enabling conditions is to
create a product-market profile.

Objective: 4
23
87) After evaluating the identified segments, decisions have to be made whether to pursue a particular
opportunity or not. Assuming the decision is made to proceed, an appropriate targeting strategy must be
developed. Explain the basic categories of target marketing strategies and how they can be implemented.
Answer: The three basic categories of target marketing strategies are: standardized marketing,
concentrated marketing, and differentiated marketing. Standardized global marketing is analogous to
mass marketing in a single country. It involves creating the same marketing mix for a broad mass market
of potential buyers. It is also known as undifferentiated target marketing since it is based on the premise
that a mass market exists around the world. Product adaptation is minimized, and a strategy of intensive
distribution ensures that the product is available in the maximum number of retail outlets. The appeal of
standardized global marketing is due to the lower production costs. The concentrated target marketing
involves devising a marketing mix to reach a niche. A niche is single segment of the global market. For
example, in cosmetics, Chanel has targeted the upscale, prestige segment of the market. Concentrated
targeting is also the strategy employed by the hidden champions of global marketing companies
unknown to most people that have succeeded by serving a niche market that exists in many countries.
These companies define their markets narrowly and strive for global depth rather than national breadth.
The narrowing of market definition is the key principle in this strategy. The third category, differentiated
global marketing, represents a more ambitious approach than concentrated target marketing. It is also
known as multisegment targeting. It entails targeting two or more distinct market segments with
multiple marketing mix offerings. This strategy allows a company to achieve wider market coverage.
For example, in the sport utility vehicle segment, Rover has a Range Rover at the high end of the
market. A scaled down version, the Land Rover Discovery, is offered which competes directly with the
Jeep Grand Cherokee. The Freelander, its newest vehicle, has been on sale in Europe for several years.
Thus, there is a multi-pronged approach to marketing.
Objective: 4
24
88) The world's best-known cosmetics companies are setting sights on a lucrative new market segment:
the emerging middle classes in countries such as Brazil, Russia, India, and China. What understandings
and factors should be considered by these companies to be successful in markets in those countries?
Answer: Noting that there is no "one-size-fits -all" ideal of beauty, cosmetic marketers should consider
the sensitivity to local cultural preferences. Each customer is free to have her own aspirations. They
have to offer the best quality and the best product to satisfy local customers. Many Asian women use
whitening creams to lighten and brighten their complexion. In China, white skin is associated with
wealth. Companies have to understand what beauty means to Chinese women and what they look for.
Product offerings and communications therefore have to be adjusted accordingly. Market research is
critical to understanding women's preferences in different parts of the world. Japanese women prefer to
use a compact foundation rather than a liquid. Humid conditions in tropical countries, like India, should
be taken into account. How many times women clean their faces should be taken into account. In China,
mass-market and premium brands should be considered in order to fulfill requirements of the top and
general market. In India, the number of working women is increasing dramatically, and consumer
attitudes are shifting. Due to advances in technology and access to television, women are getting more
beauty conscious. Coloring gray hairs is also an important consideration for women in India. Thus, for
each country different factors have to be considered since preferences for beauty products vary from
country to country.
Objective: 5
89) Colgate Total toothpaste is positioned as the brand that addresses all aspects of oral health. Such
positioning is very important from the business point of view. How does positioning help in deciding on
a marketing strategy? What are the differences between using "attribute or benefit" and "quality and
price" as positioning strategy?
Answer: Positioning refers to the act of differentiating a brand in customers minds in relation to
competitors in terms of attributes and benefits that the brand does and does not offer. It is the process of
developing strategies for marketing purposes. It is frequently used in conjunction with the segmentation
variables and targeting strategies. "Attribute or benefit" strategies are used to expose a particular product
attribute, benefit or other special feature. Aspects such as economy, reliability, multiple uses, durability,
and simplicity are very commonly used to describe the attributes of a product or service. For example,
Visa's advertising theme "It's Everywhere You Want to Be" exposes its benefit of being useful at any
place in the world. Thus, these types of slogans, themes, or jingles very cleverly outline the benefits or
attributes of a product. A similar strategy that is used is related to "Quality and Price." This strategy can
be considered in light of a continuum from high fashion/quality and high price to good value. Swatch
watches advertise their quality, Swiss origin, as well as affordable price. This way price is always tied to
the quality and durability of the product or service.
Objective: 5
25
90) What are the major differences between global, foreign, and local consumer culture positioning?
Why are these differences significant? Give examples of how companies are trying to lure customers
using these positioning strategies.
Answer: Global consumer culture positioning (GCCP) is defined as a strategy that identifies the brand
as a symbol of a particular global culture or segment. It has proven to be an effective strategy for
communicating with global teens, cosmopolitan elites, and globe-trotting laptop warriors who consider
themselves members of a transnational commerce culture. For example, Sony's slogan "My First Sony"
is positioned as the electronics brand for youngsters around the globe with discerning parents. Benetton
uses the slogan "United Colors of Benetton" to position itself as a brand concerned with the unity of
humankind. Categories of products that lend themselves to this positioning are both associated with high
levels of customer involvement and by a shared "language" among users. High tech products such as
iPod, iPhone, MP3 players, video cameras, and all such technology-prone items fall into these
categories.
Foreign consumer culture positioning (FCCP) associates the brand's users, use occasions, or production
origins with a foreign country or culture. Foster's Brewing Group's U.S. advertising proudly uses the
brand's nation of origin in all of its print ads and other promotions as being Australian. Local consumer
culture positioning (LCCP) strategy associates the brand with local cultural meanings, reflects the local
culture's norms, portrays the brand as consumed by local people in the national culture, or depicts the
product as locally produced for local consumers. Budweiser's U.S. advertising particularly focuses on
local aspects.
Objective: 5
26
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
the conditions were worse than those of the present day, and much
more so than in the eighth and ninth centuries. According to Rabot, it
appears from ancient records that considerable areas cultivated in
the tenth century are now covered with ice. The first spread of the
glaciers took place in the first half of the fourteenth century. In the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the climate of Iceland ameliorated
somewhat, but in the seventeenth there was a readvance, which
destroyed several farms about 1640 or 1650. Since then there has
been a slight retreat.
The ice-conditions of Greenland are closely related to those of
Iceland, and the records of the Norse colonization of Greenland bear
out the conclusions drawn from the latter island. Up to the close of
the twelfth century ice is hardly ever mentioned in the accounts of
voyages, though it is now a great hindrance. Eric, the pioneer
explorer of West Greenland, spent three successive winters on the
islands in Juliaanehaab Bay (latitude 60° 45′ N.), and explored the
country during the summer; “this cannot be explained otherwise than
by assuming that the Polar ice did not reach Cape Farewell and the
west coast of Greenland in those days.” In the thirteenth century ice
is first specifically mentioned as a danger to navigation, and at the
end of the fourteenth century the old Norse sailing route was on
account of ice definitely abandoned in favour of one further south.
Shortly afterwards the Norse colonies were wiped out by a
southward migration of the Eskimos. Even in Norway itself the
fourteenth century was a time of dearth, short harvests and political
troubles, when corn had to be imported from Germany instead of
being exported to Iceland as in former years.
It should be noted that Pettersson’s conclusions are considered
invalid by H. H. Hildebrandsson[8] on the ground of the
incompleteness of the records.
For the southern hemisphere our records are naturally much rarer
and of less antiquity than for the northern hemisphere, and until the
tree-rings are investigated we cannot carry our study back beyond
the sixteenth century. From some researches into the municipal
archives of Santiago de Chile, latitude 33½° S., published by B. V.
Mackenna in 1877, we can infer, however, that the general course of
variation since 1520 was similar to that of corresponding regions in
North America. Santiago lies in a semi-arid region where a
temporary shortage of water is severely felt, the average annual
rainfall being only 364 mm. (14.3 inches). The early travellers,
however, make no specific mention of drought, and in 1540 Pedro de
Valdivia crossed the desert of Atacama with a column of troops and
cattle without inconvenience—a feat which would be difficult
nowadays. In 1544 there were heavy rains and great floods in June.
The next record is for the year 1609, recording another heavy flood
on the Mapocho, which was repeated nine years later in 1618. The
first recorded drought occurred in the years 1637 to 1640; there was
another flood in 1647, after which came a series of severe droughts
interrupted by occasional floods, which lasted until the close of the
eighteenth century. The first half of the nineteenth century was again
comparatively rainy. The records thus indicate a wet period centred
about 1600, followed by a dry period during the eighteenth century,
exactly parallel to the records from the United States and Europe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Huntington, E. “The climatic factor as illustrated in arid America.” Washington,

Carnegie Institution, 1914.
——. “The fluctuating climate of North America.” Geogr. J. 40, 1912, pp. 264, 392.
——. “The pulse of Asia.” Boston and New York, 1907.
——. “World power and evolution.” New Haven, 1919.
Pettersson, O. “Climatic fluctuations in historic and prehistoric time.” Svenska
Hydrogr.-Biol. Komm. Skrifter, H. 5.
Rabot, Ch. “Essai de chronologie des variations glaciaires.” Bull. géogr. historique
et descriptive, No. 2, 1902.
Brückner, E. “Klimaschwankungen seit 1700” ... Vienna, 1890.
Hildebrandsson, H. H. “Sur le prétendu changement du climat européen en temps
historique.” Upsala, Nova Actae Regiae Soc. Sci. (4), Vol. 4, No. 5, 1915.
Brooks, C. E. P. “An historical notice of the variations of climate in Chile.”
Washington, Dept. Agric., U.S. Weather Bureau, Monthly Weather Rev. 47,
1919, p. 637.
CHAPTER XVIII
C L I M AT I C F L U C T U AT I O N S A N D T H E E V O L U T I O N O F M A N
The origin of man from an ape-like ancestor[9] is generally admitted,

but owing to the incompleteness of the palæontological record we
are still in ignorance as to the circumstances, while the place is
generally put vaguely as somewhere in Asia, and the time as the late
Tertiary (Prof. Elliot Smith places it near the Siwalik hills in the
Miocene). For this early period we are reduced to speculation, in
which we may reasonably utilize the facts which we have gained
about climatic variation.
The chief problem to be explained is why man’s arboreal ancestor
left the safe shelter and easy food supply of his primæval forest and
ventured forth into the plains. An article by Professor J. Barrell,[10] of
Yale University, gives a plausible account of the change, putting it
down to necessity, and not to choice. His theory is that the human
ancestor lived in the forests spread over Asia, then a vast well-
watered plain, during the middle-Tertiary period. Then the gradual
uplifting of the Himalayas and other mountain ranges caused a
decrease in the rainfall of central Asia, so that ultimately the forests
were unable to thrive, and gradually gave place to steppe conditions.
The change was slow enough to give the less specialized inhabitants
of the forest time to change their habits and evolve into forms
suitable to a terrestrial life, and the chief of the animals which took
advantage of this period of grace was the pre-human. Forced to live
on the ground, with a diminishing food supply, only the most
progressive individuals were able to survive, and evolution was
rapid. The changing type was saved from being submerged in the
great mass of the original type in the forests which continued to exist
further south by the impassable wall of mountains. Major Cherry[11]
considers that there is sufficient evidence to prove that a portion of
this evolution took place on the seashore, an environment which
would have been much more favourable to a small ape-like animal
than the open steppe would have been. It is quite likely that the
earliest migrations, such as that which carried Pithecanthropus to
Java, took place along the shore. But after a time, when increasing
brainpower and the use of primitive stone implements enabled man
to take the offensive against the larger animals, the centre of activity
changed to the steppes. A familiar view of the early development of
man was advocated by W. D. Mathew,[12] who writes: “In view of the
data obtainable from historical record, from tradition, from the
present geographical distribution of higher and lower races of men,
from the physical and physiological adaptation of all and especially
of the higher races, it seems fair to conclude that the centre of
dispersal of mankind in prehistoric times was central Asia, north of
the great Himalayan ranges, and that when by progressive aridity
that region became desert it was transferred to the regions bordering
it to the east, south and west. We may further assume that the
environment in which man primarily evolved was not a moist tropical
climate, but a temperate and more or less arid one, progressively
cold and dry during the course of his evolution. In this region and
under these conditions, the race first attained a dominance which
enabled it to spread out in successive waves of migration to the most
remote parts of the earth.”
We do not know anything of the migrations of the Eolithic and
earlier Palæolithic races, except that they spread rapidly over a
considerable portion of the earth. Both migration and evolution,
especially mental evolution, must have been accelerated by the
great changes of climate which were taking place. In the Mindel-Riss
interglacial period we know of two types, the Piltdown man
(Eoanthropus dawsoni) and the Heidelberg man (Homo
heidelbergensis), the latter a true man, though probably not on the
direct line of evolution of Homo sapiens. The stress of the
succeeding second Glacial period was too great for Eoanthropus,
which appears to have died out, but Homo, probably an Asiatic or
African type similar to H. Heidelbergensis, survived. The next form,
associated with Mousterian implements, is Neanderthal man (H.
neanderthalensis), who closely resembled modern man, and all the
remains of races which lived subsequently to the last glaciation are
those of modern man (H. sapiens), including the magnificent Cro-
Magnards and the negroid Grimaldi race. Thus each glaciation has
been marked by a step upwards in the scale of humanity; does this
mean that the coming of the super-man is contingent on another
glacial epoch?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barrell, J. “Probable relations of climatic change to the origin of the Tertiary Ape-
man.” Scientific Monthly, New York, 4, 1917, p. 16.
Mathew, W. D. “Climate and evolution.” Annals New York Acad. Sci., 24, 1915, p.
212.
London, British Museum. “A guide to the fossil remains of man....” London, 1918.
CHAPTER XIX
C L I M AT E A N D H I S T O R Y
It is a remarkable fact in human history that civilization began in

regions which are at present inhabited chiefly by backward races,
and the centres of progress have shifted from one country to another
with the passage of time. Many accidental factors—position on
trade-routes, possession of special mineral advantages, and so on,
have undoubtedly played a part in this, but it will not be difficult to
show that climatic fluctuations have also had their share.
A brilliant study of Ellsworth Huntington[13] has shown that there
are certain optimum conditions of climate which are most suitable for
efficient work. These conditions, which were determined by an
analysis of the output of work in American factories, were then found
to be just those which prevail in the most progressive regions of the
globe, which are located in the temperate storm-belts, and it is
shown in certain instances that fluctuations in the position of this
storm-belt coincided with fluctuations in the centres of civilization. A
few additional examples of this may be given.
The beginnings of civilization may reasonably be placed with the
transition from the Palæolithic to the Neolithic type, a transition which
involved much more than just the polishing of stone weapons. It
involved also the beginnings of agriculture, crude pottery, and later,
the domestication of animals. One of the earliest Neolithic cities
known is probably that of Anau, near Askabad in Transcaspia,
excavated by Pumpelly in 1904. From the thickness of the
accumulated debris the date of first settlement is placed at or before
8000 b.c., i.e. 10,000 years ago, or during the period which in
Europe is assigned to the concluding stages of the Wurm glaciation.
Pumpelly’s time-estimates are based on careful comparison with
accumulations in Merv and other cities. At present the mean annual
rainfall in that part of Turkestan is below ten inches a year, and the
country is practically desert, and is entirely unfitted for agriculture.
But with the remains of the ice-sheet still over Scandinavia and
depressions following a more southerly course along the
Mediterranean basin and into southern Asia, the rainfall was
considerably heavier, and the climate in general was more suited to
a progressive race. At the outset we find this Neolithic race living in
rectangular houses built of uniform sun-dried bricks; they were skilful
potters, cultivating cereals, but at first without domestic animals.
The beginning of Neolithic civilization in Crete is placed by Evans
at about 12000 b.c., while on the basis of excavations by de Morgan
at Susa in Persia, Montelius places the origin of Neolithic culture in
this part of Asia as early as about 18000 b.c. At Susa the deposits
are 130 feet thick, and of these the upper 40 feet cover a period of
6000 years.
Thus we see that what may be considered as the great step from
savagery to civilization took place while the present centres of
progress in Europe and America were still in the Ice Age. At this time
the climate of southern Asia must have resembled the present
climate of north-west Europe in heavier rainfall and the day-to-day
fluctuations of weather—in fact, the districts where civilization began
probably had at that time the most stimulating climate in the northern
hemisphere.
With the vanishing of the ice-sheets and the setting in of the mild
climate of the Maritime phase the Neolithic culture spread rapidly to
Europe, and by 2000 b.c. even the Baltic regions were well
inhabited, and it is probable that the Aryan race was developing in
the Russian steppes. About this time Anau was abandoned owing to
increasing aridity.
With the coming of the Bronze Age in western Europe, about 1800
b.c., however, the climate again became colder and rainier,
corresponding to the Peat-bog phase or “Classical” rainfall
maximum, the deterioration culminating in the Early Iron Age. This
period was marked by a great southward spread of the Aryan
peoples, and ushered in the Heroic Age of Greece. The races of the
Mediterranean, as we have seen, continued to thrive throughout this
rainy period, and their power did not diminish until its close, about
a.d. 400. This downfall was accelerated if not caused by the
pressure of nomad peoples driven out of Asia by the increasing
drought. These Asiatic migrations included the great marches of the
Tartar hordes and, aided by religious enthusiasm, the conquests of
the Moslems.
The early Middle Ages, after the downfall of Rome, appear to have
been characterized by a dry warm climate. This was the age of the
Vikings, when the Norse races rose to dominance in western
Europe, finally invading and occupying large areas of France and
Britain, and even extending their power to Sicily. With the increasing
cold and wet of the “Mediæval” rainfall maximum came a final burst
of Norse migration, which left the homeland poor and scantily
populated, and the centre of activity and progress lay once again
with the Mediterranean peoples, and especially with Italy and Spain.
The Tartar invasions ceased, and against the increasing power of
Europe the Moslem wave broke and receded. At the close of this
rainy period political dominance again moved north. From that time
the fluctuations of climate have been of minor importance, and
correspondingly there have been no great shiftings of political power
from latitude to latitude.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y.
Tyler, J. M. “The New Stone Age in Northern Europe.” London, 1921.

Huntington, Ellsworth, “World Power and Evolution.” New Haven, 1919.
Haddon, A. C., “The wanderings of peoples.” Cambridge University Press, 1919.
APPENDIX
T H E F A C T O R S O F T E M P E R AT U R E
To calculate the probable temperature of January or July at any

point, the following procedure should be adopted:
Draw a circle round the point of angular radius ten degrees (i.e.
set the compass to cover ten degrees of latitude) and divide this into
two halves by a line passing from north to south through the centre.
By means of squared tracing paper, or otherwise, measure: (a) the
amount of ice in the whole circle; (b) the amount of land in the
western half; (c) the amount of land in the eastern half. (a) is
expressed as a percentage of the area of the whole circle; (b) and
(c) as percentages of the area of a semicircle.
The term “ice” includes ice-sheets such as that of Greenland or
Antarctica, and also frozen sea or sea closely covered by pack-ice;
the latter figure may vary in different months.
The temperature in January or July is then calculated from the
following formula:
Temperature = basal temperature + ice coeff. x per cent. of ice
+ land west coeff. x per cent. of land to west + land east coeff. x
per cent. of land to east.
The basal temperatures and the appropriate coefficients are given
in the following table.
In calculating the effect of a given slight change of land and sea
distribution, it is not necessary to employ the basal temperature.
Instead the equation can be treated as a differential, and the change
of temperature due to the change of land and ice calculated from the
figures in columns 3 to 5. The figures are given in degrees absolute,
273°0 = 32° F. To convert differences to Fahrenheit, multiply by 1°8.
Basal
Temp. Land, West Land, East
Latitude. Ice Coeff.
(Water Coeff. Coeff.
Zone).
Jan. a.
70 N. 298.8 - 0.49 - 0.43 - 0.20
60 277.4 - 0.07 - 0.31 - 0.01
50 276.8 - 0.09 - 0.29 0.09
40 282.5 — - 0.17 0.04
30 289.6 — - 0.08 0.03
20 294.2 — - 0.01 - 0.01
10 298.6 — - 0.01 0.03
0 299.3 — 0.01 0.00
10 S. 298.2 — 0.04 - 0.01
20 296.2 — 0.07 0.00
30 293.5 — 0.06 0.03
40 289.3 — 0.09 - 0.03
July.
70 N. 279.3 - 0.16 0.02 0.02
60 280.7 — - 0.01 0.11
50 285.8 — 0.04 0.06
40 291.1 — 0.05 0.07
30 296.8 — 0.08 - 0.01
20 297.6 — 0.07 0.02
10 298.8 — 0.03 - 0.01
0 298.6 — 0.02 - 0.01
10 S. 296.9 — 0.04 - 0.03
20 293.1 — 0.02 - 0.02
30 288.2 — - 0.01 - 0.01
40 284.0 — 0.00 - 0.03
In the case of the calculation of the effect of comparatively slight
and irregular changes in land and sea distribution in a limited area,
such as those of the Littorina Sea referred to on p. 128, it may be
found that a ten-degree circle is too wide an area to employ, the
changes from land to sea at one point being nullified by changes
from sea to land at another more distant point. In such a case a
smaller unit such as a circle of five degrees radius can be employed.
As a rough approximation it may be said that the effect of the
conversion of a square mile of land into sea, or vice versa, on the
temperature of a neighbouring point is inversely proportional to its
distance. Since the area of a five-degree circle is one-quarter that of
a ten-degree circle, while the average distance of the land
composing it is one-half, we have to divide our regression
coefficients by two in order to fit the new data.
This method was applied to obtain the probable temperature
distribution on the shores of the Littorina Sea at its maximum
extension, and gave results which agreed remarkably well with those
calculated by geologists from the animal and plant life of the time.
See London Q. F. R. Meteor. Soc., 43, 1917, pp. 169-171.
INDEX
A.
Acheulian, 52
Aciphylla, 125
Africa, 103, 133, 142
Aftonian, 87
Ahlmann, 51, 61
Alaska, 43, 124
Algonquin, Lake, 123
Alps, dry period, 122
glaciation, 29, 52, 56
retreat stadia, 119
Altai Mountains, 77
Anau, ruins, 163
Ancylus, 120, 127
Andersson, 118, 121
Andes, 98
Antarctica, 114, 133
Anticyclonic circulation, 55
Antipodes Is., 112
Aral Sea, 83
Argentine, 100
Arizona, 94, 150
Arrhenius, 19
Artesian water (Australia), 110
Aryans, 164
Asia, 76, 125, 139, 143, 153
Astronomical theory, 17
Atlantic Stage, 126
Atlas Mountains, 69
Australia, 109, 125, 155
B.
Balearic Is., 70
Balkans, 69
Baltic Interstadial, 64
Banded clays, 49, 93
Baraba steppes, 121
Barkans, 65
Barrell, 159
Beddard, 115
Belfast, 130
Biloculina, 133
Blytt, 127
Bonneville, Lake, 93
Brazil, 101
British Isles, 57, 62, 64, 136
Brögger, 129
Bronze Age, 138
Brückner, 49, 57, 154
Buenos Aires, sand-dunes, 125
Bühlstadium, 119
C.
Calabrian, 68
Cambrian, 33
Campbell Is., 102
Canada, post-glacial, 132
Cape Colony, raised beaches, 133
Carbon dioxide, 19
Carboniferous, 34
Caspian, 83, 143, 153
Chamberlin, 19
Champlain Stage, 123
Chellean, 51
Cherry, 160
Chile, rainfall fluctuations, 157
China, 81, 139
Chronology, 48, 92
Chudeau, 106
Classical Rainfall Maximum, 140
Climatic Record, 132
Coleman, 92
Colorado, 94
Continentality, 25
Continental Phase, 120
Continents, movement of, 21
Cordilleran glaciation, 87
Corsica, 69
Craig, 72
Cretaceous, 37
Crete, Neolithic, 163
Croll, 18
Cro-Magnards, 161
Cyrenaica, desiccation, 142
D.
Daun-stadium, 119
David, 110
Dead ice, 132
Denmark, continental phase, 122
Depressions, path of, 47, 60, 71, 122, 139
Devonian, 34
Diluvium, 48
Don Valley, 91
Douglass, 143
Drakensberg Mountains, 103
Drought in Forest Period, 139
Drumkelin Bog, 137
Dunes, fossil, 65
Frisian, 140
E.
Early Iron Age, 141
Earth’s Orbit, eccentricity of, 18
Earthworms, 115
East Anglia, 47, 57
Eccentricity of Earth’s Orbit, 18
Ecuador, 99
Egypt, 72
Eoanthropus, 161
Eocene glaciation, 37
Etosha Pan, 107
Europe, 49, 55, 118, 127, 136, 154
Evans, 163
Evolution of Man, 155
F.
Fairgrieve, 138
Falkland Is., 97
Fennoscandian Pause, 119
Finiglacial, 118
Finland, post-glacial, 120, 128
Florida, 95
Forest bed, 47, 51
period, 122, 136
Forests, submerged, 137
Formby and Leasowe Beds, 130
Fossil ice, 59, 78
Franz Josef Land, 130
Frech, 20
Freydenberg, 106
Frisian dunes, 140
Fucino, Lago di, 154
Fucus in Spitzbergen, 130
G.
Gable Island, 98
Galaxiidæ, 115
Geer, G. de, 49, 93, 118
Geikie, J., 51, 81
Geographical theory, 22
Geological formations, 31
rhythms, 38
Gibbon, 140
Gibraltar, 69, 70
Gila conglomerate, 95
Glacial anticyclone, 55
stages, 48
Globigerina, 133
Glossopteris, 35
Gondwanaland, 34, 35
Gotiglacial, 118
Graham Land, glaciation, 114
Great Basin, America, 89, 93, 124
Great Lakes, history, 123
Great Salt Lake, 93
Greece, Heroic Age, 164
Greenland, 131, 156
Gregory, 104
Grimaldi Race, 161
Gschnitz Stadium, 119
Gunz Glaciation, 56
Gunz-Mindel Interglacial, 50, 51, 56
H.
Haplochitonidæ, 115
Hazel, post-glacial extension, 122
Hedley, 116
Heidelberg Man, 161
Height and temperature, 26
Hildebrandsson, 157
Himalayas, 81
Hobley, 105, 107
Hohokam, 150
Hume, 72
Humphreys, 20
Huntington, 141, 144, 150, 153, 162
I.
Ice on Danish coasts, 155
Iceland, 125, 156
Illinoian glaciation, 90
Ingo Is., forests, 122
Iowan Glaciation, 90
Ireland, glaciation, 57, 62, 64
Heroic Age, 138
Iroquois, Lake, 123
Isohalines, 127
J.
Japan, 81
Jurassic, 37
K.
Kalahari, 107
Kamchatka, 80
Kansan, 88
Karst flora, 121
Kashmir, 143, 153
Keewatin, 88, 91
Keidel, 99
Kenya, 103
Kilimanjaro, 103
Kioga, Lake, 104
Kitchen-midden, 125
Kosciusko, 109
Kreichgauer, 20
Kupffer, 121
L.
Labradorean Glaciation, 87, 89, 90
Lahontan, Lake, 93
Lena Valley, 78
Leverett, 91, 92
Limestone Agglomerate, 70
Littorina, 128
Loess, 52, 83, 91, 112
Lofoten Islands, 61
Lop-Nor, 83, 153
M.
Mackenna, 157
Maglemose culture, 125
Malta, 69
Mammoths, frozen, 79
Marsupials, 115
Mathew, 160
Maumee, Lake, 123
Maya ruins, 151
Mediæval Rainfall Maximum, 164
Medicine Bow Range, 94
Mediterranean, 68, 142
Mesopotamia, Empires, 139
Mexico, culture, 151
Meyer, 99
Micmac Stage, 124
Mindelian Glaciation, 49, 69
Mindel-Riss Interglacial, 50
Miocene, 44
Mombasa, 105
Mono Basin, 94
Montelius, 163
Mousterian Man, 63
Munthe, 118
Murgoci, 66
Murman coast, 130
N.
Najas, 129
Neanderthal Man, 161
Negro, 142
Neolithic, 122, 131, 136, 163
migration, 125, 163
Neudeckian, 51
Neuhauss, 111
Newfoundland, 87, 90
New Guinea, 111
New Siberian Islands, 78
New South Wales, 125
New Zealand, 111, 125, 133
Ngami, Lake, 107
Niagara, 93, 132
Nile, 72, 119
Nordenskjold, 117
Nordic Race, 125
Norfolkian, 51
North America, 86, 122, 132, 141, 149
North Sea, 56, 61
Norway, 51, 55, 129
O.

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