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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
General Chemistry
Atoms First
Susan M. Young
Hartwick College
William J. Vining
State University of New York, Oneonta
Roberta Day
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Beatrice Botch
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
General Chemistry: Atoms First © 2018 Cengage Learning
Susan M. Young, William J. Vining, Roberta Day, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
Contents
1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 1

1.1 What Is Chemistry? 2
2 Atoms and Elements
2.1 Development of Atomic Theory
29
30
1.1a The Scale of Chemistry 2 2.1a Early Models and the Advent of Scientific
1.1b Measuring Matter 3 Experimentation 30
2.1b Dalton’s Atomic Theory 32
1.2 Classification of Matter 4
1.2a Classifying Matter on the Atomic Scale 4 2.2 Subatomic Particles and Atomic Structure 33
1.2b Classifying Pure Substances on the Macroscopic Scale 6 2.2a Electrons and Protons 33
1.2c Classifying Mixtures on the Macroscopic Scale 8 2.2b The Nuclear Model of the Atom 37
1.3 Units and Measurement 10 2.3 Atoms and Isotopes 40

1.3a Scientific Units and Scientific Notation 10 2.3a Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbols 40
1.3b SI Base Units 12 2.3b Isotopes and Atomic Weight 42
1.3c Derived Units 14 2.3c Nuclear Stability 44
1.3d Significant Figures, Precision, and Accuracy 16
2.4 Elements and the Periodic Table 47
1.4 Unit Conversions 20
2.4a Introduction to the Periodic Table 47
1.4a Dimensional Analysis 20
1.4b Multistep Problem Solving 22
2.5 The Mole and Molar Mass of Elements 53
Unit Recap 25 2.5a Avogadro’s Number and the Mole 53

2.5b Molar Mass of Elements 54
Unit Recap 56
Contents Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
iii
3 Electromagnetic Radiation and the
Electronic Structure of the Atom 59 4 Electron Configurations and the
Properties of Atoms 79
3.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 60 4.1 Electron Spin and Magnetism 80
3.1a Wavelength and Frequency 60 4.1a Electron Spin and the Spin Quantum Number, ms 80
3.1b The Electromagnetic Spectrum 61 4.1b Types of Magnetic Materials 80
3.2 Photons and Photon Energy 62 4.2 Orbital Energy 81

3.2a The Photoelectric Effect 62 4.2a Orbital Energies in Single- and Multielectron Species 81
3.3 Atomic Line Spectra and the 4.3 Electron Configuration of Elements 82
Bohr Model of Atomic Structure 64 4.3a The Pauli Exclusion Principle 82
3.3a Atomic Line Spectra 64 4.3b Electron Configurations for Elements in Periods 1–3 83
3.3b The Bohr Model 65 4.3c Electron Configurations for Elements in Periods 4–7 87
4.3d Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 91
3.4 Quantum Theory of Atomic Structure 68
4.4 Properties of Atoms 93
3.4a Wave Properties of Matter 68
3.4b The Schrödinger Equation and Wave Functions 70 4.4a Trends in Orbital Energies 93
4.4b Atomic Size 95
4.4c Ionization Energy 97
3.5 Quantum Numbers, Orbitals, and Nodes 71
4.4d Electron Affinity 98
3.5a Quantum Numbers 71
3.5b Orbital Shapes 72 Unit Recap 100
3.5c Nodes 74
3.5d Orbital Energy Diagrams and Changes
in Electronic State 75
Unit Recap 76
Contents iv
5 Ionic and Covalent Compounds
5.1 Formation and Electron Configuration
103
6 Covalent Bonding
6.1 Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures
131
132
of Ions 104 6.1a Fundamentals of Covalent Bonding 132
5.1a Coulomb’s Law 104 6.1b Lewis Structures 133
5.1b Cations 105 6.1c Drawing Lewis Structures 134
5.1c Anions 109 6.1d Exceptions to the Octet Rule 137
5.1d Lewis Symbols 112
5.1e Ion Size 113 6.2 Properties of Covalent Bonds 139
6.2a Bond Order, Bond Length, and Bond Energy 139
5.2 Polyatomic Ions and Ionic Compounds 115 6.2b Bond Polarity 143
5.2a Polyatomic Ions 115 6.2c Formal Charge 146
5.2b Representing Ionic Compounds with Formulas 116
5.2c Naming Ionic Compounds 117 6.3 Resonance and Bond Properties 148
6.3a Resonance Structures 148
5.3 Covalent Compounds 118 6.3b Resonance Structures, Bond Order, Bond Length,
5.3a Introduction to Covalent Compounds 118 and Bond Energy 150
5.3b Representing Covalent Compounds with 6.3c Resonance Structures, Formal Charge, and
Molecular and Empirical Formulas 119 Electronegativity 151
5.3c Representing Covalent Compounds with
Molecular Models 122 Unit Recap 154
5.3d Naming Covalent Compounds (Binary Nonmetals
and Hydrocarbons) 122
5.3e Naming Covalent Compounds (Inorganic Acids) 124
5.3f Identifying Covalent and Ionic Compounds 127
Unit Recap 128
Contents
v
7 Molecular Shape and Bonding
Theories 157 8 Stoichiometry
8.1 Stoichiometry and Compound Formulas 196
195
7.1 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion 8.1a Molar Mass of Compounds and Element Composition 196
Theory and Molecular Shape 158 8.1b Percent Composition 199
8.1c Empirical Formulas from Percent Composition 200
7.1a VSEPR and Electron-Pair Geometry 158 8.1d Determining Molecular Formulas 202
7.1b Shape (Molecular Geometry) 161 8.1e Hydrated Compounds 204
7.1c Molecular Polarity 164
8.2 Stoichiometry and Chemical Reactions 206
7.2 Valence Bond Theory and Hybrid Orbitals 167
8.2a Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations 206
7.2a Two Theories of Bonding 167 8.2b Balancing Chemical Equations 208
7.2b sp3 Hybrid Orbitals 168 8.2c Reaction Stoichiometry 211
7.2c sp2 Hybrid Orbitals 171
7.2d sp Hybrid Orbitals 172
7.2e Hybrid Orbitals and Expanded Valence 175 8.3 Stoichiometry and Limiting Reactants 216
8.3a Limiting Reactants 216
7.3 Pi Bonding 177 8.3b Percent Yield 219
7.3a Formation of Pi Bonds 177

7.3b Pi Bonding in Ethene, C2H4; Acetylene, C2H2;
8.4 Chemical Analysis 221
and Allene, CH2CCH2 179 8.4a Determining a Chemical Formula 221
7.3c Pi Bonding in Benzene, C6H6 181 8.4b Analysis of a Mixture 226
7.3d Conformations and Isomers 182
Unit Recap 227
7.4 Molecular Orbital Theory 185
7.4a Sigma Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals 185
7.4b Pi Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals 186
7.4c Molecular Orbital Diagrams (H2 and He2) 186
7.4d Molecular Orbital Diagrams 187
7.4e Molecular Orbital Diagrams (Heteronuclear Diatomics) 190
7.4f Molecular Orbital Diagrams (More Complex Molecules) 191
Unit Recap 192
Contents vi
9 Chemical Reactions and Solution
Stoichiometry 229 10 Thermochemistry
10.1 Energy
271
272
9.1 Types of Chemical Reactions 230 10.1a Energy and Energy Units 272
10.1b Principles of Thermodynamics 273
9.1a Combination and Decomposition Reactions 230
9.1b Displacement Reactions 231
10.2 Enthalpy 275
9.2 Aqueous Solutions 233 10.2a Enthalpy 275
10.2b Representing Energy Change 277
9.2a Compounds in Aqueous Solution 233
9.2b Solubility of Ionic Compounds 235
10.3 Energy, Temperature Changes,
9.3 Reactions in Aqueous Solution 237 and Changes of State 278
9.3a Precipitation Reactions and Net Ionic Equations 237 10.3a Heat Transfer and Temperature Changes: Specific
9.3b Acid–Base Reactions 240 Heat Capacity 278
9.3c Gas-Forming Reactions 244 10.3b Heat Transfer between Substances: Thermal
Equilibrium and Temperature Changes 281
10.3c Energy, Changes of State, and Heating Curves 283
9.4 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 246
9.4a Oxidation and Reduction 246 10.4 Enthalpy Changes and Chemical Reactions 287
9.4b Oxidation Numbers and Oxidation States 247
9.4c Recognizing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 249 10.4a Enthalpy Change for a Reaction 287
10.4b Enthalpy Change and Chemical Equations 288
10.4c Bond Energy and Enthalpy of Reaction 290
9.5 Stoichiometry of Reactions 10.4d Constant-Pressure Calorimetry 291
in Aqueous Solution 251 10.4e Constant-Volume Calorimetry 293
9.5a Solution Concentration and Molarity 251
9.5b Preparing Solutions of Known Concentration 254 10.5 Hess’s Law 295
9.5c Solution Stoichiometry 258
10.5a Hess’s Law 295
9.5d Titrations (Part 1) 260
9.5e Titrations (Part 2) 264
10.6 Standard Heats of Reaction 297
Unit Recap 266 10.6a Standard Heat of Formation 297
10.6b Using Standard Heats of Formation 301
Unit Recap 304
vii
11 Gases
11.1 Properties of Gases
307
308
12 Intermolecular Forces and
the Liquid State 339
11.1a Overview of Properties of Gases 308 12.1 Kinetic Molecular Theory,
11.1b Pressure 309 States of Matter, and Phase Changes 340
12.1a Condensed Phases and Intermolecular Forces 340
11.2 Historical Gas Laws 311 12.1b Phase Changes 342
11.2a Boyle’s Law: P 3 V 5 kB 311 12.1c Enthalpy of Vaporization 343
11.2b Charles’s Law: V 5 kC 3 T 312
11.2c Avogadro’s Law: V 5 kA 3 n 314 12.2 Vapor Pressure 344
12.2a Dynamic Equilibrium and Vapor Pressure 344
11.3 The Combined and Ideal Gas Laws 316 12.2b Effect of Temperature and Intermolecular Forces
11.3a The Combined Gas Law 316 on Vapor Pressure 346
11.3b The Ideal Gas Law 317 12.2c Boiling Point 349
11.3c The Ideal Gas Law, Molar Mass, and Density 318 12.2d Mathematical Relationship between
Vapor Pressure and Temperature 352
11.4 Partial Pressure and Gas Law
Stoichiometry 321 12.3 Other Properties of Liquids 354
11.4a Introduction to Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 321 12.3a Surface Tension 354
11.4b Partial Pressure and Mole Fractions of Gases 323 12.3b Viscosity 356
11.4c Gas Laws and Stoichiometry 324 12.3c Capillary Action 356
11.5 Kinetic Molecular Theory 326 12.4 The Nature of Intermolecular Forces 357
11.5a Kinetic Molecular Theory and the Gas Laws 326 12.4a Dipole–Dipole Intermolecular Forces 357
11.5b Molecular Speed, Mass, and Temperature 328 12.4b Dipole–Induced Dipole Forces 359
11.5c Gas Diffusion and Effusion 331 12.4c Induced Dipole–Induced Dipole Forces 360
11.5d Nonideal Gases 333
12.5 Intermolecular Forces
Unit Recap 336 and the Properties of Liquids 361
12.5a Effect of Polarizability on Physical Properties 361
12.5b Effect of Hydrogen Bonding on Physical Properties 362
12.5c Quantitative Comparison of Intermolecular Forces 364
Unit Recap 367
Contents viii
13 The Solid State
13.1 Introduction to Solids
371
372
14 Chemical Mixtures: Solutions and
Other Mixtures 411
13.1a Types of Solids 372 14.1 Quantitative Expressions
13.1b The Unit Cell 373 of Concentration 412
14.1a Review of Solubility 412
13.2 Metallic Solids 376 14.1b Concentration Units 413
13.2a Simple Cubic Unit Cell 376
13.2b Body-Centered Cubic Structure 377 14.2 Inherent Control of Solubility 417
13.2c Closest-Packed Structure 378
13.2d X-ray Diffraction 382 14.2a Entropy and Thermodynamic Control
of Chemical Processes 417
14.2b Gas–Gas Mixtures 419
13.3 Ionic Solids 384 14.2c Liquid–Liquid Mixtures 421
13.3a Holes in Cubic Unit Cells 384 14.2d Solid–Liquid Mixtures 423
13.3b Cesium Chloride and Sodium Chloride Structures 388
13.3c Zinc Blende (ZnS) Structure 391 14.3 External Control of Solubility 426
13.3d Complex Solids 392
14.3a Pressure Effects: Solubility of Gases in Liquids 426
14.3b Effect of Temperature on Solubility 428
13.4 Bonding in Metallic and Ionic Solids 394
13.4a Band Theory 394 14.4 Colligative Properties 430
13.4b Lattice Energy and Born–Haber Cycles 396
14.4a Osmotic Pressure 430
14.4b Vapor Pressure Lowering 435
13.5 Phase Diagrams 399 14.4c Boiling Point Elevation 437
13.5a Phase Changes Involving Solids 399 14.4d Freezing Point Depression 439
13.5b Phase Diagrams 400
14.5 Other Types of Mixtures 441
Unit Recap 406 14.5a Alloys 441
14.5b Colloids 442
Unit Recap 445
ix
15 Chemical Kinetics
15.1 Introduction to Kinetics
449
450
16 Chemical Equilibrium
16.1 The Nature of the Equilibrium State
497
498
15.1a Factors That Influence Reactivity 450 16.1a Principle of Microscopic Reversibility 498
15.1b Collision Theory 451 16.1b The Equilibrium State 499
15.2 Expressing the Rate of a Reaction 453 16.2 The Equilibrium Constant, K 501
15.2a Average Rate and Reaction Stoichiometry 453 16.2a Equilibrium Constants 501
15.2b Instantaneous and Initial Rates 456 16.2b Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions 503
16.2c Manipulating Equilibrium Constant Expressions 506
15.3 Rate Laws 456
16.3 Using Equilibrium Constants
15.3a Concentration and Reaction Rate 456
15.3b Determining Rate Law Using the Method in Calculations 509
of Initial Rates 459 16.3a Determining an Equilibrium Constant
Using Experimental Data 509
15.4 Concentration Changes over Time 462 16.3b Determining Whether a System Is at Equilibrium 511
16.3c Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 513
15.4a Integrated Rate Laws 462
15.4b Graphical Determination of Reaction Order 466
15.4c Reaction Half-Life 469 16.4 Disturbing a Chemical Equilibrium:
15.4d Radioactive Decay 471 Le Chatelier’s Principle 515
16.4a Addition or Removal of a Reactant or Product 515
15.5 Activation Energy and Temperature 472 16.4b Change in the Volume of the System 518
16.4c Change in Temperature 520
15.5a Reaction Coordinate Diagrams 472
15.5b The Arrhenius Equation 477
15.5c Graphical Determination of Ea 479 Unit Recap 523
15.6 Reaction Mechanisms and Catalysis 480

15.6a The Components of a Reaction Mechanism 480
15.6b Multistep Mechanisms 483
15.6c Reaction Mechanisms and the Rate Law 486
15.6d More Complex Mechanisms 488
15.6e Catalysis 491
Unit Recap 493
Contents x
17 Acids and Bases
17.1 Introduction to Acids and Bases
527
528
18 Advanced Acid–Base Equilibria
18.1 Acid–Base Reactions
567
568
17.1a Acid and Base Definitions 528 18.1a Strong Acid/Strong Base Reactions 568
17.1b Simple Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases 529 18.1b Strong Acid/Weak Base and Strong Base/Weak
17.1c More Complex Acids 531 Acid Reactions 569
18.1c Weak Acid/Weak Base Reactions 571
17.2 Water and the pH Scale 532
18.2 Buffers 572
17.2a Autoionization 532
17.2b pH and pOH Calculations 536 18.2a Identifying Buffers 572
18.2b Buffer pH 574
17.3 Acid and Base Strength 538 18.2c Making Buffer Solutions 580
17.3a Acid and Base Hydrolysis Equilibria, Ka, and Kb 538

18.3 Acid–Base Titrations 585
17.3b Ka and Kb Values and the Relationship between
Ka and Kb 541 18.3a Strong Acid/Strong Base Titrations 585
17.3c Determining Ka and Kb Values in the Laboratory 545 18.3b Weak Acid/Strong Base and Weak Base/Strong
Acid Titrations 587
17.4 Estimating the pH of Acid 18.3c pH Titration Plots as an Indicator of Acid
or Base Strength 594
and Base Solutions 546
18.3d pH Indicators 596
17.4a Strong Acid and Strong Base Solutions 546 18.3e Polyprotic Acid Titrations 598
17.4b Solutions Containing Weak Acids 547
17.4c Solutions Containing Weak Bases 552 18.4 Some Important Acid–Base Systems 601
18.4a The Carbonate System: H2CO3/HCO3 /CO322
2
601
17.5 Acid–Base Properties of Salts 556
18.4b Amino Acids 602
17.5a Acid–Base Properties of Salts: Hydrolysis 556
17.5b Determining pH of a Salt Solution 558 Unit Recap 603
17.6 Molecular Structure and Control

of Acid–Base Strength 560
17.6a Molecular Structure and Control
of Acid–Base Strength 560
Unit Recap 563
xi
19 Precipitation and Lewis Acid–Base
Equilibria 607 20 Thermodynamics:
Entropy and Free Energy 631
19.1 Solubility Equilibria and Ksp 608 20.1 Entropy and the Three Laws
19.1a Solubility Units 608 of Thermodynamics 632
19.1b The Solubility Product Constant 609 20.1a The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 632
19.1c Determining Ksp Values 610 20.1b Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 633
20.1c Entropy and Microstates 634
19.2 Using Ksp in Calculations 612 20.1d Trends in Entropy 636
20.1e Spontaneous Processes 638
19.2a Estimating Solubility 612 20.1f The Third Law of Thermodynamics
19.2b Predicting Whether a Solid Will Precipitate
and Standard Entropies 640
or Dissolve 615
19.2c The Common Ion Effect 617
20.2 Calculating Entropy Change 642
19.3 Lewis Acid–Base Complexes 20.2a Standard Entropy Change for a Phase Change 642
and Complex Ion Equilibria 619 20.2b Standard Entropy Change for a Chemical Reaction 644
20.2c Entropy Change in the Surroundings 645
19.3a Lewis Acids and Bases 619
19.3b Complex Ion Equilibria 621
20.3 Gibbs Free Energy 647
19.4 Simultaneous Equilibria 623 20.3a Gibbs Free Energy and Spontaneity 647
20.3b Standard Gibbs Free Energy 649
19.4a Solubility and pH 623 20.3c Free Energy, Standard Free Energy,
19.4b Solubility and Complex Ions 624 and the Reaction Quotient 651
19.4c Solubility, Ion Separation, and Qualitative Analysis 625 20.3d Standard Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant 653
20.3e Gibbs Free Energy and Temperature 656
Unit Recap 628
Unit Recap 660
Contents xii
21 Electrochemistry
21.1 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions and
Electrochemical Cells
665
666
22 Organic Chemistry
22.1 Hydrocarbons
709
710
22.1a Classes of Hydrocarbons 710
21.1a Overview of Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 666 22.1b Alkanes and Cycloalkanes 712
21.1b Balancing Redox Reactions: Half-Reactions 668 22.1c Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 715
21.1c Balancing Redox Reactions in Acidic 22.1d Hydrocarbon Reactivity 719
and Basic Solutions 671
21.1d Construction and Components of Electrochemical 22.2 Isomerism 722
Cells 674
22.2a Constitutional Isomerism 722
21.1e Electrochemical Cell Notation 677
22.2b Stereoisomerism 723
21.2 Cell Potentials, Free Energy,

22.3 Functional Groups 725
and Equilibria 678
22.3a Identifying Functional Groups 725
21.2a Cell Potentials and Standard Reduction Potentials 678 22.3b Alcohols 726
21.2b Cell Potential and Free Energy 685 22.3c Compounds Containing a Carbonyl Group 730
21.2c Cell Potential and the Equilibrium Constant 686
21.2d Cell Potentials Under Nonstandard Conditions 688
21.2e Concentration Cells 691 22.4 Synthetic Polymers 730
22.4a Addition Polymerization 730
21.3 Electrolysis 692 22.4b Condensation Polymerization 731
22.4c Control of Polymer Properties 734
21.3a Electrolytic Cells and Coulometry 692
21.3b Electrolysis of Molten Salts 695
21.3c Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 698 22.5 Biopolymers 735
22.5a Carbohydrates 735
21.4 Applications of Electrochemistry: 22.5b Amino Acids 739
Batteries and Corrosion 700 22.5c Proteins 740
22.5d Nucleic Acids 742
21.4a Primary Batteries 700
21.4b Secondary Batteries 701
Unit Recap 745
21.4c Fuel Cells 703
21.4d Corrosion 704
Unit Recap 706
xiii
23 Applying Chemical P
rinciples to the
Main-Group Elements 749 24 The Transition Metals
24.1 Properties of the Transition Metals
773
774
23.1 Structures of the Elements 750 24.1a General Characteristics of Transition Metals 774
24.1b Atomic Size and Electronegativity 774
23.1a The Periodic Table 750
24.1c Ionization Energy and Oxidation States 776
23.1b Metals 751
23.1c Nonmetals 753
24.2 Isolation from Metal Ores 778
23.2 Oxides and Halides of the Nonmetals 756 24.2a Common Ores 778
24.2b Extraction of Metals from Ores 778
23.2a Nonmetal Oxides 756
23.2b Nonmetal Halides 758
24.3 Coordination Compounds:
23.3 Compounds of Boron and Carbon 759 Structure and Isomerism 781
23.3a Boron Compounds 759 24.3a Composition of Coordination Compounds 781

23.3b Elemental Carbon 760 24.3b Naming Coordination Compounds 784
23.3c Cave Chemistry 761 24.3c Stability and the Chelate Effect 787
23.3d Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming 762 24.3d Isomerism 788
23.4 Silicon 764 24.4 Coordination Compounds:

Bonding and Spectroscopy 791
23.4a Silicon Semiconductors 764
23.4b Silicates 765 24.4a Crystal Field Theory 791
23.4c Silicones 766 24.4b Molecular Orbital Theory 795
24.4c Spectroscopy 798
23.5 Oxygen and Sulfur in the Atmosphere 768
Unit Recap 800
23.5a Atmospheric Ozone 768
23.5b Sulfur and Acid Rain 770
Unit Recap 771
Contents xiv
25 Nuclear Chemistry
25.1 Nuclear Reactions
803
804
25.1a Nuclear vs. Chemical Reactions 804
25.1b Natural Radioactive Decay 805
25.1c Radioactive Decay and Balancing Nuclear Reactions 806
25.2 Nuclear Stability 810

25.2a Band of Stability 810
25.2b Binding Energy 813
25.2c Relative Binding Energy 815
25.3 Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 816

25.3a Rate of Decay 816
25.3b Radioactive Dating 818
25.4 Fission and Fusion 820

25.4a Types of Fission Reactions 820
25.4b Nuclear Fuel 822
25.4c Nuclear Power 824
25.5 Applications and Uses of Nuclear

Chemistry 826
25.5a Stellar Synthesis of Elements 826
25.5b Induced Synthesis of Elements 829
25.5c Nuclear Medicine 831
25.5d Radioactivity in the Home 832
Unit Recap 834

Reference Tables 837
Glossary 851
Index 864
xv
Acknowledgments
A product as complex as MindTap for General Chemistry: Atoms First could Bill and Susan would like to thank Jack Kotz, who has been a mentor to
not have been created by the content authors alone; it also needed a team both of us for many years. This work would also not have been possible
of talented, hardworking people to design the system, do the programming, without the support and patience of our families, particularly Kathy, John,
create the art, guide the narrative, and help form and adhere to the vision. John, and Peter.
Although the authors’ names are on the cover, what is inside is the result
We are grateful to the many instructors who gave us feedback in the form
of the entire team’s work and we want to acknowledge their important
of advisory boards, focus groups, and written reviews, and most of all to
contributions.
those instructors and students who tested early versions of MindTap
Special thanks go to the core team at Cengage Learning that guided us Chemistry in their courses.
through the entire process: Lisa Lockwood, Senior Product Manager;
Advisory Board
Brendan Killion, Associate Content Developer; and Rebecca Heider,
Content Developer. Thanks also to Beth McCracken, Senior Media Producer; Chris Bahn, Montana State University
Alexandra Purcell, Digital Content Specialist; Teresa Trego, Senior Content Christopher Collison, Rochester Institute of Technology
Cory DiCarlo, Grand Valley State University
Project Manager; and Ryan Cartmill, Senior Programmer.
Stephen Foster, Mississippi State University
This primarily digital learning environment would not have been possible Thomas Greenbowe, Iowa State University
without the talents of Bill Rohan, Jesse Charette, and Aaron Russell of Cow Resa Kelly, San Jose State University
Town Productions, who programmed the embedded media activities, and James Rudd, California State University, Los Angeles
Jessica Vanden Plas, Grand Valley State University
the entire MindTap Engineering Teams. Nor would it have been possible
without the continued effort of David Hart, Stephen Battisti, Cindy Stein, Class Test Participants
Mayumi Fraser, Gale Parsloe, and Gordon Anderson from the Center for Zsuzsanna Balogh-Brunstad, Hartwick College
Educational Software Development (CESD) team at the University of Jacqueline Bennett, SUNY Oneonta
Massachusetts, Amherst, the creators of OWL and the first OWLBook, who Terry Brack, Hofstra University
were there when we needed them most. Many thanks also go to Charles D. Preston Brown, Coastal Carolina Community College
Winters for filming the chemistry videos and taking beautiful photographs. Donnie Byers, Johnson County Community College
John Dudek, Hartwick College
We are grateful to Professor Don Neu of St. Cloud State University for his Deanna (Dede) Dunlavy, New Mexico State University
contributions to the nuclear chemistry chapter, and to the many instructors Dan Dupuis, Coastal Carolina Community College
who gave us feedback in the form of advisory boards, focus groups, and Heike Geisler, SUNY Oneonta
written reviews. We also want to thank those instructors and students who Victoria Harris, SUNY Oneonta
tested early versions of the OWLBook in their courses, most especially Gary Hiel, Hartwick College
Professors Maurice Odago and John Schaumloffel of SUNY Oneonta and Dennis Johnson, New Mexico State University
Thomas Jose, Blinn College
Barbara Stewart of the University of Maine who bravely tested the earliest
Kirk Kawagoe, Fresno City College
versions of this product.
Acknowledgments xvi
Kristen Kilpatrick, Coastal Carolina Community College Mark Schraf, West Virginia University
Orna Kutai, Montgomery College—Rockville Campus Sherril Soman, Grand Valley State University
Antonio Lara, New Mexico State University Matthew W. Stoltzfus, Ohio State University
Scott Lefurgy, Hofstra University Dan Thomas, University of Guelph
Barbara Lyons, New Mexico State University Xin Wen, California State University, Los Angeles
Larry Margerum, University of San Francisco Kurt Winkelmann, Florida Institute of Technology
Diana Mason, University of North Texas James Zubricky, University of Toledo
Don Neu, St. Cloud State University
Krista Noren-Santmyer, Hillsborough Community College Reviewers
Erik Ruggles, University of Vermont Chris Bahn, Montana State University
Flora Setayesh, Nashville State Community College Yiyan Bai, Houston Community College
Sherril Soman, Grand Valley State University Mufeed M. Basti, North Carolina A&T
Marjorie Squires, Felician College James Beil, Lorain County Community College
Paul Tate, Hillsborough Community College—Dale Mabry Campus Fereshteh Billiot, Texas A&M University—Corpus Christi
Trudy Thomas-Smith, SUNY Oneonta Jeffrey Bodwin, Minnesota State University Moorhead
John B. Vincent, University of Alabama Steven Brown, University of Arizona
Mary Whitfield, Edmonds Community College Phil Brucat, University of Florida
Matthew J. Young, University of New Hampshire Donnie Byers, Johnson County Community College
David Carter, Angelo State University
Focus Group Participants Allen Clabo, Francis Marion University
Linda Allen, Louisiana State University Beverly Clement, Blinn College
Mufeed M. Basti, North Carolina A&T Willard Collier, Mississippi State
Fereshteh Billiot, Texas A&M University—Corpus Christi Christopher Collison, Rochester Institute of Technology
Kristen A. Casey, Anne Arundel Community College Cory DiCarlo, Grand Valley State University
Brandon Cruickshank, Northern Arizona University Jeffrey Evans, University of Southern Mississippi
William Deese, Louisiana Technical University Nick Flynn, Angelo State University
Cory DiCarlo, Grand Valley State University Karin Gruet, Fresno City College
Deanna (Dede) Dunlavy, New Mexico State University Bernadette Harkness, Delta College
Krishna Foster, California State University, Los Angeles Carl Hoeger, University of California, San Diego
Stephen Foster, Mississippi State University Hongqiu Zhao, Indiana University—Purdue University Indianapolis
Gregory Gellene, Texas Technical University Richard Jarman, College of DuPage
Anita Gnezda, Ball State University Eric R. Johnson, Ball State University
Nathaniel Grove, University of North Carolina at Wilmington Thomas Jose, Blinn College
Bernadette Harkness, Delta College Kirk Kawagoe, Fresno City College
Hongqiu Zhao, Indiana University—Purdue University at Indianapolis Resa Kelly, San Jose State University
Edith Kippenhan, University of Toledo Jeffrey A. Mack, Sacramento State University
Joseph d. Kittle, Jr., Ohio University Larry Margerum, University of San Francisco
Amy Lindsay, University of New Hampshire Diana Mason, University of North Texas
Krista Noren-Santmyer, Hillsborough Community College Donald R. Neu, St. Cloud University
Olujide T. Akinbo, Butler University Al Nichols, Jacksonville State University
James Reeves, University of North Carolina at Wilmington Olujide T. Akinbo, Butler University
James Rudd, California State University, Los Angeles John Pollard, University of Arizona
Raymond Sadeghi, University of Texas at San Antonio
Acknowledgments Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
xvii
James Reeves, University of North Carolina at Wilmington Ray Trautman, San Francisco State
Mark Schraf, West Virginia University John B. Vincent, University of Alabama
Shawn Sendlinger, North Carolina Central University Keith Walters, Northern Kentucky University
Duane Swank, Pacific Lutheran University David Wright, Vanderbilt University
Michael Topp, University of Pennsylvania James Zubricky, University of Toledo
Acknowledgments xviii
About the Authors
1985, working on the modification of electrode surfaces with polymer-
bound redox catalysts. After three years working in industry for S.C.
Johnson and Son (Johnson Wax) in Racine, Wisconsin, he became an as-
sistant professor of inorganic chemistry at Hartwick College and eventually
department chair. It was here that Bill started working on educational
software, first creating the set of simulations called Chemland. This led to
work with Jack Kotz on the first General Chemistry CD-ROM and a dis-
tance-learning course produced with Archipelago Productions. This work
led to a move to the University of Massachusetts, where he served as
Director of General Chemistry, which serves 1400 students every semester.
He was awarded the University of Massachusetts Distinguished Teaching
Award in 1999 and the UMass College of Natural Sciences Outstanding
Peter W. Samal
Teacher Award in 2003. At UMass, he also ran a research group dedicated

to developing interactive educational software, which included 15 profes-
sionals, graduate students, undergraduates, postdoctoral students, pro-
grammers, and artists. After nine years at UMass, Bill decided to move
Susan M. Young back to a primarily undergraduate institution and arrived at SUNY Oneonta,
Hartwick College where he now works with undergraduates, Cow Town Productions, and the
Susan Young received her B.S. in Chemistry in 1988 from the University UMass OWL team.
of Dayton and her Ph.D. in Inorganic Chemistry in 1994 from the
University of Colorado at Boulder under the direction of Dr. Arlan Roberta Day
Norman, where she worked on the reactivity of cavity-containing phosp- Professor Emeritus, University of Massachusetts
hazanes. She did postdoctoral work with Dr. John Kotz at the State
Roberta Day received a B.S. in Chemistry from the University of Rochester,
University of New York at Oneonta, teaching and working on projects in
Rochester, New York; spent 5 years in the research laboratories of the
support of the development of the first General Chemistry CD-ROM. She
Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, New York; and then received a
taught at Roanoke College in Virginia and then joined the faculty at
Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from the Massachusetts Institute of
Hartwick College in 1996, where she is now Professor of Chemistry. Susan
Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. After postdoctoral work spon-
maintains an active undergraduate research program at Hartwick and has
sored by both the Damon Runyon Memorial Fund and the National
worked on a number of chemistry textbook projects, including coauthor-
Institutes of Health, she joined the faculty of the University of
ing an Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry Interactive
Massachusetts, Amherst, rising through the ranks to Full Professor in the
CD-ROM with Bill Vining.
Chemistry Department. She initiated the use of online electronic home-
work in general chemistry at UMass, is one of the inventors of the OWL
William Vining system, has been either PI or Co-I for several major national grants for the
State University of New York at Oneonta development of OWL, and has authored a large percentage of the ques-
Bill Vining graduated from SUNY Oneonta in 1981 and earned his Ph.D. in tions in the OWL database for General Chemistry. Recognition for her
inorganic chemistry at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill in work includes the American Chemical Society Connecticut Valley Section
About the Authors Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
xix
Award for outstanding contributions to chemistry and the UMass College Forest, Illinois, and her Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Michigan State
of Natural Science and Mathematics Outstanding Teacher Award. Her University. She completed her graduate work at Argonne National Laboratory
research in chemistry as an x-ray crystallographer has resulted in the under the direction of Dr. Thom Dunning Jr. and was a post-doctoral fellow at
publication of more than 180 articles in professional journals. She is now the California Institute of Technology, working in the group of Professor
a Professor Emeritus at the University of Massachusetts and continues William A. Goddard III. She taught at Southwest State University in Minnesota
her work on the development of electronic learning environments for and Wittenberg University in Ohio before joining the faculty at the University
chemistry. of Massachusetts in 1988. She received the UMass College of Natural Science
and Mathematics Outstanding Teacher Award in 1999. She is one of the inven-
Beatrice Botch tors of OWL, and she authored questions in OWL for General Chemistry. She
University of Massachusetts has been principal investigator and co-investigator on a number of grants and
Beatrice Botch is the Director of General Chemistry at the University of contracts related to OWL development and dissemination and continues to
Massachusetts. She received her B.A. in Chemistry from Barat College in Lake develop learning materials in OWL to help students succeed in chemistry.
About the Authors xx
To the Student
Welcome to a new integrated approach to chemistry. Chemistry is a con- uses of traditional written explanations, with interactive activities to help
tinually evolving science that examines and manipulates the world on the you learn the central concepts of chemistry and how to use those concepts
atomic and molecular level. In chemistry, it’s mostly about the molecules. to solve a wide variety of useful and chemically important problems. These
What are they like? What do they do? How can we make them? How do we readings and activities will represent your homework and as such you will
even know if we have made them? One of the primary goals of chemistry is find that your book is your homework, and your homework is your book. In
to understand matter on the molecular scale well enough to allow us to this regard, the interactive reading assignments contain integrated active
predict which chemical structures will yield particular properties, and the versions of important figures and tables, reading comprehension questions,
insight to be able to synthesize those structures. and suites of problem solving examples that give you step-by-step tutorial
help, recorded “video solutions” to important problems, and practice prob-
In this first-year course you will learn about atoms and how they form mol-
lems with rich feedback that allow you to practice a problem type multiple
ecules and other larger structures. You will use molecular structure and the
times using different chemical examples. In addition to the interactive
ways atoms bond together to explain the chemical and physical properties
reading assignments, there are additional OWL problems designed to so-
of matter on the molecular and bulk scales, and in many cases you will learn
lidify your understanding of each section as well as end-of-chapter
to predict these behaviors. One of the most challenging and rewarding as-
assignments.
pects of chemistry is that we describe and predict bulk, human scale prop-
erties through an understanding of particles that are so very tiny they The authors of the OWLBook have decades of experience teaching chem-
cannot be seen even with the most powerful optical microscope. So, when istry, talking with students, and developing online chemistry learning sys-
we see things happen in the world, we translate and imagine what must be tems. For us, this work represents our latest effort to help students beyond
occurring to the molecules that we can’t ever see. our own classrooms and colleges. All in all, we hope that your time with us
is rewarding and we wish you the best of luck.
Our integrated approach is designed to be one vehicle in your learning; it
represents a new kind of learning environment built by making the best
To the Student Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
xxi
1
Unit Outline
1.1
1.2
1.3
Chemistry: Matter
on the Atomic Scale
What Is Chemistry?
Classification of Matter
Units and Measurement
1.4 Unit Conversions
In This Unit…
This unit introduces atoms and molecules, the fundamental compo-
nents of matter, along with the different types of structures they can
make when they join together and the types of changes they undergo.
We also describe some of the tools scientists use to describe, classify,
and measure matter.
AlbertSmirnov/iStockphoto.com
1.1 What Is Chemistry?
1.1a The Scale of Chemistry
Chemistry is the study of matter, its transformations, and how it behaves. We define
matter as any physical substance that occupies space and has mass. Matter consists of
atoms and molecules, and it is at the atomic and molecular levels that chemical transforma-
tions take place.
Different fields of science examine the world at different levels of detail (Interactive
Figure 1.1.1).
Interactive Figure 1.1.1

Understand the scale of science.
Macroscale Microscale Nanoscale
13103 m 13100 m 1310–3 m 1310–6 m 1310–9 m 1310–12 m

1 km 1m 1 mm 1 mm 1 nm 1 pm
Sheet of Thickness Plant Virus Atom

paper of CD cell Bacterial Aspirin Water
Empire Height of Width of cell molecule molecule
State human AA battery
Building
The macroscopic, microscopic, and atomic scales in different fields of science
When describing matter that can be seen with the naked eye, scientists are working on
the macroscopic scale. Chemists use the atomic scale (sometimes called the nanoscale
or the molecular scale) when describing individual atoms or molecules. In general, in
chemistry we make observations at the macroscopic level and we describe and explain
chemical processes on the atomic level. That is, we use our macroscopic scale observations
to explain atomic scale properties.
Unit 1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 2
Example Problem 1.1.1 Differentiate between the macroscopic and atomic scales.
Classify each of the following as matter that can be measured or observed on either the
macroscopic or atomic scale.
a. An RNA molecule
b. A mercury atom
c. A sample of liquid mercury
Solution:
You are asked to identify whether a substance can be measured or observed on the macro-
scopic or atomic scale.
You are given the identity of the substance.
a. Atomic scale. An RNA molecule is too small to be seen with the naked eye or with an optical
microscope.
b. Atomic scale. Individual atoms cannot be seen with the naked eye or with an optical
microscope.
c. Macroscopic scale. Liquid mercury can be seen with the naked eye.
Video Solution 1.1.1
1.1b Measuring Matter

Chemistry is an experimental science that involves designing thoughtful experiments
and making careful observations of macroscopic amounts of matter. Everything that is
known about how atoms and molecules interact has been learned through making careful
observations on the macroscopic scale and inferring what those observations must mean
about atomic scale objects.
For example, careful measurement of the mass of a chemical sample before and after
it is heated provides information about the chemical composition of a substance. Observ-
ing how a chemical sample behaves in the presence of a strong magnetic field such as that
found in a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner provides information about how
molecules and atoms are arranged in human tissues.
An important part of chemistry and science in general is the concept that all ideas are
open to challenge. When we perform measurements on chemical substances and interpret
the results in terms of atomic scale properties, we must always examine the results to see
if there are alternative ways to interpret the data. This method of investigation, called the
scientific method, ensures that information about the chemical properties and behavior
of matter is supported by the results of many different experiments.

The scientific method consists of the following steps:
1. Choose a system to study. Determine what is already known about it, and then begin Apply the scientific method.
by doing experiments and making careful observations.
2. Propose one or more scientific hypotheses, tentative statements that could possibly
explain an observation and predict future observations. (If a clear pattern is observed
over many experiments, scientists might summarize the pattern in a scientific law, a
concise verbal or mathematical statement that describes a consistent relationship but
does not necessarily explain why the pattern of behavior occurs.)
3. Design and perform experiments to test the hypotheses. If the hypotheses are true,
these experiments will lead to the predicted results.
4. Use experimental results to confirm or revise existing hypotheses, generate new
hypotheses, and/or design further experiments to test the hypotheses.
5. After extensive experimentation and study, use one or more tested hypotheses to
propose a scientific theory. Theories continue to be tested as new systems are
designed, discovered, and studied. If a theory does not stand up to experimentation, it
must be revised or discarded, or it could be understood to be useful only within certain
limitations.
A vigorous reaction occurs when
Interactive Figure 1.1.2 shows a common chemistry demonstration that can be used to
a red gummi bear is mixed with
demonstrate the scientific method. molten potassium chlorate. How
would a scientist investigate this
chemical system?
1.2 Classification of Matter

1.2a Classifying Matter on the Atomic Scale
Matter can be described by a collection of characteristics called properties. One of the
fundamental properties of matter is its composition, or the specific types of atoms or
molecules that make it up. An element, which is the simplest type of matter, is a pure
substance that cannot be broken down or separated into simpler substances. You are
already familiar with some of the most common elements such as gold, silver, and copper,
which are used in making coins and jewelry, and oxygen, nitrogen, and argon, which are the
three most abundant gases in our atmosphere. A total of 118 elements have been identified,
90 of which exist in nature (the rest have been synthesized in the laboratory). Elements are
represented by a one- or two-letter element symbol, and they are organized in the periodic
table, which is shown in Atoms and Elements (Unit 2) and in the Reference Tables. A few
common elements and their symbols are shown in Table 1.2.1. Notice that when the symbol
for an element consists of two letters, only the first letter is capitalized.
Atoms Table 1.2.1 Some Common Elements
An atom is the smallest indivisible unit of an element. For example, the element aluminum and Their Symbols
(Interactive Figure 1.2.1) is made up entirely of aluminum atoms.
Name Symbol
Although individual atoms are too small to be seen directly with the naked eye or with
the use of a standard microscope, methods such as scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) Hydrogen H
allow scientists to view atoms. Both experimental observations and theoretical studies Carbon C
show that isolated atoms are spherical and that atoms of differ-
Oxygen O
Carbon, C ent elements have different sizes. Thus, the model used to rep-
Sodium Na
resent isolated atoms consists of spheres of different sizes. In
addition, chemists often use color to distinguish atoms of different Iron Fe
Oxygen, O
elements. For example, oxygen atoms are usually represented as Aluminum Al
red spheres, carbon atoms as gray or black spheres, and hydrogen
Hydrogen, H
atoms as white spheres.
Elements are made up of only one type of atom. For example,
Iodine, I the element oxygen is found in two forms: as O 2, in which two
oxygen atoms are grouped together, and as O3, in which three Interactive Figure 1.2.1
oxygen atoms are grouped together. Explore the composition of elements.
The most common form of oxygen is O2,
dioxygen, a gas that makes up about 21% of the
air we breathe. Ozone, O3, is a gas with a distinct
odor that can be toxic to humans. Both dioxy-
gen and ozone are elemental forms of oxygen
Dioxygen, O2 Ozone, O 3 because they consist of only one type of atom.
Compounds and Molecules

A chemical compound is a substance formed when two or more elements are combined
in a defined ratio. Compounds differ from elements in that they can be broken down
chemically into simpler substances. You have encountered chemical compounds in many
common substances, such as table salt, a compound consisting of the elements sodium and
chlorine, and phosphoric acid, a compound found in soft drinks that contains hydrogen,
oxygen, and phosphorus.
Charles D. Winters
Molecules are collections of atoms that are held together by chemical bonds. In mod-
els used to represent molecules, chemical bonds are often represented using cylinders or
lines that connect atoms, represented as spheres. The composition and arrangement of
elements in molecules affects the properties of a substance. For example as shown in Inter- A piece of aluminum
active Figure 1.2.2, molecules of both water (H2O) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) contain
only the elements hydrogen and oxygen.

Water is a relatively inert substance that is safe to drink in its pure form. Hydrogen per-
oxide, however, is a reactive liquid that is used to disinfect wounds and can cause severe
burns if swallowed. Explore the composition of compounds
Molecules can also be elements. As you saw above, elemental oxygen consists of both and molecules.
two-atom (dioxygen, O2) and three-atom (ozone, O3) molecules.
Example Problem 1.2.1 Classify pure substances as elements or compounds.

Classify each of the following substances as either an element or a compound. Water, H2O Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2
a. Si b. CO2 c. P4
Water and hydrogen peroxide are compounds containing
the elements hydrogen and oxygen
Solution:
You are asked to classify a substance as an element or a compound.
You are given the chemical formula of the substance.
a. Element. Silicon is an example of an element because it consists of only one type of atom.
b. Compound. This compound contains both carbon and oxygen.
c. Element. Although this is an example of a molecular substance, it consists of only a single
type of atom.
1.2b Classifying Pure Substances on the Macroscopic Scale

A pure substance contains only one type of element or compound and has fixed
chemical composition. A pure substance also has characteristic properties, measurable
qualities that are independent of the sample size. The physical properties of a
chemical substance are those that do not change the chemical composition of the
material when they are measured. Some examples of physical properties include
physical state, color, viscosity (resistance to flow), opacity, density, conductivity, and
melting and boiling points.
States of Matter
One of the most important physical properties is the physical state of a material. The three
physical states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas (Interactive Figure 1.2.3).
The macroscopic properties of these states are directly related to the arrangement
and properties of particles at the atomic level. At the macroscopic level, a solid is a dense
material with a defined shape. At the atomic level, the atoms or molecules of a solid are
packed together closely. The atoms or molecules are vibrating, but they do not move past
one another. At the macroscopic level, a liquid is also dense, but unlike a solid it flows
and takes on the shape of its container. At the atomic level, the atoms or molecules of a
liquid are close together, but they move more than the particles in a solid and can flow past
Distinguish the properties of the three states of matter.
Charles D. Winters
Representations of a solid, a liquid, and a gas
one another. Finally, at the macroscopic level, a gas has no fixed shape or volume. At the
atomic level, the atoms or molecules of a gas are spaced widely apart and are moving rap-
idly past one another. The particles of a gas do not strongly interact with one another, and
they move freely until they collide with one another or with the walls of the container.
The physical state of a substance can change when energy, often in the form of heat,
is added or removed. When energy is added to a solid, the temperature at which the solid
is converted to a liquid is the melting point of the substance. The conversion of liquid to
solid occurs at the same temperature as energy is removed (the temperature falls) and is
called the freezing point. A liquid is converted to a gas at the boiling point of a sub-
stance. As you will see in the following section, melting and boiling points are measured in
Celsius (°C) or Kelvin (K) temperature units.
Not all materials can exist in all three physical states. Polyethylene, for example, does
not exist as a gas. Heating a solid polyethylene milk bottle at high temperatures causes it to
decompose into other substances. Helium, a gas at room temperature, can be liquefied at
very low temperatures, but it is not possible to solidify helium.
A change in the physical property of a substance is called a physical change. Physical
changes may change the appearance or the physical state of a substance, but they do not
change its chemical composition. For example, a change in the physical state of water—
changing from a liquid to a gas—involves a change in how the particles are packed together
at the atomic level, but it does not change the chemical makeup of the material.

Chemical Properties Interactive Figure 1.2.4
The chemical properties of a substance are those that involve a chemical change in the
material and often involve a substance interacting with other chemicals. For example, a Investigate the chemical properties
chemical property of methanol, CH 3OH, is that it is highly flammable because the com- of methanol.
pound burns in air (it reacts with oxygen in the air) to form water and carbon dioxide
(Interactive Figure 1.2.4).
A chemical change involves a change in the chemical composition of the material.
The flammability of methanol is a chemical property, and demonstrating this chemical
property involves a chemical change.
Example Problem 1.2.2 Identify physical and chemical properties

and physical and chemical changes.
a. When aluminum foil is placed into liquid bromine, a white solid forms. Is this a chemical or
physical property of aluminum?
b. Iodine is a purple solid. Is this a chemical or physical property of iodine?
c. Classify each of the following changes as chemical or physical.
i. Boiling water
Charles D. Winters
ii. Baking bread
Solution:
You are asked to identify a change or property as chemical or physical.
You are given a description of a material or change. Methanol is a flammable liquid
a. Chemical property. Chemical properties are those that involve a chemical change in the
material and often involve a substance interacting with other chemicals. In this example,
one substance (the aluminum) is converted into a new substance (a white solid).
b. Physical property. A physical property such as color is observed without a change in the
chemical identity of the substance.
c. i. Physical change. A physical change alters the physical form of a substance without changing
its chemical identity. Boiling does not change the chemical composition of water.
ii. Chemical change. When a chemical change takes place, the original substances (the bread
ingredients) are broken down, and a new substance (bread) is formed.
1.2c Classifying Mixtures on the Macroscopic Scale

As you can see when you look around you, the world is made of complex materials. Much of
what surrounds us is made up of mixtures of different substances. A mixture is a substance
made up of two or more elements or compounds that have not reacted chemically.
Unlike compounds, where the ratio of elements is fixed, the relative amounts of differ-
ent components in a mixture can vary. Mixtures that have a constant composition through-
out the material are called homogeneous mixtures. For example, dissolving table salt in
water creates a mixture of the two chemical compounds water (H2O) and table salt (NaCl).
Because the mixture is uniform, meaning that the same ratio of water to table salt is found
no matter where it is sampled, it is a homogeneous mixture. Identify homogeneous and
A mixture in which the composition is not uniform is called a heterogeneous mixture. heterogeneous mixtures.
For example, a cold glass of freshly squeezed lemonade with ice is a heterogeneous mixture
because you can see the individual components (ice cubes, lemonade, and pulp), and the
relative amounts of each component will depend on where the lemonade is sampled (from
the top of the glass or from the bottom). The two different types of mixtures are explored
in Interactive Figure 1.2.5.
Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures can usually be physically separated into
individual components. For example, a homogeneous mixture of salt and water is separated
by heating the mixture to evaporate the water, leaving behind the salt. A heterogeneous
mixture of sand and water is separated by pouring the mixture through filter paper. The
sand is trapped in the filter while the water passes through. Heating the wet sand to evapo-
rate the remaining water completes the physical separation.
Like pure substances, mixtures have physical and chemical properties. These prop-
erties, however, depend on the composition of the mixture. For example, a mixture of
10 grams of table sugar and 100 grams of water has a boiling point of 100.15 °C, while a
mixture of 20 grams of table sugar and 100 grams of water has a boiling point of 100.30 °C.
Interactive Figure 1.2.6 summarizes how we classify different forms of matter in
chemistry.

Classify matter.
Matter
(materials)
Pure Physical processes

Mixtures
substances
Chemical Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Charles D. Winters
Elements Compounds mixtures
reactions (solutions) mixtures
A flow chart for the classification of matter
Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures

Example Problem 1.2.3 Identify pure substances and mixtures.
Classify each of the following as a pure substance, a homogeneous mixture, or a heterogeneous
mixture.
a. Copper wire
b. Oil and vinegar salad dressing
c. Vinegar
Solution:
You are asked to classify items as a pure substance, heterogeneous mixture, or homogeneous
mixture.
You are given the identity of the item.
a. Pure substance. Copper is an element.
b. Heterogeneous mixture. The salad dressing is a mixture that does not have a uniform com-
position. The different components are visible to the naked eye, and the composition of the
mixture varies with the sampling location.
c. Homogeneous mixture. Vinegar is a uniform mixture of water, acetic acid, and other com-
pounds. The different components in this mixture are not visible to the naked eye.
1.3 Units and Measurement

1.3a Scientific Units and Scientific Notation
Chemistry involves observing matter, and our observations are substantiated by careful
measurements of physical quantities. Chemists in particular need to make careful
measurements because we use those measurements to infer the properties of matter on the
atomic scale. Some of the most common measurements in chemistry are mass, volume, time,
temperature, and density. Measuring these quantities allows us to describe the chemical
and physical properties of matter and study the chemical and physical changes that matter
undergoes. When reporting a measurement, we use scientific units to indicate what was
measured. SI units, abbreviated from the French Système International d’Unités, are
used in scientific measurements in almost all countries. This unit system consists of seven
base units. Other units are called derived units and are combinations of the base units
(Table 1.3.1).
Metric prefixes are combined with SI units when reporting physical quantities in order
to reflect the relative size of the measured quantity. Table 1.3.2 shows the metric prefixes
most commonly used in scientific measurements.
Table 1.3.1 SI Units Table 1.3.2 Common Prefixes Used
Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol in the SI and Metric Systems
Base Units Prefix Abbreviation Factor

Length Meter m mega M 1,000,000 A106B
Mass Kilogram kg kilo k 1000 A103B
Time Second s deci d 0.1 A1021B
Electric current Ampere A centi c 0.01 A1022B
Temperature Kelvin K milli m 0.001 A1023B
Amount of substance Mole mol micro m 0.000001 A1026B
Luminous intensity Candela cd nano n 0.000000001 A1029B
Some Derived Units
pico p 0.000000000001 A10212B
Volume — m3 (cubic meter)
Density — kg/m3
Energy — J (joule)
When making and reporting measurements, it is important to use both the value and
the appropriate units. For example, in the United States, speed limits are reported in units
of miles per hour (mph). A U.S. citizen traveling to Canada might see a speed limit sign
reading 100 and assume the units are mph. This could be an expensive mistake, how-
ever, because speed limits in Canada are reported in units of kilometers per hour (km/h);
a 100 km/h speed limit is the equivalent of 62 mph.
Numbers that are very large or very small can be represented using scientific notation.
A number written in scientific notation has the general form N 3 10x, where N is a number
between 1 and 10, and x is a positive or negative integer. For example, the number 13433 is
written as 1.3433 3 104, and the number 0.0058 is written as 5.8 3 10 2 3 in scientific notation.
Notice that x is positive for numbers greater than 1 and negative for numbers less than 1.
To convert a number from standard notation to scientific notation, count the number of
times the decimal point must be moved to the right (for numbers less than 1) or to the left (for
numbers greater than 1) in order to result in a number between 1 and 10. For the number 13433,
13433.
the decimal point is moved four places to the left, and the number is written 1.3433 3 104.
When a number is less than 1, the decimal point is moved to the right, and the exponent (x)
is negative. For the number 0.0058,
0.0058

the decimal point is moved three places to the right, and the number is written 5.8 3 1023.
Notice that in both cases, moving the decimal point one place is the equivalent of multiply-
ing or dividing by 10.
To convert a number from exponential notation to standard notation, write the value of
N and then move the decimal point x places to the right if x is positive or move the decimal
point x places to the left if x is negative.
Example Problem 1.3.1 Write numbers using scientific notation.

a. Write the following numbers in scientific notation:
i. 0.0000422
ii. 9700000000
b. Write the following numbers in standard notation:
i. 7.22 3 106
ii. 2.5 3 10 23
Solution:
You are asked to convert between standard and scientific notation.
You are given a number in standard or scientific notation.
a. i. Moving the decimal point five places to the right results in a number between
1 and 10. The exponent is negative because this number is less than 1.
4.22 3 10 25
ii. Moving the decimal point nine places to the left results in a number between
1 and 10. The exponent is positive because this number is greater than 1.
9.7 3 109
b. i. Move the decimal point six places to the right.
7220000
ii. Move the decimal point three places to the left.
0.0025
1.3b SI Base Units

Length
The SI unit of length, the longest dimension of an object, is the meter (m). A pencil has
a length of about 0.16 m, which is equivalent to 16 centimeters (cm). Atomic radii can be
expressed using nanometer (nm) or picometer (pm) units. The definition of the meter is
based on the speed of light in a vacuum, exactly 299,792,458 meters per second. One meter
is therefore the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum during 1/299,792,458 of
a second.
Mass
The SI unit of mass, the measure of the quantity of matter in an object, is the kilogram (kg).
This is the only SI base unit that contains a metric prefix. One kilogram is equal to approximately
2.2 pounds (lb). In the chemistry lab, the mass of a sample is typically measured using units
of grams (g) or milligrams (mg). The kilogram standard is the mass of a piece of platinum-
iridium alloy that is kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
Temperature
Temperature is a relative measure of how hot or cold a substance is and is commonly
reported using one of three temperature scales. In the United States, temperatures are
commonly reported using the Fahrenheit temperature scale that has units of degrees
Fahrenheit (°F). In scientific measurements, the Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales are
used, with units of degrees Celsius (°C) and kelvins (K), respectively. Notice that for the
Kelvin temperature scale, the name of the temperature unit (kelvin) is not capitalized but
the abbreviation, K, is capitalized.
As shown in Interactive Figure 1.3.1, the three temperature scales have different
defined values for the melting and freezing points of water. Interactive Figure 1.3.1
In the Fahrenheit temperature scale, the freezing point of water is set at 32 °F and
Compare different temperature scales.
the boiling point is 180 degrees higher, 212 °F. In the Celsius temperature scale, the
Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin
freezing point of water is assigned a temperature of 0 °C and the boiling point of water is (8F) (8C) (K)
assigned a temperature of 100 °C. The lowest temperature on the Kelvin temperature
scale, 0 K, is 273.15 degrees lower than 0 °C. This temperature, known as absolute zero, Water boils 2128F 1008C 373.15 K
is the lowest temperature possible.
180 100
The Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales are similar in that a 1-degree increment is Fahrenheit Celsius 100
degrees degrees kelvins
the same on both scales. That is, an increase of 1 K is equal to an increase of 1 °C. Equa-
tion 1.1 shows the relationship between the Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales. Water freezes 328F 08C 273.15 K
T(°C) 5 T(K) 2 273.15 (1.1)

–408F –408C 233.15 K
The Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales differ in the size of a degree.
180 Fahrenheit degrees 5 100 Celsius degrees
9
Fahrenheit degrees 5 1 Celsius degree
5
Equation 1.2 shows the relationship between the Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature
Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin temperature scales
scales.
9
T(°F) 5 [ T(°C) ] 1 32 (1.2)
5

Example Problem 1.3.2 Interconvert Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin temperatures.
The boiling point of a liquid is 355.78 K. What is this temperature on the Celsius and
Fahrenheit scales?
Solution:
You are asked to convert a temperature from kelvin to Celsius and Fahrenheit units.
You are given a temperature in kelvin units.
Convert the temperature to Celsius temperature units.
T(°C) 5 T(K) 2 273.15
T(°C) 5 355.78 K 2 273.15 5 82.63 °C
Use the temperature in Celsius units to calculate the temperature on the Fahrenheit scale.
9
T(°F) 5 [ T(°C) ] 1 32
5
9
T(°F) 5 (82.63 °C) 1 32
5
T(°F) 5 180.73 °F
Is your answer reasonable? The Celsius temperature should be greater than zero because
the Kelvin temperature is greater than 273.15 K, which is equal to 0 °C. The Celsius tempera-
ture is close to 100 °C, the boiling point of water, so it is reasonable for the Fahrenheit tem-
perature to be 180.73 °F because this is close to the boiling point of water on the Fahrenheit
scale (212 °F).
1.3c Derived Units

Volume
Although the SI unit of volume (the amount of space a substance occupies) is the cubic
meter (m3), a more common unit of volume is the liter (L). Notice that the abbreviation
for liter is a capital L. A useful relationship to remember is that one milliliter is equal to
one cubic centimeter (1 mL 5 1 cm3 ).
Energy
Energy is defined most simply as the ability to do work. Work is defined in many ways, the
simplest definition being the force involved in moving an object some distance. Energy takes
many forms, such as mechanical, electrical, or gravitational. These are categorized into two
broad classes: kinetic energy, energy associated with motion, and potential energy,
energy associated with position. Some common types of kinetic and potential energy are
shown in Table 1.3.3.
Table 1.3.3 Types of Energy

Energy Source Kinetic or Potential?
Mechanical Bulk matter Both
Thermal Random motion and position of molecules Both
Electrical Charged particles Both
Chemical Structural arrangement of nuclei and Potential
electrons in atoms and molecules
Nuclear Structural arrangement of protons and Potential
neutrons within the atomic nucleus
Electromagnetic Disturbance in the electric and magnetic Both
(radiant) fields of space due to oscillating charged
particles
Most of the events we see around us involve conversion of energy from one form to another,
as shown in Interactive Figure 1.3.2. Interactive Figure 1.3.2
For example, the photocell in Interactive Figure 1.3.2 absorbs light (radiant energy) Recognize different types of energy.
and converts it into an electric current. That electric current is then used to drive a fan.
The energy conversions occurring are therefore:
radiant (kinetic and potential) S electrical (kinetic and potential) S mechanical (kinetic)
The SI unit of energy is the joule (J), which is equal to the energy required to acceler-
ate a 1-kg object using a force of one newton, the SI unit of force, over a distance of one
meter (1 J 5 1 kg · m2/s2). Another common energy unit is the calorie (cal), the energy
needed to raise the temperature of pure water by 1 degree Celsius. One calorie is equal to
Charles D. Winters
4.184 joules (1 cal 5 4.184 J). One dietary calorie (Cal) is equal to 1000 calories (1 Cal 5
1000 cal 5 1 kcal).
Density
A photocell drives this small fan
The density of a substance is a physical property that relates the mass of a substance to its
volume (Equation 1.3).
mass
density 5 (1.3)
volume
The densities of solids and liquids are reported in units of grams per cubic centimeter
(g/cm3) or grams per milliliter (g/mL), whereas the density of a gas is typically reported

in units of grams per liter (g/L). Because the volume of most substances changes with a
Table 1.3.4 Densities of Some Common
change in temperature, density also changes with temperature. Most density values are
Substances at 25 °C
reported at a standard temperature, 25 °C, close to room temperature. The densities of
some common substances are listed in Table 1.3.4. Substance Density (g /cm3)
Density can be calculated from mass and volume data as shown in the following Iron 7.86
example.
Sodium chloride 2.16
Example Problem 1.3.3 Calculate density. Water 1.00

Oxygen 1.33 3 1023
A 5.78-mL sample of a colorless liquid has a mass of 4.54 g. Calculate the density of the liquid
and identify it as either ethanol (density 5 0.785 g/mL) or benzene (density 5 0.874 g/mL).
Solution:
You are asked to calculate the density of a liquid and identify the liquid.
You are given the mass and volume of a liquid and the density of two liquids.
Use Equation 1.3 to calculate the density of the liquid.
mass 4.54 g
density 5 5 5 0.785 g>mL
volume 5.78 mL
The liquid is ethanol.
1.3d Significant Figures, Precision, and Accuracy

The certainty in any measurement is limited by the instrument that is used to make the
measurement. For example, an orange weighed on a grocery scale weighs 249 g. A standard
laboratory balance, however, like the one shown in Figure 1.3.3, reports the mass of the
same orange as 249.201 g.
In both cases, some uncertainty is present in the measurement. The grocery scale mea-
surement is certain to the nearest 1 g, and the value is reported as 249 6 1 g. The labora-
tory scale measurement has less uncertainty, and the mass of the orange is reported as
249.201 6 0.001 g. In general, we will drop the 6 symbol and assume an uncertainty of one
unit in the rightmost digit when reading a measurement. When using a nondigital measur-
ing device such as a ruler or a graduated cylinder, we always estimate the rightmost digit
when reporting the measured value. A digital measuring device such as a top-loading labo-
Charles D. Winters
ratory balance or pH meter includes the estimated digit in its readout.
Some measured quantities are infinitely certain, or exact. For example, the number
of oranges you have purchased at the grocery store is an exact number. Some units are
defined with exact numbers, such as the metric prefixes (1 mm 5 0.001 m) and the rela- Figure 1.3.3 A top-loading laboratory
tionship between inches and centimeters (1 in 5 2.54 cm, exactly). balance
The digits in a measurement, both the certain and uncertain digits, are called
s ignificant figures or significant digits. For example, the mass of an orange has three
significant figures when measured using a grocery scale (249 g) and six significant figures
when measured on a laboratory balance (249.201 g). Some simple rules are used to deter-
mine the number of significant figures in a measurement (Interactive Table 1.3.5). For
example, consider the numbers 0.03080 and 728060.
Interactive Table 1.3.5

Rules for Determining Significant Figures
1. All nonzero digits and zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
In 0.03080, the digits 3 and 8 and the zero between 3 and 8 are significant. In 728060,
the digits 7, 2, 8, and 6 and the zero between 8 and 6 are significant.
2. In numbers containing a decimal point,
a. all zeros at the end of the number are significant.
In 0.03080, the zero to the right of 8 is significant.
b. all zeros at the beginning of the number are not significant.
In 0.03080, both zeros to the left of 3 are not significant.
3. In numbers with no decimal point, all zeros at the end of the number are not significant.
In 728060, the zero to the right of 6 is not significant.
Thus, the number 0.03080 has four significant figures, and the number 728060 has five
significant figures.
Notice that for numbers written in scientific notation, the number of significant figures
is equal to the number of digits in the number written before the exponent. For example,
the number 3.25 3 10 24 has three significant figures, and 1.200 3 103 has four significant
figures.
Example Problem 1.3.4 Identify the significant figures in a number.

Identify the number of significant figures in the following numbers.
a. 19.5400 b. 0.0095 c. 1030
Solution:
You are asked to identify the number of significant figures in a number.
You are given a number.
a. All nonzero digits are significant (there are four), and because this number has a decimal
point, the zeros at the end of the number are also significant (there are two). This number
has six significant figures.
c

b
Example Problem 1.3.4 (continued)
b. All nonzero digits are significant (there are two), and because this number has a decimal
point, the three zeros at the beginning of the number are not significant. This number has
two significant figures.
c. All nonzero digits are significant (there are two), and the zero between the nonzero digits
is also significant (there is one). Because this number has no decimal, the zero at the end of
the number is not significant. This number has three significant figures.
When calculations involving measurements are performed, the final calculated result is
no more certain than the least certain number in the calculation. If necessary, the answer
is rounded to the correct number of significant figures. For example, consider a density
calculation involving a sample with a mass of 3.2 g and a volume of 25.67 cm 3. A standard
calculator reports a density of 0.124659135 g/cm3, but is this a reasonable number? In this
case, the least certain number is the sample mass with two significant figures, and the cal-
culated density therefore has two significant figures, or 0.12 g/cm3.
The final step in a calculation usually involves rounding the answer so that it has the
correct certainty. When numbers are rounded, the last digit retained is increased by 1 only
if the digit that follows is 5 or greater. When you are performing calculations involving mul-
tiple steps, it is best to round only at the final step in the calculation. That is, carry at least
one extra significant figure during each step of the calculation to minimize rounding errors
in the final calculated result.
When multiplication or division is performed, the certainty in the answer is related to
the significant figures in the numbers in the calculation. The answer has the same number
of significant figures as the measurement with the fewest significant figures. For example,
39.485 3 6.70 5 264.5495 Round off to 265
Number of significant figures: 5 3 3
0.029 4 1.285 5 0.022568093 Round off to 0.023
Number of significant figures: 2 4 2
When addition or subtraction is performed, the certainty of the answer is related to the
decimal places present in the numbers in the calculation. The answer has the same number
of decimal places as the number with the fewest decimal places. For example,
12.50 1 6.080 5 18.580 Round off to 18.58
Number of decimal places: 2 3 2
125.2 2 0.07 5 125.13 Round off to 125.1
Number of decimal places: 1 2 1
Exact numbers do not limit the number of significant figures or the number of decimal
places in a calculated result. For example, suppose you want to convert the amount of time
it takes for a chemical reaction to take place, 7.2 minutes, to units of seconds. There are
exactly 60 seconds in 1 minute, so it is the number of significant figures in the measured
number that determines the number of significant figures in the answer.
7.2 minutes 3 60 seconds/minute 5 430 seconds
Number of significant figures: 2 Exact number 2
Example Problem 1.3.5 Use significant figures in calculations.

Carry out the following calculations, reporting the answer using the correct number of signifi-
cant figures.
a. 18.3145211.3 3 10 2 3 2
25 1 273.15
b.
1.750
Solution:
You are asked to carry out a calculation and report the answer using the correct number of
significant figures.
You are given a mathematical operation.
a. The numbers in this multiplication operation have five (8.3145) and two 11.3 3 10 2 3 2
significant figures. Therefore, the answer should be reported to two significant figures:
18.3145211.3 3 10 2 3 2 5 0.011
b. This calculation involves both addition and division, so it must be completed in two steps.
First, determine the number of significant figures that result from the addition operation
in the numerator of this fraction. The first value, 25, has no decimal places, and the second
value, 273.15, has two decimal places. Therefore, the sum should have no decimal places
and, as a result, has three significant figures.
25 1 273.15 5 298
Now the division operation can be performed. The numbers in this operation have three
(298) and four (1.750) significant figures. Therefore, the answer should be reported to
three significant figures.
25 1 273.15
5 170.
1.750
When doing multistep calculations such as this one, it is a good idea to identify the correct
number of significant figures that result from each operation but to round to the correct
number of significant figures only in the last step of the calculation. This will help minimize
rounding errors in your answers. Video Solution 1.3.5

Along with the number of significant figures in a value, the certainty of a measurement
can also be described using the terms precision and accuracy. Precision is how close the
values in a set of measurements are to one another. Accuracy is how close a measurement Distinguish between precision
or a set of measurements is to a real value. Interactive Figure 1.3.4 demonstrates the rela- and accuracy.
tionship between precision and accuracy.
1.4 Unit Conversions

1.4a Dimensional Analysis
Quantities of matter, energy, or time can be expressed using different units. To make con-
versions between different units, we use conversion factors derived from equalities. For
example, the equality that relates hours and minutes is 1 hour 5 60 minutes. Both 1 hour
and 60 minutes represent the same amount of time but with different units. When an equal-
ity is written as a ratio, it is called a conversion factor.
We use conversion factors to change the units of a quantity without changing the
Charles D. Winters
amount using the method called dimensional analysis. In dimensional analysis, the origi-
nal value is multiplied by the conversion factor. Because both the numerator and the
denominator of a conversion factor are equal, the ratio is equal to 1, and multiplying by this
ratio does not change the original value; it changes only the units in which it is expressed. These darts were thrown with precision but
without accuracy
Interactive Table 1.4.1 shows some common conversion factors that can be used to
convert between U.S. and metric units.
Interactive Table 1.4.1

Some Useful Metric to U.S. Customary Conversion Factors.
Length 1 centimeter 5 2.54 inches (exactly)
1 meter 5 39.4 inches 5 3.28 feet 5 1.09 yards
1 kilometer 5 0.621 miles
Mass 1 gram 5 0.0353 ounces
1 kilogram 5 2.20 pounds
Volume 1 milliliter 5 0.0338 fluid ounces
1 liter 5 2.11 pints 5 1.06 quarts
As shown in Example Problem 1.4.1, you can use a conversion factor to express the
height of a typical classroom chair (32.1 inches) in units of meters.
Example Problem 1.4.1 Use dimensional analysis to convert units.

Using dimensional analysis, express 32.1 inches in units of meters.
Solution:
You are asked to express a quantity in different units.
You are given a number and an equality.
Step 1. Write the quantity in its current units and identify the desired new units:
32.1 inches 3 conversion factor 5 meters
Step 2. Identify an equality that relates the current units to the desired units and
write it as a ratio.
The equality 1 meter 5 39.4 inches can be written as a ratio in two ways:
1 meter 39.4 inches
or
39.4 inches 1 meter
Because our goal is to convert units of inches to units of meters, we will use the first form of
the conversion factor. Remember that we will multiply the original value by the conversion
factor. The first form of the conversion factor will allow the inches units to be cancelled in the
multiplication step.
Step 3. Multiply the original value by the conversion factor and make sure that the original
units are cancelled by the same units in the denominator. The desired units should appear in
the numerator.
1 meter
32.1 inches 3 5 ___________ meters
39.4 inches
Notice that the chair height will not change when we perform this multiplication because the
conversion factor is derived from an equality and is therefore equal to 1 (1 meter is equal to
39.4 inches).
Step 4. Perform the multiplication and cancel any units that appear in both the numerator
and denominator.
1 meter
32.1 inches 3 5 0.815 meters
39.4 inches
Notice that the answer is reported to three significant figures. Both the initial value and the
conversion factor have three significant figures.
Is your answer reasonable? One meter is the equivalent of 39.4 inches, so 32.1 inches is the
equivalent of slightly less than one meter.

1.4b Multistep Problem Solving
It is common to combine conversion factors in sequence to perform a unit conversion if you
are not provided with a single conversion factor that converts from the given unit to the
desired unit.
When solving a problem that involves multiple steps, it is often helpful to create a prob-
lem map that links each step (each unit conversion) in the solution. A problem map is a
step-by-step unit conversion map, where each step is a single unit conversion or a simple
mathematical operation. The key to creating a problem map is to focus on the units first,
either working forward from the information given in the problem or backward from the
units in the desired answer, as demonstrated in Interactive Figure 1.4.1.

Use problem-mapping in dimensional analysis.
8 minutes time, hours distance, miles
A problem map for converting time in minutes to a distance

in miles in two steps
Example Problem 1.4.2 shows a multistep dimensional analysis problem involving

three conversion factors.
Example Problem 1.4.2 Use dimensional analysis with more than

one conversion factor.
Using dimensional analysis, express the volume of soda in a soft drink can (12 oz.) in units of
milliliters. (1 gallon 5 128 oz.; 1 gallon 5 3.7854 L; 1 L 5 1000 mL)
Solution:
You are asked to express a quantity in different units.
You are given a number and an equality.
Step 1. Write the quantity in its current units and identify the desired new units.
12 oz. 3 conversion factor 5 ___________ mL
Step 2. Identify equalities that will convert the given units to the desired units and write
them as ratios.
c
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° ′ ° ′ ° ′
3 0 ·14 9 0 1·22 15 0 3·40
9 30 1·38 15 30 3·64
4 0 ·25 10 0 1·52 16 0 3·88
10 30 1·68 16 30 4·12
5 0 ·38 11 0 1·84 17 0 4·37
11 30 2·01 17 30 4·63
6 0 ·55 12 0 2·19 18 0 4·90
6 30 ·65 12 30 2·37 18 30 5·17
7 0 ·76 13 0 2·56 19 0 5·44
7 30 ·86 13 30 2·77 19 30 5·74
8 0 .98 14 0 2·97 20 0 6·08
8 30 1·10 14 30 3·18 20 30 6·33
The reduction for 100 feet (from the above table) multiplied by the
number of times 100 feet measured, will give the quantity to be
subtracted from the measured length of an inclination, to reduce it to
a horizontal position.
Table,
showing the rate of inclination of inclined planes, for the following
angles of elevation.
Angle. One in Angle. One in Angle. One in
° ′ ° ′ ° ′
0 15 228 3 30 17 7 0 8
0 30 114 3 45 16 7 30 7¼
0 45 76 4 0 15 8 0 7
1 0 56 4 15 14 9 0 6½
1 15 46 4 30 13 10 0 6
1 30 38 4 45 12 11 0 5¾
1 45 32 5 0 11½ 12 0 5½
2 0 28 5 15 11 13 0 5
2 15 26 5 30 10½ 14 0 4½
2 30 23 5 45 10 15 0 4
2 45 21 6 0 9½ 16 0 3¾
3 0 19 6 30 9 17 0 3½
3 15 18 6 45 8½ 18 0 3¼
Surveying, and Reconnoitring. J. W. Lowry, sc.

Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
SURVEYING, AND RECONNOITRING.
HEIGHTS, AND DISTANCES.
The accurate determination of heights, and distances of objects

being required in various military operations, especially for the
position of batteries, the following methods for their attainment will
be found useful when the requisite instruments are at hand; by
frequent practice, the eye should, however, be enabled to determine,
nearly, either the height of, or distance from any object.
HEIGHTS.
1.—BY MEANS OF A “POCKET SEXTANT,”
to ascertain the height of an object.
When the sextant is used for taking the height of objects, it is to be
held vertically, and the quicksilvered part of the horizon glass will be
on the left hand of the observer, or on the left part of the transparent
glass. Altitudes are measured in the same manner as horizontal
angles, for if we conceive the horizontal triangle A B C (vide Plate 2,
Fig. 2), to be raised on its base A C with the angle C next to the
observer, then the perpendicular A B becomes the height of the
object B; and supposing the object to stand on a horizontal plane,
then the ground and the object form the right angle at A; therefore, if
the object is accessible, the sextant need only be set at any of the
angles mentioned for distances (vide Art. Distances), and walking
backward on the line A C until the top of the object is brought down
to the height of the observer’s eye from the ground, then the
distance from where the observer stands to the object will be in the
same proportion to its height as the base was to the distance. Then
add the height of the eye from the ground, and the height of the
object will be ascertained. If the object is not accessible, the angle
must be taken, and calculated by trigonometry.
2.—BY MEANS OF A PORTABLE BAROMETER, AND THERMOMETER,

Observe the altitude (B) of the mercurial column in inches, tenths,
and hundredths, at the bottom of the hill, or other object, the height
of which is required.
Observe, also, the altitude (b) of the mercurial column at the top of
the object. Observe the temperature on Fahrenheit’s thermometer at
the times of the two barometrical observations, and take the mean
between them. Then 55000 × BB ×- bb = the height of the hill in feet, for
1
the temperature of 55 degrees on Fahrenheit. Add 440 of this result
for every degree which the mean temperature exceeds 55 degrees,
and subtract as much for every degree below 55 degrees. This will
be a good approximation when the height of the hill is below 2000
feet.
3.—BY MEANS OF THE RECONNOITRING PROTRACTOR,[51]

to measure the height of an inaccessible object.
[Plate, Surveying, and Reconnoitring, Fig. 1.]
Place yourself at a convenient distance from the object whose
height is required, taking care to have a good base line to the
second station. Hold the protractor vertically, with a steady hand, the
tube side uppermost, and bring the top of the object in a line with the
centre of the tube. Allow the arm (or index) to vibrate freely, and,
when steady, note the angular height of the object (shown by the
edge of the index on the marginal scale of degrees). By the aid of
points taken through the tube, or by pickets, then pace, or measure a
base in a direct line from the object; and, when arrived at the second
station, again note the angular height of the object.
Construction—
Set off the angles, and draw the respective lines, which, by their
intersection, will determine the height of the perpendicular, to which
the height of the protractor above the ground must be added for the
altitude of the object. By using the scale of the measured base line,
the height required will be ascertained, or it may be calculated by
“Trigonometry, without logarithms.”—Page 303.
To measure the height of an accessible object.

At an appropriate distance from the object, take its angular height
and measure the distance to its base.
Construction—
Draw a line representing this distance, at one end of which draw
another line at the angle found, and at the other erect a
perpendicular; the intersection of these lines will determine the
altitude of the object.
To measure the vertical height of a hill, or mountain.

[Fig. 3, Plate, Surveying, and Reconnoitring.]
From a station a short distance from the hill, take, and note down
its angular height; then select a rear position for a base line, using
the tube of the protractor to insure a straight direction; proceed to the
requisite distance on the base, and again note the altitude of the hill.
Construction—
The intersection of lines drawn from each end of the base line, at
the angles found, will determine the altitude; the perpendicular height
of which, added to that of the protractor above the ground, will give
the altitude required.
To measure the altitude of a tower, &c., on a height.

[Fig. 4, Plate, Surveying, and Reconnoitring.]
From the first station, near the base, take the altitude of the hill,
and also that of the tower above it, and note down these angles;
proceed to another station in a straight line with the former one,
measuring its length, and again observe the angular height of the
hill, and also that of the top of the tower.
Similarly to the previously described mode, ascertain, first, the
height of the hill; second, the height of the hill, and tower; deduct the
first calculation from the second, which will leave the height of the
tower.
In all the foregoing cases the heights may be correctly ascertained
by trigonometrical calculations (vide Trigonometry, without
logarithms, page 303).
4.—BY THE SHADOW OF THE OBJECT,

to ascertain the height.
Set up vertically a staff of known length, and measure the length of
its shadow upon a horizontal, or other plane; measure also the
length of the shadow of the object of which the altitude is required.
Then, by the property of similar triangles,
As the length of the shadow of the staff
is to the altitude of the staff,
so is the length of the shadow of the object
to the altitude of the object.
5.—WHEN THERE IS NO SHADOW,

to ascertain the height.
Place a staff (equal in length to the height of the observer’s eye)
vertically at such a distance from the foot of the required altitude,
that the observer, having laid himself upon his back, with his feet
against the bottom of the stick, may see the top of the staff, and
object in the same line. Then, by similar triangles, the height may be
readily ascertained.
6.—BY MEANS OF THE TANGENT SCALE OF A GUN,

to ascertain the height of an object, the distance being known.
Lay the gun for the top of the object the height of which is
required, then raise the tangent scale until the top of it, and the notch
on the muzzle are in line with the bottom of the object: then, by
similar triangles,
As the length of the gun
is to the length of the raised part of the tangent scale,
so is the distance from the gun to the object,
to the height required.
Plate 2.
Heights.
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Distances.
Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
Practical Geometry.
Fig. ½. Fig. 21. Fig. 22.
7.—BY MEANS OF TWO PICKETS,

[Vide 2nd Plate, Heights, and Distances, Fig. 1.]
Let two pickets C D (4 feet), E F (6 feet), be placed with their
bases in the line C A passing through A the height required, and
move them nearer to, or farther from each other, until the summit B
of the object is seen in the same line as D, and F, the tops of the
rods. Then, by the principles of similar triangles,
As D H (= C E) : F H :: D G (= C A) : B G.
To which add A G = C D for the whole height A B.
Thus, supposing C E to be 6 feet, F H 2 feet, and C A 150 feet, the
proportion will be,
As 6 : 2 :: 150 : 50 feet.
Then 50 + C D will be the altitude required.
DISTANCES.
1.—BY MEANS OF THE SEXTANT,[52]

to find the distance from an object, whose height is known.
Let A B represent the height of the object; C your station; and C B
the distance to be found.
Take the angle B C A with the sextant,[52] and note it in minutes;
then A B, in feet × 573 ÷ B C A, in minutes = A C in fathoms. Or A B
in feet × 573 ÷ B C A, in minutes × 2 = A C in yards.
573 is a constant multiple.
This method requires no table of sines, &c., the number of minutes
in the angle being used instead of the sine.
2.—BY MEANS OF A POCKET SEXTANT,

to measure inaccessible distances.
When used for taking the distance of objects, the sextant is to be
held horizontally, and the quicksilvered part of the glass will be
uppermost, or above the transparent part.
To ascertain the distance A B (vide Plate 2, Fig. 2), obtain, by
observation, the direction A C perpendicular to A B, which is thus
performed:—Set the instrument at 90°, and place yourself at the
point A, with your right towards the point B; then look through the
sextant, and direct a picket to be placed in the line A C at 100 yards,
or feet, from you, so that the point B will appear right above it. Then
set the sextant at 45°, and walk along the line towards C until you
bring the points A, and B to coincide; the base and perpendicular will
then be of equal length, and A C being known, or measured, the
distance A B will also be ascertained. But if you cannot walk far
enough to find angle C 45°, find it equal to 63° 26′, and then A C = ½
A B; at 71° 34′ = ⅓ A B; at 75° 58′ = ¼ A B; at 78° 41′ = ⅕ A B; at
80° 32′ = ⅙ A B; at 82° 52′ = ⅛ A B; and at 84° 17′ the distance will
be ⅒ A B.
Should the object be far distant, it will be necessary to take a long
base, and the side A B must be calculated, therefore, by
trigonometry.
3.—BY MEANS OF THE PRISMATIC COMPASS,

to measure inaccessible distances.
Having fixed the instrument to the stand, place it over the station-
point, spreading the legs so as to give sufficient firmness, and
observing that the card is level enough to allow it to play freely; raise
the prism by means of the slide, until the divisions of the compass-
card are distinctly seen; then look through the slit, and turn the box
round until the thread bisects the object whose distance is required;
allow the card to settle, and the division on it, which coincides with
the thread of the vane, will be the azimuth, or bearing of the object,
reckoned from the north, or south point of the needle, when the card
is divided into twice 180 degrees. The angular distance between any
two objects will, of course, be the difference of their bearings; thus,
suppose one to bear 15° N.E., and the other 165° S.E., the angular
distance between them will be 150°.
In military sketching, the compass is often supported merely by the
hands, using the little spring to check the vibrations of the card. In
windy weather, the mean of these vibrations must be taken for the
bearing sought.
The directions for surveying, &c., &c., by means of “The
Reconnoitring Protractor,” apply similarly to the “Prismatic
Compass.”
4.—BY MEANS OF “THE RECONNOITRING PROTRACTOR,”

to ascertain the distance from inacessible objects.
Select a good position for a base line; fix the protractor on the
tripod at the first station, placing the instrument in a direct line
between the first station and the point selected for the second
station. Direct the index consecutively at the objects, the relative
distances of which are to be ascertained, and note correctly their
respective angles. When the object is above the horizontal line, the
sliding-sight must be sufficiently raised to take its bearing; and,
should the object be below the level of the protractor, its angle may
be taken by observation through the upper holes of the near sight; or
the feet of the tripod may be adjusted, by raising, or sinking them in
the ground, so that the index may be correctly directed to the object.
Then proceed to the second station, measuring, or carefully pacing
the base line, at the end of which fix the protractor in a straight line
between the two stations; direct the index at the objects previously
noted at the first station, taking their respective angles as before.
Construction—
Draw the base of the length required, according to the scale; from
each end of which set off the angles found, and draw the lines
required; the intersection of these will determine the position of the
several objects, and their relative distances may be ascertained by
measurement on the scale of the base line; or they may be
calculated trigonometrically.
5.—BY MEANS OF TWO PICKETS,

to ascertain the distance from an object.
Take two pickets of unequal lengths, drive the shortest into the
ground, say close to the edge of a river; measure some paces back
from it, and drive in the other, till you find, by looking over the tops of
both, that your sight cuts the opposite bank. Pull up the first picket,
measure the same distance from the second in any direction the
most horizontal, and drive it as deep in the ground as before. Then, if
you look over them again, and observe where the line of sight falls,
or terminates, you will have the distance required. This method is
only applicable to short distances.
6.—To ascertain the distance of the object A from B.
[Vide Plate 2, Fig. 3.]
Place a picket at B, and another at C at a few yards’ distance,
making A B C a right angle, or B C perpendicular to A B.[53] Divide B
C into 4, 5, or any number of equal parts, make another similar angle
at C in a direction from the object, and walk along the line C D until
you bring yourself in a line with the object A, and any of the divisions
(say O) of the line B C. Then (having measured C D) as C O : C D ::
B O : B A.
Or, as 10 : 53 :: 30 : 159 yards.
7.—To find the distance between two objects, C, and D.

[Vide Plate 2, Fig. 4.]
From any point A, taken in the line C D, erect the perpendicular A
E, in which set off from A to E 40 yards, set off from E to G, in the
prolongation of A E, 10 yards, at G raise the perpendicular G F, and
produce it towards I, plant pickets at E, and G, then move with
another picket on G F, till F is in a line with E, and D; and on the
prolongation of the perpendicular F G place another picket at I in the
line with E, and C: measure F I (54 yards), then—
as G E : A E :: F I : C D;
Or, as 10 : 40 :: 54 : 216 yards.
8.—To find the inaccessible length, A, B, of the front of a fortification.

[Plate 2, Fig. 5.]
Plant a picket at C, from whence both points may be seen; find the
lengths C A, C B (by the method in No. 5); make C E one-fourth, or
any part of C B, and make C D bear the same proportion to C A:
measure D E; then
as C D : D E :: C A : A B.
Nearly in the same manner the distance from B to A may be
ascertained, when the point B is accessible; for having measured the
line C B, and made the angle C E D equal to C B A, the proportion
will be as C E : D E :: C B : B A.
9.—BY MEANS OF THE TANGENT SCALE OF A GUN,

to ascertain the distance, the height of the object at the required
distance being known.
Lay the gun by the line of metal for the top of the object; then raise
the tangent scale till the top of it and the notch on the muzzle are in
line with the foot of the object, and note what length of scale is
required.
Then,—by similar triangles—
As the length of the raised part of the tangent scale
is to the length of the gun;
so is the height of the distant object
to the distance required.
Thus, supposing the height of the object to be 9 feet, the length of
that part of the tangent scale which is raised, 3 inches, and of the
gun 6 feet, the proportion will be—
As 3 : 72 :: 108 : 2592 inches, or 216 feet.
10.—BY MEANS OF THE PEAK OF A CAP,

to measure the breadth of a river.
Place yourself at the edge of one bank, and lower the peak of your
cap till you find the edge of it cut the other bank, then steady your
head by placing your hand under your chin, and turn round gently to
some level spot of ground on your side of the river, and observe
where your eyes, and the edge of the peak again meet the ground;
measure the distance, which will be nearly the breadth of the river.
11.—BY THE REPORT OF FIRE-ARMS, TO ASCERTAIN THE DISTANCE

OF ANY OBJECT, vide Sound, page 316.
To estimate distances, in the field.
Good eyesight recognises masses of troops at 1700 yards;
beyond this distance the glitter of arms may be observed. At 1300
yards infantry may be distinguished from cavalry, and the movement
of troops may be seen; the horses of cavalry are not, however quite
distinct, but that the men are on horseback is clear. A single
individual detached from the rest of the corps may be seen at 1000
yards, but his head does not appear as a round ball until he has
approached up to 700 yards; at which distance white cross-belts,
and white trousers may be seen. At 500 yards the face may be
observed as a light coloured spot; the head, body, arms, and their
movements, as well as the uniform, and the firelocks (when bright
barrels) can be made out. At between 200 and 250 yards all parts of
the body are clearly visible, the details of the uniform are tolerably
clear, and the officers may be distinguished from the men.
Vide “United Service Magazine.”—No. CCCXXXI.
BY MEANS OF THE RECONNOITRING PROTRACTOR,
to traverse roads.
Fix the protractor on the tripod at the first station, placing it so that
the side tube may be in a direct line with the intended second
station. From each end of the tube observe the objects in sight (or
place pickets) in order to secure a straight line in pacing, or
measuring, from the first to the second station. Mark the distance
between the stations, and place the protractor, by means of the tube,
in a direct line with the first station. Then select the third station, and
direct the arm or index correctly to it (using the upper holes of the
near sight for a declivity, or raising the sliding-sight for an ascent);
note the angle thus found, and notice the objects in front, and rear (if
any, if not, place pickets) for points to enable you to pace towards,
and work with accuracy at the third station. Select station 4, place
the tube in line with the third, and second stations; note the bearing
of No. 4, and pace the distance to it. Proceed thus from station to
station, entering the angles, and distances in your note-book, as well
as the offsets (which must also be carefully measured) from the lines
taken, until the survey is completed.
Construction—
The day’s work will be easily plotted on paper, by setting off the
angles found, and drawing lines for the measured distances,
according to scale.
SOUND.
The movement communicated to the particles of air by the

vibrations of a sonorous body is the cause of the sensation of sound;
and it is because the particles are driven from the point of vibration in
every direction, as from a centre, that the sound is perceived at
once, everywhere within the surface of a sphere of a certain extent.
The velocity of sound; or the space through which it is propagated
in a given time, has been differently estimated by authors who have
written on this subject. Roberval states it to be at the rate of 560 feet
in a second; Gassendus at 1473; Mersenne at 1474; Duhamel at
1338; Newton at 960; Derham, in whose measure Flamsteed and
Halley acquiesce, at 1142. By accounts in the Memoirs of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, at Paris, 1738, where cannon were fired at
various distances, under many varieties of weather, wind, and other
circumstances, and where the measures of the different places had
been settled with the utmost exactness, it was found that sound was
propagated, on a medium, at the rate of 1038 French feet in a
second of time, which is equivalent to 1107 English feet, the French
foot being in proportion to the English as 15 to 16.
From various experiments made with great care by Dr. O. Gregory,
it has been found that sound flies through the air uniformly at the rate
of about 1100 feet per second, when the air is quiescent, and at a
medium temperature. At the temperature of freezing, or a little below,
the velocity is about 1120. The approximate velocities under different
temperatures may be found by adding to 1100 half a foot for every
degree on Fahrenheit’s thermometer above the freezing point. The
mean velocity may be taken at 370 yards per second, or a mile in 4-
7/9 second. Hence, multiplying any time employed by sound in
moving by 370, will give the corresponding space in yards, or
dividing any space in yards by 370 will give the time which sound will
occupy in passing uniformly over that space. If the wind blow briskly,
as at the rate of 20 to 60 feet per second, in the direction in which
the sound moves, the velocity of the sound will be proportionally
augmented; if the direction of the wind is opposed to that of the
sound, the difference of their velocities must be employed. The
velocity of sound is not affected by its intensity, the smallest sound
moving as rapidly as the loudest.
To ascertain the distance of any object by the report of fire-arms.

(Vide 11. Page 314.)
Multiply the number of seconds which elapse between the time of
seeing the flash, and hearing the report by 1100, and the product will
be the distance in feet, with sufficient accuracy for ordinary
purposes. If greater accuracy be required, this rule must be modified,
on account of the velocity, and direction of the wind, and state of the
thermometer.
Sound will be louder in proportion to the condensation of the air.
Water is one of the greatest conductors of sound; it can be heard on
water nearly twice as far as upon land.
GRAVITY.
Gravity is downward pressure, or weight, being the natural

tendency of all bodies towards the centre of the earth. (Vide Gravity,
Motion, Forces. Page 320.)
Absolute gravity denotes the whole force with which a body tends
downwards, as when the body is in empty space.
Specific gravity denotes the relative or comparative gravity of any
body, in respect to that of another body of equal bulk, or magnitude.
Centre of gravity is that point in a body, or system of bodies, on
which, if rested, or suspended, the whole would remain in a state of
equilibrium about that point.
The centre of gravity of a circle, regular polygon, prism, cylinder, or
sphere, is in its centre.
The centre of gravity of a triangle is found by bisecting any two of
its sides, and drawing lines from the points of bisection to the
opposite angles; the intersection of these lines will be the centre of
gravity.
Force of gravity, or gravitation, is an accelerated velocity, which
bodies acquire in falling freely from a state of rest.
1. The space through which a body will fall in feet, in any given time
equals the product of the square of the time multiplied by
16·0833.
Example.—Required the space a falling body will pass through in
five seconds?
16·0833 × 25 = 412·0825 feet.
2. The velocity in feet, which a body in descending freely will acquire
in a given time, equals the product of the time in seconds
multiplied by 32·1666.
Example.—What is the velocity acquired at the end of seven
seconds?
32·1666 × 7 = 225·1662 feet.
3. The velocity in feet per second that a body will acquire, in falling
through a given space, equals the square root of the product of
the time multiplied by 64·3333.
Example.—The space through which a body has fallen is 201 feet;
required its velocity at the end of the fall?
√64·3333 × 201 = √12931 = 1137 feet.
SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF SEVERAL SOLID, AND FLUID BODIES.

Air,[54] in a mean 1·232 Pitch 1150
state
Brass, cast 8000 Sand[54] 1520
Brick 2000 Silver, standard 10535
Coal[54] 1250 Steel 7850
Copper 9000 Stone, common 2520
Cork 240 Tin 7320
Clay 2160 Water,[54] rain 1000
Earth, common 1984 sea 1030
Flint 2570 Wood—alder 800
Gold, standard 18888 ash, the trunk 845
Gun metal 8784 beech 852
elm, and
Gunpowder—solid 1745 540
larch
fir, Riga, &
” loose 868 750
maple
pine, pitch &
Granite 3000 660
red
Iron, cast 7425 oak 950
Lead 11325 walnut 671
These numbers represent the weight of a cubic foot (or 1728 cubic
inches) of each of the bodies in ounces (avoirdupois).
To find the magnitude of any body from its weight.

As the tabular specific gravity of the body
is to its weight in avoirdupois ounces;
so is one cubic foot (or 1728 cubic inches)
to its content in feet, or inches, respectively.
To find the weight of a body, from its magnitude.

As one cubic foot (1728 cubic inches)
is to the content of the body;
so is its tabular specific gravity
to the weight of the body.
To find the specific gravity of a body.

1.—When the body is heavier than water.
Weigh it both in water, and out of water, and take the difference:
Then,—As the weight lost in water
is to the whole or absolute weight;
so is the specific gravity of water
to the specific gravity of the body.
2.—When the body is lighter than water, so that it will not sink,
annex to it another body heavier than water, so that the mass
compounded of the two may sink together. Weigh the denser body,
and the compound mass separately, both in water, and out of it; then
find how much each loses in water, by subtracting its weight in water
from its weight in air; and subtract the less of these remainders from
the greater.
Then,—As the last remainder
is to the weight of the light body in air;
so is the specific gravity of water
to the specific gravity of the body.
3.—For a fluid of any sort.
Take a piece of a body of known specific gravity, weigh it both in,
and out of the fluid, finding the loss of weight by taking the difference
of the two:
Then,—As the whole or absolute weight
is to the loss of weight;
so is the specific gravity of the solid
to the specific gravity of the fluid.
To find the quantities of two ingredients in a given compound.

Take the three differences of every pair of the three specific
gravities, namely, the specific gravities of the compound, and each
ingredient, and multiply each specific gravity by the difference of the
other two:
Then,—As the greatest product
is to the whole weight of the compound;
so is each of the other two products
to the weights of the two ingredients.
To find the diameter of any small sphere, or globule, whose specific

gravity is given (or can be found in the Table) and weight known.
Divide its weight in grains by the number expressing its specific
gravity; extract the cube root of this quotient, and multiply it by
1·9612 for the diameter.
WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT OF THE FOLLOWING MATERIALS,
in pounds.
Ash 49 Gravel 120

Beech 43 Granite 166
Brick,
Birch 49 98
common
Box 60 Chalk 145
Coal,
Cork 15 78
Newcastle
Elm 36 Antimony 418
Fir 30 Brass, cast 525
Mahogany,
50 Copper 538
Spanish
Pine, red 41 Gold, pure 1203
Iron, cast,
Teak 41 444
variable
Walnut 41 Lead 717

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1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 1

1.3 Units and Measurement 10 2.3 Atoms and Isotopes 40

Unit Recap 25 2.5a Avogadro’s Number and the Mole 53

3.2 Photons and Photon Energy 62 4.2 Orbital Energy 81

Unit Recap 128

7.3a Formation of Pi Bonds 177

Unit Recap 192

Unit Recap 304

Unit Recap 367

Unit Recap 445

15.6 Reaction Mechanisms and Catalysis 480

Unit Recap 493

17.3a Acid and Base Hydrolysis Equilibria, Ka, and Kb 538

17.6 Molecular Structure and Control

Unit Recap 563

21.2 Cell Potentials, Free Energy,

Unit Recap 706

23.3a Boron Compounds 759 24.3a Composition of Coordination Compounds 781

23.4 Silicon 764 24.4 Coordination Compounds:

Unit Recap 771

25.2 Nuclear Stability 810

25.3 Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 816

25.4 Fission and Fusion 820

25.5 Applications and Uses of Nuclear

Unit Recap 834

Teacher Award in 2003. At UMass, he also ran a research group dedicated

About the Authors xx

Interactive Figure 1.1.1

13103 m 13100 m 1310–3 m 1310–6 m 1310–9 m 1310–12 m

Sheet of Thickness Plant Virus Atom

The macroscopic, microscopic, and atomic scales in different fields of science

Unit 1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 2

1.1b Measuring Matter

Unit 1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 3

1.2 Classification of Matter

Unit 1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 4

Compounds and Molecules

Unit 1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 5

Example Problem 1.2.1 Classify pure substances as elements or compounds.

1.2b Classifying Pure Substances on the Macroscopic Scale

Unit 1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 6

Unit 1 Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale 7

Example Problem 1.2.2 Identify physical and chemical properties