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 Lesson 1
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 ‫محتويات الدرس األول‬
• What is semantics?
• Importance of semantics
• Lexical meaning:
 Conceptual meaning
 Associative meaning
 Language Major Components

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlRNrSajB-0

.
Language

Form Meaning
Sounds

 Words= Morphology • Semantics

 Clauses & • Pragmatics
• Phonetics
Phrases =Syntax • Discourse
• Phonology
Analysis
 What is Semantics?
• Semantics is the study of the meaning. (Lyons 1977)

• Semantics is the study of the meaning in Language. (Hurford &

Heasley 1983)

• Semantics is the part of linguistics that is concerned with meaning.

( Lobner 2002)

• In linguistics, semantics is the subfield that is devoted to the study of

meaning at the levels of words, phrases, sentences, and larger units of
discourse (termed texts, or narratives) Wikipedia
 Importance of Semantics
1. Clear understanding of meaning allows students and teachers to communicate
their messages clearly. For example:
 I sea my father every day. X
 I see my father every day. OK

2. Semantics provides speakers with a structure to use when they need to put

.
words into sentences, creating meaning For example:
 A sandwich has eaten a boy. X ( Structure OK, Meaning X)
 A boy has eaten a sandwich. OK
 Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. X ( Structure OK, Meaning X)
3. The true power of semantics is that it is less structured than syntax and easier
way to communicate information.
If I had said “The color of the sky is blue”, or “The sky is now blue”, or “I see a blue
sky”, you would generally get the same meaning that the sky is blue. The important
information in any of these variations are the words “sky” and “blue”.
 Importance of Semantics
4. Structural ambiguity can also give reason for the importance of Semantic
research.
For example:
„The chicken is ready to eat'
This sentence can be an example of structural ambiguity. This sentence
could mean:
(1) The chicken (itself) is hungry and so it is ready to eat
(2) The chicken is ready to be served and eaten by somebody else.

5. Understanding the change in some words meaning over time.

For example
• The word “ nice” in 1300s was used to mean “foolish”, but now it is a
positive Adjective.
• The word „Silly‟ was seen as „happy‟ in the 1200s. However, in the 1500‟s
the meaning shifted to refer to a person who is „empty-headed‟ or lacking in
common sense.
 Two Types of Meaning
Conceptual Meaning and Associative Meaning
"We can . . . make a broad distinction between conceptual meaning
and associative meaning.
Conceptual ( denotative) / ( literal) meaning covers those basic,
essential components of meaning that are conveyed by the literal
use of a word.
 It is the type of meaning that dictionaries are designed to describe.
Some of the basic components of a word like needle in English
might include 'thin, sharp, steel instrument.„
Associative (connotative) meaning.
 However, different people might have different associations or
connotations attached to a word like needle. They might associate it
with 'pain,' or 'illness,„. or 'blood,' or 'drugs,' or 'thread,' or 'knitting.
 The connotation of a word can be positive, negative, or neutral. It
can also be either cultural or personal. Here's an example:
Two Types of Meaning
Conceptual Associative

Literal Use Associations

attached to a
of a word word

e.g. needle = e.g. needle

a thin, sharp, steel = pain, blood,
instrument. drugs, thread
 Two Types of Meaning
More Examples:
Conceptual Meaning/ Dictionary Meaning
Blood: the red liquid that flows through the bodies of humans and
animals
Pig: an animal with pink, black or brown skin, short legs, a broad nose
and a short tail which curls round itself.

Associative Meaning:
 Blood= ( Personal) accident, killing, oblation ( Sacrifice)
 Pig = (Cultural connotation) dirty and disgusting, illegal meat
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 Relationship between Words
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9c_5OW2wM4Q
‫مهم جدا ً وشامل‬
• https://www.slideshare.net/HameelKhan/semantics-
15569625

• https://www.slideshare.net/BerkayFrtna/semantics-
10890070?next_slideshow=1
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Semantics
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 Lesson 2
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 ‫محتويات الدرس الثاني‬
• Lexical Relations:
 Synonyms
 Antonyms
 Hyponyms
 Homophones
 Homonyms
 Polysemy
 Collocations
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 Synonymy

.
 Synonymy

Synonyms are two or more words with very similar almost identical meaning.

Examples:
• almost/nearly
• buy/ purchase
• big/large
• broad/wide
• cab/taxi
• car/automobile
• freedom/liberty.
 Synonymy

Note:
• There are many occasions when one word is appropriate in a sentence, but its
synonym would be odd. For example, whereas the word answer fits in the sentence:
Sara had only one answer correct on the test, the word reply would sound odd.

• The sentence My father purchased a large automobile has the same meaning as
My dad bought a big car, with four synonymous replacements, but the second
version sounds much more casual or informal than the first.
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Antonymy
 Antonymy

Antonyms are two forms with opposite meanings.

Examples:
 alive/dead
 big/small
 male/female
 rich/poor
 hot/cold
 true/false
 long/short
 Antonymy

Antonyms

Gradable Non-gradable
Can be compared ( Complementary)
‫متدرج‬ ‫غير متدرج‬
Hot warm cold married/single
old…new Relational
alive/dead
fast… slow ‫عالئقي‬
Pairs going together
husband/wife
borrow/lend
murderer/victim
 Gradable Antonyms
(can be used in comparative and superlative)

Beautiful Ugly
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Hyponymy
 Hyponyms, Hypernyms (superordinate)
Co-hyponyms
Hyponymy: when the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another.
Hypo= lower level
Hyper = higher level
Co= together
Examples:
animal/dog ( the word “dog” is a hyponym of “animal”)
the word “animal” is a hypernym of “dog”
vegetable/carrot( the word “carrot” is a hyponym of “vegetable”)
the word “vegetable” is a hypernym of “carrot”
 Hyponymy and hypernymy

The colors red, green, blue and yellow are hyponyms. They fall under the
general term of color, which is the hypernym ( superordinate)
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Homophones
 Homophones

• Homophones are two or more words which have

different spelling but have the same pronunciation,
Examples:
 bare/bear
 meat/meet
 flour/ flower
 pail/pale
 right/write
 too/two.
 Homonyms

A homonyms is a word ( written or spoken) which has two or more

unrelated meanings
Examples
• bank (of a river) – bank (financial institution) ‫ بنك‬/‫ضفة‬
• bat (flying creature) – bat (used in sports) ‫ مضرب‬/)‫وطواط ( خفاش‬
‫البيسبول‬
• pupil (at school) – pupil (in the eye) ‫ بؤبؤ العين‬/‫تلميذ‬

Homonyms are words that have separate histories and meanings, but have
accidentally come to have exactly the same form.
Homonyms
Polysemy
 Polysemy
Polysemy can be defined as one form (written or spoken) having
multiple meanings that are all related by extension
Examples
The word “head”
• object on top of your body
• at the top of a company or department

used to refer to the object on top of your body, foam on top of a

glass of beer, person at the top of a company or department, and
many other things. Other examples of polysemy are foot (of
person, of bed, of mountain)
Metonymy
 Metonymy

• Metonymy is a whole–part relation (car/wheels, house/roof) or a

representative–symbol relationship (king/crown, the President/the
White House). Using one of these words to refer to the other is an
example of metonymy.

• It is our familiarity with metonymy that makes it possible for us to

understand He drank the whole bottle, although it sounds absurd
literally (i.e. He drank the liquid, not the glass object).
• We also accept The White House has announced…or Downing
Street protested ... without being puzzled that buildings appear to be
talking
‫المتالزمات اللفظية ‪Collocations‬‬
 Collocations ‫المتالزمات اللفظية‬

• Collocations are words tend to occur with other words

When you say:

• table……chair
• Salt…….pepper
• fast……food
• do…. a favor
• make… a mistake
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 `
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•
 Lesson 3
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 ‫محتويات الدرس الثاني‬
• Semantic Roles

 Agent
 Theme
 Instrument
 Experiencer.
 Benefactive (Recipient)
 Locatives
 Source and goal
 Temporal (Time)
 .
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 Semantic Roles

Semantic roles describe the way in which words are used in sentences
and the functions they fulfil such as:
 agent
 theme
 instrument
 experiencer.
Semantics deals with the meaning conveyed by words, phrases and
sentences that are used in a language and tell us about an event that
happens in the real world. For example:
Ali cut the cake.
This sentence tells us about something that happened in reality.
A real boy (Ali) did an action ( cut) to a real thing (a cake)
 Agent ‫الفاعل‬
• The agent is the entity (somebody/ something) that
performs the action. (Subject)
Examples:
1. The boy has played football.
Agent/Subject

2. My father sells cars.

Agent/Subject
 Theme ( patient)-
As a result of Action
• The theme ( patient) is the entity (somebody/
something) that undergoes ‫ يقع عليه‬the action. (object)
Examples:
1. The boy has played football.
Theme ( patient)/ Object
2. My father sells cars.
Theme ( patient)/ Object
Theme ( patient)-
Being described
 Instrument
• Instrument is when the agent uses an entity to do
something.
Examples:
1. The girl opened the door with the key.
instrument
2. The woman cut the meat with a knife.
instrument
Agent, patient & Instrument
Agent, patient & Instrument
 Experiencer
• Experiencer is when the person does not perform an
action, but has a perception‫إدراك‬, state of feeling. ( verbs
like see, hear, enjoy, feel, know, understand etc.)
Examples:
1. The man felt sad about his father‟s death.
Experiencer
2. Huda heard some noise outside.
Experiencer
3. My uncle knows English well.
Experiencer
Benefactive (Recipient) ‫المستفيد‬
• Benefactive ( Recipient) is the living entity that benefits
from the action of the agent.
Examples:
1. Salem gave Khalid a book.
benefactive
2. Huda brought her mother some water.
benefcative
3. Ali lent me his car
beneficative
 Locative

Locative is where the entity is located.

Examples:
1.The book is on the table.
locative
2. Ali is in the office.
locative
 Source & Goal

Source: from where the entity moves

Goal: where the entity moves to.
Examples:
1.Ali drove from Jeddah to Makkah.
source goal
2. She has moved the students from Class A to Class B.
source goal
3. I returned the book to the library /( to Khalid).
goal
4. She received a letter from the post office.
source
 Temporal (Time)

Time: when an event or action takes place.

Examples
1.I have an appointment on Sunday.
Temporal/ time
2. I‟ll go shopping in the afternoon.
Temporal/ time
3. He returned home at 6:00 p.m.
Temporal/time
Semantic Roles
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Semantics
•
•
 Lesson 4
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 .
.
 ‫محتويات الدرس الرابع‬
• Semantic Features:

 “+animate, −animate
 +human, −human
 +female, −female
 +adult, −Adult
 Semantic features

The hamburger ate the boy.

• This sentence is syntactically good, but semantically odd.
• Since the sentence The boy ate the hamburger is perfectly
acceptable, we may be able to identify the source of the problem.
• The kind of noun that can be the subject of the verb ate must
denote an entity that is capable of “eating.”
• The noun hamburger does not have this property and the noun boy
does.
• Such an element may be as general as “animate being.”
• We can then use this idea to describe part of the meaning of words
as either having (+) or not having (−) that particular feature. So,
the feature that the noun boy has is “+animate” (= denotes an
animate being) and the feature that the noun hamburger has is
“−animate” (= does not denote an animate being).
Semantic features
Semantic features
Semantic features
Semantic Features Analysis
Semantic Features Analysis
Semantic features
Semantic features
 Semantic features

• This simple example is an illustration of a procedure for analyzing

meaning in terms of semantic features. Features such as
“+animate, −animate,” “+human, −human,” “+female, −female,”
for example, can be treated as the basic elements involved in
differentiating the meaning of each word in a language from every
other word.

chair horse woman boy

animate − + + +

human − _ + +

female − _ + _

adult − + + _
 Semantic features
Example
Complete the following sentence. The subject should have the
following semantic features. [+human, +female, −adult].
Could we suggest: horse, table or hamburger? NO, because none of
them have the required feature [+human].
• The is reading the newspaper.
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 Lesson 5
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 Content
Seven Types of meaning According to Geoffrey Leech:
1.Conceptual / Denotative meaning
2.Connotative meaning
3.Social meaning
4.Affective/Emotive meaning
5.Reflected meaning
6.Collocative meaning
7.Thematic meaning
 Conceptual or Denotative Meaning

https://www.slideshare.net/MiftadiaLaulaAmm/seven-types-of-
meaning?next_slideshow=2

Geoffrey Leech in his „Semantics - The Study of Meaning‟ (1974)

breaks down meaning into seven types giving importance to
conceptual meaning.
1. Conceptual or Denotative Meaning :Conceptual
meaning is also called logical or cognitive meaning.
It corresponds to the primary dictionary definition. It is the
literal meaning of the word.
For example, „Needle” may be a “thin”, “sharp”
“instrument”
 Connotative Meaning

2. Connotative Meaning: It is something that goes

beyond the referent of a word and hints at its attributes
in the real world. Thus purely conceptual content of
„woman‟ is +human + female+ adult

but the psychosocial connotations could be „gregarious‟

‫اجتماعي‬, „having maternal instinct‟‫ لديه غريزة األمومة‬or
„babbling‟, ‫ ثرثارة‬experienced in cookery‟ ‫لديها خبرة في الطبخ‬

Connotations vary age to age, society to society and

culture to culture.
 More Examples
More Examples:
Conceptual Meaning/ Dictionary Meaning
Blood: the red liquid that flows through the bodies of humans and
animals
Pig: an animal with pink, black or brown skin, short legs, a broad nose
and a short tail which curls round itself.

Associative Meaning:
 Blood= ( Personal) accident, killing, oblation ( Sacrifice)
 Pig = (Cultural connotation) dirty and disgusting, illegal meat
 Social Meaning

3. Social Meaning : It is the meaning conveyed by the

piece of language about the social context of its use.The
interpreting of a text is dependent on our knowledge of
stylistics and other variations of language.
We recognize some words or pronunciation as being
dialectical i.e. as telling us something about the regional or
social origin of the speaker.
e.g. “I ain‟t done nothing” The line tells us about the
speaker and that is the speaker is probably a black
American, poor and uneducated
“Pavement” is used in British English and “sidewalk” in
American English.
 Seven Types of Meaning

Stylistic variation represents the social variation. This is

because styles show the geographical region social class
of the speaker.
For example, „steed ‟, „horse and „nag‟ are synonymous.
They all mean a kind of animal i.e. Horse. But they differ in
style and so have various social meaning. „Steed‟ is used in
poetry; „horse‟ is used in general, while „nag‟ is slang.
 Seven Types of Meaning

4. Affective or Emotive Meaning : It is what is conveyed

about the personal feelings or attitude towards the listener.
e.g.
• „home‟ for a sailor/soldier or expatriate
• „mother‟ for a motherless child will have special effective,
emotive quality.
e.g. A speaker says to a listener “You are a vicious tyrant
and a villainous reprobation and I hate you” Here, the
speaker seems to have a very negative attitude towards his
listener. This is called affective meaning.
«‫ إني أكرهك‬،‫ نذل وخسيس‬،‫أنت طاغية شرير‬
!!!‫كم تحمل هذه الكلمات من مشاعر سلبية من المتحدث نحو المستمع‬
 Seven Types of Meaning

• But very often we are more discreet (cautious) and

convey our attitude indirectly. e.g. “I am terribly sorry, but
if you would be so kind as to lower your voice a little”
The sentence conveys our annoyance in a scaled down
manner for the sake of politeness.

• Factors such as Intonation and voice quality are also

important in this type of meaning.

• Also, there are elements of language such as

interjections ‫ التعجب‬like (Aha! Wow! Yippee!),whose main
function is to express emotions.
Seven Types of Meaning
 Reflected Meaning

5. Reflected Meaning: What is communicated through

association with another sense of the same expression. It
arises when a word has more than one conceptual
meaning.
• Reflected meaning can be found in taboo words. In the
past the word “intercourse” was used to mean””
communication” ‫التواصل‬
The word „intercourse‟ is now associated with (sexual intercourse).
‫ العالقة الحميمة‬The word Discourse in now used instead.
Also, the word “ gay” in the past had the meaning of “ happy”, but now it
means “ homosexual.” ‫شاذ‬
Is he gay?
 Reflected Meaning

intercourse meaning „two-way communication‟

disappeared from English to be replaced by discourse,
because of the unwanted meaning „sexual intercourse‟
 Seven Types of Meaning

intercourse meaning „two-way communication‟

disappeared from English to be replaced by discourse,
because of the unwanted meaning „sexual intercourse‟
titbit ‫قطعة حلوى‬changes its form to tidbit ‫طعام شهي‬in US
English to avoid the reflection from tit, slang for „nipple‟.
 Collocative Meaning

6. Collocative Meaning: It is the meaning which a word

acquires in the company of certain words. Words collocate
or co-occur with certain words only e.g. Big business not
large or great.
„Pretty‟ and „handsome‟ indicate „good looking‟. The word
„pretty‟ collocates with – girls, woman, village, gardens,
flowers, etc.
However, the word „handsome‟ collocates with – „boys‟
men, etc. so „pretty woman‟ and „handsome man.‟
See the meaning of heavy how it changed: heavy news (a
piece of sad news); heavy schedule (a very tight schedule)
‫جدول مضغوط‬
 Thematic Meaning

7. Thematic Meaning: The way we order our message

conveys what is important and what is not.
Thus, active voice is different from passive voice though its
conceptual meaning is the same.

1. Mrs. Smith gave the first prize.

2.The first prize was given by Mrs. Smith.

In the first sentence “who gave away the prize “is more
important, but in the second sentence “what did Mrs.
Smith gave is important”. Thus, the change of focus
changed the meaning
 Seven Types of Meaning

3. John is married to Mary.

4. Mary is married to John.
Who is more important in the 3st sentence? In the 4nd?

5. I will do it tomorrow. ( neutral way)

6. Tomorrow, I will do it. (a promise)

 Reference
Types of Meaning
https://www.slideshare.net/MiftadiaLaulaAmm/
seven-types-of-meaning?next_slideshow=2
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 `
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•
•
 Lesson 6
.
 Content

Three Semantic Expressions

 Utterances

 Sentences

 Propositions
 3 Semantic Expressions
.
Semantic
Expressions

Sentence Proposition
Utterance
 Utterance
.

Utterance
 Utterance Characteristics
‫خصائص الكالم المنطوق‬

• An act of uttering by a person at a specific time, location and event.

• It is based on saying something, not writing it.

• It can be of any length. ( See examples 1-5)

• It should be a piece of the language. (“ Fambulantex” is not)

• There should be pauses/ or silence between utterances.

• No need to be grammatical . e.g.“ Ouch!”. It has no grammar.

• A physical / concrete event.

 Examples of Utterances

1. Wow!
2. Yes
3. your book

4. I love my mother

5. It‟s nice to meet you.

( 1-5) are all utterances although they are not of the same length

Length is not important in the utterance since it is a piece of the

language. ) So, the word, “ Fambulantex” is not an utterance)
 Examples of Utterances

Now if the speaker says this on different occasions:

„ I can speak French.‟

„ I can speak French.‟ Three utterances, but one sentence

„ I can speak French.‟

This is one sentence uttered 3 times.
 Sentence
‫الجملة‬
.

Sentence
 Sentence Characteristics
‫خصائص الجملة‬
 It can be written or spoken.

 It must be grammatically correct.

 It must express a complete thought.

Example

1. I love my father. ( a sentence & an utterance)

2. Me father love ( an utterance, but not a sentence)

( No grammar in it)
 Proposition
.

Proposition
 Proposition Definition
‫تعريف الفرضية‬
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hg-h-6ZiEPI

Proposition is the basic semantic content of a sentence. It is

the core meaning of a sentence which expresses the factuality of a given
state of affairs.

Different sentences may be converted into and an identical

proposition.

1. Ahmad killed Salem.

2. Ahmad caused Salem to die.
3. Salem was killed by Ahmed.
All these sentences have the same meaning.
 Proposition Definition
‫تعريف الفرضية‬
The concept that the proposition emphasizes is KILLING )Ahmad,
( Agent/ subject) Salem ( Theme /object)

So, the proposition doesn‟t care for the grammatical information. It

cares for the core essential meaning that all the sentences share
regardless of the language. It is after the idea of KILLING here that
can be expressed universally by any language such as English,
French, Arabic, Chinese etc. ( That‟s why we write the verb “KILL” in
capital)
 Proposition
The same idea can be expressed in Arabic saying:

 Gatala Ahmad Salem. ( Here we started with the verb not the

subject, why? Because it is a different language, but expressing the

same idea or concept of killing.

 That‟s why the “Proposition” is something abstract. It is a

concept that can be expressed by any language regardless of

grammar.
 Another Example
1. Khalid bought an orange.

2. An orange was bought by Khalid.

3. Ishtra Khalid Burtokala. ( Arabic)

The three sentences have the same meaning. They express one idea or
concept which is BUYING ( Khalid ( Agent/subject), orange (
theme/object) in different languages regardless of grammar. ( See Arabic
we started with the verb, not the subject)
 Levels of Abstraction
‫مستويات التجريد‬
-MoreAbstract
Proposition -We can‟t hear

Sentence Grammatical

-Less Abstract
Utterance ( concrete/ Physical)
-We can hear
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 Lesson 7
.
 Content

1. Reference

2. Referent

3. Sense

4. Linguistic Expression

5. Referring Expression
 Reference Vs. Referent
 The referent is the actual thing in the world
 Reference is an act (language expression) by which a speaker (or
writer) uses language to enable a listener (or reader) to identify
something in the real world.
Example:
Watch out for the car!
The word “car” is the( reference)

Referent
 Reference, Referent & Sense
 Example: car in real world
Watch out for the car!
The word “car” is the( reference -1)

Sense is a mental image / concept

Referent - 2
(A picture of something in the mind)

( Sense- 3)
 Reference, Referent & Sense
 Example: Chinse)
汽车! ( See Cho) ( meaning car)
The word “汽车! ” is the( reference)

mental image / concept Referent

( Sense) ?
 Types of References & Referents
.
Types of references &
Referents

Constant
Physical ‫ثابت ومحسوس‬
One expression= Multiple referents=
one referent One Expression
Variable
‫متغير‬
One expression=
Multiple referents
 One expression= One referent in real world
Constant Physical Referents
Reference ( linguistic Physical Referent
Expression)
1. The moon

2. Saudi Arabia

3. The Red Sea

 One expression= multiple referents in real world
Variable Referents
Reference ( linguistic Referents
Expression)
1. Orange the fruit

color

Name of a company

2. Employee Ahmad
Khalid
Sami
John
 Multiple expressions= One/same referent in real
world

Multiple Expressions One Referent

1.The 44th President of

USA
2.The President of USA
from 2009 to 2017
3. The first African
American President of Barak Obama
USA
4. The husband of
Michelle Obama
 Non- Physical Referents = No reference in real
words
None-Physical Referents Examples

1. Function Words a/ the/in/ is

2. Abstract Notions love/ courage/ confidence

3. Myth creatures or The unicorn usually has the body of a horse
people with a single horn growing out of its forehead,
billy- goat beard, a lion‟s tail
 Linguistic Expression Vs.
Referring Expression

Linguistic Expressions:
Book, the, is, on
Which one of the above expressions is a referring
expression?

Referring Expression: Book

Because it refers to something in the real world.
 What is Sense (Pragmatics)
• Do the following words refer to things in the world?
• (1) almost Yes / No
• (2) probable Yes / No
• (3) and Yes / No
• (4) if Yes / No
• (5) above Yes / No
All answers are NO, they have a sense ( meaning)
 What is Sense (Pragmatics)
• What is intended by the word mean, meaning, etc. in the following
examples, reference (R) or sense (S)?
(1) When Helen mentioned „the fruit cake‟, she meant that
rock-hard object in the middle of the table R / S
(2) When Albert talks about „his former friend‟ he means me R / S
(3) Daddy, what does unique mean? R / S
(4) Purchase has the same meaning as buy R / S
(5) Look up the meaning of apoplexy in your dictionary R / S
(6) If you look out of the window now, you‟ll see who I mean R / S

Feedback (1) R (2) R (3) S (4) S (5) S (6) R

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