Todo Acero

CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
PROFESSOR:
CARLOS ENRIQUE NUNGARAY PÉREZ
BS, MSc, PhD Candidate
Office 1: A4-136A Tel. 8328-4213 Ext. 108
Office 2: LD-206E 8358-2000 Ext. 5377
E-mail: carlos.nungaray@itesm.mx
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
ITESM – TECNOLÓGICO DE MONTERREY
JANUARY-MAY, 2011 CARLOS ENRIQUE NUNGARAY PÉREZ 1
BEFORE WE START…
TURN OFF YOUR CELL PHONE

(PENALTIES DUE TO THE USE OF YOUR
CELL PHONE IN CLASS WILL BE
DETAILED LATER)
1
SESSION 1
CONTENTS, POLICIES, AND

GENERALITIES
Structural Design
Paraphrasing Hardy Cross:
First design the structure using your best

judgement, then analyze the structure. If your
numbers do not support your design, then re-
evaluate your numbers. If the numbers still do
not support your design, then evaluate where
your judgement may be in error
2
Course Objectives
1. To apply the basic knowledge of Solid Mechanics and
Structural Analysis to analyze and design structural
steel members including:
1. Tension
2. Compression
3. Bending
4. Combined axial load and bending
5. Simple connections
2. Establish the bases for the study of the design of steel
structures in a later course (CV00-896 Design of Steel
Structures).
Design Code
The designs will be based on the concept of limit
states and the specifications of the American
Institute of Steel Construction (AISC, 13th
Edition of the Steel Construction Manual, 2005).
3
Course Sessions
Session 1: Course Contents, Policies, and
Generalities
Session 2: Design Methods
Session 3: Structural Steel
Session 4: Design of Members for Tension:
Chapter D of AISC Specifications
Example 1
Example 2
Course Sessions
Session 12: Design Example #1 of a Doubly
Symmetric Column
Session 13: Design Example #2 of a Doubly
Symmetric Column
Session 14: Local Buckling and Flexural-
Torsional Buckling
Session 15: Example: Flexural-Torsional
Buckling without Local Buckling
Session 16: Example: Flexural-Torsional
Buckling with Local Buckling
4
Course Sessions
Session 17: Design of Members for Flexure
Session 18: Design of Laterally Supported
Beams in Bending About their Major Axis by
Elastic Analysis
Session 19: Design of Laterally Unsupported
Beams in Bending About their Major Axis by
Elastic Analysis
Session 20: Introduction to Plastic Analysis
Session 21: Plastic Design of Laterally
Supported Beams
Course Sessions
Session 22: Elasto-plastic analysis and Plastic
Design of Laterally Unsupported Beams
Session 23: Introduction to the Design of
Members subjected to the Combined Effects of
Bending and Axial Force
Session 24: Design of Beam-Columns
Session 25: Design of Beam-Columns Using
Appendix 7 of the AISC Manual, 13th Edition
5
Course Contents
1. Module 1: Generalities.
2. Module 2: Tension Members.
3. Module 3: Simple Welded/Bolted Connections.
4. Module 4: Compression Members.
5. Module 5: Beams.
6. Module 6: Beam - Columns.
Methodology
1. Explanation, given by the professor, of the theoretical
bases corresponding to each subject of the course.
2. In-class problem solution.
3. Homework assignments to reinforce the understanding
of each subject.
4. The students will carry out a final project working in
teams. Most likely, the final project will consist of the
design of a steel frame office building.
6
Methodology
5. Three partial exams will be applied.
6. One comprehensive final exam.
Evaluation Policies
Three partials 40%
Final project 30%
Final exam 30%
Minimum passing grade: 70
If a student has an average in the homework
assignments of at least 75/100, he/she obtains five
additional points in his/her final grade.
7
Textbooks
Steel Construction Manual,
13th Edition. American Institute
of Steel Construction. 2005.
Steel Structures: Design and

Behavior Emphasizing Load
and Resistance Factor Design,
5th Edition. Charles G.
Salmon, John E. Johnson, and
Faris A. Malhas. Pearson
Education. 2009. A copy of this
is in Reserve.
Reference Books
Structural Steel Design:
LRFD Method, 4th
Edition. Jack C.
McCormac. Pearson
Education. 2008.
Unified Design of Steel

Structures. Louis F.
Geschwindner. Wiley.
2007.
8
Reference Books
Steel Design, 4th Edition.
William T. Segui.
Thomson/Brooks Cole.
2007.
Structural Steel Design: A

Practice-Oriented
Approach. Abi Aghayere
and Jason Vigil. Pearson
Education. 2009.
Reference Books
Based on previous editions of the AISC
specifications:
Basic Steel Design with LRFD. Theodore V.
Galambos, F. J. Lin, and Bruce G. Johnston. Prentice
Hall. 1996.
Design of Steel Structures, 3rd Edition. Edwin H.
Gaylord, Charles N. Gaylord & James E. Stallmeyer.
McGraw-Hill. 1992.
Steel Structures: Behavior and LRFD. Sriramulu
Vinnakota. McGraw-Hill. 2006.
9
Reference Books
Based on other countries’ specifications:
Limit States Design in Structural Steel, 8th Edition.
Geoffrey L. Kulak and Gilbert Grondin. Canadian
Institute of Steel Construction. 2009.
The Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures to
BS5950, 3rd Edition. N. S. Trahair, M. A. Bradford,
and D. A. Nethercot. Spon Press. 2001.
Manual of Steel Construction, ASD 9th Edition.
American Institute of Steel Construction. 1989. (The
13th edition of the manual includes ASD specifications
but they are different).
Reference Books
Based on ASD specifications:
Manual of Steel Construction, ASD 9th Edition.
American Institute of Steel Construction. 1989. (The
13th edition of the manual includes ASD specifications
but they are different). The ASD specifications used in
Mexico are those from the AISC-ASD 9th Edition.
Steel Structures: Design and Behavior Emphasizing
Load and Resistance Factor Design, 4th Edition.
Charles G. Salmon and John E. Johnson. Pearson
Education. 1996.
10
Teaching Aids
Manual de Apoyo Didáctico para la Enseñanza del
Diseño de Elementos de Acero. Carlos E. Nungaray
P. 2009.
Today’s Structural Steel – Shaping the Future
(Video).
The Single Story Building (Video)
Steel Frame Construction – Your Best Answer
(Video)
The Behavior of Columns (Video)
The Behavior of Unrestrained Steel Beams (Video)
Software
STAAD/Pro V8i
STAAD(X) V8i
RAM Elements
RAM Structural System V8i
RAM Connection V8i
MathCAD 14
AutoCAD
Programs/Exel macros written by the students
11
My Policies
Cell phone use in class is not allowed. A 10 point
penalization in the corresponding exam (partial or final) will be
applied if this policy is not followed. Exceptions must be dealt
with before the session starts.
Advice: turn off your telephone before getting into the
classroom!
Cell phone is strictly prohibited during exams. Any use of a
cell phone will result in a grade of zero in the exam (partial or
final).
No loose sheets are allowed in the exams. All sheets must be
kept stapled together at all time during the exam. A 10 point
penalization in the corresponding exam (partial or final) will be
applied if this policy is not followed.
My Policies
No student will be allowed to take the final exam at a
date other than the official date based on the institution’s
calendar
12
My Policies
Once the class/exam has started, no one will be allowed
to leave the classroom. Again, exceptions must be dealt
with before the session starts.
In an exam, when you are told to stop writing you should
do so and hand in your exam immediately. An exam
handed in once I left the classroom will be automatically
assigned a grade of zero.
If a student does not show up for an exam he/she will be
allowed to take the exam at a different date provided
he/she gets a written authorization from the
Undergraduate Program Director. No exam will be
applied without this written authorization. (The exam that
was missed will be evaluated based on the final exam).
My Policies
Partial exams will be two hours long unless the students
decide to take the exam during class time. Only material
allowed: AISC Manual without annotations and a
scientific, nonprogrammable calculator
Final exam will be three hours long. Only material
allowed: AISC Manual without annotations and a
scientific, nonprogrammable calculator
Use of material other than allowed in an exam will result
in an Academic Dishonesty penalization (DA)
Sharing of materials in an exam is prohibited. Failure to
follow this will result in a failing grade
13
My Policies
Assignments must be professionally done and they must
be done based on the following guidelines (ask for a
sample homework assignment solution before handing in
the first assignment):
A short problem statement must be included for each problem.
Sketches must be done using straight edges, compass, etc.
The results must be clearly identified.
Recycled paper is not allowed.
The solution procedure must be easy to follow in order to grade
the assignment.
Poorly written/presented assignments will not be graded.
Each problem must be started in a new sheet.
My Policies: Design Process

Structural design consists
of:
Structural analysis
Preliminary selection of steel Structural
Analysis
shapes
Re-analysis of the structure based
on the properties of the selected
shapes Structural
Adequacy check of the selected Design
shapes based on the results of the
Re-analysis of
new structural analysis the structure
and design
The process is repeated check
until all steel shapes are
adequate to resist the
applied loads
14
My Policies
Structural analysis plays a very important role in the
design process
Consequently, if the structural analysis for the solution of
any problem and/or the values of the design loads are
not correct, that problem will be drastically penalized (up
to 100% based on the magnitude of the error or mistake)
in:
Homework assignments
Partial exams
Final project
Final exam
Prerequisites
During the semester we will be using concepts from
previous courses such as:
CV2003 Solid Mechanics I
CV2009 Solid Mechanics II
CV2005 Structural Analysis
It is the student’s responsibility to review such concepts
before they are used in this course
The table in the next slide provides you with the most
important concepts to be reviewed and their relationship
with this course’s subjects
Be aware that the list is not comprehensive
15
Prerequisites
CV2015 Subject Required material Course
Tension members Axially loaded members in Solid Mechanics I

tension, simple shear stress
Von Mises’ failure theory Solid Mechanics II
Simple connections Simple shear stress, contact Solid Mechanics I

stress
Compression members Column theory, elastic and Solid Mechanics II
(columns) inelastic buckling, effective
length, sectorial area, shear
center, properties of areas
Members in bending (beams) Normal stress, shear stress, Solid Mechanics I
deflections
Restrained bending Solid Mechanics II
Continuous beams Structural Analysis
Members under combined Frame analysis Structural Analysis

stresses (beam-columns)
MODULE #1
GENERALITIES
16
Advantages of Structural Steel
Safety
Quality control
Greater flexibility to incorporate changes
Less personnel
Greater strength per unit weight
Concrete: f’c = 5 ksi; γc = 150 pcf
5 ksi ksi
Ratio Concrete = = 33.33 × 10−3
150 pcf pcf
Steel: Fy = 36 ksi; γs = 490 pcf

36 ksi ksi
Ratio Steel = = 73.47 × 10−3
490 pcf pcf

Less construction time
Feasibility to work in
different floors at the
same time
17
Ease of transportation

Feasibility to work under
difficult weather
conditions
18
Uniformity of properties with time
Elasticity for high values of stresses
Durability
Ductility
Toughness
Ease to do connections
Adaptability to prefabrication
Fatigue strength
Reuse and recyicling
Disadvantages of Structural Steel

Painting requirements
Moment connections are expensive
Maintenance costs
19
Fatigue
Brittle fracture

Variations in the
price
20
Greater need for fire
protection

Painting
requirements
Susceptibility to
corrosion
21
Susceptibility to
buckling
SESSION 2
DESIGN METHODS
22
Session 2: Objectives
At the end of this session the student should be
able to:
Describe briefly the different design methods with
their advantages and disadvantages
Define the concept of limit state and the different
types of limit states
Understand the concept of reliability index
Apply the load combinations for LRFD design
Design Methods
Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
Plastic Design (PD)
Limit States Design (LSD in Canada and other
countries) or Load and Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD in United States)
23
Basic Design Requirement
Safety
Strength ≥ Load Effects
Basic Design Requirement

Although the main design objective is the same
in the three methods, they differ widely in their
approach to structural safety
In any method it is recognized the possibility that
failure will occur
24
Design Goals
Safety
Functionality
Economy
Aesthetics (left to architects)
Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

Rn = nominal strength
FS = factor of safety
ΣQs = combined service
Rn load effects
≥ ∑ Qs Disadvantages:
FS Considers all loads with the
same variability
Does not provide uniform
reliability
Does not control the
probability of failure
25
Plastic Design (PD)
LF = load factor
ΣQs = combined service load
Rn ≥ LF ∑ Qs
effects
Disadvantages:
Considers all loads with the
same variability
Does not provide uniform
reliability
Does not control the
probability of failure
Basically the same
disadvantages as those of
ASD
Load and Resistance Factor Design

(LRFD)
φ Rn ≥ ∑ α i Qsi
φ = resistance factor
αi = load factor for service load Qsi
Advantages:
Considers random variations in loads and strength
Uses load factors consistent with the corresponding load
variability
Arrives at a nearly uniform level of safety for the structure and its
components
26
LRFD – Design Philosophy
Applies principles of probability theory and
statistics to the analysis of loads and strentghs
LRFD is based on the concept that the structure
will not exceed the limit states that govern its
strength and behavior for any realistic load or
load combination
Safety in LRFD
Reliability index (β): number of
standard deviations of ln(R/Q)
in the distance from the origin
to the mean, where
R = strength
and
Q = load effects
The value of β can be changed
according with the criticality of
the failure mode by means of
the resistance factor (φ): the
more critical the failure mode,
the smaller the value of φ
Reference: AISC Manual
27
Safety in ASD, PD, and LRFD
R/ FS QS RS R,Q
ASD
(LF)Q S Qs RS R,Q
PD
Probabilit y
Densit y
LRFD
Qm Rm R,Q
Reference: Adapted from Galambos, Lin, and

Johnston
Safety in ASD
There might be problems with the safety of a
structure when the loads acting on it have
opposite effects
The following example can help to illustrate the
problem
28
Safety in ASD
Tension member design: Tension member design:
Case A Case B
D = 100±10 kips (Compression) D = 10±1 kips (Compression)

W = 150±100 kips (Tension) W = 60±40 kips (Tension)
Dead load has a ±10% variation Dead load has a ±10% variation
Wind load has a ±66.67% Wind load has a ±66.67%
variation variation
Design load = 50 kips Design load = 50 kips
Since the load variations and the design loads are the same in both cases, it is
expected to get designs with the same required factor of safety, FS, in both
cases
Safety in ASD
FSreqd for Case A FSreqd for Case B
Maximum Tension − Minimum Compression Maximum Tension − Minimum Compression

FS reqd = FS reqd =
Design Load Design Load
FS reqd =
(150 + 100 ) − (100 − 10 ) = 160 FS reqd =
( 60 + 40 ) − (10 − 1) = 91
50 50 50 50
FS reqd = 3.2 FS reqd = 1.82
As it can be seen, eventhough the two designs have equal design loads, are
subjected to the action of the same types of loads, and loads have equal
variations, the required factors of safety are very different for each case
29
Safety in LRFD
LRFD provides uniform reliability and this is why
it is the design method that will be used in this
course
Hence, situations such as the one described in
the previous example are not present when
LRFD is used
Definition of Limit States

LRFD is a Limit State - based design method
A limit state is a (limiting) condition against
which the performance of a structure is checked
at appropriate load levels
The appropriate load level used to check a limit
state must be consistent with the type of limit
state being checked
30
Types of Limit States
Ultimate limit states
Serviceability limit states
Special cases such as fatigue

Ultimate limit states
They are directly related with failure
Violation of one of these involves failure or loss of all or parts of the
structure
Since they have to do with safety, they are checked using factored
loads so that the structure is protected against loads that seldom occur
Examples of ultimate limit states (not a complete list):
Yielding
Rupture
Fracture (associated with fatigue)
Generalized column buckling by flexure
Beam lateral-torsional buckling
Local Buckling
Block shear failure
Tear-out failure
31
Examples of Ultimate Limit States
Frame instability
Column buckling
Reference: Martini

Beam lateral-torsional
buckling
Reference: Tall (Ed.). Reference: ESDEP
Reference: Imperial College
32
Beam lateral-torsional
buckling

Compression flange local
buckling
Reference: Tall (Ed.).
Local buckling of a
column
Reference: Zureick.
33
Tension member rupture
Reference: Kulak et al.
Reference: McGuire (1968)

Tension member rupture
34

Block shear
rupture- (Gusset
plate shown)
35

Tension member block
shear rupture
Block shear rupture -

alternate load path- (WT
section shown)
36
Block shear rupture
failures in coped
beams
Ref.: Franchuk, Driver, and

Grondin

Structural collapse
37
They are related with the operating conditions of the structure
different from failure
Violation of one of these does not involve an actual failure of the
structure or part of it, although the structure has reached a limit
of acceptable behavior
Since thay have to do with the normal operating conditions of the
structure, they are checked using loads that are very likely to
occur during the normal life of the structure (service loads)
Examples:
Excessive deflection
Vibrations
Excessive drift
Examples of Serviceability Limit

States
Excessive deflection
(open web steel joist
shown)
38
Special Case of Limit States
Fatigue limit states
These mark the onset of unstable crack growth due to
a stress range due to loads that are likely to occur in
the structure (service loads)
They can lead to a failure
Since they can under reasonable frequent loads,
fatigue checks are done using service loads
Hence, fatigue is an ultimate limit state that is
checked using service loads.
This is why fatigue is considered a special limit state
Fatigue Limit States
σ min
R=
σ max
Reference: Gaylord, Gaylord, and Stallmeyer.
39
Load Types (AISC Page 2-8)
D = Dead load
L = Live load due to occupancy
Lr = Roof live load
S = Snow load
R = Rainwater or ice load (exclusive of ponding)
W = Wind load
E = Earthquake load
Load Combinations
1. Dead load only Combinations 1 and 2:
2. Dead and live loads β = 3.0
3. Dead, snow and live or Combinations 3 and 4:
wind loads β = 2.5
4. Dead, live, and wind
loads
5. Dead, earthquake, and Combinations 5 and 6:
live or snow loads β = 1.75
6. Dead and earthquake
or wind loads
40
Reliability Index and Probability of
Failure
Combinations 1 and 2 (dead and live loads):
β = 3.0.
Combinations 3 and 4 (dead, live, snow and wind loads):
β = 2.5.
Combinations 5 and 6 (dead, live, snow, wind, and
earthquake loads):
β = 1.75.
β=5 Pf = 2.9x10-6.
β=4 Pf = 3.2x10-5 .
β=3 Pf = 1.4x10-3 .
β=2 Pf = 2.3x10-2 .
Load Combinations
1.4D
1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D+1.6(Lr or S or R)+(0.5L or 0.8W)
1.2D+1.6W+0.5L+0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D±1.0E+0.5L+0.2S
0.9D±(1.6W or 1.0E)
Note: The load factor on L in combinations 3, 4, and 5 shall equal 1 for

garages, areas occupied as places of public assembly, and all areas
where the live load is greater than 100 psf (≈ 500 kg/m2).
41
Resistance Factors (φ)
The values of the resistance factor for some ultimate
limit states are as follows:
0.75 for:
Rupture
Connections
Block shear rupture
0.90 for:
Yielding
Bending
Shear (plate girders, columns)
Axial compression
1.00 for:
Local web yielding
Slip-critical connections with standard holes
Shear (rolled shapes, connecting elements)
SESSION 3
STRUCTURAL STEEL
42
Objectives
At the end of this session the student will be able
to
Identify all the strength properties of steel
Identify all the stiffness properties of steel
Understand the concepts of ductility, brittleness, and
toughness
Properties of Structural Steel

Before 1960 only ASTM A7 (Fy = 33 ksi) steel
was used.
Other steel were available in those years but
were not of frequent use with the excemption of
some bridges:
A242 (low-alloy, corrosion-resistant).
A373 (easier to weld).
43
Currently there are more types of steel
available:
Carbon steels.
High-strength, low-alloy steels.
Low-alloy steels.

Carbon steels (A36, A53, A500, A501, A529,
A570, A611 y A709, Grade 36):
Low carbon content (<0.15%).
Mild steels (0.16 – 0.29%). Structural steels such as
A36 belong to this group.
Medium carbon content (0.30 – 0.59%).
High carbon content (0.60-1.70%).
44
High-strength, low-alloy steels (A242, A441,
A572, A588, A606, A607, A618, A709 Grade
50 y A992) whose yield stress is in between 40
and 70 ksi.
Low-alloy steels (A514, A709 Grado 100,
A852, y A913) whose yield stress is in between
80 and 110 ksi.

Strength
Yield stress (Fy)
Tensile strength (Fu)
Stiffness
Modulus of elasticity (E = 29,000 ksi)
Shear modulus of elasticity (G = 11,200 ksi)
Ductility
Toughness
45
Strength
Yield stress (Fy): First stress in the material, less
than the maximum attainable, at which an
increase in strain occurs without an increase in
stress
Tensile strength (Fu): Maximum tensile stress
that the material is capable of sustaining. It
corresponds to the highest point on the stress-
strain curve
Strength
Stress
Tensile Strength
Yield Stress
Elastic Strain Hardening Necking and

Behavior
failure
Plastic Flow
Strain
46
Stiffness
Modulus of elasticity (E = 29,000 ksi)
Shear modulus of elasticity (G = 11,200 ksi)
Ductility
Ductility: Ability of the material to undergo large

deformations without fracture.
Ductility indicators:
% of elongation.
% of area reduction.
47
Properties of Common Structural
Steels
Property A36 A572 Gr. 50 A992
(M, S, C, MC, (HP) (W)
and L; plates
and bars)
Yield stress 36 ksi 50 ksi 50 ksi
Tensile 58 to 80 ksi 65 ksi 65 ksi

strength
Ratio Fy/Fu ─ ─ 0.85
% Elongation 20 18 18
in 8”, minimum
Toughness
The capacity to absorb large amounts of energy
before failure. It is a desirable property for
structures subject to impact loads (such as
bridges) and earthquake loads
At room temperature, common structural steels
are very tough and fail in a ductile manner
As temperature drops, a point is reached at
which the steel loses its toughness and fails in a
brittle, rather than ductile, manner
48
Toughness
Energy Transition Range
Mostly Ductile Fracture

20 Joules
Mostly Brittle
Fracture Transition temperature
Temperature, ºC
Temperature Effects on Yield

Stress
49
Temperature Effects on Tensile
Strength
Temperature Effects on the

Modulus of Elasticity
50
Properties of Steel


Properties of Concrete

51
Temperature Effects – Fire Test
Reference: Lamont
Types of Steel
Reference: Salmon, Johnson, and Malhas.
52
Types of Steel

Types of Steel
53
Types of Steel
Stress-Strain Curves
54
Common Uses of Different Steels

Common Uses of Different Steels

55
Reference: AISC Manual.
56
Manual of Steel Construction

Design Subject Chapter(s) of the AISC Manual
(Part 16)
Members in Tension D and J
Simple Connections J
Members in Compression E
Members in Bending F (bending) and G (shear)
Member Subjected to Combined C and H
Stresses (Axial Compression and
Bending)
57
Manual of Steel Construction
Design Subject Design Aids in the AISC Manual
Members in Tension Part 5
Simple Connections Parts 7, 8, and 9
Members in Compression Part 4
Members in Bending Part 3
Member Subjected to Combined Part 6
Stresses (Axial Compression and
Bending)
MODULE #2
DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS
58
SESSION 4
DESIGN OF TENSION
MEMBERS
Objectives
able to:
Identify all of the applicable ultimate limit states for
members in tension and explain why they are considered
to be ultimate limit states
Identify all of the applicable serviceability limit states for
members in tension and explain the reason why they are
considered as such
Calculate the cross section properties pertaining to the
design of members in tension
Apply Chapter D and pertinent sections of Chapter J of the
AISC Manual to the design of tension members
59
Limit States for Tension Members
Ultimate limit states:
Yielding in gross area
Rupture in effective area
Block shear rupture
Vibration
Fatigue (not covered in this course)
Yielding on Gross Area

A limit condition is reached
when excessive elongations
and deformations in the
tension member (see the
plastic flow part of the σ-ε
curve)
Excessive elongations
occur in the length of the
tension member outside the
connections
The cross sectional area
there is the gross area
60
The gross area (Ag) as defined in Section
B3.13a is used because this area is present in
all the member with the exception of the
connections
Hence, the elongation ∆L = εLo becomes large
as Lo is essentially the whole length of the
tension member
This is why yielding on the gross area is
considered to be an ultimate limit state
61
From Solid Mechanics I:

P
σ= ⇒ P =σ A
A
In LRFD format:
P=φ Rn ; A = Ag and σ = φ Fy
∴φ Rn = φ Ag Fy ; φ = 0.90
62
The resistance factor φ = 0.90 because there
exists a reserve in load carrying capacity until
the tensile strength Fu is reached
Hence, yielding is not as critical as rupture
This ultimate limit state controls the behavior of
the tension member along its length, except in
the connections
Rupture on Effective Area
Reference: Kulak et al. (2002)
Reference: McGuire (1968)
63
P
σ= ⇒ P =σ A
A
Reference: Kulak et al. (2002)
In LRFD format:
P=φ Rn ; A = Ae and σ = φ Fu
φ Rn = φ Ae Fu ; φ = 0.75
Ae = effective area
Reference: McGuire (photo).

There is no load carrying
reserve capacity once Fu
Stress
Tensile Strength
Yield Stress
is reached
Hence, fracture is more Elastic
Behavior
Strain Hardening Necking and
critical than yielding

failure
Plastic Flow
Thus, φ = 0.75 to protect Strain
the tension member from

failure in a more critical
ultimate limit state
64
Rupture on Effective Area – Shear
Lag
Ae = UAn
Ae = effective area
U = shear lag reduction coefficient
A n = net area (after hole reductions)
A n is defined in Section B3.13a of the Manual
x
U = 1-
L
Shear Lag Reduction Coefficient

(bolted or welded steel shapes)
x
U = 1− Reference: Kulak et al. (2002)
L
x = connection eccentricity
L = length of the connection
This factor takes into account the fact that not

all of the elements of the cross section are
connected.
It does not apply when all the elements of the
cross section are connected (U=1)
Reference: McGuire (photo).
65
Shear Lag Coefficient
Net Area - Holes in Rectangular

Array
An = Ag − ∑ dt
1 ′′ 1 ′′
d = dh + = db + w
16 8 T
An = Ag − 2dt
Σdt includes all the holes crossed by the net area
66
Net Area – Staggered Holes
s 2t
An = Ag − ∑ dt + ∑
4g
w g T
1 ′′ 1 ′′
d = dh + = db +
16 8
s 2t s
An = Ag − 2dt +
4g
A correction term (s2t/4g) must be included per diagonal

s = pitch
g = gage
Block Shear Rupture

It is a rupture type of failure
It Includes two failure planes:
One in tension.
One in shear.
Block shear rupture strength is not necessarily the direct sum of
the fracture strengths of each plane

P
σ= ⇒ P =σ A
A
V
τ= ⇒ V = τ Av
Av
67
Block Shear Rupture – Failure
Modes
Block Shear Rupture - Areas
68
Block Shear Rupture
It is a rupture type of
failure
It Includes two failure
planes:
One in tension.
One in shear.
Block shear rupture
strength is not
necessarily the direct
sum of the fracture
strengths of each plane
Block Shear Rupture

AISC Specifications are based on experimental tests
carried out at several universities including, but not
limited to:
The University of Texas at Austin (Yura and Ricles)
The University of Connecticut (Epstein)
The University of Alberta (Kulak and Grondin). They
showed that the stress distribution in the tension plane is
not always uniform
Hence the need to include a reduction factor Ubs to
approximate the non-uniform stress distribution on
the tension plane
69
Block Shear Rupture
The strength by block shear rupture is given by the
following expression (AISC Specification, Chapter J):
φ Rnbs = φt [U bs Ant Fu + Anv Fuv ] ≤ φt U bs Ant Fu + Agv Fyv 
φt = 0.75
Ant = net area in tension
Agv = gross area in shear
Anv = net area in shear
Fu = tensile strength
Fyv = shear yield stress
Fuv = shear fracture stress
U bs = reduction factor due to tensile stress distribution
Shear Yielding and Fracture

Stresses
To determine the shear yielding and fracture
stresses we must take into account these facts:
Structural steel is a ductile material
From Solid Mechanics II, we can use von Mises or
Tresca theories for ductile materials while Rankine’s
theory is applied to brittle materials
Experimentally, von Mises’ theory better represents
the behavior of structural steel
Use von Mises’ theory for structural steel
70
Taken from: Popov (1976).
Shear Yielding and Fracture

Stresses
1 2 2
σe =
2
(σ x − σ y ) + (σ y − σ z ) + (σ z − σ x ) + 6 (τ xy2 + τ yz2 + τ zx2 )
2
1 2 2 2
σe = (σ 1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ 1 )
2
For a state of pure shear:

+τ
σ 1 = +τ ; σ 2 = −τ ; σ 3 = 0 τ −τ
1
τ y = Fyv = Fy = 0.577 Fy ≈ 0.6 Fy
3
1
τ u = Fuv = Fu = 0.577 Fu ≈ 0.6 Fu
3
71
Block Shear Rupture Strength
Based on the foregoing, the block shear rupture strength
is given by:
φ Rnbs = φt [U bs Ant Fu + 0.6 Anv Fu ] ≤ φt U bs Ant Fu + 0.6 Agv Fy 

φt = 0.75
Ant = net area in tension
Agv = gross area in shear
Anv = net area in shear
Fu = tensile strength
Fy = yield stress

Examples of different
cases of the reduction
factor applied to the
tensile stresses (Ubs) are
shown:
Ubs = 1. for uniform tensile
stress distribution
Ubs = 0.5 for non-uniform
tensile stress distribution
Ref.: AISC Manual, 13th Edition
72
U bs = 1.0 U bs = 0.5
Ref.: Franchuk, Driver, and

Grondin
Reference: Huns, Grondin, and Driver
73
74
75
Serviceability Limit States
Vibration
To avoid annoying
 KL 

vibrations of tension
 ≤ 300
members the maximum
slenderness ratio of such 
members preferably should
not exceed 300
 r max
This suggestion does not
apply to rods or hangers in
tension
SESSION 5
TENSION MEMBERS
EXAMPLE #1
76
Objectives
able to:
Identify all of the limit states applicable to a tension
member
Apply the specifications to determine the strength of a
tension member
Tension Members – Example 1

Compute the maximum factored load that can be
applied to the tension member shown. Consider
all of the applicable limit states. ASTM A572
Grade 50 steel is used for the tension member
and the gusset plate is A36 steel. Holes are for
¾-inch bolts. The recommended minimum
distance between bolts in the same line,
measured in the direction of the load, is three
times the bolt diameter.
77
2"
Gusset plate of 0.375" A36 steel
C7x12.2; 50 ksi steel
2"
1.5" 3" 3" 1.5"
Solution – Cross Section Properties

Cross section properties (Pages 1-34 and 1-35)
Ag = 3.60 in 2
tw = 0.314 in
x = 0.525 in
Material properties (Table 2-3)
Channel section (A572-50):
Fy = 50 ksi; Fu = 65 ksi
Gusset plate (A36):
Fy = 36 ksi; Fu = 58 ksi
78
79
Strength of Channel Section

Yielding φ Rn = φ Ag Fy
φ Rn = 0.90 × 3.60 × 50
φ Rn = 162 kips
Rupture d = db + 1 8 = 3 4 + 1 8 = 7 8 in = 0.875 in
An = Ag − ∑ dt = 3.60 − 2 × 0.875 × 0.314 = 3.051 in 2
x 0.525
U = 1− = 1− = 0.913
L 6
Ae = UAn = 0.913 × 3.051 = 2.786 in 2
φ Rn = φ Ae Fu = 0.75 × 2.786 × 65 = 135.8 kips
80
Block shear
rupture in
channel section Shear
Tension
3"
Shear
1.5" 3" 3" 1.5"
Shear
Tension
3"
Shear
1.5" 3" 3" 1.5"
Shear areas:
Agv = 2 × 7.5 × 0.314 = 4.710 in 2
Anv = 2 ( 7.5 − 2.5 × 0.875 )( 0.314 ) = 3.336 in 2
Net tension area:
Ant = ( 3 − 2 × 0.5 × 0.875 )( 0.314 ) = 0.667 in 2
81
Block shear φ Rnbs = φ ( Anv 0.6 Fu + U bs Ant Fu ) ; U bs = 1
rupture φ Rnbs = 0.75 ( 3.336 × 0.6 × 65 + 1× 0.667 × 65 )
strength (note φ Rnbs = 130 kips
that other
options of block φ Rnbs ≤ φ ( Agv 0.6 Fy + U bs Ant Fu )
shear involving φ Rnbs ≤ 0.75 ( 4.710 × 0.6 × 50 + 1× 0.667 × 65 )
two and four
φ Rnbs ≤ 138.5 kips
bolts are
possible) ∴φ Rnbs = 130 kips
Strength of Gusset Plate

Block Shear in
Gusset Plate
Shear
3" Tension
Shear
1.5" 3" 3"
82
Shear
3" Tension
Shear Shear areas:

1.5" 3" 3" Agv = 2 × 7.5 × 0.375 = 5.625 in 2
Anv = 2 ( 7.5 − 2.5 × 0.875 )( 0.375 ) = 3.984 in 2
Net tension area:
Ant = ( 3 − 2 × 0.5 × 0.875 )( 0.375 ) = 0.797 in 2

Block shear φ Rnbs = φ ( Anv 0.6 Fu + U bs Ant Fu ) ; U bs = 1
rupture φ Rnbs = 0.75 ( 3.984 × 0.6 × 58 + 1× 0.797 × 58 )
strength (note φ Rnbs = 138.7 kips
that other
options of block φ Rnbs ≤ φ ( Agv 0.6 Fy + U bs Ant Fu )
shear involving φ Rnbs ≤ 0.75 ( 5.625 × 0.6 × 36 + 1× 0.797 × 58 )
two and four
φ Rnbs ≤ 125.8 kips
bolts are
possible) ∴φ Rnbs = 125.8 kips
83
Conclusion
For the block shears considered in this example,
the maximum factored load that can be applied
to the tension member is 125.8 kips and is
governed by the block shear rupture strength of
the gusset plate
Note that there are more possible block shears

and in order to give a complete answer to this
and any other problem, all the possibilities must
be investigated
SESSION 6
TENSION MEMBERS
EXAMPLE #2
84
Objectives
able to design a tension member taking into
account all of the applicable ultimate limit states

Design a tension member with the following
data:
A992 steel.
275 kips factored load.
Use a double angle cross section.
Bolts of 7/8 inch diameter.
Use the AISC recommended gages.
Assume the gusset plate is not critical.
85
1.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 distances are in inches
275 kips
Yielding of the Gross Section

Pu 275
Ag req ' d = = = 6.11 in 2
φ Fy ( 0.90 )( 50 )
Ag req ' d = 6.11 in 2 = 3.06 in 2 for each angle
86
Rupture Limit State
The critical net area is not
necessarily the smalest
one but the one that is
subjected to the highest
tensile stress.
Hence, the stress level

must be investigated in
cases where there are
several possibilities of net
areas
Possibilities for the Effective Area

100% of Pu
275 kips
6
×100% of Pu
275 kips 7
87
Other Possible Net Areas:
100% Pu
275 kips

100% Pu
275 kips
88
100% Pu
275 kips
Other Possible Net Areas

All of the areas with diagonal components are
not critical for this particular problem.
Verify the statement above. Can you think of a
criterion to determine whether or not a net area
with diagonal(s) is not critical? Hint: look at the
correction term:
s 2t
4g
89
Rupture of the Effective Area:
100% Pu
275 kips
Pu 275
Ae1req ' d = = = 5.64 in 2
φ Fu ( 0.75 )( 65)
U assumed = 0.85 (0.90 could also be used, as we will see)
5.64
A n1req'd = = 6.64 in 2 (or 6.27 in 2 ⇒ Ag > 6.11 in 2 )
0.85
A n1req'd = 3.32 in 2 for each angle
Rupture of the Effective Area:

(600/7)% Pu
275 kips
6
  ( 275 )
Ae 2 =  
7
= 4.835 in 2
( )( 65 )
0.75
U assumed = 0.85 (0.90 could also be used, as we will see)
4.84
A n2req'd = = 5.69 in 2 (or 5.38 in 2 )
0.85
A n2req'd = 2.85 in 2 for each angle
90
Required Gross Area:
1
d = dbolt + = 1.00 in
8
For 100% of Pu :
Ag1 = An1 + dt = 3.32 + t
For 85.7% of Pu :
Ag 2 = 2.85 + 2dt = 2.85 + 2t
Required Gross Area for Rupture

t Ag1 Ag2 Shape Ag x U
(in) (in2) (in2) (in2) (in)
5/16 3.63 3.48 L6x6 3.67 1.60 0.82
3/8 3.70 3.60 L7x4 3.98 0.861 0.90
7/16 3.76 3.73 L6x4 4.18 0.957 0.89
91
Rupture of the Effective Area
From the results of the previous table, we conclude that
fracture controls over yielding.
Note that two lines of bolts should be used. So, the
angle’s connected leg should be of at least 5 inches long
(see Table 1-7 of the AISC Manual, 2005)
Select L7x4x3/8


92
Workable Gages in Angle Legs
93
Rupture of the Effective Area
If the ruture takes place in a section where the axial
force comes from Nr of the Nb bolts of the connection,
the strength by rupture is obtained using the following
equation:
Nb
φ Rn = (φ Rn )computed
Nr
Block Shear Revisions

First possibility (600/7)% Pu
275 kips
4.5 in
94
275 kips
4.5 in
Ant = ( 4.5 − 1.5)( 3 8 ) = 1.125

Anv = ( 7.5 − 2.5)( 3 8 ) = 1.875
Agv = ( 7.5 )( 3 8 ) = 2.813
φ Rnbs = φ (U bs Ant Fu + 0.6 Anv Fu ) ≤ φ (U bs Ant Fu + 0.6 Agv Fy )
U bs = 1.00
φ Rnbs = ( 0.75 ) (1)(1.125 )( 65 ) + ( 0.6 )(1.875 )( 65 )
φ Rnbs = 109.7 kips ≤ ( 0.75 ) (1)(1.125)( 65) + ( 0.6 )( 2.813)( 50 )  = 118.1 kips
φ Rnbs = 109.7 kips
7
φ Rn = ( 2 )   (109.7 ) = 255.9 kips < Pu
 
6

Since block shear rupture is a local failure, before
increasing the size of the shape we should try to look at
the possibility of increasing the dimensions of the block
shear (only the shear plane in this case)
By shear rupture (because rupture is controlling):

275-255.9 6
∆L= × = 0.75 in
( 0.75)( 0.6 )( 65)( 0.375)( 2 ) 7
Hence, increase the length of the shear plane to
Lv = 7.5 + .75 = 8.25 in
95
If the length of the shear plane is increased to 8.25 in. the
block shear strength will be as follows. The 7/6 factor is
because the block shear involves 6 of the 7 bolts:
Ant = ( 4.5 − 1.5 )( 3 8 ) = 1.125
Anv = ( 8.25 − 2.5 )( 3 8 ) = 2.156
Agv = ( 8.25 )( 3 8 ) = 3.094
U bs = 1.00
φ Rnbs = ( 0.75 ) (1)(1.125)( 65 ) + ( 0.6 )( 2.156 )( 65 ) 
φ Rnbs = 117.9 kips ≤ ( 0.75 ) (1)(1.125 )( 65) + ( 0.6 )( 3.094 )( 50 )  = 124.5 kips
7
φ Rn = ( 2 )   (117.9 ) = 275.1 kips > Pu
 
6

Second possibility
275 kips
4.5 in
96
275 kips
4.5 in
 32 
Ant =  4.5 − 1.5 +  ( 3 8 ) = 1.688
 4 ×1.5 
Anv = ( 8.25 − 2.5 )( 3 8 ) = 2.156
Agv = ( 8.25 )( 3 8 ) = 3.094
U bs = 1.00
φ Rnbs = ( 0.75 ) (1)(1.688)( 65) + ( 0.6 )( 2.156 )( 65) 
φ Rnbs = 145.4 kips ≤ ( 0.75) (1)(1.688)( 65) + ( 0.6 )( 3.094 )( 50 )  = 151.9 kips
φ Rn = ( 2 )(145.4 ) = 290.7 kips > Pu

Third possibility
275 kips
4.5 in
97
275 kips
4.5 in
Ant = ( 4.5 − 1.5 )( 3 8 ) = 1.125

Anv = ( 4.875 − 1.5 )( 3 8 ) = 1.266
Agv = ( 4.875 )( 3 8 ) = 1.828
U bs = 1.00
φ Rnbs = ( 0.75 ) (1)(1.125 )( 65 ) + ( 0.6 )(1.266 )( 65 )
φ Rnbs = 91.87 kips ≤ ( 0.75 ) (1)(1.125 )( 65 ) + ( 0.6 )(1.828 )( 50 ) = 95.97 kips
7
φ Rn = ( 2 )   ( 91.87 ) = 321.6 kips > Pu
 
4
Conclusion
Use 2L7x4x3/8 provided the length of the shear
plane is increased in at least ¾ in
Assignment :
Select the lightest L-shape for the tension member
assuming that it is not possible to increase the length
of the connection
For this particular problem, check all the possibilities
for block shear rupture
98
If the block shear failure takes place in a block section
where the axial force comes from Nbs of the Nb bolts of
the connection, the strength by rupture is obtained using
the following equation:
Nb
φ Rn = (φ Rnbs )computed
N bs
MODULE #3
DESIGN OF SIMPLE
CONNECTIONS:
a) Welded Connections
b) Bolted Connections
99
What Will You Gain From This

Presentation?
General knowledge of structural steel
An understanding of the different ways that structural steel is connected
Insight into types of bolts and their installation
An awareness of types of bolted joints used for structural steel
Knowledge of welding terminology, weld types, and welding processes
Familiarity with common weld inspection methods and considerations

associated with field welding
100
Benefits of Structural Steel
Some benefits associated with use of structural steel for owners are:
• Steel allows for reduced frame construction time and the ability to construct in all
seasons
• Steel makes large spans and bay sizes possible, providing more flexibility for owners
• Steel is easier to modify and reinforce if architectural changes are made to a facility
over its life
• Steel is lightweight and can reduce foundation costs
• Steel is durable, long-lasting and recyclable (AISC 1999)
Unique Aspects of Steel Construction
Procurement and management of structural steel is similar to other materials, but there
are some unique aspects to steel construction:
• Steel is fabricated off-site (above left)
• On-site erection is a rapid process (above right)
• This gives use of structural steel some scheduling advantages
• Coordination of all parties is essential for achieving potential advantages
(AISC 1999)
101
Connecting Structural Steel
• The primary connection methods for structural steel are bolting and welding
• A structure’s strength depends on proper use of these connection methods
• Connections made in a fabrication shop are called shop connections
• Connections made in the field by the steel erector are called field connections
• Bolting and welding may be used for shop connections and field connections
Connecting Structural Steel
• A fabrication shop will have a desired fastening method suited to its equipment and
fabrication methods
• Field connections are typically bolted
• Welding may be used for field connections where bolting is either impractical or
undesirable
• Welding is better suited to the controlled environment of a fabrication shop
102
WELDING
103
Structural Welding
• A common method for connecting structural steel is welding

• Welding can be performed in the shop or in the field
• Many fabrication shops prefer to weld rather than bolt
• Welding in the field is avoided if possible due to welding condition requirements
• There are several welding processes, types, and positions to be considered in
building construction
Structural Welding
• The American Welding Society (AWS) is a nonprofit organization with a goal to

advance the science, technology and application of welding and related joining
disciplines
• AWS develops codes, recommended practices, and guides under strict
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) procedures
• D1.1 Structural Welding Code – Steel, one of the most consulted codes in the
world, is produced by AWS (AWS 2004a)
104
Structural Welding
• Welding is the process of fusing multiple pieces of metal together by heating

the filler metal to a liquid state
• A properly welded joint is stronger than the base metal
Strength of Structural Welds
(Part of Table J2.5 AISC 2005)

• Welds may be loaded in shear, tension, compression, or a combination of these
• Capacities for welds are given in the AISC Specification Section J2 (2005)
• The strength of a weld is dependent on multiple factors, including: base metal,
filler metal, type of weld, throat and weld size
105
Welding Terminology
• Tack Weld (above left): A temporary weld used to hold parts in place while more
extensive, final welds are made
• Continuous Weld: A weld which extends continuously from one end of a joint to
the other
• Stitch Weld (above right): A series of welds of a specified length that are spaced
a specified distance from each other
Welding Terminology
Butt
Lap Corner
Edge
Tee
• Shown above are types of structural joints which are established by positions of
the connected material relative to one another
• Lap, tee, and butt joints are most common (AISC)
106
Welding Terminology
Fillet Full penetration Partial penetration

single bevel single bevel
groove weld groove weld
Full penetration Partial penetration

Plug double vee single J groove
groove weld weld
• Weld types define the configuration of the weld and its underlying design approach
• Fillet welds and groove welds are most common
• Groove welds fall into two categories
Full penetration – the entire member cross-section is welded
Partial penetration – just part of the member cross-section is welded
(AISC)
Fillet Welds
Symbolic Profiles
Actual Profiles
• The most commonly used weld is the fillet weld

• Fillet welds are theoretically triangular in cross-section
• Fillet welds join two surfaces at approximately right angles to each other in
lap, tee, and corner joints
(AISC & NISD 2000)
107
Groove Welds
• Groove welds are specified when a fillet weld is not appropriate for the job
The configuration of the pieces may not permit fillet welding
A strength greater than that provided by a fillet weld is required
• Groove welds are made in the space or groove between the two pieces being welded
(AISC & NISD 2000)
Full Penetration Groove Welds
• The bevel or “J” preparation extends over most of or the entire face of the material being
joined
• Complete fusion takes place
• In some types of full penetration groove welds the material will be beveled from one side
of the plate with a separate plate on the opposite side – called backing or a backing bar
(AISC & NISD 2000)
108
Partial Penetration Groove Welds
Partial joint penetration welds are used when it is not necessary for the strength of the joint to
develop the full cross section of the members being joined
(AISC & NISD 2000)
Welding Positions
• There are four recognized welding positions:

Flat: The face of the weld is approximately horizontal and welding is performed from
above the joint
Horizontal: The axis of the weld is horizontal
Vertical: The axis is approximately vertical or in the upright position
Overhead: Welding is performed from below the joint
• The flat position is preferred because it is easier and more efficient to weld in this position
(AISC & NISD 2000)
109
Weld Symbols
• Weld symbols are used to
communicate the specific
details and requirements
of each weld to the welder
• Weld symbols are
included on fabrication
and erection drawings
Horizontal Weld Line
Field Weld Symbol Tail

Note
(Indicating this is a
typical weld)
Leader Line
Length and Spacing of weld

(In Inches)
Size of weld
(In Inches) Basic Weld Symbol
(Fillet weld symbol shown)
Weld Size
• The size of a weld must match the size specified on the drawings
• Some welds may meet the required size after a single pass of the welder
• Larger weld sizes may require multiple passes to meet the size requirement
• Common single pass welds include fillet welds up to and including 5/16 inch and thin
plate butt welds with no preparation
• Common multiple pass welds include single bevel full penetration groove welds, single
bevel partial penetration groove welds, and fillet welds over 5/16 inch
• The weld in the above picture is a multiple pass fillet weld
110
Weld Accessibility
• Access holes are required for
some welds, such as the welded
flange connection shown to the Extension Bar
right
The top access hole allows
for a continuous backing
bar to be placed under the
top flange Backing Bar
Column
The bottom access hole Weld Access
allows for complete access Holes
to weld the entire width of
the bottom flange
• A detail of a weld access hole
for a welded flange connection
is shown below
Seat Angle
(Adapted from AISC 2002a) (Adapted from AISC 2001)
SMAW Welding
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is also known as manual, stick, or hand welding
• An electric arc is produced between the end of a coated metal electrode and the steel
components to be welded
• The electrode is a filler metal covered with a coating
• The electrode’s coating has two purposes:
• It forms a gas shield to prevent impurities in the atmosphere from getting into the
weld
• It contains a flux that purifies the molten metal (AISC & NISD 2000)
111
GMAW Welding
• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is also known as MIG welding

• It is fast and economical
• A continuous wire is fed into the welding gun
• The wire melts and combines with the base metal to form the weld
• The molten metal is protected from the atmosphere by a gas shield which is fed through a
conduit to the tip of the welding gun
• This process may be automated (AISC & NISD 2000)
FCAW Welding
• Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is similar to the GMAW process

• The difference is that the filler wire has a center core which contains flux
• With this process it is possible to weld with or without a shielding gas
This makes it useful for exposed conditions where a shielding gas may be affected
by the wind
(AISC & NISD 2000)
112
SAW Welding
• Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is only performed by automatic or semiautomatic

methods
• Uses a continuously fed filler metal electrode
• The weld pool is protected from the surrounding atmosphere by a blanket of granular flux
fed at the welding gun
• Results in a deeper weld penetration than the other process
• Only flat or horizontal positions may be used (AISC & NISD 2000)
Welding Equipment
• Equipment used for welding will vary depending on the welding process and whether the
welding is being done in the shop or in the field
• A Flux Cored Arc Welding machine for shop welding is pictured above left
• A Shielded Metal Arc Welding machine for field welding is pictured above right
113
Weather Impacts on Welding
• Welding in the field is avoided if possible due to welding condition requirements

• Field welding is not to be performed while it is raining, snowing, or below 0°F
• In certain ambient temperatures preheating of the material to be welded is required
• AWS Code D1.1 (2004b) specifies minimum preheat and interpass temperatures, which
are designed to prevent cracking
Welding Safety
• It is important for both the welder and those working in the area around a welding process
to be safety conscious
• The welding arc should never be looked at with the naked eye
• AWS publishes many safety and health fact sheets which are available for download at
their web site: www.aws.org
114
Welding Safety
A welder should wear the proper protective gear including:

• Helmet • Heavy fabric or leather shirt
• Face shield or goggles • Cuffless pants
• Gloves • Leather leggings
• Boots
Welding in Existing Structures
Welding to existing structures during retrofit projects requires careful consideration

of numerous factors:
• Determine weldability – Identify the steel grade to establish a welding procedure
• Select and design the weld – Fillet welds are preferred and avoid over welding
• Surface preparation – Remove contaminants such as paint, oil, and grease
• Loads during retrofit – An engineer should determine the extent to which a member will
be permitted to carry loads while heating, welding, or cutting
• Fire hazards – Follow all governing fire codes, regulations, and safety rules to avoid fires
• For complete details see the AISC Rehabilitation and Retrofit Guide (2002b)
115
Weld Inspections
• In addition to the erector’s quality control program, tests and inspections are specified by
the Engineer of Record and/or the local building authority
• A local building inspector may request that tests in addition to those specified by the
Engineer of Record be performed
• Some problems that can be found in welds include:
Lack of fusion Cracks Wrong size
Porosity Insufficient penetration Poor workmanship
• There are several weld tests and inspections that are commonly used
Visual Inspection
• Visual inspection is the most frequently used inspection and is the only inspection
required unless the specification calls for a more stringent inspection method
• Inspection is done by the welder before, during, and after welding
• When outside inspection is required it should also be done before, during, and after
welding
• Minor problems can be identified and corrected before the weld is complete
(AISC & NISD 2000)
116
Dye Penetrant Test
• Dye penetrant testing locates minute surface cracks and porosity

• Dye types that may be used include:
Color contrast dye - which shows up under ordinary light
Fluorescent dye – which shows up under black light
• The dye is normally applied by spraying it directly on the weld
(AISC & NISD 2000)
Magnetic Particle Inspection
• Magnetic particle inspection uses powdered magnetic particles to indicate defects in

magnetic materials
• A magnetic field is induced in the part
• The magnetic powder is attracted to and outlines cracks within the material
(AISC & NISD 2000)
117
Ultrasonic Inspection
• Ultrasonic inspection can be used to detect flaws inside welds

• High frequency sound waves are directed into the metal with a probe held at a specific
angle
• The flaws reflect some energy back to the probe
• Flaws show up as indications on a screen (above) and are subject to interpretation by an
inspector
(AISC & NISD 2000)
Radiographic Inspection
• Radiographic inspection, or X-ray, can also be used to detect flaws inside welds
• Invisible rays penetrate the metal and reveal flaws on an x-ray film or fluorescent screen
(above)
• This is the most costly of the inspection methods
(AISC & NISD 2000)
118
Welding Cost Considerations
• Fillet weld is less expensive than groove weld

No special preparation
No backing required
Less volume of weld
• Partial penetration groove weld is less expensive than full penetration
groove weld
• Labor represents the majority of the cost associated with welding
References
AISC. (n.d.). Steel Connections: Behavior and Practice [35mm Slide Show with Script]. American Institute of
Steel Construction, Inc. Chicago, IL.
AISC. (2001). LRFD Manual of Steel Construction, Third Edition. American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc.
Chicago, IL.
AISC. (2002a). Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings. American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc.
Chicago, IL.
AISC. (2002b). Design Guide 15 – AISC Rehabilitation and Retrofit Guide. American Institute of Steel
Construction, Inc. Chicago, IL.
AISC. (2003). High Strength Bolts: A Primer for Structural Engineers. American Institute of Steel Construction,
Inc. Chicago, IL.
AISC & NISD. (2000). Detailer Training Series [CD-ROM set]. American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. and
National Institute of Steel Detailing. Chicago, IL. (Available from AISC, One East Wacker Drive, Suite
3100, Chicago, IL 60601).
American Welding Society, (AWS). (2004a). American Welding Society Web Site. Available at:
http://www.aws.org/. Viewed August, 2004.
American Welding Society, (AWS). (2004b). “Structural Welding Code.” ANSI/AWS D1.1-2004, Miami, FL.
Green, P. S., Sputo, T., and Veltri, P. (n.d.). Connections Teaching Toolkit – A Teaching Guide for Structural
Steel Connections. American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. Chicago, IL.
Research Council on Structural Connections, (RCSC). (2000). Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM
A325 or A490 Bolts. American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. Chicago, IL.
Ruby, D.I. (2003) . “All About Bolts.” AISC Modern Steel Construction, May.
SSTC. (2001). Structural Bolting Handbook. Steel Structures Technology Center, Inc. Novi, MI.
119
SESSION 7
SIMPLE WELDED
CONNECTIONS
Types of Welded Connections
120
Welding Processes
Shielded-metal-arc
Electrode coating creates a gaseous shield that
protects the molten weld metal from the atmosphere
(field weld)
Submerged-arc
Arc occurs underneath a previously deposited fusible
powdered flux that blankets the welding zone (shop
weld)
Advantages of Welding
Simplicity of design details, efficiency, and
minimum weight are achieved because welding
provides the most direct transfer of stress from
one member to another.
Fabrication costs are reduced because fewer
parts are handled and operations such as
punching, reaming and drilling are eliminated.
Saving in weight in main tension members since
there is no reduction in area due to rivet or bolt
holes. Additional saving is also achieved
because of the fewer connecting parts required.
121
Welding provides the only plate-joining
procedure that is inherently air- and watertight
and hence is ideal for water and oil storage
tanks, ships, and so forth.
Welding permits the use of fluidly changing lines
that enhance the structural and arquitectural
appearance, as well as reduce stress
concentrations due to local discontinuities.
Simple fabrication becomes practicable for those
joints in which a member is joined to a curved or
sloping surface, such as structural pipe
connections.
Welding simplifies the strengthening and repair
of existing riveted or welded structures.
122
Welding Symbols
In the next slide the different weld symbols are
shown.

123
Fillet Weld Design

Fillet welds account for more than 80% of the
welds in a structure
Specifications for design are in Chapter J,
Section 2 of the AISC Manual
124
Fillet Weld Design
Failure modes:
Fracture of the weld metal along the throat plane (Plane 2-2 in
AISC-LRFD Page 339)
Fracture of the base metal near the fusion plane (Planes 1-1 or
3-3 in AISC-LRFD Page 339)
Block shear rupture of the base metal (if applicable)
Fillet Welds in Longitudinal Shear

Critical shear planes for fillet welds loaded in longitudinal
shear (AISC Manual, Commentary to Chapter J, page
339).
125
Fillet Welds in Longitudinal Shear
126
Strength of Fillet Welds
Fillet Weld Failure Modes

Fracture of the weld metal along the throat plane (Plane 2-2 )
φ Rnw = φ 0.707 S w 0.60 FEXX

S w = weld size
φ = 0.75
127
Fracture of the base metal near the fusion plane (Planes 1-1 or 3-3)
φ Rnw = φ t 0.6 Fu
t = thickness of base metal
φ = 0.75

Yielding of the base metal near the fusion plane (Planes 1-1 or 3-3)
φ Rnw = φ t 0.6 Fy
t = thickness of base metal
φ = 1.00 Reference: AISC Manual
128
Variation of Fillet Weld Strength

θ = 0°: weld in shear
θ = 90°: weld in tension
129
130
Possible Deffects in Welds
Incomplete fusion
Inadequate joint
penetration
Reference: Salmon, Johnson, and Malhas

Porosity
Undercutting
131
Slag inclusions
Cracks
Minimum Size of Fillet Welds
132
Effect of Thickness on Cooling
Rate
Maximum Size of Fillet Welds
133
Maximum Weld Size
Measuring of Weld Size
134
Example of Welded Connection
Design a single angle tension member to resist 40 kips
dead load and 20 kips live load and its welded
connection to an A36 gusset plate
Use E70 electrodes

Fy := 36 × ksi Fu := 58 × ksi Required gross area by rupture on the efective area:
Pu 2
φ yt := 0.9 φ r := 0.75 φ ys := 1.0 A e := A e = 1.839 × in
φ r × Fu
FE70 := 70 × ksi
Assumed value for the shear lag reduction coefficient Ae 2

A n := A n = 2.164 × in
U
U := 0.85
Since there are no holes, the net area is the same as the gross area
PD := 40 × kip
A gr := A n
PL := 20 × kip
2
(
A gcrit := max A gy , A gr ) A gcrit = 2.469 × in
Pu := 1.2 × PD + 1.6 × PL
Based on the required gross area, an L5x3.5x5/16 is selected
Pu = 80 × kip
Required gross area by yielding on the gross area: 2
A greal := 2.57 × in
Pu 2
A gy := A gy = 2.469 × in
φ yt × Fy xbar := 0.829 × in
Ls := 5 × in
135
Design of the fillet welds: By rupture in the base metal:
φR nw2 := φ r × t × 0.6 × Fu
t :=  
5
 × in kip
 16  φR nw2 = 8.156 ×
in
Swmin :=   × in
3
By yielding in the base metal:
16  
Swmax:= t −   × in
1 φR nw3 := φ ys × t × 0.6 × Fy
 16 
kip
φR nw3 = 6.75 ×
Sw := Swmin in
kip
By rupture on the throat plane: (
φR nw := min φR nw1 , φR nw2 , φR nw3 ) φR nw = 4.176 ×
in
φR nw1 := φ r × 0.707 × Sw × 0.6 × FE70 The required length of the weld is given by:
kip Pu
φR nw1 = 4.176 × Lweld := Lweld = 19.158× in
in φR nw
Use two lines of

Lw := 10 × in

We now proceed to check block shear rupture strength on the gusset plate
10 in
xbar
U calc := 1 −
Lw
U calc = 0.917
5 in
Since U=0.917>the assumed value of 0.85, the strength is OK
φR n := 2 × Lw × φR nw
φR n = 83.514 × kip
t pl := .375 in U bs := 1.0
2
A nt := Ls × t pl A nt = 1.875 × in
A nv := 2 × Lw × t pl
2
A nv = 7.5 × in
A gv := 2 × Lw × t pl
2
A gv = 7.5 × in
JANUARY-MAY, 2011 CARLOS ENRIQUE
φR NUNGARAY PÉREZ =272
:= φ × U × A ( × F + 0.6 × A × F ) φR 277.313 ×
136
(
φR nbs1 := φ r × U bs × A nt × F u + 0.6 × A nv × F u ) φR nbs1 = 277.313 × kip
(
φR nbs2 := φ r × U bs × A nt × F u + 0.6 × A gv × F y ) φR nbs2 = 203.063 × kip
(
φR nbs := min φR nbs1 , φR nbs2 )
φR nbs = 203.063 × kip
It is evident that block shear rupture of the gusset plate is not a critical ultimate limit state
Another design check is based on the strength of the gusset plate calculated based on the Whitmore Section
b w := Ls + 2 × Lw × tan  
π

6 
b w = 16.547 × in
A w := b w × t pl
2
A w = 6.205 × in
Yielding on the Whitmore Section:

φR nyw := φ yt × A w × F y
φR nyw = 201.046 × kip
Rupture on the Whitmore Section:

φR nrw := φ r × A w × F u
φR nrw = 269.923 × kip
Whitmore Section
A Whitmore section identifies a theoretically effective
cross-sectional area at the end of a connection resisting
tension or compression, such as that from a brace-to-
gusset-plate connection or similar fitting.
As illustrated in the figure, the effective length for the

Whitmore section Lw is determined using a spread-out
angle of 30°along both sides of the connection,
beginning at the start of the connection.
It is applicable to both welded and bolted connections.

137
Whitmore Section
Sometimes the Whitmore section "spills" over the
boundaries of the connected elements as shown in the
attached figure.
If a "block shear" concept (see "Analytical Models for

Steel Connections" by Ralph M. Richard, Behavior of
Metal Structures, Proceedings of the W.H. Munse
Symposium, ASCE, pp. 128-155, 1983) is used as
shown rather than the Whitmore section, this apparent
dilemma is then circumvented with identical computed
load results.
Whitmore Section
138
Whitmore Section
Whitmore Section
139
Conclusion:
Use an L5x3.5x5/16 in A36 steel
Use 3/16 in. Sw E70 electrodes and a 20 in. weld
length in two lines of 10 in. each
The load carrying capacity is 83.26 kips controlled by
yielding on the gross area of the L-shape
SESSION 8
WELD BALANCE
140
Weld Balancing
When the member is subjected to cyclic loads
the additional bending stresses due to the
eccentricity of the load may lead to a fatigue
type of failure
In these cases the designer must minimize the
eccentricity of the load by making the resultant
force in the welds coincide with the centroid of
the member
Weld Balancing
Example. Design the fillet welds for the example
of the previous session minimizing the
eccentricity
Note: the design process up to the calculation of
the required weld length goes exactly the same
as before, the only difference lies in the way in
which the weld is distributed
141
Weld Balancing
F1
y y
F2
∑ ( Moments ) bottom
=0 ∑ ( Forces ) horizontal
=0
F1 L − Pu ( L − y ) = 0 F1 + F2 = Pu
Pu ( L − y )
F1 = F2 = Pu − F1
L
F1 F2
Lw1 = Lw 2 =
φRnw φRnw
Weld Balancing
∑ ( Moments ) bottom
=0 ∑ ( Moments ) bottom
=0
F1 L − Pu ( L − y ) = 0 5 F1 − 80 ( 5 − 1.57 ) = 0
Pu ( L − y ) 80 ( 5 − 1.57 )
F1 = F1 = = 54.88 kips
L 5
∑ ( Forces )horizontal = 0 ∑ ( Forces )horizontal = 0
F1 + F2 = Pu
F1 + F2 = Pu
F2 = Pu − F1
F2 = 80 − 54.88 = 25.12 kips
F1
Lw1 = F1 54.88
φRnw Lw1 = = = 13.14 in → 13.50 in
φRnw 4.176
F2
Lw 2 = F2 25.12
φRnw Lw 2 = = = 6.02 in → 6.50 in
φRnw 4.176
142
Weld Balancing
F1
1.57 in
L5x3.5x5/16
80 kips
F2
13.50 in
… Do the calculations for end weld also

6.50 in
BOLTING
143
Structural Bolting
• The Research Council on Structural Connections (RCSC) prepares specifications and

documents related to structural connections
• RCSC’s Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts (2000) is a
widely used specification which discusses joints, fasteners, limit states, installation, and
inspections
144
Structural Bolting
• During hoisting, connectors will install a minimum of two bolts per connection
• The rest of the bolts are installed and tightened after the structure is plumbed
• A systematic pattern must be followed when tightening bolts so that a joint is drawn
together and all fasteners are properly installed
(SSTC 2001)
Structural Bolting
Per the Occupational Safety & Health Administration Standard 1926.754(b)(2), “At no time
shall there be more than four floors or 48 feet (14.6 m), whichever is less, of unfinished
bolting or welding above the foundation or uppermost permanently secured floor, except
where the structural integrity is maintained as a result of the design.”
145
Structural Bolting
(AISC & NISD 2000)

• There are many bolt types, installation methods, and joint types used in structural
steel construction
• When left exposed, bolts may be used to make an architectural expression
(Green, Sputo, and Veltri)
ASTM Bolt Types
(AISC & NISD 2000)
• A307 – Low carbon steel

Not commonly used
Only used for secondary members
• A325 – High-strength medium carbon steel (above left)
Most common bolts used in building construction
• A490 – High-strength heat treated steel (above right)
Cost more than A325’s, but are stronger so fewer bolts may be necessary
• Note that the ASTM designation is indicated on the head of the bolts above
146
Common Bolt Sizes
• A325 and A490 bolts are available in diameters ranging from 1/2” to 1-1/2”
• The most common sizes are 3/4”, 7/8”, and 1”
• High-strength bolts are commonly available in incremental lengths up to 8”
(AISC)
Washers
• Hardened steel washers are used in many structural connections to spread pressure from
the bolt tightening process over a larger area
• Washers may also be used to cover an oversized or slotted hole (RCSC 2000)
• Flat washers are most commonly used
• Tapered washers (above left) are used when the surface being bolted has a sloped
surface, such as the flange of a channel or an S shape
• A325 bolts require a washer under the element (head or nut) being turned to tighten the
bolt (shown under the nut, above right)
• A490 bolts require a washer under both the head and nut (AISC & NISD 2000)
147
Parts of the Bolt Assembly
Grip Washer
Washer Nut
Face
Shank Thread
Head
Length
• Grip is the distance from behind the bolt head to the back of the nut or washer
It is the sum of the thicknesses of all the parts being joined exclusive of washers
• Thread length is the threaded portion of the bolt
• Bolt length is the distance from behind the bolt head to the end of the bolt
(AISC & NISD 2000)
Bolted Joint Types
• There two basic bolted joint types:

Bearing
o The load is transferred between members by bearing on the bolts
Slip-critical
o The load is transferred between members by friction in the joint
148
Bolted Joint Failure Modes
Bearing Bearing Bearing

Yield Fracture Fracture
Bearing
Yield
• Bolts in bearing joints are designed to meet two limit states:
1. Yielding, which is an inelastic deformation (above left)
2. Fracture, which is a failure of the joint (above left)
• The material the bolt bears against is also subject to yielding or fracture if it is undersized
for the load (above right)
• Tension connections act similarly to bearing connections
Many times, connections in direct tension are reconfigured so that the bolts act in
shear (AISC)
Bearing Joints
• In a bearing joint the connected elements are assumed to slip into bearing against the
body of the bolt
• If the joint is designed as a bearing joint the load is transferred through bearing whether
the bolt is installed snug-tight or pretensioned (AISC)
149
Threads in the Shear Plane
• The shear plane is the plane
between two or more pieces N-bolts
under load where the pieces Fuv = 0.4Fu
tend to move parallel from each
other, but in opposite directions
• The threads of a bolt may either
be included in the shear plane
or excluded from the shear
plane Threads Included In The Shear Plane
• The capacity of a bolt is greater
with the threads excluded from
the shear plane X-bolts
Fuv = 0.5Fu
• The most commonly used bolt
is an ASTM A325 3/4” bolt with
the threads included in the
shear plane
(AISC & NISD 2000)
Threads Excluded From The Shear Plane

Slip-Critical Joints
• In a slip-critical joint the bolts must be fully pretensioned to cause a clamping force
between the connected elements
• This force develops frictional resistance between the connected elements
• The frictional resistance allows the joint to withstand loading without slipping into bearing
against the body of the bolt, although the bolts must still be designed for bearing
• The faying surfaces in slip-critical joints require special preparation (AISC)
150
When to Use Slip-Critical Joints
Per the RCSC Specification (2000), Slip-critical joints are only required in the following
applications involving shear or combined shear and tension:
1. Joints that are subject to fatigue load with reversal of the loading direction (not applicable
to wind bracing)
2. Joints that utilize oversized holes
3. Joints that utilize slotted holes, except those with applied load approximately
perpendicular to the direction of the long dimension of the slot
4. Joints in which slip at the faying surfaces would be detrimental to the performance of the
structure
Snug-tight Installation
Snug-tight is the tightness attained with a few hits of an impact wrench or the full effort of an
ironworker using an ordinary spud wrench to bring the connected plies into firm contact
(RCSC 2000)
151
Bolting Methods
Turn of the nut
Calibrated wrench
Bolting Methods
Twist – off bolts
Direct tension
indicator
152
Turn-of-Nut Installation
• Installation beyond snug-tight is called pretensioning

• Turn-of-nut pretensioning involves several steps:
1. The bolt is snug-tightened
2. Matchmarks are placed on each nut, bolt, and steel surface in a straight line
3. The part not turned by the wrench is prevented from turning
4. The bolt is tightened with a prescribed rotation past the snug-tight condition
• The specified rotation varies by diameter and length (between 1/3 and 1 turn)
(RCSC 2000, AISC)
Calibrated Wrench Installation
• Calibrated Wrench pretensioning uses an impact wrench (above left) to tighten the bolt to
a specified tension
• A Skidmore-Wilhelm calibration device (above right) is used to calibrate the impact
wrench to the torque level which will achieve the specified tension
• A sample of bolts representative of those to be used in the connections are tested to
verify that the correct tension will be achieved (RCSC 2000, AISC)
153
ASTM F1852 Installation
(AISC)
• F1852 bolts are twist-off-type tension-control

bolts
• These bolts must be pretensioned with a twist-
off-type tension-control bolt installation wrench
that has two coaxial chucks
• The inner chuck engages the splined end of the
bolt
• The outer chuck engages the nut
• The two chucks turn opposite to one another to
tighten the bolt
• The splined end of the F1852 bolt shears off at a
specified tension (AISC 2003)
ASTM F959 Direct Tension Indicators

DTI’s
Feeler Gages
• Another way to try to ensure proper pretensioning of a bolt is through the use of direct
tension indicators (DTIs)
• These washers have protrusions that must bear against the unturned element
• As the bolt is tightened the clamping force flattens the protrusions and reduces the gap
• The gap is measured with a feeler gage
• When the gap reaches the specified size the bolt is properly pretensioned
(AISC & NISD 2000)
154
Installation of DTIs
(Adapted from Figure C-8.1 RCSC 2000)

It is essential that direct tension indicators be properly oriented in the assembly
a) The bolt head is stationary while the nut is turned – DTI under bolt head
b) The bolt head is stationary while the nut is turned – DTI under nut (washer required)
c) The nut is stationary while the bolt head is turned – DTI under bolt head (washer required)
d) The nut is stationary while the bolt head is turned – DTI under nut
(RCSC 2000)
Direct Tension Indicator
155
Nominal Bolt Hole Dimensions
(Table 3.1 RCSC 2000)

• Bolts are installed in one of four types of holes (see table above)
• Standard holes can be used anywhere
• Oversized holes may only be used in slip-critical connections
• Short-slotted holes are used with the slot perpendicular to the direction of stress
• Long-slotted holes are primarily used when connecting to existing structures
Equipment Requirements
• Common tools used by Ironworkers include spud wrenches, pins, and corrections bars of
various sizes (above left)
• Impact wrenches will be needed for certain installations (above center)
• Electricity or compressed air is required depending on the impact wrench being used
A generator as well as an air compressor may be needed (above right)
156
Storage of Components
Per the RCSC Specification:

• Fastener components must be protected from dirt and moisture in closed containers on
the jobsite
• Only fasteners anticipated to be installed during the work shift are to be taken from
protected storage
• Protected storage is defined as the continuous protection of fastener components in
closed containers in a protected shelter
• Any unused fasteners must be promptly returned to protected storage
Storage of Components
• The lubrication on fasteners is vital to their proper installation

• A water-soluble oil is used on most black bolts
• This oil is easily washed off when exposed to moisture
• Fasteners that accumulate rust or dirt must be cleaned and relubricated before they may
be installed
• F1852 bolts (shown above) shall not be relubricated, except by the manufacturer
(RCSC 2000, SSTC 2001)
157
Storage of Galvanized Fasteners
• Galvanized bolts and nuts (above) are provided by the supplier in a set and special
storage requirements
• Each bolt/nut set is pretested by the supplier and shipped together and must be kept
together as an assembly
• Poor thread fit may result if the bolt and nut are mismatched
• The lubrication on galvanized fasteners is generally more durable than that on black
bolts, but protected storage is still recommended
• A490 bolts are not allowed to be
JANUARY-MAY, 2011
galvanized
CARLOS ENRIQUE NUNGARAY PÉREZ
(SSTC 2001) 315
Production Lots
• Production lot traceability is required by many standards

• Even if not required, it is good practice to record the lot numbers and keep all fasteners
separated by lot
• It is necessary to keep lots separate for proper pre-installation verification testing which is
required for pretensioned and slip-critical joints
• Mixing bolts and nuts from different production lots is not permitted
(SSTC 2001)
158
Inspections
• In addition to the erector’s quality control program, tests and inspection are specified by
the Engineer of Record and/or the local building authority
• A local building inspector may request that tests in addition to those specified by the
Engineer of Record be performed
• Snug-tightened joints require visual inspection for firm contact and proper use of washers
• Pretensioned joints require pre-installation verification and routine observation of proper
application
• Slip-critical joints require inspection of the faying surfaces in addition to the above
inspections
Inspections for the Construction Manager
There are several bolted connection inspections a construction manager can

perform:
• Look at the bolt stick-out (above)
Stick-out is the amount the bolt extends beyond the outside surface of the nut
Positive or zero stick-out is acceptable
Negative stick-out, where the end of the bolt is inside the nut, is not acceptable
159
Inspections for the Construction Manager
• Inspect the turn-of-nut matchmarks to ensure the bolts have been pretensioned
• If F1852 bolts are used, make sure the ends have been snapped off all bolts (above)
In some cases, due to insufficient clearance for the installation wrench, F1852 bolts
will be tightened by alternative methods so the ends will not be snapped off
Bolting Cost Considerations
The types of joints used in a structure are somewhat dependent on the overall
design of the structure, but these are some points to consider:
• The erector may prefer certain bolt and joint types over others due to equipment
requirements, experience, and installation times
• Snug-tightened joints are normally the most economical bolted joints (Ruby 2003)
• For pretensioned joints, F1852’s and DTI’s are popular and can be economical
• Slip-critical joints are the most costly joints, and should only be specified when necessary
(Ruby 2003)
160
Types of Connections
Riveted
Bolted
Bearing type
connections
Slip-critical
connections
Disadvantages of Rivets
Driving of rivets requires a crew of 4 or 5
experienced people, while the installation of
bolts (high or normal strength) does not
Inspection of rivet installation is difficult, even for
the most experienced personnel
Cutting and replacement of faulty rivets is an
expensive procedure
Even the heating previous to the installation of
the rivets is critical to develop the necessary
clamping force
161
Disadvantages of Rivets
Finally, the economic factor has its impact,
because even with the high cost of the
manpower but with designs that generally
require less bolts than rivets, designing with
bolts is more economic than designing with
rivets
Obsolescence of Rivets
Availability of high strength bolts
Development of new welding techniques
162
Types of Bolts
A307 (Normal strength)
A325 (High strength)
A490 (High strength)
Installation of Bolts
Method of the turn of the nut (easiest to apply)
Use of a calibrated wrench
Use of special, twist - off bolts
Direct tension indicator method
(See the previous slides on bolting)
163
Turn of the Nut Method
A325 and A490 Compared
164
A325 and A490 Compared
Advantages of High Strength Bolts

Rigid joints: there is no relative displacement
among the parts, under service loads
High static resistance due to friction
Smaller load transmitted in the net section of the
plates
There are no shear or bearing stresses in the
bolts
High fatigue strength
Nut loosening is avoided
165
Types of Bolted Connections
There are two types of bolted connections:
Bearing-type connections. The load transfer
mechanism is by shear in the bolts and bearing in the
plates. Both, normal and high strength bolts are
permitted for use in this type of connections
Slip-critical connections. The load transfer
mechanism is by friction. Only high strength bolts are
permitted in this type of connections
BEARING – TYPE
CONNECTIONS
166
Bearing Type Connections:
Load Transfer Mechanism
Shear in bolts
Bearing in plates
Shear out between the end fastener and the end
of the plate
Fracture
Block shear (not always applicable)
Bearing Type Connections:

Failure Modes

167
Bearing Failure
Taken from Yura’s “Elements for Teaching

LRFD”
End Tear-Out Failure
168
JANUARY-MAY, 2011 CARLOS ENRIQUE NUNGARAY PÉREZ Reference: Huns, Grondin, and Driver 337
JANUARY-MAY, 2011 CARLOS ENRIQUE NUNGARAY PÉREZ Reference: Cai and Driver 338
169
JANUARY-MAY, 2011 CARLOS ENRIQUE NUNGARAY PÉREZ Reference: Cai and Driver 339
Strength of the Connection
φ Rn = φ Rnb N b
φ = 0.75
Rnb = bolt strength, given by the smallest of the
values in the following slides
N b = number of bolts in the connection
170
Strength Equations
Bolt shear
φ Rnb = φ Ab Fuv N s ; φ = 0.75

Ab = bolt area
Fuv = shear strength from Table J3.2
N s = number of shear planes
Strength Equations
171
Strength Equations
Plate bearing
φ Rnb = φ 2.4d btFu N s ; φ = 0.75

db = bolt diameter
t = plate thickness
Fu = plate tensile strength
N s = number of shear planes
Strength Equations
Shear out failure
φ Rnb = φ1.2 LctFu ≤ φ 2.4db tFu ; φ = 0.75

Lc = clear distance, in the direction of the force,
between the edge of the hole and the edge of the
adjacent hole or end of the material
If Lc ≥ 2db , the full bearing strength can be used
172
Minimum Edge Distance

SESSION 9
DESIGN OF SIMPLE BOLTED CONNECTIONS
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
173
Example of Bolted Connection
Determine the load carrying capacity of the
connection between a beam and a much stiffer
column.
The beam is A992 steel
The bolts are A325, ¾ in. diameter
Electrodes are E70
The shear plate is A36
174
Ultimate Limit States
Shear in beam. Normally it is not critical and will be
studied later in this course
Shear in bolts
Bearing in plates (beam web and/or shear plate)
Shear rupture in shear plate
Shear yielding in shear plate
Shear out in shear plate
Block shear rupture in shear plate
Shear rupture in weld metal

Shear in beam. From Table 3-2, page 3-18:
φvVnx = 140.00 kips
175
Shear in bolts. From table 7-15 the bolts have their
thread included in the shear plane
φ Rnb = φ Fn Ab
2
π 3
φ Rnb = 0.75 × ×   × 48 = 15.90 kips bolt
4 4  
φ Rn = N bφ Rnb = 4 ×15.90 = 63.62 kips

Bearing in plates (beam web and/or shear plate). In this
case the beam web is not critical since it is thicker and
has higher strength (65 ksi Vs. 58 ksi)
For the bolt at the bottom of the shear plate:
 0.75 + 0.125 
φ Rnb = φ1.2 LctFu = ( 0.75 )(1.2 ) 1.5 −  ( 0.25 )( 58 )
 2 
φ Rnb = 13.87 kips
For the remaining bolts:
φ Rnb = φ 2.4dbtFu = ( 0.75 )( 2.4 )( 0.75 )( 0.25 )( 58 )
φ Rnb = 19.58 kips
φ Rn = 1×13.87 + 3 ×19.58
φ Rn = 72.61 kips
176
Shear rupture in shear
plate
12”
  7 
Anv = 12 − ( 4 )    × 0.25 = 2.13 in 2
  8 
φ Rn = φ Anv 0.6 Fu = ( 0.75 )( 2.13)( 0.6 )( 58 )
φ Rn = 55.46 kips

Shear yielding in shear
plate
12”
Agv = (12 )( 0.25 ) = 3.00 in 2

φ Rn = φ Agv 0.6 Fy = (1.00 )( 3.00 )( 0.6 )( 36 )
φ Rn = 64.80 kips
177
Shear out in shear plate. This ultimate limit state
was included in the bearing strength of the shear
plate
In the beam web, this failure mode is not an
issue

Block shear rupture in
shear plate: first
possibility 12”
Nb = N bs = 4
Ant = 1.5 − ( 0.5 )( 0.875 )  × 0.25 = 0.266 in 2
Anv = 10.5 − ( 3.5 )( 0.875 )  × 0.25 = 1.859 in 2
Agv = (10.5)( 0.25) = 2.625
Anv Fu = 107.82 > Agv Fy = 94.50
φ Rnbs = φ (U bs Ant Fu + 0.6 Agv Fy ) ; U bs = 1.00
φ Rnbs = ( 0.75) (1.00 )( 0.266 )( 58) + ( 0.6 )( 94.5 ) 
4
φ Rn =   ( 54.10 ) = 54.10 kips
4
178
shear plate: second
possibility 12”
Nb = 4; Nbs = 3
Ant = 0.266 in 2
Anv = 7.5 − ( 2.5)( 0.875)  × 0.25 = 1.328 in 2
Agv = ( 7.5)( 0.25 ) = 1.875 in 2
Anv Fu = 77.02 > Agv Fy = 67.50
φ Rnbs = ( 0.75 ) (1.00 )( 0.266 )( 58 ) + ( 0.6 )( 67.5 ) 
4
φ Rn =   ( 41.95) = 55.93 kips
3

shear plate: third
possibility 12”
N b = 4; N bs = 2
Ant = 0.266 in 2
Anv =  4.5 − (1.5 )( 0.875 )  × 0.25 = 0.797 in 2
Agv = ( 4.5 )( 0.25 ) = 1.125 in 2
Anv Fu = 46.23 > Agv Fy = 40.50
φ Rnbs = ( 0.75 ) (1.00 )( 0.266 )( 58 ) + ( 0.6 )( 40.5 ) 
4
φ Rn =   ( 29.80 ) = 59.59 kips
 
2
179
shear plate: fourth
possibility 12”
N b = 4; N bs = 1
Ant = 0.266 in 2
Anv = 1.5 − (1.5 )( 0.875 )  × 0.25 = 0.266 in 2
Agv = (1.5 )( 0.25 ) = 0.375 in 2
Anv Fu = 15.43 > Agv Fy = 13.50
φ Rnbs = ( 0.75) (1.00 )( 0.266 )( 58) + ( 0.6 )(13.5 ) 
4
φ Rn =   (17.65 ) = 70.58 kips
1

Shear rupture in weld metal. Note that shear rupture of
the shear plate near the fusion plane is not checked
because it was already checked in the net area, which is
more critical
φ Rnw = 2φ 0.707 S w 0.60 FE 70
 3
φ Rnw = 2 ( 0.75 )( 0.707 )   ( 0.60 )( 70 ) = 8.35 kips in
 16 
φ Rn = φ Rnw Lw = ( 8.35 )(12 ) = 100.22 kips
180
Conclusion
The load carrying capacity of the connection is
54.10 kips and it is controlled by block shear
rupture strength when all the bolts are included
in the block shear
Compare with Table 10-9a of the Manual
Additional Topics
In some cases there may be bolts in two different planes
such as the L-shape shown below
The net area is calculated by treating the shape as a
plate developed by its center line
If the thickness changes, use an average value in the
correction term (diagonal)
181
Assignment #2
Determine the service load capacity of the
tension chord splice of two channels shown in
the next slide if the live load is three times the
dead load. The steel is A572 Grade 50, and the
3/4-in.-diameter bolts are in a bearing-type
connection (A325). The separation between the
two channels is 1/2 in.
Assignment #2
182
Assignment #2
Assignment. Determine the strength of a shear
connection similar to the one we studied in class
with the following data:
Five A325 ¾ in. diameter bolts instead of four
Distance center to center of holes = 3.00 in.
Distance between the top (or bottom) bolt and the top
(or bottom) edge of the shear plate = 1.25 in. as
indicated in Table J3.4
Horizontal distance between the center of the hole
and the right edge of the shear plate = 1.50 in.
Assignment (Do not hand-in)

Solve Problems 3.1, 3.6 (all cases), 3.11, 3.13,
4.4, 4.5, 4.9, 5.3, 5.8, and 5.10 of the textbook:
“Steel Structures, Design and Behavior
Emphasizing Load And Resistance Factor
Design”, 4th Edition, by Charles G. Salmon and
John E. Johnson
183
SESSION 10
SLIP – CRITICAL
CONNECTIONS
Slip-Critical Connections
These connections are used when it is important
to prevent slip between the connected parts
Slip resistance is proportional to the clamping
force which is equal to the bolt pretension
Because slip resistance depends on the bolt
pretension, only high strength bolts are
permitted
184
The design slip resistance is given by
φ Rnb = φµ Du hscTb N s
φ = 1.00 for connections where slip is a serviceability limit state
φ = 0.85 for connections designed to prevent slip at the required strength
185


186
Once the number of bolts required to avoid slip
has been determined, the resulting array of bolts
must be checked by all the ultimate limit states
of bearing-type connections
This is to assure the structural integrity of the
connection in case the slip resistance has been
overwhelmed by an overload
When this happens, the connection becomes
automatically a bearing-type connection
Bolting and Welding

Scheduling Considerations
• Bolting is generally a faster operation than welding

• Bolting does not have the temperature and weather condition requirements that
are associated with welding
• Unexpected weather changes may delay welding operations
187
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
MODULE 4
DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR
COMPRESSION
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Session 11
Design of Compression Members
with Symmetric Cross Section
188
Introduction
Compression members are used as:
Columns in buildings (vertical elements)
Members in trusses subject to compressive forces
Bridge piers
Introduction
189
Strength of Columns
Basically, the strength of a column depends on
the following factors (from Solid Mechanics II):
Slenderness ratio, (KL/r)
Yield stress, Fy
Types of Columns
190
Types of Columns
Short column
It fails by yielding Pn = Ag Fy
The slenderness ratio does
not play an important role
in the strength
There is no buckling
Long column π 2 EI
It fails by elastic buckling Pn = 2
Strength depends on the
slenderness ratio
( KL )
Strength is independent
from yield stress
Types of Columns
Intermediate column
It fails by inelastic buckling
Strength depends on both, yield stress and slenderness ratio
The tangent mudulus theory is used for the strength
Most columns fall in this category
π 2 ET I
Pn = 2
( KL )
191
Cross Section Behavior
Reference: Kulak et al., adapted from

Tall
Cross Section Behavior

Important points of the stress-strain curve:
Early yielding (point 15) due to residual strains in

compression
Progressive yielding (from point 15 to 27) until the

complete cross section yields
There is no strain hardening
192
Pattern of Residual Stresses: Hot
Rolled Sections
Reference: Galambos’ Guide
Pattern of Residual Stresses:

Welded Sections
Reference: Galambos’ Guide
193
Elastic Buckling Strength
M y = Pu
d 2u
EI y = −M y
dz 2
d 2u
EI y 2 + Pu = 0
dz
 P   P 
u = A sin  z  + B cos  z 
 EI y   EI y 
   

Boundary conditions: From (a)
a ) At z = 0 u = 0  P 
b) At z = L u = 0 u = A sin  z 
 EI y 
 
From (b)  P 
sin  L cr  = 0
  EI y 
P  
u = A sin  L cr  = 0
 EI y  Pcr
 L = nπ n = 1, 2,3,...
EI y
194
The elastic buckling load is given by the following
expression:
n 2π 2 EI y
Pcr = 2
; n = 1, 2,3,...
L
Buckling Modes
Reference: Martini
195
Strong Axis Buckling (x-axis
Buckling)
n=1
Reference: Martini
Weak Axis Buckling (y-axis

Buckling)
Braced
Column
n=2
Reference: Martini
196
Design of Columns by
AISC-LRFD
The AISC-LRFD specifications consider two cases for
the design of columns, based on the value of the
slenderness ratio:
Elastic behavior
Inelastic behavior
Slenderness ratio:
KL
r
Design of Columns
Torsion does not take place when column
buckles
Cross section has a representative pattern of
residual stresses
Maximum initial imperfection of L/1500
Local buckling does not take place when column
buckles
197
Design of Columns by
AISC-LRFD Chapter E
φc Pn = φc Ag Fcr φc = 0.90
KL E  Fy

If ≤ 4.71 ( or Fe ≥ 0.44 Fy ) : Fcr = 0.658 Fe  Fy
r Fy  
KL E
If
r
> 4.71
Fy
( or F e < 0.44 Fy ) : Fcr = 0.877 Fe
Fe = elastic critical stress

π 2E
Fe = 2
 KL 
 
 r 
Effective Length Factor (K)

The effective length factor is introduced to use
the design rules developed for simply supported
columns
The strength of the original column will be equal
to that of a simply supported column of length
equal to KL, the effective length
198
Effective Length Factor
(Isolated Columns)

Effect of End Restraint
199
Types of Frames
Braced frames
No sidesway takes place when columns buckle
The diagonals are the bracing members
Unbraced frames
Sidesway takes place when columns buckle
Types of Frames
Braced frames Unbraced frames
200
Braced Frames
Unbraced Frames
201
Effective Length:
Columns in Frames
Assumptions:
Behavior is purely elastic
All members have constant cross section
All joints are rigid
For braced frames, rotations at opposite ends of beams are
equal in magnitude, producing single-curvature bending
For unbraced frames, rotations at opposite ends of the
restraining beams are equal in magnitude, producing reverse-
curvature bending
The stiffness parameter of all columns are equal
Joint restraint is distributed to the column above and below the
joint in proportion to I/L of the two columns (recall moment
distribution)
All columns buckle simultaneously
No significant axial compression force exists in the girders
Effective Length (Braced Frames)
Reference: McGuire
202
All the beams deform 2 EI b
symmetrically M 1−1' = θ1
Lb
The moment at end A of ( I c Lc ) × 2Eθ 2 EI c

A ∑ ( Ib
MA = Lb ) = θA
the column is given by ∑ ( Ic Lc ) GLc
the following equation G=
∑ ( EIc Lc )
∑ ( EIb Lb )

The effective length of a column in a braced frame is
obtained by solving the first of the equations shown, or
using the second (approximate) equation
 π K  2 tan (π 2 K )
2
G AGB  π   GA + GB
  +  1 − + =1
4 K  2   tan (π K )  π K
Alternate equation (CM66)
3G AGB + 1.4 ( GA + GB ) + 0.64
K=
3G AGB + 2.0 ( GA + GB ) + 1.28
203
Calculate GA and GB
Locate, on the two lateral
scales of the alignment chart,
the points corresponding to the
values of GA and GB
Join these two points by a
straight line
The value of K corresponds to
the point where this line
crosses the central scale of the
alignment chart
Effective Length
(Unbraced Frames)
Beams deform in an antisymmetrical manner
All beams have the same length
All columns have the same height
All columns have the same axial load
All columns have the same end restraints
204
Effective Length of Unbraced
Frames - Assumptions
Reference: McGuire
Effective Length of Unbraced

Frames
The effective length of a column in an unbraced frame is
obtained by solving the first of the equations shown, or
using the second (approximate) equation
2
G AGB (π K ) − 36 π K
=
6 ( G A + GB ) tan (π K )
Alternate equation (CM66)
1.6GAGB + 4.0 ( G A + GB ) + 7.5
K=
G A + GB + 7.5
205
K-Factor by Alignment Chart
Calculate GA and GB
Locate, on the two lateral
scales of the alignment chart,
the points corresponding to the
values of GA and GB
Join these two points by a
straight line
The value of K corresponds to
the point where this line
crosses the central scale of the
alignment chart
K - Factor by Alignment Chart

Considerations
For column ends supported by but not rigidly
connected to a footing or foundation, G is
theoretically infinity, but may be taken as 10
For column ends rigidly attached to a properly
designed footing, G may be taken as 1.0
206
Alignment Charts Compared
Additional Considerations
For simply supported columns the theoretical value of G
is infinity. AISC recommends to use 10
For fixed-ended columns the theoretical value of G is
zero. AISC recommends to use 1
Some refinements can be made in calculating the
stiffness of the beams (not widely used in practice):
For braced frames, multiply the stiffness of the beam by:
1.5 if the far end is pinned
2.0 if the far end is fixed
For unbraced frames, multiply the stiffness of the beam by:
0.5 if the far end is pinned
0.67 if the far end is fixed
207
Additional Considerations
If the column buckles in the inelastic range, the value of
G is calculated using the tangent modulus of the column,
ET
τ is called stiffness reduction factor and can be obtained
from Table 4-21 of the AISC-LRFD Manual or calculated
using the following equation
Gin =
∑( E I L)
T columns
=τ
∑ ( EI L )
columns
∑ ( EI L ) beams ∑ ( EI L ) beams
Gin = τ Gel
 Pn  P 
τ = −2.724   ln  n 
P
 y   Py 
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Session 12
Design Example #1 of a Doubly
Symmetric Column
208
Example #1 of Column Design
Select the lightest W12 shape in A992 steel for column
AB subjected to a factored axial load of 1,180 kips.
The columns are braced along their length in the
direction perpendicular to the frame.
In the plane of the frame the columns are unbraced.
The far ends of the beams are fixed against rotation.
This means that the 2/3 coefficient is to be used for the
stiffnesses of the beams.
The selection should be made based on:
Elastic behavior
Inelastic behavior
Column Design Example #1

Same as column AB
14 ft
W21x68 W21x68 W21x68 W21x68
A
14 ft
B
W21x68 W21x68 W21x68 W21x68
14 ft
28 ft 28 ft 28 ft 28 ft
209
Previous Considerations
From the problem statement:
Effective length for y-axis buckling is zero because
the column is continuously braced along its length
Hence, the column will necessarily buckle about x-
axis (thus, we have to assume a value of Kx to make
a preliminary selection and, once a shape selection
has been made, calculate the corresponding effective
length factor using the alignment chart or the CM-66
equation)
Previous Considerations
Since column buckles about the x-axis, we need
an estimation of effective length (KL)x
From Table C-C2.1, assume Kx = 2.00
Hence, (KL)x = 28 ft
To make a preliminary selection we use the
design aids included in the AISC manual
First, we must find an equivalent effective length
for y-axis buckling that yields the same strength
as the one corresponding to the actual critical
effective length factor, (KL)x
210
Solution Based on Elastic
Behavior
Equivalent Effective Length

The equivalent effective length for y-axis buckling is
obtained by equating the following slenderness ratios:
( KL ) x ( KL ) y eq
=
rx ry
( KL ) x
( KL ) y eq = rx
ry
where
( KL ) x
= slenderness ratio for x-axis buckling
rx
( KL ) y eq
= slenderness ratio for y-axis buckling that yields the same load capacity
ry
211
Equivalent Effective Length
For the W12 shapes that can resist a factored load of
1,180 kips the approximate value of the rx/ry ratio is 1.75.
Hence,
( KL ) x 28.00
( KL ) y eq = = = 16 ft
rx ry 1.75
Preliminary Selection
The trial W12 shape should have a strength of at
least 1,180 kips for an effective length about the
y-axis equal to 16 ft
From Table 4-1, Page 4-16, the preliminary W12
shape is W12x120
212
Compression Strength of W12x120
KL = 16 ft
rx
= 1.76
ry
φc Pn = 1, 210 kips > Pu = 1,180 kips

213
Calculation of Kx
Cross section properties I x = 1, 070 in 4
of W12x120
b f = 12.3 in
Cross section properties I x = 1, 480 in 4

of W21x68
b f = 8.27 in
b f < b f col = 12.3 in
Calculation of Kx
Gtop = Gbottom = G
2 × (1, 070 14 )
G= = 2.169
2 × (1, 480 28 )( 2 3)
K x = 1.65
( KL ) x = 1.65 ×14 = 23.1 ft
23.1
( KL ) y eq = = 13.13 ft < ( KL ) y eq assumed
1.76
214
Revision of Trial Shape
Table 4-1 does not have a value for an effective length
(KL)y = 13.13 ft
Hence, we use linear interpolation between values of
(KL)y of 13 and 14 ft
φc Pn = 1,316 kips > Pu = 1,180 kips
Revision of Trial Shape

Since there is a considerable excess in axial
compression capacity, we try a lighter W12
shape
Try W12x106
215
Revision of New Trial Shape
Cross section properties

of W12x106
I x = 933 in 4
b f = 12.2 in
rx
= 1.76
ry
Calculation of Kx for New Trial

Section
Gtop = Gbottom = G
2 × ( 933 14 )
G= = 1.891
2 × (1, 480 28 )( 2 3)
K x = 1.58
( KL ) x = 1.58 ×14 = 22.12 ft
22.12
( KL ) y eq = = 12.57 ft
1.76
216
Lightest W12 Shape Assuming
Elastic Behavior
For an effective length of 12.57 ft, we obtain the
following axial compression strength by linear
interpolation:
φc Pn = 1,183 kips > Pu = 1,180 kips
SOLUTION BASED ON
INELASTIC BEHAVIOR
217
Selection Based on Inelastic
Behavior
When inelastic behavior is considered the

effective length is reduced and, as a
consequence, the strength is increased
Hence, we try the next lighter W12 shape,

W12x96, to see if it can resist the factored load
when inelastic behavior is taken into account
Revision of W12x96
Cross section properties Ag = 28.2 in 2
of the W12x96
I x = 833 in 4
b f = 12.2 in
rx
= 1.76
ry
218
Stiffness Reduction Factor τ
The stiffness reduction factor depends on the level of
stress due to the axial load
Pu 1,180
= = 41.84 ksi
Ag 28.2
τ = 0.184
219
Calculation of Kx
Gtop = Gbottom = G
Ginel = τ Gelastic
2 × ( 833 14 )
Ginel = 0.184 × = 0.311
2 × (1, 480 28 )( 2 3)
K x = 1.12
Calculation of Axial Compression

Strength
( KL ) x = 1.12 ×14 = 15.68 ft

15.68
( KL ) y eq = = 8.91 ft
1.76
φc Pn = 1,162 kips < Pu = 1,180 kips
220
Lightest W12 Shape Assuming
Inelastic Behavior
The lightest W12 shape to resist the factored load of
1,180 kips is a W12x106 with an axial load capacity of
φc Pn = 1, 257 kips
Conclusion
If inelastic behavior is not
considered the lightest
φc Pn = 1,183 kips
W12 shape to resist the
factored load of 1,180
kips is a W12x106 with:
If inelastic behavior is
considered the lightest φc Pn = 1, 257 kips
W12 shape to resist the
factored load of 1,180
kips is a W12x106 with:
221
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Session 13
Design Example #2 of a Doubly
Symmetric Column
Example #2 of Column Design

Design column A of the unbraced frame shown as an
axially loaded compression member carrying a dead
load of 69 kips and a live load of 277 kips using
A992 steel. In the plane perpendicular to the frame
the system is braced, with supports at top and bottom
of a 21-ft height
222
Column Design Example #2
P W14x82 P W14x82 P W14x82 P
A 21 ft
3 @ 40 ft = 120 ft
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Session 14
Local Buckling and
Flexural-Torsional Buckling
223
Types of Column Buckling
General buckling by bending (flexural buckling

already covered in previous sessions)
Local buckling
Flexural-Torsional buckling
Local Buckling
Occurs when the slenderness ratio of at least

one of the elements of the cross section
exceeds a limiting value
That limiting value is specified in Table B4.1
224
Local Buckling
225
Local Buckling
buckling took place
because the compressive
stress exceeded the
critical or buckling stress
of the flange
Local Buckling
Finite Element simulation
of flange local buckling of
a doubly symmetric I-
shaped cross section
Referene: http://www.ce.luth.se/abb/exjobb/hanhell/
Local buckling of a real

doubly symmetric I-
Reference: Zureick.
226
Local Buckling
a doubly symmetric I-

a singly symmetric I-
Local Buckling
Local buckling is studied by considering each element of
the cross section as a plate and obtaining the critical
stress for each of the plates forming the cross section
∂ 4w ∂ 4w ∂ 4w 1  ∂ 2w ∂ 2w ∂ 2w 
+ 2 + =  N + N + 2 N 
∂ x4 ∂ x 2∂ y 2 ∂ y 4 D  x ∂ x 2 y
∂ y2 xy
∂ x∂ y 
w = plate deflection
N x , N y , and N xy = stresses
D = plate stiffness
Et 3 kπ 2 E
D= σ cr =
12 (1 −ν 2 )
2
b
12 (1 −ν 2 )  
t Reference: Szilard.
227
Local Buckling: Critical Stress
In the previous slide,
k = buckling coefficient which depends on the plate
aspect ratio (a/b) and the support conditions along the
edges of the plate
E = modulus of elasticity
ν = Poisson’s ratio
Reference: Szilard.
Local Buckling: Critical Stress
Reference: Brush y Almroth.
228
Cross Section Classification for
Local Buckling
Compact λ ≤ λp
Non-compact λ p < λ ≤ λr
Slender λ > λr
C = Centroid
O = Shear center
References: Galambos; Timoshenko and

Gere.
229
Governing General Second-Order Equations (Elastic
Behavior)
EI x v IV + Pv′′ − Pxoφ ′′ = 0
EI y u IV + Pu′′ + Pyoφ ′′ = 0
ECwφ IV + ( Pro2 − GJ ) φ ′′ + Pyo u′′ − Pxo v′′ = 0

Gere.
u = shear center deflection in the x-direction
v = shear center deflection in the y-direction
φ = rotational displacement by torsion
xo = x-coordinate of shear center
yo = y-coordinate of shear center
ro = polar radius of gyration about the shear center
230
A = area of cross section
Ix = moment of inertia about the x-axis
Iy = moment of inertia about the y-axis
J = Saint Venant torsional constant
Cw = warping constant
E = modulus of elasticity
G = shear modulus of elasticity
P = axial load
231
Flexural-Torsional Buckling:
Doubly Symmetric Sections
For cross section with two axes of symmetry:
(xo = yo = 0)
P
v IV + v′′ = 0
EI x
P
u IV + u ′′ = 0
EI y
IV Pro2 − GJ
φ + φ ′′ = 0
ECw References: Galambos; Timoshenko and
Gere.
232
x − axis buckling y − axis buckling

2
π EI x π 2 EI y
Pcrx = Pcry =
L2 L2
2
π 2 EI x π EI y
Pcrx = 2
Pcry = 2
( Kx L) ( K L) y
For doubly-symmetric sections,

Torsional buckling failure can be by:
a) x-axis buckling
 π 2 ECw  1
Pcrz =  2
+ GJ  2 b) y-axis buckling
 L  r0
c) Torsional buckling
Example of column
flexural buckling
π 2 EI y
Pcry =
L2
π 2 EI y
Pcry = 2
( K y L)
233
of column flexural
buckling about the y-axis
(doubly symmetric I-
shaped section)
π 2 EI y
Pcry =
L2
π 2 EI y
Pcry = 2
Referene: http://www.ce.luth.se/abb/exjobb/hanhell/ ( K L)
y
of column flexural
buckling (doubly
symmetric cruciform
section)
π 2 EI
Pcr = 2
( KL )
234
of torsional buckling of a
doubly symmetric I-
 π 2 ECw  1
Pcrz =  2
+ GJ  2
 L  r0
of torsional buckling of a
doubly symmetric
cruciform cross section
 π 2 ECw  1
Pcrz =  2
+ GJ  2
 L  r0
235
Singly Symmetric Sections
For cross section with one axis of symmetry (assume y-
axis is the axis of symmetry):
For symmetry about the y-axis, xo = 0 and yo≠ 0
P
v IV + v′′ = 0
EI x
P P
u IV + u ′′ + yoφ ′′ = 0
EI y EI y
IV Pro2 − GJ P
φ + φ ′′ + yo u ′′ = 0
ECw ECw References: Galambos; Timoshenko and
Gere.
Failure by x-axis buckling (the axis perpendicular to the
axis of symmetry)
π 2 EI x
Pcrx =
L2
π 2 EI x
Pcrx = 2
( KxL)
236
Failure by flexural-torsional buckling with bending about
y-axis (the axis of symmetry) only plus torsion
P P
u IV + u ′′ + yoφ ′′ = 0
EI y EI y
IV Pro2 − GJ P
φ + φ ′′ + you ′′ = 0
ECw ECw
Gere.
Failure by flexural-torsional buckling with bending about
y-axis (the axis of symmetry) only plus torsion
Pcr is obtained from:
(P − P ) y Pyo
=0
Pyo ro ( P − Pz )
2

Gere.
237
Failure by flexural- ro2 ( P − Py ) ( P − Pz ) − ( Pyo ) = 0
2
torsional buckling
(bending about y-axis Py + Pz  4 Py Pz H 

P= 1± 1−
only plus torsion) 2 H  ( Py + Pz )
2

 
The above equation is Fcry + Fcrz  4 Fcry Fcrz H 


Fcr = 1− 1−
written in terms of 2 H  ( Fcry + Fcrz )
2

 
stresses in the
specifications as Fey + Fez  4 Fey Fez H 

Fe = 1− 1−
2 H  ( Fey + Fez )
2

 
238
of flexural buckling of a
C-shaped cross section
π 2 EI y
Pcry =
L2
π 2 EI y
Pcry = 2
Referene: http://www.ce.luth.se/abb/exjobb/hanhell/ ( K L)
y
239
of flexural-torsional
buckling of a singly
symmetric I-shaped cross
section
Py + Pz  4 Py Pz H 

P= 1− 1−
2 H  ( Py + Pz )
2

Referene: http://www.ce.luth.se/abb/exjobb/hanhell/  
buckling of a C-shaped
cross section
Py + Pz  4 Py Pz H 

P= 1− 1−
2 H  ( Py + Pz )
2

 
240
Unsymmetric Sections
For an unsymmetric cross section:
(xo ≠ 0; yo ≠ 0)
EI x v IV + Pv′′ − Pxoφ ′′ = 0
EI y u IV + Pu ′′ + Pyoφ ′′ = 0
ECwφ IV + ( Pro2 − GJ ) φ ′′ + Pyou ′′ − Pxo v′′ = 0

Gere.
For unsymmetric cross sections, flexural-torsional
buckling takes place (x- and y-axes bending plus torsion)
Pcr is obtained from:
( P − Px ) 0 − Pxo
0 (P − P ) y Pyo =0
− Pxo Pyo ro2 ( P − Pz )

Gere.
241
Failure takes place by flexural-torsional buckling under a
load which is the lowest of the three roots of the
following equation:
 xo2   yo2 
( P − Px ) ( P − Py ) ( P − Pz ) − P 2 ( P − Py )  2 
− P 2
( P − P )
x  2 =0
 ro   ro 
In AISC specifications :
 xo2   yo2 
( Fe − Fex ) ( Fe − Fey ) ( Fe − Fez ) − Fe2 ( Fe − Fey )  2  − Fe
2
( Fe − F )
ex  2  = 0
 ro   ro 
242
buckling of an
unsymmetric L-shaped
cross section
 xo2   yo2 
( P − Px ) ( P − Py ) ( P − Pz ) − P 2 ( P − Py )  2 
− P 2
( P − P )
x  2 =0
 ro   ro 
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Session 15
Example: Flexural-Torsional
Buckling without Local Buckling
243
Example
Determine the strength of the diagonal shown,
which is composed of two A36 steel L6x4x5/8
Long Legs Back-to-Back. Two fully tensioned
bolts are used as intermediate connectors. Use
effective length factors Kx = Ky = 1.0.
Example
8'-5"
11'-2.25"
244
Example
tw = 3/8 in
t
4f
=1
in
56
3@ L6x4x5/8 LLBB
tw = 3/8 in
Specifications for Built-Up

Members in Compression
245


246
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Session 16
247
Determine the compression strengths of a double angle,
2L8x6x½ Short Legs Back-to-Back, with effective lengths
(KL)x = (KL)y = 24 ft separated 3/8". The intermediate
connectors are snug-tight bolts at 4 ft intervals. The
material is A992.
y
Possible Failure Modes

Flexural buckling about the x-axis (the axis perpendicular to the axis
of symmetry)
Flexural-torsional buckling, with bending about the y-axis (the axis of
symmetry) simultaneous with torsion
Local buckling, since the slenderness ratio of the angle is greater
than that given in Table B4.1
Note: Local buckling calculations are included in the first two
y
248
Local Buckling
Slenderness ratio of the b 8
= = 16
t 1
largest leg of the angle 2
E 29, 000 b
0.45 = 0.45 = 10.8 <
Fy 50 t
Since local buckling takes E 29, 000 b

0.91 = 0.91 = 21.9 > = 16
place, we must calculate Fy 50 t
the local buckling b F
coefficient, Q, based on ∴ Qs = 1.340 − 0.76   y = 0.835
t E
Section E7
Flexural Buckling About the X-axis

Calculation of the ( KL ) x
=
24 ×12
= 160.89
slenderness ratio for x- rx 1.79
axis buckling and the ( KL ) x
> 4.71
E
= 124.13
corresponding rx QFy
compression strength ∴ failure is by elastic buckling
π 2E
Fcr = 0.877 Fe = 0.877 2
 KL 
 
 r x
29, 000π 2
Fcr = 0.877 2
= 9.70 ksi
(160.89 )
φc Pn = φc Ag Fcr = ( 0.90 )(13.6 )( 9.70 ) = 118.7 kips
249
Calculation of the modified slenderness ratio for snug-
tight bolts, Section E6
2 2
 KL   KL   a 
  =   + 
 r m  r o  ri 
 KL  ( KL ) y 24 × 12 a a 4 × 12
  = = = 78.26; = = = 36.92
 r o ry 3.68 ri rz 1.30
a 24 × 12
< 0.75 × = 120.67
ri 1.79
 KL 
  = 86.53
 r m
 KL   KL   π 2 EC  1
  =  = 86.53 Fez =  w
+ GJ 
 r  y  r m 2 2
 ( KL ) z  Ag r0
π 2E 29, 000π 2
Fey = 2
= = 38.23 ksi Cw = 2 × 2.28 = 4.56 in 6 ; J = 2 × 0.584 = 1.168 in 4
 KL  (86.53)2
  Ag = 13.6 in 2 ; r0 = 4.26 in
 r y
 29, 000π 2 × 4.56 

Fez =  + 11, 200 ×1.168
1
= 53.07 ksi Fey + Fez  4 Fey Fez H 
 ( 24 × 12 )
2
 (13.6 )( 4.26 )
2
Fe = 1− 1− = 33.56 ksi

( Fey + Fez ) 
2
2H 
H = 0.919 
Fey + Fez = 91.30 ksi; Fey Fez = 2.029 ×103 ksi 2 Fe > 0.44QFy = 0.44 × 0.835 × 50 = 18.37 ksi
250
Compression strength for y-axis flexural-torsional
buckling
QFy
Fe
Fcr = Q(0.658) Fy = 24.80 ksi
φc Pn = ( 0.90 )(13.6 )( 24.80 ) = 303.6 kips
Conclusion:
Strength for flexural φc Pn = 118.7 kips
buckling about the x-axis:
Strength for flexural-

torsional buckling about the φc Pn = 303.6 kips
y-axis:
251
Notes:
We can not use Table 4-10 directly because bolts are
snug-tight and not fully tensioned
In this particular example, steel is Grade 50 and
Table 4-10 is for Grade 36 steel
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Session 17
Design of Members for Flexure
252
Limit States for Beams
Ultimate limit states: Serviceability limit states
Flexure Deflections
Yielding Vibrations
Lateral-torsional buckling
Elastic
Inelastic
Local buckling
Shear
Yielding
Inelastic buckling
Elastic buckling
Effects of concentrated forces
Flange local bending
Web local yielding
Web crippling
Web sidesway buckling
Web compression buckling

Flexure. Flexural strength depends mainly on
(see Chapter F):
Lateral support conditions (lateral-torsional buckling).
Slenderness ratios of the elements of the cross
section (local buckling).
Shear. Shear strength depends mainly on the
slenderness ratio of the web (see Chapter G)
Effects of concentrated forces (see Section 10 of
Chapter J)
253
Serviceability Limit States
The main Serviceability Limit States applied to
beams are:
Camber (used to achieve proper position and location
of the structure, the magnitude, direction, and location
of camber should be specified in the structural
drawings). Section 2 of Chapter L
Deflections. Section 3 of Chapter L
Floor Vibrations. Section 5 of Chapter L
Flexural Strength ─ LTB

Mn
Mp
Mr
Lp Lr Lb
254
Flexural Strength ─ Local Buckling
Mn
Mp
Mr
λp λr λ
Local Buckling
buckling took place
because the compressive
stress exceeded the
critical or buckling stress
of the flange
255
Design for Flexure – Ultimate Limit
States (Plastic Moment)
Figure from Tall’s book

States (Plastic Hinge)
Figure from Salmon and Johnson’s book
256
States (Plastic Hinge)
Figures from Salmon and Johnson’s and Gaylord, Gaylord, and Stallmeyer’s books
Design for Flexure

The following cases will be considered:
Doubly symmetric compact I-shaped beams in major
axis bending
Doubly symmetric I-shaped beams with compact
webs and noncompact or slender flanges in major
axis bending
Other I-shaped members with compact or
noncompact webs in major axis bending
I-shaped members bent about their minor axis
257
Design for Flexure – Ultimate Limit States for Doubly
Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Beams in Major Axis Bending
Failure in bending may be by:

Yielding
With moment redistribution
Without moment redistribution
Lateral-Torsional Buckling
Elastic
Inelastic

Yielding (with and without moment redistribution)
φb M n = φb M p ; φb = 0.90
M p = Z x Fy
M p = plastic moment
258
Lateral – Torsional Buckling (LTB). This ultimate limit

state is only applicable to members subject to major axis
bending. The design strength is given by φbMn, where:
φb = 0.90
M n = nominal flexural strength determined as follows:

Lateral – Torsional Buckling. Doubly symmetric sections

with Lb≤Lp. In this case there is no lateral-torsional
buckling and the bending moment capacity of the beam
is controlled by yielding
M nx = M px = Z x Fy
259

with Lp<Lb≤Lr. In this case there is inelastic lateral-
torsional buckling
 L − Lp 
M n = Cb  M p − ( M p − 0.7 Fy S x ) b  ≤Mp
 Lr − Lp 
E
Lp = 1.76ry
Fy
2
E Jc  0.7 Fy S x ho 
Lr = 1.95rts 1 + 1 + 6.76  
0.7 Fy S x ho  E Jc 
12.5M max
Cb = Rm ≤ 3.0
2.5M max + 3M A + 4M B + 3M C


with Lr<Lb In this case there is elastic lateral-torsional
buckling
M n = Fcr S x ≤ M p
2
Cbπ 2 E Jc  Lb 
Fcr = 2
1 + 0.078  
 Lb  S x ho  rts 
 
 rts 
12.5M max
Cb = Rm ≤ 3.0
2.5M max + 3M A + 4 M B + 3M C
260
Lb = distance between points braced against lateral

displacement of the compression flange, or between
points braced to prevent twist of the cross section
Lp = limiting laterally unbraced length for which the
resisting moment is equal to the plastic moment
Lr = Limiting unbraced length for which the behavior of
the beam is linear and elastic
Cb = modification factor for non-uniform moment
diagrams

Symmetric I-Shaped Beams with Compact Webs and
Noncompact or Slender Flanges in Major Axis Bending

Compression Flange Local Buckling
261
Lateral – Torsional Buckling (LTB). This ultimate

limit state is only applicable to members subject
to major axis bending. The design strength is
given by φbMn, where Mn is defined in the same
way as in the previous slides for compact
shapes


For sections with noncompact flanges
 λ − λ pf 
M n =  M p − ( M p − 0.7 Fy S x ) 
 λrf − λ pf 
262

For sections with slender flanges
0.9 Ekc S x
Mn =
λ2
bf
λ=
2t f
4
kc =
h tw
0.35 < kc ≤ 0.76
Design for Flexure ─ Other I-Shaped Members with

Compact or Noncompact Webs in Major Axis Bending
Compression Flange Yielding
Inelastic
Elastic
Tension Flange Yielding
263
Compression flange yielding
M n = R pc M yc = R pc S xc Fy

Lateral – Torsional Buckling for sections with Lp<Lb≤Lr. In
this case there is inelastic lateral-torsional buckling
  L − Lp 
M n = Cb  Rpc M yc − ( R pc M yc − FL S xc )  b   ≤ Rpc M yc

  Lr − Lp  
S xt
If ≥ 0.7, FL = 0.7 Fy
S xc
S xt S
If < 0.7, FL = Fy xt ≥ 0.5 Fy
S xc S xc
264
Lateral – Torsional Buckling for sections with Lr<Lb. In
this case there is elastic lateral-torsional buckling
M n = Fcr S xc ≤ R pc M yc
M yc = Fy S xc
2
Fcr = 2
1 + 0.078  
 Lb  S xc ho  rt 
 
 rt 
I yc
If ≤ 0.23, J = 0
Iy
E
L p = 1.1rt
Fy
2
E J F S h 
Lr = 1.95rt 1 + 1 + 6.76  L xc o 
FL S xc ho  E J 

The web plastification factor, Rpc, is determined as
follows:
hc Mp
If ≤ λ pw , R pc =
tw M yc
hc  Mp  Mp   λ − λ pw   M p
If > λ pw , R pc =  − − 1   ≤
tw  M yc  M yc   λrw − λ pw   M yc
M p = Z x Fy ≤ 1.6 S xc Fy
265
The effective radius of gyration for lateral-torsional
buckling, rt, is determined as follows:
For I-shapes with rectangular compression flange:
b fc
rt =
h 1 h2 
12  o + aw 
 d 6 hod 
ht
aw = c w
b fc t fc
For I-shapes with channel caps or cover plates attached to the compression flange:
rt = radius of gyration of the flange components in flexural compression plus
one-third of the web area in compression due to the application of a major axis
bending moment alone
a w = ratio of two times the web area in compression due to the application of a major
axis bending moment alone, to the area of the compression flange components

 λ − λ pf 
M n =  R pc M yc − ( R pc M yc − FL S xc ) 
 λrf − λ pf 
b
λ = fc
2t fc
266
0.9 Ekc S x
Mn =
λ2
b fc
λ=
2t fc
4
kc =
h tw
0.35 < kc ≤ 0.76

For sections with compact webs
If S xt ≥ S xc tension flange yielding does not apply

If S xt < S xc :
M n = R pt M yt ; M yt = S xt Fy
hc M
If ≤ λ pw , R pt = p
tw M yt
hc
λ=
tw
267
For sections with noncompact webs
If S xt ≥ S xc tension flange yielding does not apply

If S xt < S xc :
M n = R pt M yt ; M yt = S xt Fy
hc Mp  Mp  λ − λ pw   M p
> λ pw , R pt = 
 λ − λ   M
If − − 1 ≤

tw  M yt  M yt  rw pw   yt
h
λ= c
tw
Design for Flexure ─ I-Shaped Members Bent About

Their Minor Axis
Failure in this case may be by:
Yielding
Flange Local Buckling
Noncompact flanges
Slender flanges
268
Their Minor Axis
Yielding
M ny = M py = Z y Fy ≤ 1.6 S y Fy

Their Minor Axis
  λ − λ pf 
M ny =  M py − ( M py − 0.7 S y Fy )   
  λrf − λ pf
  
b
λ=
t
269
Their Minor Axis
M ny = Fcr S y
0.69 E
Fcr = 2
 bf 
 
 2t f 
b
λ=
t
Ultimate Limit States - Shear

The strength depends on the slenderness ratio
of the web (major axis bending) and it can be
determined based on:
Yielding
Inelastic shear buckling
Elastic shear buckling
270
Shear (major axis bending). If the web slenderness ratio
is small, shear failure is by yielding
For webs of rolled I-shaped members
h E
If ≤ 2.24
tw Fyw
φvVn = φv Aw 0.6 Fyw ; φv = 1.00
Ultimate Limit States – Shear (Shear

Buckling)
Figure from Gaylord, Gaylord, and Stallmeyer’s book
271
is small, shear failure is by yielding
For webs of other doubly symmetric shapes and singly
symmetric shapes and channels, except round HSS
h kE
If ≤ 1.10 v
tw Fy
φvVn = φv Aw 0.6 Fy ; φv = 0.90
kv = 5

is intermediate, shear failure is by inelastic buckling
kv E h kE
1.10 ≤ ≤ 1.37 v
Fy tw Fy
 1.10 kv E Fy 
φvVn = φv Aw 0.6 Fy   ; φv = 0.90
 h tw 
 
kv = 5
272
is large, shear failure is by elastic buckling
kv E h
1.37 <
Fyw tw
1.51Ek 
φvVn = φv 0.6 Aw  2 
v
; φv = 0.90
 ( h t w ) 
kv = 5
Ultimate Limit States – Concentrated

Forces
For flanges and webs with concentrated forces,
failure can be by:
Flange Local Bending (J10.1)
Web Local Yielding (J10.2)
Web Crippling (J10.3)
Web Sidesway Buckling (J10.4)
Web Compression Buckling (J10.5)
Other design considerations are specified in Sections
J10.6 to J10.9
273
Forces
For flanges and webs of beams with
concentrated forces, failure can be by:
Web Local Yielding (J10.2)
Web Crippling (J10.3)
Web Sidesway Buckling (J10.4)

Forces
Web local yielding – Concentrated force applied at a
distance from the member end less than or equal to the
depth of the beam
φr Rn = φr ( N + 2.5k ) tw Fyw
φr Rn = φr R1 + Nφr R2
φr = 1.0
φr R1 and φr R2 from Table 9 − 4
274
Forces
Web local yielding – Concentrated force applied at a
distance from the member end greater than the depth of
the beam
φr Rn = φr ( N + 5k ) tw Fyw
φr Rn = 2φr R1 + Nφr R2
φr = 1.0

Forces
Figure from Salmon and Johnson’s book
275
Forces
Web crippling – Concentrated force applied at a distance
from the member end less than or equal to d/2 and
N/d≤0.2
  tw   EFywt f
1.5
 N 
φr Rn = φr 0.40t 1 + 3     
2
 d   t f  
w
 tw
 
φr = 0.75

Forces
from the member end less than or equal to d/2 and
N/d>0.2
1.5
 N 
φr Rn = φr 0.40t 1 +  4 − 0.2    
2
  t f  
w
  d tw
 
φr = 0.75
276
Forces
from the member end greater than or equal to d/2
1.5
 N 
φr Rn = φr 0.80t 1 + 3     
2
 d   t f  
w
 tw
 
φr Rn = 2 (φr R3 + Nφr R4 )
φr = 0.75

Forces
Figure from Gaylord, Gaylord, and Stallmeyer’s book
277
Forces
Web sidesway buckling – Single concentrated force applied to
members where relative lateral movement between the flanges is
not restrained at the point of application of the force
If ( h tw ) ( l b f ) ≤ 2.3, compression flange restrained
Cr tw3 t f   h tw  
3
φ Rn = φ 2 1 + 0.4  
h   l b  
  f  
φ = 0.85

Forces
Web sidesway buckling – Single concentrated force applied to
members where relative lateral movement between the flanges is
not restrained at the point of application of the force
If ( h tw ) ( l b f ) ≤ 1.7, compression flange not restrained
Cr tw3 t f   h tw  
3
φ Rn = φ 2 0.4   
h   l b f  
 
φ = 0.85
278
Forces
Figures from Gaylord, Gaylord, and Stallmeyer’s book

Forces
Figure from AISC-LRFD Manual
279
Forces
Figure from AISC-LRFD Manual
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Session 18
Design of Laterally Supported
Beams in Bending About their Major
Axis by Elastic Analysis
280
Design Procedure
Assuming that the W-shape is compact, which is
very likely to be the case, the design procedure
depends on the beam’s lateral support
conditions. Hence, two design conditions are
considered:
Laterally supported beams (Lb≤Lp).
Laterally unsupported beams (Lb>Lp).
Design Procedure
Laterally supported beams. These are beams
that are continuously restrained against out of
plane displacements, in particular due to torsion.
This type of restraint can be provided by a
concrete slab on top of the beam with the beam
either in composite action with the slab or with
its flange embedded in the slab (Example of this
is shown in the Australian specifications where 1
cm is considered to be sufficient).
281
Design Procedure
Laterally supported beams
Reference: Salmon & Johnson
Design Procedure
Laterally unsupported beams. These are beams
whose compression flange is not continuously
restrained against out of plane displacements
and, consequently, may be subject to lateral-
torsional buckling.
282
Design Procedure
Laterally unsupported
beams
Reference: ESDEP
Reference: Imperial College
Design Procedure
The only difference in the design of laterally
supported beams and laterally unsupported
beams is the revision for lateral-torsional
buckling for the latter
283
Design Procedure: Laterally
Supported Beams
1. Compute the factored loads.
2. Carry out the structural analysis to obtain:
a) Shear force diagram and design shear
b) Bending moment diagram and design moment
c) Maximum concentrated forces (at the beam ends
and at intermediate points)

Supported Beams
3. Make a preliminary selection based on the design moment and the
assumption that buckling does not take place (neither local nor
lateral-torsional). W-Shape is taken from Table 3-2, page 3-11 of
AISC-LRFD 2005
φb M n = φb Z x Fy = M u
Mu
Z x req ' d =
φb Fy
284
Supported Beams
4. Check the selected W-shape for local buckling either by notes in
Tables or by equations. Normally, a rolled shape is compact. In
case it is not, use the following equations:
 λ − λp 
φb M n = φb  M p − ( M p − M r )  ≥ Mu
 λr − λ p 
M p = Z x Fy M r = S x ( Fy − Fr ) Fr = 0.3Fy

Supported Beams
bf
The slenderness ratios λ=
2t f
used in the revision of
flange local buckling λ p = 0.38
E
Fy
are, from Table B4.1 –
Unstiffened Elements λr = 1.00
E
Fy
The slenderness ratios h

λ=
used in the revision of tw
web local buckling are, E
λ p = 3.76
from Table B4.1 – Fy
Stiffened Elements E
λr = 5.70
Fy
285
Supported Beams
5. Check the selected W-shape for shear either
by means of the equations of Chapter G or
using Table 3-2, page 3-11 of the 2005 AISC
Manual

Supported Beams
6. Check the selected W-shape for concentrated
forces. The corresponding limit states are
shown in the following slides
286
Supported Beams
a) Flange Local Bending. This limit state is not common in
beams as it applies to tensile forces only
φ Rn = φ 6.25t 2f Fyf ; φ = 0.90

Supported Beams
b) Web Local Yielding. This limit state is always checked for both,
tension and compression concentrated forces, at the ends and at
intermediate points. Strength is obtained from Table 9-4, page 9-
38 for 50 ksi steels
φr Rn = φr R1 + N (φr R2 ) for loads at ends

φr Rn = 2φr R1 + N (φr R2 ) for loads at intermediate points
287
Supported Beams
c) Web Crippling. This limit state is checked for
compressive forces at the ends and at intermediate
points. Strength is obtained from Table 9-4, page 9-38
for 50 ksi steels
N 
φr Rn = φr R3 + N (φr R4 ) ≤ 0.2 
d 
 for loads at ends
N
φr Rn = φr R5 + N (φr R6 ) > 0.2 
d 
φr Rn = 2φr R3 + 2 N (φr R4 ) for loads at intermediate points

Supported Beams
d) Web Sidesway Buckling. This limit state
applies only to compressive single-
concentrated forces applied to members where
relative lateral movement between the loaded
compression flange and the tension flange is
not restrained at the point of application of the
concentrated force
288
Supported Beams
7. Check Serviceability Limit States. The
serviceability limit states that are checked in
beams are:
a) Deflections
b) Floor vibrations
Design Example: Laterally

Supported Beams
Select the lightest W-shape for the continuous
beam shown in the next slide. The beam is
laterally supported and is acted upon by
concentrated forces applied at the center of
each span. The load is 5 kips (D) and 15 kips (L)
289
Supported Beams
P P P
A B C D
8’ 8’ 12’ 12’ 10’ 10’
Solution – Factored Loads

Computation of the factored loads:
Pu = (1.2 )( 5 ) + (1.6 )(15 ) = 30 kips
290
Solution – Structural Analysis
Structural analysis for factored loads
Solution – Design Values

Mu = 101.13 kip-ft
Vu = 20.42 kips
Ru = 9.94 kips (ends)
Ru = 35.66 kips (intermediate)
291
Solution – Preliminary Selection
The selection is based on the bending moment
M u 101.130 × 12
Z x req = = = 26.97 in3
φb Fy 0.90 × 50
W 12 × 22 
 the lightest of their corresponding group
W 14 × 22 
292
The selected W-shape is W14x22 because:
It has a higher moment capacity (greater value of
Zx=33.2 Vs. 29.3 in3)
It has a higher stiffness (greater value of Ix=199 Vs.
156 in4)
All of the above for the same weight
Solution – Local Buckling

bf 
λ= = 7.46 
2t f 
 λ < λ p OK
= 9.15
E
λ p = 0.38
Fy 

293
Web Local Buckling
h 
λ= = 53.3 
tw 
 λ < λ p OK
E
λ p = 3.76 = 90.55
Fy 

Solution – Check for Shear

Shear strength is obtained directly from Table 3-2 or
Table 3-6 for 50 ksi steels
Vu = 20.42 kips 
 φ V > Vu OK
φvVn = 94.8 kips  v n
294
Solution – Check for Concentrated
Forces
Web Local Yielding at Beam Ends
Ru = 9.94 kips 

φr R1 = 21.1 kips  φr R1 + N (φr R2 ) > Ru OK
φr R2 = 11.5 kips in 

Forces
Web Local Yielding at Intermediate Points
Ru = 35.66 kips 

φr R1 = 21.1 kips  2φr R1 + N (φr R2 ) > Ru OK
φr R2 = 11.5 kips in 
295
Forces
Web Crippling at Beam Ends
Ru = 9.94 kips 

N d ≤ 0.2 
 φ R + N (φr R4 ) > Ru OK
φr R3 = 23.1 kips  r 3
φr R4 = 2.86 kips in 

Forces
Ru = 9.94 kips

N d > 0.2 
 φ R + N (φr R6 ) > Ru OK
φr R5 = 20.4 kips  r 5
φr R6 = 3.82 kips in 
296
Forces
Web Crippling at Intermediate Points
Ru = 35.66 kips 

φr R3 = 23.1 kips  2 (φr R3 ) + 2 N (φr R4 ) > Ru OK
φr R4 = 2.86 kips in 

297
Solution – Check for Deflections
Deflection check for service live load only

First Span: L = 16 ft = 192 in
v perm = L 360 = 0.533 in 

 v perm > vmax OK
vmax = 0.181 in 
298
Second Span: L = 24 ft = 288 in
v perm = L 360 = 0.800 in 

vmax = 0.284 in 

Third Span: L = 20 ft = 240 in
v perm = L 360 = 0.667 in 

vmax = 0.379 in 
299
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Session 19
Design of Laterally Unsupported
Beams in Bending About their Major
Axis by Elastic Analysis
Design Procedure
The design procedure for laterally unsupported
beams includes all the steps involved in the
design of laterally supported beams plus the
revisions required by lateral-torsional buckling
Hence, the only difference in the design of
laterally supported beams and laterally
unsupported beams is the revision for lateral-
torsional buckling for the latter
300
Design Procedure
Laterally unsupported beams. These are beams
whose compression flange is not continuously
restrained against out of plane displacements
and, consequently, may be subject to lateral-
torsional buckling.
Design Procedure
Laterally unsupported
beams
Compression flange of a
laterally buckled beam
Reference: Tall (Editor), 2nd Edition
301
Unsupported Beams
1. Compute the factored loads.
2. Carry out the structural analysis to obtain:
a) Shear force diagram and design shear
b) Bending moment diagram and design moment
c) Maximum concentrated forces (at the beam ends
and at intermediate points)

Unsupported Beams
3. Make a preliminary selection based on the design moment and the
assumption that buckling does not take place (neither local nor
lateral-torsional). W-Shape is taken from Table 3-2 page 3-11 of
AISC-LRFD 2005
φb M n = φb Z x Fy = M u
Mu
Z x req ' d =
φb Fy
302
Unsupported Beams
4. Check the selected W-shape for local buckling either by notes in
Tables or by equations. Normally, a rolled shape is compact. In
case it is not, use the following equations:
 λ − λp 
φb M n = φb  M p − ( M p − M r )  ≥ Mu
 λr − λ p 
M p = Z x Fy M r = S x ( Fy − Fr ) Fr = 0.3Fy

Unsupported Beams
bf
The slenderness ratios λ=
2t f
used in the revision of
flange local buckling λ p = 0.38
E
Fy
are, from Table B4.1 –
Unstiffened Elements λr = 1.00
E
Fy
The slenderness ratios h

λ=
used in the revision of tw
web local buckling are, E
λ p = 3.76
from Table B4.1 – Fy
Stiffened Elements E
λr = 5.70
Fy
303
Unsupported Beams
5. Check the selected W-shape for lateral-
torsional buckling. To this end the beam is
divided in segments between adjacent lateral
supports. Each of these segments is checked
against lateral-torsional buckling based on the
following cases:

Unsupported Beams
For Lb ≤ L p
Failure is by plastic moment (no buckling occurs)
φb M n = φb M p = φb Z x Fy
 E 
L p = 1.76  ry
 F 
 y 
304
Unsupported Beams
For Lp < Lb ≤ Lr
Failure is by inelastic lateral-torsional buckling
 Lb − Lp 
φb M n = Cbφb  M p − ( M p − M r )  ≤ φb M p
 Lr − L p 
M r = S x ( Fy − Fr ) ; Fr = 0.3Fy
12.5M max
Cb = Rm
2.5M max + 3M A + 4 M B + 3M C

Unsupported Beams
For Lr < Lb
Failure is by elastic lateral-torsional buckling
φ M n = φ Fcr S x ≤ φ M p
2
Fcr = 2
1 + 0.078  
 
 rts 
2
E Jc  0.7 Fy S x ho 
Lr = 1.95rts 1 + 1 + 6.76  
0.7 Fy S x ho  E Jc 
305
Unsupported Beams
6. Check the selected W-shape for shear either
by means of the equations of Chapter G or
using Tables 3-2, 3-6, or 9-4 of the 2005 AISC
Manual

Unsupported Beams
7. Check the selected W-shape for concentrated
forces. The corresponding limit states are
shown in the following slides
306
Unsupported Beams
a) Flange Local Bending. This limit state is not common in
beams as it applies to tensile forces only
φ Rn = φ 6.25t 2f Fyf ; φ = 0.90


Unsupported Beams
b) Web Local Yielding. This limit state is always checked for both,
tension and compression concentrated forces, at the ends and at
intermediate points. Strength is obtained from Table 9-4, page 9-
38 for 50 ksi steels
φr Rn = φr R1 + N (φr R2 ) for loads at ends

φr Rn = 2φr R1 + N (φr R2 ) for loads at intermediate points
307
Unsupported Beams
c) Web Crippling. This limit state is checked for
compressive forces at the ends and at intermediate
points. Strength is obtained from Table 9-4, page 9-38
for 50 ksi steels
N 
φr Rn = φr R3 + N (φr R4 ) ≤ 0.2 
d 
 for loads at ends
N
φr Rn = φr R5 + N (φr R6 ) > 0.2 
d 
φr Rn = 2φr R3 + 2 N (φr R4 ) for loads at intermediate points

Unsupported Beams
d) Web Sidesway Buckling. This limit state
applies only to compressive single-
concentrated forces applied to members where
relative lateral movement between the loaded
compression flange and the tension flange is
not restrained at the point of application of the
concentrated force
308
Unsupported Beams
8. Check Serviceability Limit States. The
serviceability limit states that are checked in
beams are:
1. Deflections
2. Floor vibrations

Unsupported Beams
Select the lightest W-shape for the continuous
beam shown in the next slide. The beam is
laterally supported only at the points of
application of concentrated forces, including the
reactions. The load system consists of
concentrated forces applied at the center of
each span. The load is 5 kips (D) and 15 kips (L)
309
Unsupported Beams
P P P
A B C D
8’ 8’ 12’ 12’ 10’ 10’
Solution – Factored Loads

Computation of the factored loads
Pu = (1.2 )( 5 ) + (1.6 )(15 ) = 30 kips
310
Solution – Structural Analysis
Structural analysis for factored loads
Solution – Design Values

Mu = 101.13 kip-ft
Vu = 20.42 kips
Ru = 9.94 kips (ends)
Ru = 35.66 kips (intermediate)
311
The selection is based on the bending moment
M u 101.130 × 12
Z x req = = = 26.97 in3
φb Fy 0.90 × 50
W 12 × 22 
 the lightest of their corresponding group
W 14 × 22 

The selected W-shape is W14x22 because:
It has a higher moment capacity (greater value of
Zx=32.8 Vs. 29.3 in3)
It has a higher stiffness (greater value of Ix=197 Vs.
156 in4)
All of the above for the same weight
312

bf 
λ= = 7.46
2t f 
 λ < λ p OK
= 9.15
E
λ p = 0.38
Fy 

313
Web Local Buckling
h 
λ= = 53.3
tw 
 λ < λ p OK
E
λ p = 3.76 = 90.55
Fy 

Solution – Lateral-Torsional
Buckling
Properties of the W14x22 shape for lateral-torsional
buckling, from Table 3-2, page 3-18
φb M px = 125 kip − ft φb M rx = 76.1 kip − ft

L p = 3.67 ft Lr = 10.4 ft
BF = 7.14 kips
φvVn = 94.8 kips
314
Buckling
The design check for lateral-torsional buckling
involves the evaluation of all the spans defined
by the lateral braces
To avoid checking all the spans, we determine
which spans are the critical ones and we only
check these critical spans
To this end, in this example we compare
independently spans 1 and 6 (spans in single
curvature) and spans 2 to 5 (spans in double
curvature) because they are in similar conditions
Buckling
To identify the critical spans, we should look at
the following:
Maximum moment in the span (the greater, the more
critical is the span)
Unbraced length of the span (the greater, the more
Cb coefficient for the span (the smaller, the more
315
Buckling
Comparison between spans 1 and 6
Buckling
Comparison between spans 1 and 6 is carried
out as follows:
With respect to the maximum bending moment, span
6 is more critical (99 kip-ft Vs. 77 kip-ft)
With respect to the unbraced length, span 6 is more
critical (10 ft Vs. 8 ft)
Finally, with respect to the effect of the moment
gradient, spans 1 and 6 are in similar conditions
(Cb=1.67 for both spans)
Conclusion: between spans 1 and 6, span 6 is more
critical. Hence, we will check only span 6 for lateral-
torsional buckling
316
Buckling
Comparison among spans 2 to 5
Buckling
Comparison among spans 2 to 5 is carried out
as follows:
With respect to the maximum bending moment, spans
4 and 5 are more critical (101 kip-ft Vs. 87 kip-ft)
With respect to the unbraced length, span 4 is more
critical (12 ft Vs. 10 ft)
Finally, with respect to the effect of the moment
gradient, although all the spans have high values of
Cb, span 4 has the smallest value of Cb
Conclusion: among spans 2 to 5, span 4 is more
critical. Hence, we will check only span 4 for lateral-
torsional buckling
317
Solution – Lateral-Torsional Buckling
The design check for lateral-torsional buckling can be
done by looking at the required value of the Cb
coefficient and comparing this value with the actual value
of Cb based on the bending moment diagram
The use of this approach is illustrated in the next slides
for this example
Mu
Cb req ' d =
(φb M n )C b =1
If Cb actual > Cb req ' d the selected shape is OK

Design check for lateral-torsional buckling, span #4
Mu 101.13
Cb req ' d = = = 1.69
(φb M n )C b =1
60
Cb actual = 2.24 > Cb req ' d = 1.69
∴ the selected shape is OK
318
Design check for lateral-torsional buckling, span #6
Mu 99.0
Cb req ' d = = = 1.25
(φ M n )C =1 79.0
b
Cb actual = 1.67 > Cb req ' d = 1.25

∴ the selected shape is OK
Buckling
What follows is another way of checking lateral-torsional
buckling:
If you wish, you can determine which span (or spans) is
(are) critical by looking at the value of the coefficient
given by
M max Lb
Coefficient =
Cb
What is your interpretation of this coefficient?
319
Buckling
Span Mmax MA MB MC Cb
1 77 19 38 58 1.67
2 87 36 5 46 2.25
3 87 43 0 43 2.29
4 101 39 8 54 2.24
5 101 51 1 49 2.27
6 99 25 50 74 1.67
Buckling
Span # Lb (ft) Mmax Cb Coefficient
1 8 77 1.67 369
2 8 87 2.25 309
3 12 87 2.29 456
4 12 101 2.24 541
5 10 101 2.27 445
6 10 99 1.67 593
320
Buckling
From the preceding table we conclude that
spans 4 and 6 are the critical ones
Each critical span will be checked for lateral-
torsional buckling in the next slides by using:
Formulas
Graphs (φbMn Vs. Lb)
Lateral-Torsional Buckling Check:

Formulas
LTB check for span 4
Lb = 12 ft > Lr ∴ LTB may be elastic
M n = Fcr S x ≤ M p
2
Fcr = 2
1 + 0.078  
 
 rts 
2
2.24 × π 2 × 29, 000 0.208 ×1  144 
Fcr = 2
1 + 0.078   = 61.85 ksi
 144  29.0 ×13.365  1.27 
 
 1.27 
1
φb M n = 0.9 × 61.85 × 29.0 × = 134.52 kip − ft > φb M px
12
φb M n = φb M px = 125 kip − ft
321
Graphs
For Lb = 12 ft and Cb = 1.00
φb M n = 60.0 kip − ft from Page 3-129
φb M n = 2.24 × 60.0 = 134.40 kip − ft > φb M px
or
M u 101.13
= = 45.15 kip − ft < φb M n = 60.0 kip − ft from Graph
Cb 2.24
322
Formulas
Lb = 10 ft < Lr ∴ LTB may be inelastic
 Lb − L p 
φb M n = Cbφb  M p − ( M p − M r )  ≤ φb M p
 Lr − L p 
  0.9 × 29 × 0.7 × 50  10 − 3.67 
φb M n = 1.67 125 − 125 −  
  12  10.4 − 3.67 
φb M n = 131.98 kip − ft > φb M px

Graphs
For Lb = 10 ft and Cb = 1.00
φb M n = 79.0 kip − ft from Page 3-129
φb M n = 1.67 × 79.0 = 131.93 kip − ft > φb M px
or
Mu 99
= = 59.28 kip − ft < φb M n = 79.0 kip − ft from Graph
Cb 1.67
323
Based on the calculations for lateral-torsional
buckling strength, we conclude that the selected
W-shape, W14x22 is adequate for the beam as
far as lateral-torsional buckling is concerned
Solution – Check for Shear

Shear strength is obtained directly from Tables 3-2, 3-6,
or 9-4 for 50 ksi steels
Vu = 20.42 kips 
 φ V > Vu OK
φvVn = 94.8 kips  v n
324
Forces
Web Local Yielding at Beam Ends
Ru = 9.94 kips 

φr R1 = 21.1 kips  φr R1 + N (φr R2 ) > Ru OK
φr R2 = 11.5 kips in 

Forces
Web Local Yielding at Intermediate Points
Ru = 35.66 kips 

φr R1 = 21.1 kips  2φr R1 + N (φr R2 ) > Ru OK
φr R2 = 11.5 kips in 
325
Forces
Ru = 9.94 kips 

N d ≤ 0.2 
 φ R + N (φr R4 ) > Ru OK
φr R3 = 23.1 kips  r 3
φr R4 = 2.86 kips in 

Forces
Ru = 9.94 kips 

N d > 0.2 
 φ R + N (φr R6 ) > Ru OK
φr R5 = 20.4 kips  r 5
φr R6 = 3.82 kips in 
326
Forces
Web Crippling at Intermediate Points
Ru = 35.66 kips 

φr R3 = 23.1 kips  2 (φr R3 ) + 2 N (φr R4 ) > Ru OK
φr R4 = 2.86 kips in 

327
Deflection check for service live load only

First Span: L = 16 ft = 192 in
v perm = L 360 = 0.533 in 

vmax = 0.181 in 
328
Second Span: L = 24 ft = 288 in
v perm = L 360 = 0.800 in 

vmax = 0.284 in 

Third Span: L = 20 ft = 240 in
v perm = L 360 = 0.667 in 

vmax = 0.379 in 
329
Design Procedure: Compact Sections
If Lb ≤ L p If L p < Lb ≤ Lr
Failure is by plastic moment ( no LTB ) Failure may be by inelastic lateral-torsional buckling
φb M n = φb M p  Lb − L p 
φb M n = Cbφb  M p − ( M p − 0.7 S x Fy )  ≤ φb M p
 E   Lr − Lp 
L p = 1.76  ry
 F 
 y 
If Lr < Lb
Failure may be by elastic lateral-torsional buckling M p = Z x Fy M r = S x ( Fy − Fr ) Fr = 0.7 Fy
φb M n = φb Fcr S x ≤ φb M p 12.5M max
Cb = Rm ≤ 3.0
2 2.5M max + 3M A + 4 M B + 3M C
Fcr = 2
1 + 0.078  
 
 rts 
Assignment
Select the lightest W-shape for the three-span
continuous beam shown
Use A992 steel
Loading conditions:
50 kip loads = 30% (D) + 70% (L)
20 kip load = 100% (D)
1 kip/ft load = 20% (D) + 80% (L)
Lateral supports @ 10 ft
Your design should be based on the results of an elastic analysis
330
Assignment
Beam with service loads
50 kips 50 kips 20 kips 50 kips

1 k/ft
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
Rules of Thumb for Beam Design

Depth
L
Roof beams d=
24
L
Floor beams d=
20
L L
Composite beams d= to
24 22
331
Cross sectional area
W ( lb ft )
Area (in2) Ag =
3.4
W ( kg m )
Area (cm2) Ag =
0.785

Moment of inertia
W
Ix (in4) I x ( in 4 ) ≈ d 2 ; d ( in ) and W ( lb ft )
20
W
Ix (cm4) Ix ≈ d 2 ; d ( cm ) and W ( kg m )
4.6
332
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Session 20
Introduction to Plastic Analysis
Plastic Analysis and Design

Plastic design is an alternate method to the
conventional design based on elastic analysis.
It is applied to indeterminate structures such as
rigid frames, continuous beams, and, in general,
indeterminate structures that work mainly in
bending.
Plastic design is not applied to statically
determinate structures.
333
Plastic Analysis
Mp
A statically determinate structure becomes unstable when the first plastic hinge forms
Plastic Analysis
Mp
A statically indeterminate structure does not become unstable when the first plastic
hinge forms because a failure mechanism has not developed yet
334
Plastic Analysis - Factors
The most important factors required for the
efficient use of plastic analysis are:
Ductility of the steel
Static indeterminacy of the structure
Plastic Analysis - Conditions

For an elastic analysis to be correct, the
following conditions must be satisfied:
Equilibrium. Internal actions an external loads must
be in equilibrium. This condition must be satisfied
regardless of the method of analysis
Compatibility
Elastic behavior. The yield stress must not be
exceeded in the entire structure
335
Plastic Analysis - Conditions
For a plastic analysis to be correct, the
following conditions must be satisfied:
Equilibrium. Internal actions an external loads must
be in equilibrium. As it was mentioned in the previous
slide, this condition must be satisfied regardless of
the method of analysis
Mechanism. There must be a sufficient number of
platic hinges in the structure to create a failure
mechanism
Plastic Moment. The plastic moment capacity of the
beam must not be exceeded in the entire structure
Plastic Analysis and Elastic

Analysis Compared
Plastic Analysis Elastic Analysis
Mechanism Compatibility
Equilibrium
Mp Plastic Moment Yielding <My
Mp Mp My My
Reference: Beedle’s book on Plastic

Design
336
Assumptions of Simple Plastic
Theory
First order plastic theory or Simple Plastic
Theory involve assumptions on:
Properties of the materials.
Loads.
Strains.
Deflections.
Stability.
Interaction between axial and shear forces with the
bending moment capacity.
Connections.
Assumptions – Material Properties

Material is perfectly elastic-plastic.
Properties in compression are similar to those in tension.
Properties in bending are similar to those in direct
tension.
σ no strain hardening is assumed
σy
ε
337
Assumptions – Loads
Loads are proportional so that all loads increase in the
same proportion. This means that the ratio between any
two loads remains constant from initial loading to the
failure of the structure
Pi
= constant for 0 ≤ P ≤ Pu
Pj
Assumptions – Strains
The strains are proportional to the distance of
the neutral axis. This assumption must be
familiar to you because it is one of the basic
assumptions made in your Solid Mechanics I
and II courses when you studied bending
338
Assumptions – Deflections
The deflections are small so that the formulation
of the equilibrium equations can be based on the
original, undeformed geometric configuration of
the structure. This is known as First Order
Theory
Assumptions – Stability
There is no local buckling. This implies that the
plastic analysis and design can only be applied
to compact shapes
There is no lateral-torsional buckling. Hence,
members must have either continuous lateral
support or lateral support conditions that permit
the development of the plastic moment capacity
before lateral-torsional buckling takes place. For
beams, this last condition means that Lb ≤ Lpd for
spans adjacent to any plastic hinge formed
before the failure mechanism was formed
339
Assumptions – Reductions in Bending
Moment Capacity
The interaction between axial force and bending
moment does not produce any reduction in
plastic moment capacity
The interaction between shear force and
bending moment does not produce reduction in
plastic moment capacity
Assumptions – Connections
The connections are capable of undergoing the
rotations and transmitting the actions required
by the plastic analysis
340
Assumptions - Conclusions
As a result of the previous assumptions, there will be
yielded zones in the structures of high ductility that
create plastic hinges in the cross sections subject to the
maximum bending moments
Mp
Plastic hinge
Theorems of the Simple Plastic

Theory
Principle of Virtual Displacements
Lower Bound Theorem of the Theory of
Plasticity
Upper Bound Theorem of the Theory of
Plasticity
Uniqueness Theorem
341
Theory
Principle of virtual displacements: If a system of forces in
equilibrium is subjected to a system of virtual
displacements, the work done by the external forces
equals the work done by the internal actions
Mathematically, this principle is written as
Wvirtual internal = Wvirtual external

Theory
Lower bound theorem of the Theory of Plasticity: A
collapse load computed on the basis of an assumed
moment diagram in which the moments are nowhere
greater that Mp is less than or equal to the true collapse
load
This theorem satisfies the conditions of equilibrium and
plastic moment. Hence, the designer must verify that the
condition of formation of a failure mechanism is satisfied.
If this last condition is not satisfied, the computed load
will be less than the actual failure load
This theorem may yield conservative results if not
applied properly
342
Theory
Upper bound theorem of the Theory of Plasticity: A
collapse load computed on the basis of an assumed
mechanism will always be greater than or equal to the
true collapse load.
This theorem satisfies the conditions of equilibrium and
mechanism formation. Hence, the designer must verify
that the plastic moment condition is satisfied. If this last
condition is not satisfied, the computed load will be
greater than the actual failure load
This theorem may yield unconservative results if not
applied properly

Theory
Uniqueness theorem: The true collapse load is
the one that has the same upper and lower
bound solution
343
Methods of Plastic Analysis
Kinematic method
Equilibrium method
Moment balance method
Methods of Plastic Analysis

Kinematic method or mechanism method. This method is
based on the upper bound theorem. Hence, the risk of
obtaining an unconservative solution exists
Equilibrium method or statical method. This method is
based on the lower bound theorem. Hence, a
conservative design may be obtained
Moment balance method.
The Kinematic method will be used here because of its
simplicity, taking care of the plastic moment condition in
order to get correct results
344
PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF BEAMS
BY THE KINEMATIC METHOD
OR MECHANISM METHOD
General Procedure of Analysis
Mechanism Method
1) Determine the number and location of the
possible plastic hinges (N). The points of
possible formation of plastic hinges are:
1) Points of maximum moment
2) Points of application of concentrated loads
3) Connections
4) Geometry changes
5) Changes of cross section
6) Points of zero shear
345
Mechanism Method
2) Determine the number of redundants in the structure
(X)
3) Determine the number of independent mechanisms in
the structure (n)
n=N−X
Mechanism Method
4) Calculate the failure load or the plastic moment
requirement for each independent mechanism. To do
this, the Principle of the Virtual Displacements is used
WE = WI
346
Mechanism Method
5) Select the different combined mechanisms and
calculate the failure load or the plastic moment
requirement for each combined mechanism. A
combined mechanism is the simultaneous
occurrence of two or more independent
mechanisms
6) Identify the failure mechanism. The failure
mechanism is the one that has the smallest
failure load (analysis) or the biggest
requirement of plastic moment (design)
Mechanism Method
7) Verify the plastic moment condition for the assumed
failure mechanism. This condition states that
M ≤ Mp
or , for design,
Mu ≤ φM p
347
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Session 21
Plastic Design of Laterally
Supported Beams
Design Procedure for Braced

Beams Analyzed Plastically
1. Compute the factored loads
2. Carry out the plastic analysis of the beam by the
kinematic or mechanism method. To this end, all of the
possible mechanisms should be identified in the beam
according to the general procedure of plastic analysis
by the method of mechanisms. The plastic moment
requirement of the beam is obtained from this analysis
348
3. For the failure mechanism of the previous step, verify
the plastic moment condition. By combining the results
of steps 2 and 3 the following design values are
obtained:
1. Shear force diagram
2. Bending moment diagram
3. The maximum bending moment
4. The maximum shear force
5. The maximum concentrated forces at the beam ends and at
intermediate points

4. Select the steel shape based on the plastic moment requirement
of the beam for the given loads. When making the selection, a
compact shape must be selected to avoid local buckling
φb M n = φb M p = φb Z x Fy
Mu
Z x req =
φb Fy
349
5. Check the shape selected in the previous step
by shear. This revision is made in the same
way as in the case of beams designed
elastically (see Chapter G)

6. Check the shape selected for the ultimate limit states
due to the application of concentrated forces in the
same way as it was made for beams designed
elastically. These ultimate limit states include:
1. Web local yielding
2. Web crippling
3. Sidesway web buckling
350
7. Check the selected shape for the serviceability
limit states of:
1. Deflections
2. Vibrations
Design Example
Select the lightest W section for the three-span
continuous laterally supported beam of the
figure. Use A992 steel. The 50-kip concentrated
loads are 30% dead load and 70% live load, the
20-kip concentrated load is all dead load, and
the uniform load is 20% dead load and 80% live
load
351
Design Example

1 k/ft
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
Factored Loads
For the 50-kip loads:
Pu = 1.2 ×15 + 1.6 × 35 = 74.00 kips
For the 20-kip load:
Pu = 1.2 × 20 = 24.00 kips
For the uniform load:
kips
wu = 1.2 × 0.20 + 1.6 × 0.80 = 1.52
ft
352
Factored Loads

1.52 kip/ft
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
Plastic Analysis – Number of

Plastic Hinges

4 1.52 kip/ft 5 6
1 2 3 7
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
353
Independent Mechanisms
From the previous slide, there may be 7 possible plastic
hinges, the degree of static indeterminacy is 3. Hence,
the number of independent mechanisms is 4
N =7
X =3
n=N−X =4
Plastic Analysis – Mechanism No. 1

4 1.52 kip/ft 5 6
1 2 3 7
θ
3θ 4θ
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
354
74 kips 74 kips
10θ θ
3θ 30θ
4θ
WE = 74 (10θ + 30θ ) = 2,960θ

WI = φ M p ( 3θ + 4θ + θ ) = 8φ M pθ
φ M preq ' d = 370 kip − ft

4 1.52 kip/ft 5 6
1 2 3 7
3θ
θ
4θ
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
355
74 kips 74 kips
10θ 3θ
θ 30θ
4θ
WE = 74 (10θ + 30θ ) = 2,960θ
WI = φ M p (θ + 4θ + 3θ ) = 8φ M pθ

4 1.52 kip/ft 5 1.5θ 6
1 2 3 7
θ
2.5θ
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
356
24 kips
1.52 kip/ft
θ 30θ 1.5θ
2.5θ
1
WE = 1.52 × × 50 × 30θ + 24 × 30θ = 1,860θ
2
WI = φ M p (θ + 2.5θ + 1.5θ ) = 5φ M pθ

4 1.52 kip/ft 5 6
1 2 3 7
θ θ
2θ
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
357
74 kips
θ θ
15θ
2θ
WE = 74 × 15θ = 1,110θ
WI = φ M p (θ + 2θ ) = 3φ M pθ
Plastic Analysis – Critical

Mechanism
Based on the results of the plastic analysis, the
critical mechanism is mechanism No. 3 with
φbMpreq’d=372 kip-ft
The next step is to verify the plastic moment
condition
358
Plastic Analysis – Plastic Moment
Condition
In verifying the plastic moment condition we will
assume that the beam segments other than the
span in which the critical mechanism occurs
remain linear and elastic
In the span where the critical mechanism occurs,
the three required conditions for a correct plastic
analysis are satisfied

Condition
359
Condition
For the right span, the plastic moment condition is
satisfied because
+
M max = 369 kip − ft < φb M preq ' d = 372 kip − ft

Condition
360
Condition
For the left span, it appears that the plastic moment
condition is not satisfied because
M max = 646 kip − ft > φb M preq ' d = 372 kip − ft

Condition
There are two possibilities:
The assumed critical mechanism is not the actual critical
mechanism
The assumption of the beam segments other than the critical
span remaining linear and elastic is not true
We verify the second possibility by carrying out a linear
elastic analysis of the entire beam
If the absolute maximum bending moment in the beam occurs at
the fixed end, we conclude that the first plastic hinge in the beam
forms at that location and, if this is the case, the bending
moment at the fixed end is equal to the critical moment
φbMp=372 kip-ft
361
Condition

Condition
From the linear elastic analysis it follows that the
absolute maximum moment in the beam occurs
at the left fixed end
Hence, since the loads are proportional it follows
directly that the first plastic hinge is formed at
the left end of the beam
362
Condition
Based on the results mentioned in the previous
slide, we include a plastic hinge at the left end of
the beam in addition to the plastic hinges
obtained from the plastic analysis of the beam
The maximum positive moment in the span
where the critical mechanism occurs should be
equal to φbMp=372 kip-ft

Condition
363
Condition
From the previous slide we conclude that the
plastic moment condition is satisfied
Hence, the beam must be designed to resist a
moment of φbMp=372 kip-ft and the assumed
critical mechanism is the correct one
Plastic Analysis – Design Values
M u = 372 kip − ft
Vu = 74 kips
Ru = 74 kips for concentrated force at the end
Ru = 121.6 kips for concentrated force at intermediate points
364
Plastic Analysis – Shape Selection
The steel shape to be used must be compact
The required cross section plastic modulus is obtained
from the following equation
From Table 3-2, page 3-17 of the AISC Manual,

M
Zx = u
φb Fy
372 ×12
Zx = = 99.20 in3
0.90 × 50
Select W 21× 50 with Z x = 110 in3
365
Plastic Analysis – Shear Check
From the results of the analysis, the required shear
strength is 74 kips
From page 3-17 of AISC-LRFD,

φvVn = 237 kips > Vu = 74 kips
Plastic Analysis – Concentrated

Forces
Web local yielding at the beam end
Ru = 74 kips
From Table 9-4 of AISC Manual,
φr Rn = φr R1 + Nφr R2 = 49.2 + 19.0 N
N req ' d = 1.31 in ⇒ N = 4.00 in
366

Forces
Web local yielding at intermediate points
Ru = 121.58 kips
φr Rn = 2φr R1 + Nφr R2 = 2 × 49.2 + 19.0 × 4
φr Rn = 174.40 kips > Ru = 121.58 kips
367
Forces
Web crippling at the beam end
Ru = 74 kips
N d = 4 20.8 = 0.19 < 0.2
φr Rn = φr R3 + Nφr R4 = 61.9 + 4 × 5.34
φr Rn = 83.26 kips > Ru = 74 kips

Forces
Web crippling at intermediate points
Ru = 121.58 kips
φr Rn = 2φr R3 + 2 Nφr R4 = 2 × 61.9 + 2 × 4 × 5.34
φr Rn = 166.52 kips > Ru = 121.58 kips
368
Plastic Analysis – Deflections

Deflection check for first span (L=40 ft)
vmax = 0.8944 in
L 40 ×12
vallow = = = 1.33 in
360 360
vmax < vallow ∴ OK
369
Deflection check for second span (L=50 ft)
vmax = 0.4503 in
L 50 ×12
360 360

Deflection check for third span (L=30 ft)
vmax = 0.6317 in
L 30 ×12
360 360
370
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Session 22
Plastic Design of Laterally
Unsupported Beams
Background
So far we have used plastic design and analysis
to laterally supported beams to assure that
lateral-torsional buckling is not an issue
However, plastic analysis and design can be
used for beams that do not have continuous
lateral supports provided that the existing lateral
support conditions are sufficient to permit the
rotations of the plastic hinges required by the
moment redistribution process
371
Background
Moment redistribution is achieved if the distance
between lateral supports at plastic hinge
locations is such that Lb≤Lpd and in the rest of
the beam the lateral support conditions are such
that lateral-torsional buckling is not permitted
The Lb≤Lpd requirement applies only to the
plastic hinges formed before the failure
mechanism is formed
To identify the locations where the above
requirement applies, an elasto-plastic analysis
or sequential yielding analysis is performed
Design Procedure for Unbraced Beams

Analyzed Plastically
1. Compute the factored loads
2. Carry out the plastic analysis of the beam by the
kinematic or mechanism method. To this end, all of the
possible mechanisms should be identified in the beam
according to the general procedure of plastic analysis
by the method of mechanisms. The plastic moment
requirement of the beam is obtained from this analysis
372
3. For the failure mechanism of the previous step, verify
the plastic moment condition. This step is optional as
the elasto-plastic analysis is carried out in such a way
that the plastic moment condition is verified in the
process and it will yield the same design values, which
are as follows:
1. Shear force diagram
2. Bending moment diagram
3. The maximum bending moment
4. The maximum shear force
5. The maximum concentrated forces at the beam ends and at
intermediate points

4. Carry out an elasto-plastic analysis using the plastic
moment requirement calculated by the method of
mechanisms. The objective of this analysis is to
determine the sequence of formation of plastic hinges,
since this sequence is required to check the adequacy
of the lateral supports at points of plastic hinge
formation for moment redistribution (Lb≤Lpd ). The
steps for an elasto-plastic analysis are described later
373
5. Select the steel shape based on the plastic moment requirement
of the beam for the given loads as well as the lateral support
conditions at points of plastic hinge formation. The selected shape
should then satisfy the following conditions:
φb M n = φb M p = φb Z x Fy ≥ φb M p required
  M   E 
Lb ≤ L pd = 0.12 + 0.076  1     ry

  M 2    Fy 
M1
negative for single curvature
M2
M 1 is the smallest moment at the ends of Lb

In the foregoing, it is understood that the revision
of Lb≤Lpd applies only to the plastic hinges that
are formed before the failure mechanism (it does
not apply to the last plastic hinge or hinges to
form). To define the sequence of formation of
plastic hinges it is necessary to make the elasto-
plastic analysis described later in this session
374
6. Check the selected shape for lateral-torsional
buckling in all the spans that were not checked
with the Lb≤Lpd condition. This check is done in
the same way as for beams designed by
elastic analysis

7. Check the shape selected in the previous step
by shear. This revision is made in the same
way as in the case of beams designed
elastically (see Chapter G)
375
8. Check the shape selected for the ultimate limit
states due to the application of concentrated
forces in the same way as it was made for
beams designed elastically. These ultimate
limit states include:
1. Web local yielding
2. Web crippling
3. Sidesway web buckling

9. Check the selected shape for the serviceability
limit states of:
1. Deflections
2. Vibrations
376
Elasto-Plastic Analysis
The elasto-plastic analysis is also referred to as
limit analysis or sequential yielding analysis
The simplest type of limit analysis consists of a
series of elastic analyses where the
configuration of the structure is modified
according to the sequence of formation of plastic
hinges by introducing internal hinges in the
structure to assure that the bending moment at
that location will not increase as loading
continues
It will be assumed that the beam segments
between plastic hinges remain elastic
Special points of interest are the points of
possible formation of plastic hinges
The bending moments at those points must be
monitored during the entire limit analysis
377
The basic procedure of a limit analysis is as
follows:
1. The first linear elastic analysis is performed
2. The bending moments at each possible
location of plastic hinge formation are
determined from the analysis
3. At each of these points, a load factor is
computed as the plastic moment obtained from
plastic analysis divided by the corresponding
bending moment
4. The plastic hinge occurs where the load factor
is minimum
5. The bending moments of the elastic analysis
are multiplied by the load factor to obtain the
moments at the end of the load increment
6. The reserve in moment capacity is obtained as
the difference between the moment at the end
of the load increment and the corresponding
plastic moment
378
7. At the point where the first plastic hinge forms,
a hinge is introduced to prevent the bending
moment to continue increasing as loading
continues in the subsequent analyses
8. A second linear analysis is carried out with the
beam in its new configuration with the hinge
introduced
9. At the points of possible plastic hinge
formation a new load factor is computed as the
reserve in moment capacity divided by the
increment in bending moment obtained from
the secon analysis
10. The next plastic hinge forms at the point where
the load factor is minimum
11. Repeat steps 5 to 10 until a failure mechanism
forms
379
If the limit analysis is to be carried out using a
commercial computer program, it is suggested
to transform all the distributed loads on the
structure to concentrated loads and perform
the steps mentioned in the foregoing slides
Design Example
Select the lightest W section for the three-span
continuous laterally unsupported beam of the
figure. Use A992 steel. The 50-kip concentrated
loads are 30% dead load and 70% live load, the
20-kip concentrated load is all dead load, and
the uniform load is 20% dead load and 80% live
load
Lateral supports are provided @ 10 ft
380
Design Example

1 k/ft
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
Factored Loads
For the 50-kip loads:
Pu = 1.2 ×15 + 1.6 × 35 = 74.00 kips
For the 20-kip load:
Pu = 1.2 × 20 = 24.00 kips
For the uniform load:
kips
wu = 1.2 × 0.20 + 1.6 × 0.80 = 1.52
ft
381
Factored Loads
Beam with factored loads

1.52 kip/ft
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'

Independent Mechanisms
From the previous slide, there may be 7 possible plastic
hinges, the degree of static indeterminacy is 3 and the
number of independent mechanisms is 4
N =7
X =3
n=N−X =4
382
Plastic Hinges

4 1.52 kip/ft 5 6
1 2 3 7
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'

4 1.52 kip/ft 5 6
1 2 3 7
θ
3θ 4θ
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
383
74 kips 74 kips
10θ θ
3θ 30θ
4θ
WE = 74 (10θ + 30θ ) = 2,960θ

WI = φ M p ( 3θ + 4θ + θ ) = 8φ M pθ

4 1.52 kip/ft 5 6
1 2 3 7
3θ
θ
4θ
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
384
74 kips 74 kips
10θ 3θ
θ 30θ
4θ
WE = 74 (10θ + 30θ ) = 2,960θ
WI = φ M p (θ + 4θ + 3θ ) = 8φ M pθ

4 1.52 kip/ft 5 1.5θ 6
1 2 3 7
θ
2.5θ
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
385
24 kips
1.52 kip/ft
θ 30θ 1.5θ
2.5θ
1
WE = 1.52 × × 50 × 30θ + 24 × 30θ = 1,860θ
2
WI = φ M p (θ + 2.5θ + 1.5θ ) = 5φ M pθ

4 1.52 kip/ft 5 6
1 2 3 7
θ θ
2θ
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
386
74 kips
θ θ
15θ
2θ
WE = 74 × 15θ = 1,110θ
WI = φ M p (θ + 2θ ) = 3φ M pθ
Plastic Analysis – Critical

Mechanism
Based on the results of the plastic analysis, the
critical mechanism is mechanism No. 3 with
φbMpreq’d=372 kip-ft
The next step is to verify the plastic moment
condition. This will be done by means of an
elasto-plastic analysis to determine the
sequence of plastic hinge formation
387
Plastic Analysis – Elasto-Plastic
Analysis

Analysis
First Load Increment

Plastic Hinge No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Moment increment (k-ft) 586.23 177.19 224.03 492.55 281.15 443.05 333.48
Load Factor 0.6346 2.0994 1.6605 0.7553 1.3231 0.8396 1.1155
Minimum load factor = 0.6346
First plastic hinge forms at location 1
Modified Moment (k-ft) 372.00 112.44 142.16 312.55 178.41 281.14 211.61
Accummulated moment (k-ft) 372.00 112.44 142.16 312.55 178.41 281.14 211.61
Reserve Moment Capacity
(k-ft) 0.00 259.56 229.84 59.45 193.59 90.86 160.39
Accummulated load factor = 0.6346
388
Plastic Analysis – First Plastic
Hinge

4 1.52 k/ft 5 6
1 2 3 7
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'

Analysis
389
Analysis
Second Load Increment

Load Factor NA 0.4466 0.8719 0.0936 0.7718 0.2280 0.4508
Second plastic hinge forms at location 4
(k-ft) 0.00 205.17 205.17 0.00 170.12 53.57 127.09
Plastic Analysis – Second Plastic

Hinge

4 1.52 k/ft 5 6
1 2 3 7
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
390
Analysis

Analysis
Third Load Increment

Load Factor NA 0.2773 0.2773 NA 0.4409 0.0897 0.4955
Third plastic hinge forms at location 6
(k-ft) 0.00 138.77 138.77 0.00 135.50 0.00 104.08
391
Plastic Analysis – Third Plastic
Hinge

4 1.52 k/ft 5 6
1 2 3 7
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'

Analysis
392
Analysis
Fourth Load Increment

Load Factor NA 0.1875 0.1875 NA 0.1821 NA 0.1875
Fourth plastic hinge forms at location 5
Accumulated moment (k-ft) 372.00 368.00 368.00 372.00 372.00 372.00 369.00
(k-ft) 0.00 4.00 4.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.00
Plastic Analysis – Fourth Plastic

Hinge

4 1.52 k/ft 5 6
1 2 3 7
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
393
Plastic Analysis – Results of

Condition
394
Condition
From the previous slide we observe that the limit
analysis yields the same results as the
verification of the plastic moment condition
Plastic Analysis – Design Values
M u = 372 kip − ft
Vu = 74 kips
Ru = 74 kips for concentrated force at the end
Ru = 121.6 kips for concentrated force at intermediate points
395
Plastic Analysis – Shape Selection
The steel shape to be used must be compact
The required cross section plastic modulus is obtained
from the following equation
From page 3-17 of AISC manual,

M
Zx = u
φb Fy
372 ×12
Zx = = 99.20 in3
0.90 × 50
Select W 21× 50 with Z x = 110 in3
396
Plastic Analysis – Spans to Check by
Rotation Capacity and LTB

1.52 kip/ft
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
10' 20' 10' 30' 20' 15' 15'
Plastic Analysis – Spans to Check

Spans to be checked with the condition Lb≤Lpd
(those adjacent to all the plastic hinges but the
last one to form):
1, 4, 5, 9, and 10
Spans to be checked by normal Lateral-
Torsional Buckling:
2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 11, and 12
397
Plastic Analysis – Spans to Check by
Lb≤Lpd
Plastic Analysis - Lb≤Lpd Check

Revision of span No. 1
Lb = 10 ft = 120 in
M 1 = 368 kip − ft ; M 2 = 372 kip − ft

  368    29, 000 
L pd =  0.12 + 0.076     (1.30 ) = 147.17 in
  372    50 
Lb < L pd OK
398
Lb = 10 ft = 120 in
M 1 = 368 kip − ft ; M 2 = 372 kip − ft

  368    29, 000 
L pd =  0.12 + 0.076     (1.30 ) = 147.17 in
  372    50 
Lb < L pd OK

Lb = 10 ft = 120 in
M 1 = 28 kip − ft ; M 2 = 372 kip − ft

  28    29, 000 
L pd =  0.12 + 0.076     (1.30 ) = 94.79 in
  372    50 
Lb > L pd NG
399
Lb = 10 ft = 120 in
M 1 = 76 kip − ft ; M 2 = 372 kip − ft

  76    29, 000 
Lpd =  0.12 + 0.076     (1.30 ) = 102.19 in
  372    50 
Lb > L pd NG

Lb = 10 ft = 120 in
M 1 = 122 kip − ft ; M 2 = 372 kip − ft

  122    29, 000 
Lpd =  0.12 + 0.076     (1.30 ) = 109.27 in
  372    50 
Lb > L pd NG
400
Plastic Analysis – Spans to Check by LTB
Plastic Analysis – Spans to Check by LTB

By inspection, the critical spans are spans 2 and
3
For these spans
Mu = 368 kip-ft
Cb = 1.0
φbMn = 314 kip-ft from AISC-LRFD page 3-121
φbMn < Mu → NG
401
Plastic Analysis - Assignment
It is left to the student to find the lightest W-shape for this
case and compare it with the lightest W-shape that we
would obtain if the selection was based on an elastic.
Draw your own conclusions for this case
In what follows, the rest of the design checks are done
just for illustrative purposes, eventhough the selected
shape is not adequate
Plastic Analysis – Shear Check

From the results of the analysis, the required shear
strength is 74 kips

φvVn = 237 kips > Vu = 74 kips
402
Forces
Web local yielding at the beam end
Ru = 74 kips
φr Rn = φr R1 + Nφr R2 = 49.2 + 19.0 N
N req ' d = 1.31 in ⇒ N = 4.00 in

403
Forces
Web local yielding at intermediate points
Ru = 121.58 kips
φr Rn = 2φr R1 + Nφr R2 = 2 × 49.2 + 19.0 × 4
φr Rn = 174.40 kips > Ru = 121.58 kips

Forces
Web crippling at the beam end
Ru = 74 kips
N d = 4 20.8 = 0.19 < 0.2
φr Rn = φr R3 + Nφr R4 = 61.9 + 4 × 5.34
φr Rn = 83.26 kips > Ru = 74 kips
404
Forces
Web crippling at intermediate points
Ru = 121.58 kips
φr Rn = 2φr R3 + 2 Nφr R4 = 2 × 61.9 + 2 × 4 × 5.34
φr Rn = 166.52 kips > Ru = 121.58 kips
405
Deflection check for first span (L=40 ft)
vmax = 0.8944 in
L 40 × 12
360 360

Deflection check for second span (L=50 ft)
vmax = 0.4503 in
L 50 ×12
360 360
406
Deflection check for third span (L=30 ft)
vmax = 0.6317 in
L 30 ×12
360 360
Design of Steel Members
407
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE
DESIGN
INTRODUCTION TO
COMPOSITE BEAM DESIGN
408
Introduction to Composite Design
A composite structural system or member is that in
which there are two different materials working
together to resist the loads
In order for the composite system to work properly
each material must work in the most efficient way.
Example:
Steel in tension
Concrete in compression
In this course we will cover only composite beams
Reference: Sabnis, 1979
409
410
Diseño de Estructuras de Acero
Composite Design
Examples of composite
systems:
Floor system based on:
Steel shapes
Concrete slab
Floor system based on:
Steel shapes
Steel deck
Concrete slab
411
Early Research
United Kingdom
Scott (1925).
Caughey y Scott (1929).
Johnson (1966).
Canada
MacKay et al. (1923).
United States
Siess (1949).
Fisher (1970).
Slutter (1974).
Structural Steel Weight Reduction in a Three-

Bay, Six-Floor Building (Johnson, 1966)
Type of design Weight (%) Cost (%)
Elastic, non- 100 100

composite
Elastic, 95 102
composite
Plastic, non- 86 91
composite
Plastic, 66 90
composite
412
Structural Steel Weight Reduction in Simply
Supported Bridges From 9m to 27m (Siess,
1949)
Type of beam Relative weight (%)
Rolled shape, non-composite 100

Symmetric rolled shape, composite:
Without coverplates
- Unshored 92
- Shored 77
With coverplates
- Unshored 76
- Shored 64
Unsymmetric rolled shape, composite:
- Unshored 82
Welded shape, composite:
- Unshored 69
- Shored 40-60
Structural Steel Weight reduction in Continuous

Bridges, Three 32m Spans (Iwamota, 1962)
Type of beam Weight (%) Cost (%)
Non-composite 100 100
Composite 87 92
413
Composite Design
Advantages:
Structural steel weight reduction (10% - 20% weight
savings)
Steel shapes with smaller depth
Increment in floor stiffness
Increment in the span length for a given shape

Disadvantages:
Different stiffness in the regions of positive and negative
moments. (In general it is considered acceptable to
assume equal stiffness in both regions based on the
moment of inertia of the composite section for positive
moment)
If the dead load is high, long-term deflections may be
important
Different construction teams (concrete and steel)
414
Composite Construction Methods
Shored
The composite section resists all the loads
Unshored
The steel shape alone resists the weight of the slab
plus the construction loads
The composite section resists the superimposed dead
load plus the live load
Shored Construction
Advantages:
Steel shapes with smaller depths to resist the
construction loads and control deflections
Camber is not required
Avoids increase in concrete volume due to the
deflection of the beam
415
Shored Construction
Disadvantages:
Complicates the construction process
Increases the cost due to installation and removal of
shoring
It is more susceptible to creep related deflections
The instantaneous deflection when shoring is
removed increases the negative moment at the
supports thus increasing cracking potential in the slab
Influence of the Constrution

Method on the Strength
The construction method (shored or unshored)
does not affect the load carrying capacity of the
composite beam
However, there exist differences in the stress
values for service loads
416
Composite Beam Design
Composite action develops between the
concrete slab and the steel beam
That composite action between the slab and the
beam is developed because of the shear
connectors that make both elements to work as
a unit

Ultimate limit states:
Bending moment capacity
Shear capacity
Serviciability limit states
Deflections
Vibrations
Additional design considerations:
Design of shear connections
Partial composite action
417
The structural design of a composite floor system is carried
out in a way very similar to the design of reinforced concrete
T-beams
Composite beams are analized using the concept of
transformed area
Es
n=
Ec
Es = 29, 000 ksi
Ec = γ1.5
c f c' ; f c' en ksi
Ec = 1, 750 f c' for normal weight concrete

To take into account
the effect of shear lag
an effective weight of
the concrete slab
needs to be considered
418
419
Introduction
This presentation was developed as a teaching aid with the support of the American Institute of
Steel Construction. Its objective is to provide technical background and information for composite
construction and cambering. The information provided is based on common design and
construction practices for structures of twelve stories or less.
The AISC Digital Library case study presentations document the construction of a steel frame for
an office building. The case study includes photographs that were taken throughout the
construction of the structural steel frame including detailing, fabrication, and erection. Project data
including plans, schedules, specifications and other details are also included. The case study
presentations are available in the Learning Opportunities section at www.aisc.org.
This presentation goes a step further in detail in the areas of composite construction and
cambering. A more in-depth background is provided and impacts of the details and design
choices on schedule, cost, sequence and overall project management are addressed.
The information is presented with concerns of a construction manager or general contractor in

mind.
What Will You Gain From This

Presentation?
General knowledge of structural steel
Knowledge of the details of composite steel construction, the components

that are used, and how they are installed
An understanding of the impacts that composite steel construction may

have on project schedule, cost, sequence and overall management
Insight into the process of creating camber and why cambered beams are
used
Familiarity with situations where cambered beams should and should not be
used, and how using cambered beams might affect a project
420
Benefits of Structural Steel
Some benefits associated with use of structural steel for owners are:
• Steel allows for reduced frame construction time and the ability to construct in all seasons
• Steel makes large spans and bay sizes possible, providing more flexibility for owners
• Steel is easier to modify and reinforce if architectural changes are made to a facility over its life
• Steel is lightweight and can reduce foundation costs
• Steel is durable, long-lasting and recyclable (AISC 1999)
Unique Aspects of Steel Construction
Procurement and management of structural steel is similar to other materials, but there are some
unique aspects to steel construction:
• Steel is fabricated off-site (above left)
• On-site erection is a rapid process (above right)
• This gives use of structural steel some scheduling advantages
• Coordination of all parties is essential for achieving potential advantages (AISC 1999)
421
Introduction to Composite
Construction
• A steel beam which is made composite by using shear connectors, composite metal
decking and concrete is much stronger and stiffer than the base beam alone
• Composite floor systems are considered by many to be the highest quality type of
construction
• This has become a standard type of construction selected by many architects,
engineers, and developers (AISC 1991)
422
Advantages of Composite Construction
In a composite floor system the concrete acts together with the steel to create a
stiffer, lighter, less expensive structure (Allen 1999)
Advantages of Composite Construction
Connecting the concrete to the steel beams can have several advantages:
• It is typical to have a reduced • Shallower beams may be used which
structural steel frame cost might reduce building height
• Weight of the structural steel frame • Increased span lengths are possible
may be decreased which may
• Stiffer floors
reduce foundation costs
• Reduced live load deflections
423
Disadvantages of Composite
Construction
• The additional subcontractor needed for shear connector installation will increase
field costs
• Installation of shear connectors is another operation to be included in the schedule
• A concrete flatwork contractor who has experience with elevated composite slabs
should be secured for the job
Metal Decking
• Composite decking works together with the concrete fill to make a stiff, light-weight, economical
floor system
• Compare the composite decking (above left), non-composite decking (above center), and the form
decking (above right)
• Composite decking is available in various profiles and thicknesses
424
Composite Metal Decking
• Decking with deformed ribs (or embossed decking), as shown, is commonly used
• The deformations on the ribs allow for a stronger bond between the concrete and the
decking (ASCE 2002)
Composite Metal Decking
Less common styles of composite decking include:

• Decking with the ribs formed in a dovetail or fluted pattern (above)
• Decking with welded wire fabric welded to the ribs
• Decking with steel rods welded across the ribs
425
Installation of Decking
• Metal decking is placed on the structural steel at predetermined points in the erection sequence
• Metal decking may be installed by the steel erection contractor or a separate decking contractor
• Per the Occupational Safety & Health Administration Standard 1926.760(c) the decking crew may
work in a controlled decking zone while placing and attaching the decking
• A controlled decking zone is an area in which initial installation and placement of metal decking
may take place without the use of guardrail systems, personal fall arrest systems, fall restraint
systems, or safety net systems and where access to the zone is controlled
426
• Puddle welds (above right) are commonly used to attach the decking to the structural steel below
• Daily output for a four person decking crew ranges from 2700 S.F. to 3860 S.F. per day
depending on the depth and gauge of the decking (Means 2004)
• As an alternative to welding, powder actuated tools may be

used to attach metal decking to structural steel
• Powder actuated tools use the expanding gases from a
powder load, or booster, to drive a fastener
• A nail-like fastener is driven through the metal deck into the
steel beam
• The powder actuated tool, powder load, and fastener must be
matched to the thickness of the structural steel beam flanges
427
Shear Connectors
• Shear connectors are commonly referred to

as “studs” or “shear studs” in the trade
• They are available in a range of sizes,
materials, and grades
• Headed studs (as shown) are most
commonly used
• Other, less common options for shear
connectors include hooked studs or pieces
of C-channel
Shear Connectors
• Depending on the welding process used, the tip of the

shear connector may be placed in a ceramic ferrule (arc
shield) during welding to retain the weld
• Shear connectors create a strong bond between the steel
beam and the concrete floor slab which is poured on top of
the metal decking
• This bond allows the concrete slab to work with the steel
beams to reduce live load deflection
428
Installation of Shear Connectors
• Shear connectors are installed after the decking is in place

• Shear connectors may be installed by the steel erection contractor or a specialty shear connector
installer
• The welding equipment required for installation is provided by the shear connector installer
• Daily output for shear connector installation averages about 1000 per day depending on the size
of the connectors (Means 2004)
• The bracketed numbers on the drawing above give the number of shear studs to be installed at an
even spacing on the respective beam
• When spacing is not uniform it will be indicated on the plan
• Specified spacing of the shear connectors is an important part of the composite design and must
be adhered to
• Minimum spacing keep concentrations of compressive forces from occurring at the stud locations
• Maximum spacing help avoid separation of the slab from the beam and guarantee the uniform
transfer of shear force (RLSD 2002)
429
• The electrical arc process is commonly used for stud welding

An arc is drawn between the stud and the base metal
The stud is plunged into the molten steel which is contained by the ceramic ferrule
The metal solidifies and the weld is complete
• The ferrules are removed before the concrete is poured
(ASCE 2002, AWS 2004)
Installation of Concrete
• Concrete is installed by a concrete contractor on top of the composite metal decking, shear
connectors, and welded wire fabric or rebar grid (crack control reinforcing)
• Pumping is a typical installation method for concrete being placed on metal decking
• 10,000 to 15,000 sq. ft. of concrete slab may be installed per day depending on slab thickness
and crew size (Ruddy 1986)
430
• There is an art to the placement of concrete on metal deck and structural steel
• The work, unless shoring is used, must be executed on a deflecting surface
• An experienced concrete contractor should be employed for this work
Concrete should be deposited over supporting members first, then spread toward the deck
midspans
The accumulation of a deep pile of concrete must be avoided
JANUARY-MAY, 2011 CARLOS ENRIQUE NUNGARAY PÉREZ (AISC 2003, ASCE 2002) 861
• Concrete construction joints should be located over the beam or girder webs
• Sometimes this is not possible and the joint is located near the decking midspan
• Shoring should be placed beneath the construction joints until the concrete on both sides of the
construction joint has reached 75% strength
• This avoids a bond failure between the hardened concrete and the metal deck when the adjoining
concrete is placed (ASCE 2002)
• Placement of construction joints must be reviewed by the Engineer of Record
431
• The contractor must be aware of camber in the beams and the expected deflections
• Consultation with the structural engineer may be necessary
• As the concrete cures it forms a connection with the composite metal decking and shear studs
• The composite floor system is now complete
(AISC 2003)
Quality Control
• The shear connectors used in composite construction require specific inspections and quality
control
• Testing procedures are specified in the contract documents or by a local building authority
• AWS D1.1 – Structural Welding Code – Steel, Section 7: Stud Welding (AWS 2004) specifies the
tests and inspections for shear studs
432
Quality Control
• As described in the AWS code (AWS 2004), jobsite conditions may exist that prohibit or delay the
stud welding operation
• The primary issues affecting the installation of the shear connectors are:
Moisture on the decking or ferrules
Moisture between the decking and the steel beam below
A steel temperature below 0° F
• In the pictures above, a torch is being used to remove snow (left) from the areas where shear
studs are to be installed (right)
Quality Control
• Required quality control procedures for shear connectors include

pre-production tests and fabrication inspections
Pre-production testing is performed by the shear stud installer at the beginning of each
work shift and includes the following steps:
1. Weld two sample studs 3. Perform bending test

2. Inspect for flash 4. Equipment settings are recorded
The stud installer performs visual fabrication inspections as studs are installed
Other testing may be specified or may be necessary if all visual inspections are not passed
(SIN 1998)
433
Cost Impacts of Composite
Construction
When used appropriately, typical overall building costs will be less for composite
construction than non-composite construction
Cost Impacts of Composite

Construction
• The U.S. national average installation cost for shear studs ranges from $1.15 to $1.72
per connector (Means 2004)
• A cost comparison should be made between the reduced structural steel cost and the
additional shear connector cost when determining whether or not to use composite
construction
434
Scheduling of Composite
Construction
• The duration for the installation of shear studs is project dependent and should be
considered on a project by project basis
• Shear stud installation usually has little or no impact on the overall project schedule
Scheduling of Composite
Construction
• It may be possible, depending on the size of the structure and the sequencing of
erection and decking, to install the shear studs as erection proceeds
• It may also be possible to have a majority of the shear connectors in place and begin
placing concrete for the floor slabs while structural steel is being erected in another
area of the building
• On the structure shown above part of the composite first floor slab was placed while
erection of the structural steel for the third floor proceeded
435
Image courtesy of CAMBCO Inc.
Introduction to Cambering
Cambering is the process of creating an intentional slight curvature in a beam

436
Introduction to Cambering
• Camber in a beam can be designed to compensate for either:

A certain percentage of the dead load deflection
The full dead load deflection
The full dead load deflection as well as a percentage of the live load deflection
(Ricker 1989)
Camber is usually designed to compensate for deflections caused by pre-composite dead
loads
Advantages of Cambering
• Supporting beams will deflect under the load of concrete being placed
• This deflection can be exaggerated in a composite floor system where the full strength of the
system is not achieved until the concrete has cured
• Cambered beams (top diagram above) should deflect to a straight line (bottom diagram above), if
load and deflection are predicted accurately and camber equals deflection
This allows the floor slab to be flat while maintaining a consistent thickness
(Larson and Huzzard 1990)
437
Advantages of Cambering
• If beams are not cambered (top diagram above) the deflection under the load of the wet (plastic)
concrete will result in a ponding effect in the concrete (bottom diagram above)
• To create a flat floor in this situation the concrete will need to be thicker at the center of the bay
where the deflection is the greatest
• The volume of concrete used will typically be 10-15% more than if the floor is a constant thickness
(ASCE 2002)
Disadvantages of Cambering
• The use of cambered beams will, to a certain degree, be limited by other aspects of
the design for a structure
• Due to the complexity in detailing, fabrication, and fit-up associated with moment
connections (above left), camber should not be used in moment connected beams
• Beams with simple framing connections (above right) may be cambered because the
end rotational resistance of a simple connection is small in comparison to that of a
moment connection
438
Disadvantages of Cambering
Specified Top Of
Slab Elevation
2
• The processes used to create camber in beams as well as the actual deflections under load of
cambered beams are not exact
• Care needs to be taken in the specification and fabrication of camber to ensure that a beam, once
in place and under load, will perform within tolerances
• Levelness and consistent floor thickness can be a problem (ASCE 2002)
• The diagrams above show two possible results of cambered beams not deflecting as predicted
under the load of the wet (plastic) concrete
1. Stud heads are exposed 2. Top of slab elevation out of tolerance
Alternatives to Cambering
1 2
Alternative methods for

achieving a level floor slab
without using cambered
3
beams include:
1. Pouring a slab of varying Shoring
thickness over deflecting
beams Concrete At
2. Using over-sized beams 75% Strength
to minimize deflection
3. Shore the beams before
placing the concrete
(Larson and Huzzard
1990)
439
Shoring
• Shoring may be used in lieu of cambering

• The construction documents must specify the use of shoring
• There are several advantages to using shoring:
Lighter floor beams may be used
Cambers do not need to be designed or fabricated
Less beam deflection allows for better control of the slab thickness
Shoring can accommodate a contractor’s special loading requirements
When to Camber
• Girder Beams • Filler Beams

• Members with uniform cross section • Composite Floor Beams
(Ricker 1989)
440
When not to Camber
• Cantilevered Beams (above left) • Braced Beams (above right)

• Crane Beams • Spandrel Beams (above right)
• Moment Connected Beams (Ricker 1989)
When not to Camber
• Beams with moment connections • Beams under 20 feet in length (above

(above left) right)
• Beams with non-symmetrical loading • Beams with end plate connections
(Ricker 1989)
441
Heat Cambering
• Beams may be cambered by applying heat

to small wedge-shaped areas at specific
increments along the beam (Ricker 1989)
• The beam is place upside down on supports
so the “bottom” flange can be heated
• The heated flange expands under the heat
and contracts as it cools
• Camber is induced in the opposite side of
the beam as the heated flange cools
• Advancing this slide will begin an animation
which shows the expansion and contraction
that occurs in a heat cambered beam
Installation of Heat Cambered Beams
• A heat cambered beam should be erected with the heat marks on the bottom side of
the beam (see top diagram above)
This places the beam in a camber up (or concave down) orientation
• Heat marks can be seen on the beams in the bottom picture above
442
Cold Cambering
• Cold cambering methods are more widely used and generally more economical than
heat cambering
• The beam is mounted in a frame and force from a ram(s) is used to bend the beam to
create camber
(Ricker 1989) Image courtesy of CAMBCO Inc.
Creating Camber
• Cambering is most commonly done at the fabricator’s shop after the connections are
fabricated (AISC 2000)
• The fabricator may mark cambered beams to ensure proper installation
443
Natural Mill Camber
• Natural mill camber, which is a slight camber present in a beam when it is received from the mill,
will exist in most beams
• If the natural mill camber is at least 75% of the specified camber, no further cambering by the
fabricator is required
• If camber is not specified, the beams will be fabricated and erected with any natural mill camber
oriented up (or concave down) (AISC 2000)
Cambered Beams on Structural

Plans
Cambered beams should be clearly marked on the structural plans (AISC 2000)
444
Cambered Beams on Structural
Plans
• The structural plan above shows which beams are cambered

• The amount of camber is indicated for each cambered beam
c=3/4” indicates that the beams are cambered 3/4” at the center
c=1 ¼” indicates that the girders are cambered 1 ¼” at the center
Installation of Cambered Beams
• The installation of cambered beams is similar to that of other structural steel members
• No additional tooling, equipment, or hardware should be required
445
Quality Control
• Per the AISC Code of Standard Practice “camber shall be measured in the Fabricator’s shop in
the unstressed condition.” (above left)
The amount of camber specified on the shop drawing (above right) is for the beam center
line in an unstressed or unloaded condition
• Tolerances for camber are specified in the AISC Code of Standard Practice:
Members 50 feet or less in length = minus 0” and plus 1/2”
Members over 50 feet the plus tolerance is increased by 1/8” for every 10 feet over 50 feet
(AISC 2000)
Quality Control
• It is possible for all or part of the induced camber to come out of a beam during
shipment to a jobsite
• This is acceptable under the AISC Code of Standard Practice (2000), but the
fabricator’s quality control procedure should provide verification that the specified
camber was measured in the shop
446
Cost of Cambering
• Cambered beams require additional fabrication resources which will make them cost more than
non-cambered beams
• The additional cambering cost should be compared with
Cost of additional concrete due to “ponding”
Cost of using shored construction
Cost of using a heavier section that does not need to be cambered Image courtesy of CAMBCO Inc.
Cost Savings from Cambering
• The cost to camber beams may be less than the alternatives

• A cost comparison can reveal the savings associated with the use of cambered beams
• Larson and Huzzard (1990), in their study of cambered beams and uncambered beams found a cost savings of
approximately 4%
• A 30’ x 30’ bay size was used
• Filler beams were spaced at 10’ o.c.
447
Impacts on the Schedule
• There will be an increase in fabrication duration for structural steel to account for time
required to create camber in beams
• The amount of time required to create camber is dependent on a fabricator’s internal
scheduling and fabrication methods Image courtesy of CAMBCO Inc.
Impacts on the Schedule
Delivery, shakeout, and erection durations should not be impacted by the use of
cambered beams
448
Structural Steel: The Material of
Choice
References
AISC. (1991). Design Guide for Low- and Medium-Rise Steel Buildings. American Institute of
AISC. (1999). Construction Management of Steel Construction. American Institute of Steel
Construction, Inc. Chicago, IL.
AISC. (2000). Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges. American Institute of
AISC. (2002). Designing With Structural Steel – A Guide for Architects. American Institute of Steel
Construction, Inc. Chicago, IL .
AISC. (2003). Design Guide for Serviceability Design Considerations for Steel Buildings, Second
Edition. American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. Chicago, IL.
Allen, E. (1999). Fundamentals of Building Construction Materials and Methods. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. New York, NY.
ASCE. (2002). “Construction Considerations for Composite Steel-and-Concrete Floor Systems.”
Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 128, No. 9, 1099-1110.
American Welding Society, (AWS). (2004). “Structural Welding Code – Section 7: Stud Welding.”
ANSI/AWS D1.1-98, Miami, FL.
449
References Cont.
Larson, J. W., and Huzzard, R. K. (1990). “Economical Use of Cambered Steel Beams.” Proc.
AISC Engineering Conference, Chicago, IL. 3-21.
Means, R.S. (2004). 2004 Building Construction Cost Data. R.S. Means Company, Inc., Kingston,
MA.
Occupational Safety & Health Administration, (OSHA). (1996). “Concrete and Masonry
Construction.” Available at: http://www.osha.gov/doc/outreachtraining/htmlfiles/concrete.html.
Viewed June, 2004.
Ricker, Jr., D. T. (1989) . “Cambering Steel Beams.” AISC Engineering Journal, 4, 136-142.
Richard Lees Steel Decking, (RLSD). (2002). “Composite Beams & Shear Studs – Information
Sheet CB5.” Richard Lees Steel Decking. Available at: http://www.rlsd.com/. Viewed February,
2009.
Ruddy, J. L. (1986). “Ponding of Concrete Deck Floors.” AISC Engineering Journal, 3, 107-115.
Steel Inspection News, (SIN). (1993). “Shear Connector Inspection – a Tutorial.” Steel Structures
Technology Center, Inc. Available at:
http://www.steelstructures.com/StlInspNews/NEWS%20index.htm. Viewed February, 2009.
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Session 23
Design of Members for Combined
Forces
Chapters C and H of AISC Manual
450
Design of Beam-Columns
In the design of beam-columns the effect of the
axial force acting through the deformed beam-
column must be taken into account
The foregoing gives raise to the so-called
Second-Order Effects, which can be of two
types:
Second-order effects P-δ, which take place when the
beam-column does not exhibit lateral displacement
Second-order effects P-∆, which take place when the
beam-column exhibits lateral displacement
P-δ second-order effect
without intermediate load
(Note that there is no
relative lateral
displacement between
the ends of the column)
P-δ second-order effect

with intermediate load
Reference: Salmon, Johnson and

Malhas.
451
P-∆ second-order
effect. It occurs when
the beam-column
suffers lateral
displacement
(unbraced frame)
Reference: Salmon, Johnson and

Malhas.
Ways to include the second-order effects in
design:
By means of a computational program with

capabilities to carry out second order analyses (P-δ
and P-∆)
By means of amplification factors applied to the

axial force and bending moments resulting from a
first-order analysis (AISC approach)
452
Calculation of the required strengths for beam-columns by means of
amplification factors:
Mnt = first-order bending moments assuming there is no lateral
translation
Mlt = first-order bending moments due to lateral translation only
Pnt = first-order axial force assuming there is no lateral translation
Plt = first-order axial force due to lateral translation only
M r = B1M nt + B2 M lt
Pr = Pnt + B2 Plt
B1 , B2 are amplification factors
AISC-LRFD amplification factors for bending moments:
P-δ second-order effect (B1)
Cm
B1 = ≥ 1.0
α Pr
1−
Pe1
π 2 EI
Pe1 = 2
; K1 ≤ 1.0
( K1L )
 0.6 − 0.4 ( M 1 M 2 )
Cm = 
1.00 or by analysis
α = 1.00 for LRFD
453
AISC-LRFD amplification factors for bending moments:
P-∆ second-order effect (B2)
1
B2 =
α ∑ Pnt
1−
∑P e2
π 2 EI
∑ Pe2 = ∑ 2
; K 2 > 1.0
( K2 L )
1
B2 =
 ∆H 
1 − α ∑ Pnt 
 R ∑ HL 
 M 
α = 1.00 for LRFD
AISC-LRFD amplification factors for the axial force:
1
B2 =
α ∑ Pnt
1−
∑P e2
π 2 EI
∑ Pe2 = ∑ 2
; K 2 > 1.0
( K2 L )
1
B2 =
 ∆H 
1 − α ∑ Pnt  
 R ∑ HL 
 M 
α = 1.00 for LRFD
454
Design of Beam - Columns
455
Pr Pr
For ≥ 0.2 For < 0.2
Pc Pc
Pr  M rx M ry 
Pr 8  M rx M ry  + +  ≤ 1.0
+  +  ≤ 1.0 2 Pc  M cx M cy 
Pc 9  M cx M cy 
1 9
pPr + bx M rx + by M ry ≤ 1.0 pPr + ( bx M rx + by M ry ) ≤ 1.0
2 8
The above is other way to write the interaction equations
The coefficients p, bx, and by are obtained from Table 6-1 of the
13th Edition of the AISC Manual
456
In the previous slide, the quantities p, bx, and by are
given by the following equations:
1
p=
φc Pn
8
bx =
9φb M nx
8
by =
9φb M ny
Design of Beam-Columns: Procedure

1. Start with the interaction equation corresponding to
significant axial load (if you are dealing with a low axial
load case, you may want to start with the
corresponding interaction equation):
Pr > 0.2φc Pn
pPr + bx M rx + by M ry ≤ 1
457
2. Assume that either Pr (axial load effect), Mrx (x-axis
bending), or Mry (y-axis bending) is the dominant effect
3. Temporarily neglect the effects of the non-dominant
terms or use average values of the coefficients p, bx,
and/or by of the non-dominant terms (see Table
12.12.1 in Salmon, Johnson, and Malhas’ book)

4. Solve for the required value of the coefficient of the
dominant term.
Keep in mind to leave some allowance for the non-
dominant terms if you temporarily neglected them
1
preqd < for Pr controling
Pr
1
bxreqd < for M rx controling
M rx
1
byreqd < for M ry controling
M ry
458
5. Other possibility for Step 4 is to use a table
containing the average values of p, bx, and by,
such as the one in Salmon, Johnson, and
Malhas’ book (see Table 12.12.1)
6. Based on the required value in Step 4 or Step
5, use Table 6-1 of the AISC Manual to make a
preliminary selection
7. Check the adequacy of the selected shape
using the appropriate interaction equation
Reference: Salmon, Johnson, and Malhas (2009)

459
CV2015 DESIGN OF
STEEL MEMBERS
Example 1
Beam-Column Design Example 1

Design the beams and columns for the frame shown below
The beams have lateral supports @ 8 ft
Columns are braced at the ends so that K=1 for out of plane buckling
Lateral loads are wind loads
w L = 2.0 k/ft, w D = 1.8 k/ft
2.9 k
w L = 2.0 k/ft, w D = 1.8 k/ft

5.8 k
Floor height = 12 ft
Altura de cada piso = 12'
Vigas W 18X65
24'
460
21.6 k 24.0 k 0.9 k
61.7 k-ft 68.5 k-ft 11.4 k-ft

wL = 2.0 k/ft, w D = 1.8 k/ft
2.9 k
49.3 k-ft 54.8 k-ft 6.0 k-ft
wL = 2.0 k/ft, w D = 1.8 k/ft

5.8 k
43.2 k 48.0 k 3.24 k

Floor height:
Altura de cada12 ft = 12'
piso
Vigas W18X65 24.7 k-ft 27.5 k-ft 21.5 k-ft
24' 12.4 k-ft 13.75 k-ft 30.7 k-ft
Taken from: Bjorhovde, Disque, and Geschwindner

Muerta Viva Viento
Dead Live Wind
Process of Solution
Compute factored loads
Design the beams neglecting the effects of the
axial force
Use the selected shapes for the beams for
beam-column design
Carry out the final design checks including the
effects of the axial force in beams and beam-
columns (Assignment for the students)
461
Beam - Column Design Example 1
Applicable load combinations:
1 .2 D + 1 . 6 L
1 . 2 D + 0 . 8W
1 .2 D + 0 .5 L + 1 .6W
Design of the Beams

Top beam:
1.8 kip/ft 2.0 kip/ft
Mmax = 67.9 Mmax = 75.5

61.7 61.7 68.8 68.8 11.4 11.4
(D) (L) (W)
Bottom beam:
1.8 kip/ft 2.0 kip/ft
Mmax = 55.6 Mmax = 61.7

74 74 82.3 82.3 27.5 27.5
(D) (L) (W)

462
Design of the Beams: Critical
Beam
By inspection the critical beam is the one in the
first level (bottom beam)
1.2 D + 1.6 L :
M u = (1.2 )( 74 ) + (1.6 )( 82.3) = 220.48 kip − ft
1.2 D + 0.5 L + 1.6W :

M u = (1.2 )( 74 ) + ( 0.5 )( 82.3) + (1.6 )( 27.5 ) = 173.95 kip − ft
Design of the Beams

Select the beams based on the maximum
moment
220.48 × 12
Zx = = 58.8 in 3 → W 18 × 35
0.9 × 50
Z x = 66.5 in3
φb M px = 249 kip − ft ; L p = 4.31 ft
φb M rx = 151 kip − ft ; Lr = 12.4 ft
BF = 12.1 kips
463
Design of the Beams
Checking lateral-torsional buckling:
For Lb = 8 ft and Cb = 1.0 :

φb M nx = 249 − (12.1)( 8 − 4.31) = 204.351 kip − ft
220.48
Cbreq´ d = = 1.079 < Cbactual ∴ OK
204.351
Use W 18 × 35 for the beams
Design of the Columns

Assume the top of columns is critical because of
the large moments (the axial force acting on the
columns is not too big in these low-rise frames)
The critical load combination for the top column
is:
1.2 D + 1.6 L
Wind load does not produce the critical load
condition (no lt components)
464
Pnt = 64.32 kips
First-order factored
axial force and
bending moments: Mnt top = 183.64 kip-ft
Pnt = 1.2(21.6) + 1.6(24) = 64.32 kips

M nt = 1.2(61.7) + 1.6(68.5) = 183.64 kip − ft
Plt = 0; M lt = 0
Mnt bott = 146.84 kip-ft

Calculation of second-order effects
Pr = Pnt + B2 Plt = Pnt

M r = B1M nt + B2 M lt = B1M nt
465
 146.84 
Cmx = 0.6 − ( 0.4 )   = 0.28
 183.64 
→ B1x = 1.0 ( Cmx is too low )
Pr = Pnt + B2 Plt = Pnt = 64.32 kips
M r = B1M nt + B2 M lt = M nt = 183.64 kip − ft

Try a W12 shape with the bending moment as the
dominant effect
From Table 12.12.1, KL=12 ft (y-axis buckling assumed):
pavg = 1.08 × 10 −3 kips −1
1 − (1.08 × 10 −3 ) ( 64.32 ) −1
bxreq ´ d ≤ = 5.067 × 10 −3 ( kip − ft )
183.64
From Table 6-1, Try a W 12 × 40
 p = 2.85 × 10 −3 kips −1 ; bx = 4.79 × 10 −3 ( kip − ft )−1 
 
−1
For Lb = 0 ft and Cb = 1.0, bx = 4.16 × 10 −3 ( kip − ft )
466
467
Column behavior of the selected shape
K y = 1.0 → ( KL ) y = 12 ft
For x-axis buckling:
Gtop =
∑ ( I / L) cols
=
307
12 = 1.204
∑ ( I / L) beams
510
24
2 × 307
Gbottom = 12 = 2.408
510
24
Kx =
(1.6 )(1.204 )( 2.408 ) + ( 4 )(1.204 )( 3) + 7.5 = 1.55
(1.204 )( 3) + 7.5

( KL ) x = (1.55 )(12 ) = 18.6 ft

18.6
( KL ) yeq = = 7.03 ft < ( KL ) y = 12 ft
2.64
y-axis buckling controls
p = 2.85 × 10 −3 kips −1
1
φc Pn = = 350.9 kips
p
468
Beam behavior of the selected shape
Lb = 12 ft
M max = 183.64 kip − ft
M A = 101.0; M B = 18.4; M C = 64.22 all kip − ft
Cb =
(12.5)(183.64 )
( 2.5)(183.64 ) + ( 3)(101.0 + 64.22 ) + ( 4 )(18.4 )
4.79 × 10−3
Cb = 2.322 → bx mod = = 2.15 × 10 −3 < bxLb = 0
2.232

−1
bxLb = 0 = 4.16 × 10 −3 ( kip − ft )
−1
∴ bx mod = 4.16 × 10−3 ( kip − ft )
8 1
φb M nx = ×
9 bx mod
8 1
φb M nx = × = 213.7 kip − ft
9 4.16 × 10−3 ( kip − ft ) −1
469
Evaluation of the interaction equation
pPr = ( 2.85 × 10−3 ) ( 64.32 ) = 0.183 < 0.2

pPr 9
∴ + bx M rx ≤ 1.0
2 8
0.183 9
+ × 4.16 × 10 −3 × 183.64 = 0.951 < 1.0 OK
2 8
W 12 × 40 is adequate

If a W14 shape is selected for the columns of the frame,
with the bending moment as the dominant effect
From Table 12.12.1, KL=12 ft (y-axis buckling assumed):
pavg = 0.68 × 10 −3 kips −1
1 − ( 0.68 × 10 −3 ) ( 64.32 ) −1
bxreq ´ d ≤ = 5.21 × 10 −3 ( kip − ft )
183.64
From Table 6-1, Try a W 14 × 38
 p = 3.74 × 10 −3 kips −1 bx = 5.00 × 10 −3 ( kip − ft ) 
−1
 
−1
For Lb = 0 ft and Cb = 1.0, bx = 3.85 × 10 −3 ( kip − ft )
470
471
K y = 1.0
For x-axis buckling
385
Gtop = 12 = 1.51
510
24
2 × 385
Gbottom = 12 = 3.02
510
24
Kx =
(1.6 )(1.51)( 3.02 ) + ( 4 )( 3)(1.51) + 7.5 = 1.65
(1.51)( 3) + 7.5

( KL ) x = (1.65 )(12 ) = 19.85 ft

19.85
( KL ) yeq = = 5.24 ft < ( KL ) y = 12 ft
3.79
y-axis buckling controls
p = 3.74 × 10 −3 kips −1
1
φc Pn = = 267.4 kips
p
472
Lb = 12 ft
M max = 183.64 kip − ft
M A = 101.0; M B = 18.4; M C = 64.22 all kip − ft
Cb =
(12.5)(183.64 )
( 2.5)(183.64 ) + ( 3)(101.0 + 64.22 ) + ( 4 )(18.4 )
5.00 × 10 −3
Cb = 2.322 → bx mod = = 2.24 × 10 −3 < bxLb = 0
2.232

−1
bxLb = 0 = 3.85 × 10−3 ( kip − ft )
−1
∴ bx mod = 3.85 × 10 −3 ( kip − ft )
8 1
φb M nx = ×
9 bx mod
8 1
φb M nx = × = 230.9 kip − ft
9 3.85 × 10 −3 ( kip − ft )−1
473
Evaluation of the interaction equation
pPr = 3.74 × 10 −3 × 64.32 = 0.241 > 0.2

pPr + bx M rx = 0.241 + ( 3.85 × 10−3 ) (183.64 ) = 0.948
pPr + bx M rx < 1.0 OK
W 14 × 38 is also adequate

Conclusion:
Use W18x35 for the beams and W12x40 or W14x38

for the columns
The frame must be reanalyzed in order to verify that

the selected shapes are adequate to resist the loads,
based on the results of a structural analysis using the
actual properties of the members
474
Frame to be Designed
Dead Load
475
Live Load
Wind Load
476
Analysis Results – Axial Force (D)
Analysis Results – Axial Force (L)
477
Analysis Results – Axial Force (W)
Analysis Results – Moment (D)
478
Analysis Results – Moment (L)
Analysis Results – Moment (W)
479
Analysis Results – Shear (D)
Analysis Results – Shear (L)
480
Analysis Results – Shear (W)
CV2015 DESIGN OF STEEL MEMBERS
DIRECT ANALYSIS METHOD
481
Direct Analysis Method: Steps
1. Develop an analysis model
2. Determine the lateral loads
3. Calculate the notional loads
4. Perform 2nd order analysis
5. Design beams and girders
Direct Analysis Method: Steps

6. Design compression members and braces
7. Design beam-columns
8. Check seismic drift limits (not in this course)
9. Check seismic P-∆ limits (not in this course)
10. Check wind drift limits (not in this course)
482

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CV2015 DESIGN OF

TURN OFF YOUR CELL PHONE

CONTENTS, POLICIES, AND

First design the structure using your best

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Steel Structures: Design and

Unified Design of Steel

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Structural Steel Design: A

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RAM Structural System V8i

RAM Connection V8i

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My Policies: Design Process

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Tension members Axially loaded members in Solid Mechanics I

Simple connections Simple shear stress, contact Solid Mechanics I

Members under combined Frame analysis Structural Analysis

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Steel: Fy = 36 ksi; γs = 490 pcf

Advantages of Structural Steel

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Advantages of Structural Steel

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Disadvantages of Structural Steel

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Disadvantages of Structural Steel

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Disadvantages of Structural Steel

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Strength ≥ Load Effects

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Basic Design Requirement

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Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

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Load and Resistance Factor Design

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Reference: Adapted from Galambos, Lin, and