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that there are common patterns emerging within countries. One example is
the displacement of traditional employment with less stable and more
crudely commercial relationships. Another example is the growing
diversity of employment conditions within countries. But many of the
underlying forces transcend the nation state. And here this chapter
sketches the characters in a new story. Multinational enterprises have their
own dynamics, and so have the increasingly complex global supply chains
on which they rely. For five of the countries covered here, the European
Union has been an important external influence of labour regulation. The
scope of the International Labour Organization deserves renewed
attention, as it approaches its centenary after languishing in benign
impotence. For big corporations, the dependence of global products on
brand-name recognition is increasing their exposure to reputational risk.
Unions and other pressure groups are learning to exploit this in attempts to
protect the labour standards of workers scattered globally across the supply
chains. The new front line of employment relations is truly international.
This is the front line that will shape the careers of many of the readers of
this book. It is where future employment conditions will be improved,
defended or degraded. It is good that the authorship of this valuable
collection of studies is moving to a younger generation of scholars. Their
research and understanding of the limits of national regulation, and of the
scope for international cooperation, will do much to shape the future story
of employment.
William Brown Emeritus Professor of Industrial Relations and former
Master of Darwin College, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom;
former President, British Universities Industrial Relations Association;
former Director, Industrial Relations Research Unit at the University of
Warwick and foundation member of the Low Pay Commission, which sets
the United Kingdom’s National Minimum Wage

8
 Contents
Foreword
William Brown
Contributors
Figures, tables and boxes
Abbreviations
Preface
1 Introduction: An internationally comparative approach to
employment relations
Nick Wailes, Chris F. Wright, Greg J. Bamber and Russell D.
Lansbury
2 Employment relations in the United Kingdom
Jeremy Waddington
3 Employment relations in the United States
Harry C. Katz and Alexander J.S. Colvin
4 Employment relations in Canada
Daphne G. Taras and Scott Walsworth
5 Employment relations in Australia
Chris F. Wright and Russell D. Lansbury
6 Employment relations in Italy
Lucio Baccaro and Valeria Pulignano
7 Employment relations in France
Patrice Laroche
8 Employment relations in Germany
Berndt K. Keller and Anja Kirsch
9 Employment relations in Denmark
Jorgen Steen Madsen, Jesper Due and Soren Kaj Andersen
10 Employment relations in Japan
Hiromasa Suzuki, Katsuyuki Kubo and Kazuya Ogura
11 Employment relations in South Korea
Byoung-Hoon Lee
12 Employment relations in China

9
 Fang Lee Cooke
13 Employment relations in India
Anil Verma and Shyam Sundar
14 Conclusions: Beyond Varieties of Capitalism, towards convergence
and internationalisation?
Chris F. Wright, Nick Wailes, Russell D. Lansbury and Greg J.
Bamber

Notes
References

10
 Contributors

EDITORS
Greg J. Bamber is a Professor at Monash University, Melbourne,
Australia. His publications include more than 100 refereed articles and
such jointly authored publications as Up in the Air: How Airlines Can
Improve Performance by Engaging Their Employees (with J. Gittell, T.
Kochan and A. von Nordenflytch, Cornell University Press, 2009) and
‘Regulating Employment Relations, Work and Labour Laws: International
comparisons between key countries’, Bulletin of Comparative Labour
Relations, 74 (with P. Pochet and others, Kluwer, 2010). He is a Visiting
Professor at Newcastle University in the United Kingdom and a Guest
Faculty Member at Harvard University in the United States.
<www.gregbamber.com>

Russell D. Lansbury is Emeritus Professor of Work and Organisational

Studies in the Business School at the University of Sydney, Australia. He
is former President of the International Labour and Employment Relations
Association and of the Australian Labour and Employment Relations
Association. He is former joint editor of the Journal of Industrial
Relations. His recent research has focused on the impact of management
strategies in multinational enterprises on employment relations and labour
practices. <http://sydney.edu.au/business/staff/Lansbury>

Nick Wailes is Associate Dean (Digital and Innovation) and a Professor at

the UNSW Business School, Sydney, Australia. His areas of research
interest include international and comparative employment relations and
technology-related organisational change.
<https://au.linkedin.com/in/nickwailes>

Chris F. Wright is a Research Fellow in the Discipline of Work and

Organisational Studies, University of Sydney, Australia. He received his

11
PhD from the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom in 2011.
Chris’s research covers various issues relating to the intersection of
employment, globalisation and public policy. He has a particular interest in
labour market regulation, immigration and supply chains.
<http://sydney.edu.au/business/staff/chriswr>

CONTRIBUTORS
Soren Kaj Andersen is Associate Professor and Director of FAOS,
Employment Relations Research Centre, Department of Sociology,
University of Copenhagen, Denmark. He is also Visiting Associate
Professor at the International Centre for Business and Politics,
Copenhagen Business School.

Lucio Baccaro is Professor of Sociology at the University of Geneva,

Switzerland. He previously taught at Case Western Reserve University and
at MIT in the United States. He also held senior research positions at the
International Labour Organization.

Alexander J.S. Colvin is the Martin F. Scheinman Professor of Conflict

Resolution at the ILR School, Cornell University, Ithaca, in the United
States. His recent publications include Labor in a Globalizing World: An
Introduction Focused on Emerging Countries (with H. Katz and T.
Kochan, Cornell University Press, 2015) and ‘Convergence in industrial
relations institutions: The emerging Anglo-American model?’ ILR Review,
66(5): 1047–77 (with O. Darbishire, 2013).
<www.ilr.cornell.edu/directory/ajc22>

Fang Lee Cooke is Professor of Human Resource Management and Asia

Studies, Monash Business School, Monash University, Melbourne,
Australia. Her research interests are in the area of employment relations,
gender studies, diversity management, strategic human resource
management, knowledge management and innovation, outsourcing,
Chinese outward foreign direct investment and the employment of Chinese
migrants. Fang is the author of HRM, Work and Employment in China
(Routledge, 2005), Competition, Strategy and Management in China
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) and Human Resource Management in China:
New Trends and Practices (Routledge, 2012).
<www.buseco.monash.edu.au/about/staff/profile.php?cn=fang-cooke>

12
Jesper Due is a Professor at the FAOS Employment Relations Research
Centre, Department of Sociology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.

Harry C. Katz is the Interim Provost and Jack Sheinkman Professor of

Collective Bargaining at Cornell University, Ithaca, in the United States.
His major publications include Labor Relations in a Globalizing World:
An Introduction Focused on Emerging Countries (with T. Kochan and A.
Colvin, Cornell University Press, 2015), Converging Divergences:
Worldwide Changes in Employment Systems (with O. Darbishire, Cornell
University Press, 2002) and The Transformation of American Industrial
Relations (with T. Kochan and R. McKersie, 2nd ed., Cornell University
Press, 1993).

Berndt K. Keller is Professor Emeritus of Employment Relations at the

University of Konstanz, Germany. He is the author of numerous articles
and several books on German and European employment relations,
including most recently Einfuhrung in die Arbeitspolitik (7th ed.,
Odenbourg, 2008), Arbeitspolitik im offentlichen Dienst (Edition Sigma,
2010) and Atypische Beschaftigung zwischen Prekaritat und Normalitat
(with H. Seifert, Edition Sigma, 2013). He was co-editor of Industrielle
Beziehungen: The German Journal of Industrial Relations, and was a
member of the Executive Committee of the International Labour and
Employment Relations Association. <http://www.unikonstanz.de/keller>

Anja Kirsch is a Research Fellow at Freie Universitat Berlin, Germany.

She received her PhD from the University of Sydney, Australia, in 2008.
Her current research focuses on women on corporate boards in Europe and
on institutional approaches to employment relations. Recent publications
include ‘Employment relations in liberal market economies’ in The Oxford
Handbook of Employment Relations (with G. Jackson, Oxford University
Press, 2014) and ‘Executive board and supervisory board members in
Germany’s large corporations remain predominantly male’, DIW
Economic Bulletin, 4, pp. 35–47 (with E. Holst, 2015).
<www.wiwiss.fuberlin.de/fachbereich/bwl/management/jackson/team/akirsch/index.htm

Katsuyuki Kubo is a Professor in the School of Commerce at Waseda

University, Tokyo, Japan. His papers include ‘The relationship between
financial incentives for company presidents and firm performance in
Japan’, Japanese Economic Review, 59(4): 401–18. <www.f.waseda.jp/>

Patrice Laroche is a Professor of Human Resource Studies and Labour

13
Relations at the ESCP Europe Business School in Paris, France. His
research activity is mainly devoted to the study of industrial and labour
relations, with particular emphasis on the analysis of the impact of unions
on firm performance. His articles have appeared in Industrial Relations: A
journal of economy and society, the European Journal of Industrial
Relations, Advances in Industrial and Labor Relations and Labor History,
among others. <www.escpeurope.eu/nc/faculty-research/the-escp-europe-
faculty/professor/name/laroche–1//biography>

Byoung-Hoon Lee is Professor in the Department of Sociology, Chung-

Ang University, Seoul, South Korea. He is the President of the Policy
Research Institute for the Korea Government Employee Union and a
public-interest representative of the Tripartite Commission. His research
has focused on labour market segmentation and nonstandard employment,
and revitalisation of labour union movements and labour relations of
public sectors.

Jorgen Steen Madsen is a Professor at the FAOS Employment Relations

Research Centre, Department of Sociology, University of Copenhagen,
Denmark.

Kazuya Ogura is an Associate Professor in the School of Commerce at

Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan. He worked for the Japan Institute for
Labour Policy and Training in Tokyo from 1993 to 2011. His publications
include Seishain no Kenkyu (A Study of Regular Employees) (Nikkei).

Valeria Pulignano is Professor of Sociology of Labour and Industrial

Relations at the University of Leuven, Belgium. She taught at the
University of Warwick in the United Kingdom, where she is currently an
Associate Fellow. She is also a co-researcher at the Interuniversity
Research Center on Globalisation and Work (CRIMT) at the University of
Montreal, Canada. <www.kuleuven.be/wieiswie/nl/person/00049644>

Shyam Sundar is a Professor in the Human Resources Management area,

Xavier Labour Relations Institute, Xavier School of Management,
Jamshedpur, India. He teaches Industrial Relations and Principles of
Labour Administration. His research interests cover industrial relations
issues and labour regulation and laws, and he has written extensively on
these issues pertaining mostly to India.

Hiromasa Suzuki is an Emeritus Professor in the School of Commerce at

14
Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan. He was formerly at the International
Labour Organization in Geneva, Switzerland. His publications include a
chapter in Korekarano Koyou Senryaku (Towards a Future Employment
Strategy) (Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training, 2007).

Daphne G. Taras is Dean of the Edwards School of Business at the

University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada. Her research investigates
nonunion forms of employee representation. She also publishes in public
policy, and labour and employment law fields. Her publications include
Perspectives on Disability and Accommodation (with K. Williams-Whitt,
National Institute for Disability Management and Research, 2011) and
Canadian Labour and Employment Relations: Understanding union–
management challenges and choices (with M.Gunderson,Pearson, 2005).
<www.edwards.usask.ca/faculty/Daphne%20Taras/index.aspx>

Anil Verma is Director of the Centre for Industrial Relations & Human
Resources and Professor at the Rotman School of Management, University
of Toronto, Canada. His work has been on immigrant labour market
experience, the minimum wage, nonstandard employment and public
policies for employment growth. He served as Chair of Ontario Minimum
Wage Panel, a Member of the Statistics Canada Advisory Committee on
Labour and Income Statistics and a Member of the Board of Directors of
COSTI Immigration Services. For a list of publications, see
<www.rotman.utoronto.ca/~verma>.

Jeremy Waddington is Professor of Industrial Relations at the University

of Manchester, United Kingdom, and Project Coordinator for the European
Trade Union Institute, Brussels, Belgium. He has written extensively on
topics associated with trade union membership, structure and organisation,
and European works councils. His most recent book is European Works
Councils: A Transnational Industrial Relations Institution in the Making
(Routledge, 2010). Currently, he is working on board-level employee
representation in Europe.

Scott Walsworth is an Associate Professor in the Edwards School of

Business at the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada. His
research interests include the effect of unions on firm performance and the
integration of skilled immigrants into the Canadian labour market.
<www.edwards.usask.ca/faculty/Scott%20Walsworth/index.aspx>

15
 Figures, tables and boxes

FIGURES
1.1 Comparative union density and collective bargaining coverage
5.1 WDL per 1000 employees in industrial disputes (Australia)
6.1 Union density rate CGILCISLUIL (Italy)
6.2 Wage in efficiency units (Italy)
6.3 Wage shares of GDP in large European economies (Italy)
7.1 Union membership (France)
8.1 Mergers among DGB unions (Germany)
8.2 Membership in DGB-affiliated unions (Germany)
8.3 Coverage rate of works councils (Germany)
8.4 Industry bargaining coverage rates (Germany)
10.1 Changes in the ratio of regular and non-regular employment (Japan)

TABLES
1.1 Categories of economies included in this book
4.1 Union density and unemployment rate by gender, age and province
(Canada)
4.2 Union density by industry, sector and job permanency (Canada)
4.3 Working days lost to labour disputes (Canada)
5.1 Union membership density by selected characteristics (Australia)
7.1 Union delegate presence at the workplace level (France)
7.2 Results of national representativeness elections (France)
8.1 Works councils’ rights of participation (Germany)
8.2 Development of forms of nonstandard employment (Germany)
9.1 Collective agreement areas in the labour market (Denmark)
9.2 Confederations of unions’ membership (Denmark)
9.3 Collective bargaining agreement coverage in the labour market
(Denmark)

16
11.1 Indexes of employment relations (South Korea)
11.2 Number (%) of unions and union members by national centre
affiliation (South Korea)
11.3 Trends in labour–management pay proposals and contractual pay
increases (South Korea)
12.1 Employment statistics by ownership in urban and rural areas (China)
12.2 Enterprise union membership (China)
12.3 Number of labour disputes and settlements (China)
13.1 Membership of CTUOs (India)
13.2 Indicators of work stoppages (India)
13.3 Lockouts, workers involved in and WDL through lockouts, as
proportions (%) of total work stoppages (India)
13.4 Typology of employment relations reforms (India)
14.1 ILO core labour standards

BOXES
4.1 Two big unions join to form the largest national private sector union
(Canada)
4.2 BC Health Services: Supreme Court of Canada 2007 decision
7.1 New rules of bargaining at the workplace level (France)
7.2 Social dialogue at Generali France
12.1 Honda (Nanhai) strikes (China)

17
 Abbreviations
AC Akademikernes (Confederation of Professional Associations)
(Denmark)
ACAS Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service (UK)
ACCI Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry
ACFIC All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce
ACFTU All-China Federation of Trade Unions
ACTU Australian Council of Trade Unions
AFLCIO American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations
(US)
AGIRC Association generale des institutions de retraite des cadres (French
pension plan for senior management)
AICCTU All India Central Council of Trade Unions
AiG Australian Industry Group
AIOE All India Organisation of Employers
AIRC Australian Industrial Relations Commission
AITUC All India Trade Union Congress
AMG Army Military Government (Korea)
AMMA Australian Mines and Metals Association
ANI Accord national inter-professionnel (National Interprofessional
Agreement) (France)
ARAN Agenzia per la rappresentanza negoziale delle pubbliche
amministrazioni (Agency for Bargaining in the Public Administration)
(Italy)
ARPE Early Retirement for Jobs Scheme
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Assedic Association pour l’emploi dans l’industrie et le commerce (Association
for Employment in Industry and Trade) (France)
AWA Australian Workplace Agreement
BCA Business Council of Australia

18
BDA Bundesvereinigung der Deutschen Arbeitgeberverbande
(Confederation of German Employers’ Associations)
BIS Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (UK)
BJP Bharatiya Janata Party (India)
BMS Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (India)
CAI Confederation of Australian Industry
CANSIM Canadian Socio-Economic Information Management (Statistics
Canada)
CBI Confederation of British Industry (UK)
CCP Chinese Communist Party
CDU Christian Democratic Union (Germany)
CEC China Enterprise Confederation
CEDA China Enterprise Directors Association
CFDT Confederation Francaise democratique du travail (French Democratic
Confederation of Labour)
CFECGC Confederation Francaise de l’encadrement-Confederation generale des
cadres (French Confederation of Management-General Confederation
of Executives)
CFTC Confederation Francaise des travailleurs chretiens (French
Confederation of Christian Workers)
CGB Christlicher Gewerkschaftsbund (Confederation of Christian Unions)
(Germany)
CGIL Confederazione generale Italiana del lavoro (Italian General
Confederation of Labour)
CGPME Confederation generale des petites et moyennes entreprises (General
Confederation of Small and Medium Enterprises) (France)
CGT Confederation generale du travail (General Confederation of Labour)
(France)
CGTFO Confederation generale du travail-Force ouvriere (General
Confederation of LabourWorkers’ Force) (France)
CHSCT Comite d’hygiene, de securite et des conditions de travail (Health,
Safety and Improvement of Working Conditions Committee) (France)
CIE Council of Indian Employers
CIO Congress of Industrial Organizations (US)
CISL Confederazione Italiana sindacati dei lavoratori (Italian Confederation
of Workers’ Unions)
CITU Centre of Indian Trade Unions
CLC Canadian Labour Congress
CME Coordinated market economy

19
CNPF Conseil national du patronat Francais (National Council of French
Employers)
CO- Central Organisation of Industrial Employees in Denmark
industri (Centralorganisationen af industriansatte i Danmark)
CPI Communist Party of India
CPI(M) Communist Party of India (Marxist)
CSN Confederation des syndicats nationaux (Confederation of National
Trade Unions) (Canada)
CSU Christian Social Union (Germany)
CTUM Christian Trade Union Movement (Denmark)
CTUO Central Trade Union Organisation (India)
CTW Change to Win (US)
CWA Communications Workers of America
DA Dansk arbejdsgiverforening (Danish Employers’ Confederation)
DARES Direction de l’Animation de la Recherche, des études et des statistiques
(French Ministry of Labour department of research, studies and
statistics)
DBB Deutscher Beamtenbund (German Civil Service Association)
DGB Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (German Trade Union Federation)
DI Confederation of Industry (Denmark)
DPJ Democratic Party of Japan
EEA European Economic Area
EEC European Economic Community
EFI Employers’ Federation of India
EIP Employee involvement and participation
ERISA Employee Retirement Income Security Act (US)
ETUC European Trade Union Confederation
EU European Union
FA Finansektorens arbejdsgiverforening (Employers’ Association for the
Financial Sector) (Denmark)
FDP Free Democratic Party (Germany)
FIE Foreign invested enterprise
FIOM Federazione impiegati e operai metallurgici (Federation of
Metalworkers) (Italy)
FKTU Federation of Korean Trade Unions
FO Force ouvriere (a French union confederation)
FRG Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany)
FTF Confederation of Professionals in Denmark

20
FWC Fair Work Commission (Australia)
GDNP Gross domestic national product
GDP Gross domestic product
GDR German Democratic Republic (East Germany)
GHQ General Headquarters (Allied Powers in Japan)
GSC Global supply chain
GUF Global union federation
HR Human resources
HRM Human resource management
IAM International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers (US)
IFA International framework agreement
ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
INC Indian National Conference
INTUC Indian National Trade Union Congress
IOE International Organisation of Employers
IR Industrial relations
IT Information technology
ITUC International Trade Union Confederation
JCC Joint consultative committee
JLMC Joint labour–management committee
JSP Japan Socialist Party
KCCI Korean Chamber of Commerce and Industry
KCTU Korean Confederation of Trade Unions
KEF Korea Employers Federation
KFIU Korea Finance Industry Union
KHMWU Korea Health and Medical Workers Union
KL Local Government Denmark
KLUC Korean Labor Union Confederation
KMWU Korea Metal Workers Union
LDP Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)
LH Ledernes hovedorganisation (Organisation of Managerial and
Executive Staff) (Denmark)
LMC Labour–Management Council (Korea)
LME Liberal market economy
LO Landsorganisationen i Danmark (Danish Confederation of Trade
Unions)

21
LPF Labour Progressive Federation (India)
LPG Liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation
MEDEF Mouvement des entreprises de France (Movement of the Enterprises of
France)
MNE Multinational enterprise
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NCEUS National Commission on Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector (India)
NCL National Commission on Labour (India)
NDP New Democratic Party (Canada)
NES National Employment Standards (Australia)
NGO Non-government organisation
NLRA National Labor Relations Act (US)
NLRB National Labor Relations Board (US)
NMW National minimum wage
NSSO National Sample Survey Office (India)
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
ONS Office for National Statistics (UK)
PCF Parti communiste Francais (French Communist Party)
PCIRR Presidential Commission on Industrial Relations Reform (Korea)
PPP Purchasing power parity
PS Parti socialiste (Socialist Party) (France)
RSA Rappresentanze sindacali aziendali (workplace representation
structures of individual workers’ groups) (Italy)
RSU Rappresentanze sindacale unitaria (workplace
representation structures of all workers) (Italy)
SEIU Service Employees International Union (US)
SEWA Self Employed Women’s Association (India)
SEZ Special economic zone
SME Small and medium-sized enterprises
SOE State-owned enterprise
SPD Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (Social Democratic Party of
Germany)
TLC Trades and Labour Congress (Canada)
TUC Trades Union Congress (UK)
TUCC Trade Union Coordination Committee (India)
TULRAA Trade Union and Labour Relations Adjustment Act (Korea)
UAW United Automotive Workers (US)

22
UFCW United Food and Commercial Workers (US)
UIL Unione Italiana dei lavoratori (Italian Union of Labour)
UMP Union pour un mouvement populaire (Union for a Popular Movement)
(France)
UNEDIC- Union nationale interprofessionnelle pour l’emploi dans l’industrie et le
ASSEDIC commerce—Association pour l’emploi dans l’industrie et le commerce
(French unemployment insurance plan)
UNIRS Union Nationale de Interprofessionnelle de retraite des salaries (French
benefits plan for non-management employees)
UNSA Union nationale des syndicats autonomes (National Association of
Autonomous Unions) (France)
UPA Union professionnelle artisanale (Artisanal Professional Association)
(France)
USW United Steelworkers (US)
UTUC United Trade Union Congress (India)
VoC Varieties of Capitalism
VW Volkswagen
WDL Working days lost
WERS Workplace Employment Relations Survey (UK)
WTO World Trade Organization

23
 Preface
The changes taking place in the economy have far-reaching implications
for the world of work, and are renewing interest in the field of
international and comparative employment relations. This book examines
patterns and issues in employment relations in twelve significant
economies: the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia,
Italy, France, Germany, Denmark, Japan, South Korea, China and India,
providing interested readers with the background and understanding
necessary for them to compare employment relations policies and practices
across countries.
This sixth edition of the book is fully revised and updated, and includes
a new Introduction, which discusses the field of international and
comparative employment relations and reviews some of the main debates
in the field.
Acknowledged experts have written the country chapters. Each analyses
employment relations traditions and issues using a similar format, with an
examination of context—economic, historical, political, legal and social—
and the characteristics of the major interest groups—employers,
employees, unions and governments. This is followed by a concise
summary of the main process of employment relations in that country.
Each chapter concludes with a discussion of contemporary issues and
challenges, and a chronology of key events.
In this edition, there is a greater emphasis on the Varieties of Capitalism
(VoC) approach as a framework for understanding the similarities and
differences in employment relations between countries. The first chapter
introduces the VoC approach and considers its application to international
and comparative employment relations. The book contains several
chapters about countries from each of the main varieties of capitalism.
This enables readers to compare employment relations policies and
practices within and across different varieties. It also provides a basis for
considering how to characterise those countries that may not fit in the VoC
framework.

24
 The first four editions of the book included an appendix with
comparative statistics and commentary on employment relations and
relevant economics data. Instead of this, in subsequent editions we are
pleased to have included chapters on the large reemerging economies of
China and India. This was a more appropriate use of space because China
and India are so important and interesting. Moreover, recent statistical data
has become available on the internet. Examples of such sources are noted
in relation to Figure 1.1.
We are indebted to the large number of colleagues from many countries
who have kindly provided us with feedback on how they have used
previous editions in their courses and have made constructive suggestions.
The improvements in this edition reflect the feedback received. For
example, the publishers have allowed us to extend the book to include a
concluding chapter. Furthermore, at the end of each chapter, this edition
lists further reading and useful websites. In addition, there is also a more
extensive website hosted by Allen & Unwin and Sage, which includes
supplementary information, including discussion questions, that will help
readers when reflecting on each chapter.
In the new concluding chapter we reassess the VoC framework in light
of the evidence presented in the twelve country-specific chapters. While
these provide evidence that supports aspects of the VoC approach, they
also identify some of the limitations of this framework. We also examine
evidence of increased diversity within national patterns of employment
relations focusing on indicators of this trend, including the growth in
nonstandard employment, differences in employer preferences for
coordinating pay determination and other employment relations processes,
and the growth of outsourcing and off-shoring. In conclusion, we discuss
some of the ways in which international institutions and dimensions
influence national patterns of employment relations—for example, global
supply chains (GSCs), multinational enterprises (MNEs), global labour
activism, international framework agreements (IFAs) and the Decent Work
Agenda of the International Labour Organization (ILO). The concluding
chapter also considers influences of the European Union (EU) and of
United Nations agencies, including the ILO and the World Trade
Organization (WTO).
We have learnt a great deal from our readers, and recognise the
important role they have played in helping us to refine and improve this
book. We always welcome more feedback—for instance, on how you use
the book—which we can then share on the website.
Earlier English-language editions and the subsequent Japanese, Korean

25
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(10.) In case a patent or proprietary dip, especially an arsenical
dip, is used, the directions given on the package should be carried
out to the letter.

CHORIOPTIC MANGE, SYMBIOTIC MANGE, FOOT SCAB.

This disease was studied in Germany by Zürn in 1874, and by

Schleg in 1877. It has not yet been seen in France.
Causation. The sole cause is the presence of Chorioptes scabiei
(v. ovis). Contagion is favoured by the animals being in poor
condition. The disease extends very slowly. Only 2 to 3 per cent. of
the animals are affected, and the sufferers are usually those with fine
skins.
German shepherds consider this disease to be due to an excessive
allowance of salt, because it is most common during the winter,
when the sheep are housed. Needless to say, this theory is incorrect.
Symptoms. Sometimes this form of mange attacks the limbs and
develops very slowly. It commences about the pasterns, and
gradually extends upwards towards the knee or hock. It really
advances beyond these points. The parasites are much smaller than
those of common scab, and are often overlooked. The sheep stamp
their feet and scratch and bite the infected parts, sometimes
transferring the disease to the lips and face, where it may persist for
a time.
Fig. 262.—The left-hand figure shows the adult male parasite of chorioptic scabies
of the horse (the corresponding parasite of sheep is almost identical), ventral view.
The central figure shows the young female parasite of chorioptic scabies, ventral
view. The right-hand figure shows the adult female parasite of chorioptic scabies
with egg, ventral view. All × 100. (After Neumann.)

In very old standing cases which have been entirely neglected, it

may be met with in the region of the armpit and thigh, the limbs
becoming swollen so as to suggest lymphangitis. In the folds of the
hock and pastern the thickening of the skin may lead to the
formation of yellowish or brownish crusts, according to whether the
exudation is merely of a serous character or accompanied by
bleeding.
The diagnosis is easy. The parasites are found in the thickness of
the crusts, and are readily recognised under the microscope.
The prognosis is not grave, because of the comparative rarity of
the disease and its mildly contagious character. This disease,
moreover, never attacks the head or body, but remains localised in
the lower portions of the limbs.
Treatment. The crusts should be removed by washing or by
standing the animals for a time in warm water. Simple cleanliness
often suffices, but, to save time, some anti-parasitic may be used.
The condition is easily cured even without disinfecting the folds.
 MANGE IN THE OX.

Bovine animals may be attacked by three varieties of mange, all of

which have long been known.

SARCOPTIC MANGE.

This is not of any great clinical importance, as it is purely

accidental, and only results from the conveyance of sarcoptes from
other animals, such as the horse, sheep, dog, goat or cat, to an animal
of the bovine species. That the disease does occur, however, is shown
by the following excerpt from a report by Professor McFadyean: The
animal showed no symptom of skin disease at the time of purchase,
but soon after it was brought home it was noticed to be rubbing, and
the skin began to assume an unhealthy appearance. When seen in
January (four months after purchase) it was rather poor, although it
had been in very good condition when sold. Almost the entire skin
had become affected, including that of the legs down to the top of the
hoofs. There had been extensive loss of hair, and the skin was thick,
grey, wrinkled, and dry. At some places it had become thrown into
thick folds. Only a few scabs or crusts had formed where the animal
had recently rubbed itself. In some scurf scraped from what seemed
to be the parts most recently invaded, numbers of acari were without
much difficulty found with the microscope.
A good many cases of mange of undetermined character have been
reported as occurring among cattle in various parts of England
during the last year or two, and in a number of instances the disease
was believed to have been contracted during exhibition at a show. It
is not improbable that some or all of these were cases of this
sarcoptic mange, and in view of its very contagious character it is
desirable that care should be taken to exclude from shows animals
exhibiting any symptom of the disease.

PSOROPTIC MANGE.

This condition has also been termed dermatodectic mange. This is

very rare, and, like the former, of trifling clinical importance.
 Causation. It is due to infection with Psoroptes communis (v.
bovis). Poor condition, want of grooming, bad hygienic surroundings
and general neglect, facilitate its spread.
Symptoms. It commences at the base of the neck, in rarer cases
at the sides of the neck, along the withers, and at the root of the tail;
thence it gradually attacks the croup, loins, back, shoulders, sides of
the chest, and finally all the body with the exception of the limbs.
It produces violent itching, the animal continually scratching itself,
even causing raw sores. At first the epidermis is elevated in little
miliary points, which may be isolated or confluent, and are filled
with serosity. This fluid discharges, gluing together the hairs; it then
hardens and produces adherent crusts, which increase in number
and size. The skin exhibits large numbers of bare, mangy points;
these have irregular margins, and are covered with thick, grey, scaly
crusts. The psoroptes are found under these crusts.
The skin becomes hard, dry, fissured and cracked, and sometimes
forms large folds on the sides of the neck, shoulders and chest.
The influence of the seasons on the development of this disease
has been well shown by Gerlach and Muller. The disease commences
about the end of autumn, when the animals are stabled. It continues
to extend until February, but diminishes as soon as the animals
return to the fields in spring. The crusts fall, the hair again grows,
and the animal appears to be cured, but the disease again revives
during the autumn. The psoroptes lie hidden during the summer
round the poll and the horns. The disease seldom attacks animals at
grass and in good condition, or those over three years old. Calves,
yearlings, and two-year-olds in poor condition suffer most.
When the disease is very extensive, the animals lose condition and
may even die.
Diagnosis. Psoroptic mange in the ox may be mistaken for
several cutaneous diseases, to which it has a certain resemblance, as
for instance phthiriasis and the first stage of ringworm.
These different diseases, however, show their own distinctive
symptoms on a careful examination.
The prognosis only becomes grave when the disease has been
neglected and the animals are greatly reduced in condition. When
recent, this form of mange can readily be cured by the application of
parasiticides.
Treatment. As in dealing with all transmissible diseases, the
animals must be isolated and washed with soap, and the diseased
parts must be dressed with some parasiticide, such as sulphur
ointment. The best preparations are: Benzine and petroleum in equal
quantities; concentrated solution of sulphuret of potassium (8
ounces to the quart); Helmerich’s ointment; diluted creolin solution;
decoctions of tobacco; ointment of pentasulphuret of potassium, and
oil of cevadilla.
One or two applications are generally sufficient to effect a cure,
and relapses are not likely to take place if the stable is disinfected. In
America the disease is common in the West and North-West, where
it is treated by the lime-and-sulphur bath recommended for sheep
scab (which see). Large vats are constructed, and the oxen are
lowered into these by means of a wooden cage controlled by
machinery, which is operated either by a small engine or more
frequently by a horse.
The food should be of good quality, for good general health plays a
great part in resisting parasitic invasions.

CHORIOPTIC MANGE.

This disease has also been termed dermatophagic and symbiotic

mange.
It was first described in 1835 by Kégélaar, and has been the subject
of investigation by Hering, Gerlach, Delafond, and Mégnin.
Causation. It is produced by the Chorioptes bovis, and is
transferred with difficulty, even by cohabitation.
Symptoms. This form of mange in the ox does not affect the
same parts as in other animals. In the horse, etc., it attacks the limbs,
whilst in the bovine species it is usually found at the base of the tail.
It causes slight itching. The diseased region becomes covered with
numerous little pellicles, the hairs gradually fall, crusts form, and the
skin shows deep cracks. When the disease is completely neglected, it
may extend to the loins, back, sides of the body and shoulders. It
may also affect the perineal region, the inner surface of the thighs,
and in fact the whole of the body if the animals are young and in poor
condition.
Diagnosis. At the outset it is difficult to distinguish between
chorioptic and psoroptic mange, and the use of the microscope is
necessary. On a superficial examination chorioptic mange may be
mistaken for phthiriasis when the latter attacks the posterior
portions of the body, particularly the base of the tail, and when it is
accompanied by eruptions, loss of hair, and intense itching.
The distinction between the two conditions, however, is extremely
easy after an examination of the two parasites.
Prognosis. The disease is of slight gravity, and does not threaten
the animal’s health unless neglected for so long a time that the
parasites invade all parts of the body. In that case the disease may
cause anæmia and loss of condition.
The treatment of this form of mange comprises nothing special,
it being sufficient to proceed as directed in the previous article.
The stables ought always to be thoroughly disinfected.

MANGE IN THE GOAT.

The goat suffers from the attacks of sarcoptes, psoroptes, and

chorioptes, but up to the present time only two forms of mange have
been described, sarcoptic and chorioptic mange.
Psoroptes have only been found about the eye, where the
disturbance they produce is comparatively trifling.

SARCOPTIC MANGE.

This disease was noticed in 1818 in goats imported into France

from Thibet.
Henderson published the history of a Persian goat which conveyed
sarcoptic mange to men and horses. In 1851 Walraff noticed an
epizootic mange which attacked the goats in the Prattigau valley of
Switzerland, which was transmitted to men and sheep and which
exhibited the clinical characters of sarcoptic mange.
 Causation. This disease is due to the presence of Sarcoptes
scabiei (v. capræ).
It sometimes occurs in an epizootic form, as Walraff’s observations
show, but it seems specially to attack goats in Asia and Africa.
This mange may be transmitted by the goat to sheep, in which
animals it attacks the head and muzzle; it is particularly contagious
in sheep having coarse, dry fleeces.
Similarly sarcoptic mange of sheep may be conveyed to the goat, in
which animal it extends all over the body.
Symptoms. This mange causes intense itching. It first attacks the
head and ears, then the trunk, belly, udder, and limbs. If the disease
is neglected it becomes generalised very rapidly, and the animals
waste away and die in a very short time.
At the commencement little crusts, which discharge a viscous
liquid, are found about the head. The goats rub themselves raw, and,
as in facial mange of sheep, there appear dry, scaly, branlike patches.
After a time the diseased area extends, the wool falls, and the skin
becomes dry, thick and wrinkled. The appearance is exactly like that
of sarcoptic mange in sheep, the lower part of the head being seldom
invaded. The animals lose condition, waste and die of exhaustion.
Diagnosis. The parasite is readily recognised, and the
practitioner, moreover, is often put on his guard by the epizootic
character assumed by the disease.
The prognosis is grave. Walraff declared the mortality in Grisons
(Switzerland) to be as high as 20 per cent.
The treatment is identical with that of psoroptic mange in sheep.
After the animals have been sheared and washed with soap, they
should be completely immersed in a bath of the character mentioned
in connection with sheep scab. If only one animal is infected, it may
be sufficient to dress it repeatedly with an ointment containing some
parasiticide.

CHORIOPTIC MANGE.

This form of mange was noted by Delafond in 1854 at the Jardin

des Plantes (Paris) in some angora goats, and by Mollereau in 1889.
The disease studied by Delafond had invaded both sides of the neck,
the eyes, withers, back, loins, and base of the tail. It was
characterised by partial loss of hair, the finer hair falling and the
coarser remaining in position.
In Mollereau’s case the disease was located in one of the hind
pasterns, and assumed the form of a thickened band, which
produced an œdematous swelling. The chorioptes were discovered in
a thick crust formed by the drying on the hair of the discharge due to
their punctures.
Diagnosis. The parasites can easily be found under the crusts,
and, once recognised, distinguish the disease from any other
infection.
Treatment. Ointments containing some parasiticide and
solutions of sulphuret of potassium generally suffice, the disease
having little tendency to become generalised.

MANGE IN THE PIG.

The pig suffers from one variety only of mange. It was described by
Viborg, Gürlt and Spinola, who found a sarcopt in the mange of wild
boars in 1847. Hertwig and Gerlach made a similar observation some
years later. Delafond in 1857 discovered the sarcopt of mange in the
pig.
Causation. Sarcoptic mange in the pig is due to the presence of
Sarcoptes scabiei (v. suis), although the pig may contract
(temporarily) the sarcoptic mange of goats.
Contagion is favoured by poor condition, over-crowding, dirt and
bad hygienic surroundings.
The primitive races of pigs resist the disease better than the
improved races. This mange can be conveyed to man and to other
animals.
Symptoms. It usually commences about the head, ears, and eyes,
and extends to the quarters, internal surface of the thighs, etc. In the
early phases it is impossible to discover the little galleries under the
epidermis, but closely placed reddish papules may be seen. The
active proliferation of the epidermis, together with discharge, causes
the formation of dry crusts of a greyish-white, silvery tint, adherent
while still thin, easy to detach at a later stage, and sometimes ⅜ of
an inch in thickness. The skin becomes wrinkled, the bristles are
shed or loosened in their follicles, and are glued together in little
bunches before falling. As these patches extend over the whole
surface of the body, the animal appears to be bespattered with dry
guano (Muller).
Under the crusts the skin is rough, excoriated, and, about the
thorax and abdomen, is indurated, and sometimes measures 1 to 1½
inches in thickness. In other parts, particularly at the base of the
ears, the papillæ are hypertrophied; they become as large as a pea, or
even a bean, and, lifting the crusts which cover them, assume the
appearance of the warts sometimes found on the cheeks of dogs or
the teats of cows. Sarcoptes may be found under these epidermic
growths, though in order to obtain them the skin must be scraped
until it almost bleeds.
The dimensions of these parasites render them visible to the naked
eye. They are the largest variety of the sarcoptinæ, the egg-bearing
female being half a millimètre in length. Guzzoni has found in the
ears specimens of smaller size.
Mange in pigs develops slowly. When it affects the whole body, it
prevents fattening and causes loss of condition.
Diagnosis. This is the only parasitic disease which affects the
entire surface of the body and presents these peculiar powdery
crusts.
Treatment. All the styes should first be carefully disinfected.
Treatment is commenced by vigorously scrubbing the animal with a
brush dipped in soap and water, and thus getting rid of the crusts as
far as possible.
The animals are afterwards dressed with decoctions of tobacco,
with Helmerich’s ointment, or the other mixtures above mentioned.

DEMODECIC MANGE.

This mange is produced by parasites of the family Demodecidæ

(Demodex folliculorum), which live in the hair follicles and
sebaceous glands of several species of mammals.

DEMODECIC MANGE IN THE OX.

This was described in 1845 by Gros, and in 1878 was found by

Faxon in Illinois in the skins of cows prepared for tanning. It has not
been met with in France. The skins examined by Faxon showed
numerous rounded enlargements, resulting from dilatation of the
hair follicles in the regions of the neck and shoulders.
By pressing on these enlargements a whitish, greasy, sebaceous
material was ejected, very rich in demodectes.

DEMODECIC MANGE IN THE GOAT.

This was first noticed by

Niederhaüsern, at the
Bern Veterinary College,
in a goat which showed
little nodosities over
different parts of the
trunk, varying in size
between that of a pea and
that of a hazel-nut. By
forcibly compressing these
enlargements a yellowish-
grey semi-solid material,
containing a considerable
number of demodectes,
was caused to exude.
In 1885 Nocard and
Railliet found the same
parasite in a young he-
goat; the pustules were
spread over the sides and
flank. Treatment
consists in opening the
pustules and dressing
Fig. 263.—Demodex of the pig, them a few times with an
magnified 250 diameters. (After anti-parasitic lotion.
Railliet.)
DEMODECIC MANGE IN THE
PIG.

This was well described for the first time by Csokor. It was
afterwards seen by Neumann and Lindqvist.
The isolated pustules are of the size of a grain of sand, but when
confluent may reach the size of a hazel-nut. They are sometimes dark
in colour, often deep-seated, are surrounded by a zone of
inflammation, and appear in places where the skin is fine (the groin,
neck, belly, etc.). The demodex becomes lodged and multiplies, not
in the hair follicles, but in the sebaceous glands. Csokor regarded this
disease as contagious; in a herd of one hundred he found twenty-two
pigs affected with it. Lindqvist, however, found but one case in a herd
of two hundred.

NON-PSOROPTIC FORMS OF ACARIASIS.

These are produced in farm animals by arachnide belonging to the

families of Trombidiidæ and Ixodidæ.
(1.) The Leptus autumnalis is considered to be the larva of the
Trombidium Holoscriceum, or silky trombidion. It lives in late
summer and autumn, in the grass.
Symptoms. The animals show intense itching, and cannot sleep
owing to burning sensations. They continually rub themselves, and
thus, secondarily, produce excoriated papules and patches
resembling those of eczema. When the papules are very numerous,
particularly if the animals are thin-skinned, more or less extensive
erythema may be produced.
At the points attacked the skin swells, becomes red, and
sometimes even violet, and exhibits irregular, isolated or confluent
swellings, ¼ to ⅜ of an inch in diameter.
The parasite most commonly becomes fixed round the lips, the
forehead, the cheeks, the sides of the neck, and the extremities.
 The diagnosis is easy, the discovery of the parasite removing all
doubt.
The condition is of slight importance. The parasites do not live for
more than a few days on the animal’s skin, so that they only produce
temporary disturbance.
Treatment consists in bathing the parts with some lotion, such as
2 to 3 per cent. creolin or 2 per cent. chloral, or in applying mixtures
of oil and petroleum, etc.
(2.) Ixodes hexagonus, I. ricinus, and other species of the tick
family (Ixodidæ) attack sheep, goats, and oxen in France.
Symptoms. In sheep the ixodidæ usually affix themselves at
points where the skin is tender and unprotected by wool, as for
instance the thighs, armpit, and upper part of the neck. Their bites
produce irritation, followed by an intense burning sensation, and the
formation of a red blush round the point bitten.
In the ox the ticks fasten on the neck, behind and within the ears,
and also wherever the skin is tender. Until the last few years little
importance was attached to their development, but since it has been
proved that Rhipicephalus annulatus is the active factor in
desseminating Texas fever, ticks have attracted much attention.
It seems, moreover, to be proved by the researches of Lignières
that a form of piroplasmosis exists in France, and it seems possible
that the Ixodes ricinus may be a means of propagation.
The diagnosis of acariasis produced by ticks is easy, for the
parasites attain large dimensions.
Prognosis. It is difficult at present to say what importance should
be attached to this form of acariasis, but its existence and possible
consequences should be noted.
Treatment. Some authors have recommended killing the ticks by
touching them with benzine, petroleum, essence of turpentine, etc.,
but these methods do not always succeed. Applications of
concentrated solution of chloral are more effective. When the
parasites are so large as to render this possible it is better to remove
them by hand, taking care at the same time to remove the rostrum,
which, if left in place, might cause more or less suppuration. In
countries where ticks are numerous and large numbers of cattle are
infested, the parasites are destroyed by smearing and dipping.
Fig. 264.—Ixodes ricinus. (After Railliet.) A, Natural size; B, ventral surface; C,
dorsal surface.

(The cattle ticks of America are of especial importance in relation

to the disease known as Texas fever. Those who wish to study the
entomology of this subject are referred to the masterly account and
fine coloured illustrations of Salmon and Stiles, “Cattle Ticks of the
United States,” Ann. Rep. U.S.A. Bureau of Agriculture, 1900, p.
380.)

HYPODERMOSIS IN THE OX (WARBLES).

Causation. This is a parasitic disease characterised by

subcutaneous swellings due to the presence of larvæ of the
Hypoderma bovis. The larva is met with throughout Europe. It
attains the perfect stage during the summer, from the middle of June
to the commencement of September.
The female deposits her eggs on animals with fine skins. These
eggs are elliptical, and provided with a kind of tail of a brownish
colour. They soon become converted into larvæ, provided with rows
of little spines.
The manner in which the eggs are laid is not exactly understood,
nor are we better informed regarding the hatching of the young
larvæ. Until recently it was believed that the larva perforated the skin
as soon as it quitted the egg, and then penetrated as far as the
subcutaneous connective tissue. Recent observations, however, have
upset this view. It is probable that this larva, like other gastrophili, is
swallowed by animals of the bovine species, and passes through the
intestine into the surrounding tissues by a path which is yet
unknown, possibly by the blood-vessels, whence it makes its way
after a longer or shorter interval into the subcutaneous connective
tissue.

Fig. 265.—A, Hypoderma bovis, natural size. B, larva of the hypoderma escaping
from a “warble.” (After Railliet.)

Certain recent observations seem to support the latter view, which

is also corroborated by known facts regarding hypodermic myiosis in
man. The eggs are laid in summer, and the swellings indicating the
presence of the larvæ only appear during the winter. Henrichsen
found young larvæ in the fatty tissue situated between the
periosteum and spinal dura mater, between the period from
December to March.
Symptoms. Whatever the mode of development of the larvæ,
cutaneous swellings appear between the months of February and
March on the back, lumbar region, quarters, shoulders and ribs, and,
less frequently, over the chest, belly and thighs.
They vary in number. Commonly there are from ten to twenty, and
it is only in rare cases that less than four or five are found. As soon as
they attain the subcutaneous connective tissue they act as foreign
bodies, causing a circumscribed inflammation, and finally
suppuration. In this way the so-called “warbles” are produced.
Each larva is surrounded by a thick wall, forming a cavity, which
communicates with the outer air by a minute aperture.
When the swelling is sufficiently advanced the larva may be
extricated by pressing with the fingers around the base of the warble.
A few days before it leaves its shelter the larva enlarges the little
opening by thrusting its last rings into it. Soon after the larva has
escaped the discharge of pus ceases, and the skin wound heals.
Diagnosis. The times at which the swellings appear and the larvæ
are present render the diagnosis easy.
Prognosis. This is seldom grave, for the larvæ rarely cause death.
In cases where they are present in very large numbers, however, they
may set up purulent infection.
Treatment. No really effective treatment against warbles is
known. Curative treatment consists in squeezing out or killing the
larvæ when in the subcutaneous tissue, but this is practically useless,
as the dead larvæ then set up prolonged suppuration.
 CHAPTER III.
RINGWORM.

The old term “ringworm” is still used to indicate a well-marked

skin disease due to parasitic fungi which grow at the expense of the
epidermis. Other names, such as dermatophytis and epidermophytis,
have been suggested, to indicate the mode in which the parasite
grows. The term dermatomycosis suggests a cutaneous vegetable
parasite.
The dermatomycoses of the domestic animals are caused by fungi
belonging to six distinct genera:—
Trichophyton (horse, ass, ox, dog, pig); Eidamella (dog);
Microsporum (horse, dog); Achorion (dog); Lophophyton (fowl);
Oospora (dog).
Ringworm is common in animals of the bovine species, but very
rare in other domesticated animals, except, perhaps, the horse. It is
caused by the growth of a parasite, Trichophyton mentagrophytes
(Robin), of the genus Trichophyton, family Gymnoascea, order
Ascomycetes.
The ascosporaceous form of reproduction is still unknown, but the
mode of reproduction by conidia is characteristic. In cultures the
mycelium is represented by growing filaments branching off at right
angles, and by separate superficial aerial reproductive filaments of
the conidian form. There is some reason for believing that these
fungi may lead a saprophytic as well as a parasitic existence, i.e., that
they can exist and multiply apart from the animal body.
Their vitality is marked. Various experimenters have transmitted
the disease with crusts kept for eighteen months. Thin declares that
in two and a half years the spores had lost all power of germination.
They resisted immersion in water for two days, but were dead after
eight days. Soft soap and 1 per cent. acetic acid kill them in an hour.
Symptoms. The disease most frequently attacks young animals
and milch cows—very rarely adults or old animals. This peculiarity is
very difficult to explain.
In calves, ringworm seems specially to attack the head, the
neighbourhood of the lips, the nostrils and submaxillary region, as
well as the throat and neck. It assumes the form of circular patches,
over which the hair stands erect.
Gruby in 1842 discovered the parasite of tinea tonsurans, or
herpes, and thus proved that the cutaneous lesions were not due to
any constitutional condition, as was long thought, although dirt, bad
hygienic conditions, and crowded stables favoured the spread of
ringworm.
Direct contact
between healthy and
diseased animals and
the transport of
spores, by combs,
brushes, etc., favour
contagion. The
disease may not only
be conveyed from one
animal to another of
the same species, but
from the ox to man,
and, with somewhat
greater difficulty,
from the ox to the
horse. Cases of
transmission from the
ox to the sheep, pig,
and dog have also
been recorded.
Mégnin in 1890
attempted to prove
Fig. 266.—Calf suffering from ringworm. that all the
trichophytons
producing ringworm
in animals do not belong to the same species, and gave the name of
Trichophyton epilans to that usually found in the ox, because it
causes absolute loss of the hair by growing in the follicle, whilst he
named the parasite found in the horse Trichophyton tonsurans,
because it only grows on the surface of the skin and in the thickness
of the hair, without causing inflammation of the hair follicle and
without invading it.
The epidermis soon undergoes proliferation, and becomes covered
with crusts, which adhere to the hairs, gluing them together, and
finally causing them to be shed, leaving bare patches the size of a
shilling or a florin. The lesion extends in an ever-widening circle,
until it attains, perhaps, the dimensions of a five-shilling piece or
more.
The affected hairs break off level with the free surface of the skin,
rendering the patches more apparent. White hairs are less affected,
and some always remain projecting above the crusts, causing the
patches, when on a white skin, to retain a certain amount of
covering.
At first the crust is closely adherent to the skin, and, if forcibly
detached, exposes the dermis, which is swollen and bleeding.
Gradually the centre becomes detached, whilst the periphery,
representing a more recent lesion, continues to adhere. The crusts
then rest on a thin layer of pus, and the dermis, whilst still inflamed,
is punctuated with numerous minute apertures, representing the
roots of the detached hairs. The pus lifts the crust; gradually it dries
up and forms superposed layers, which may or may not prove
adherent to the parasitic products, and which form a new crust. The
latter is purely inflammatory in character, and is left after the fall of
the first. It no longer contains any parasites, at least within its deeper
layers.
This second crust dries up in its turn, falls away or breaks up,
leaving a smooth spot, over which the hairs again appear, either at
once, or at least after a short period of desquamation.
The disease is accompanied by well-marked pruritus, more
marked at the commencement and towards the end than during the
intermediate period, but, nevertheless, much less acute than in
scabies.
Ringworm may undergo spontaneous cure in from six weeks to
three months. It is more obstinate in calves than in adults, and the
want of grooming tends to increase its duration. If it extends over a
large part of the body the disease may seriously affect the animal’s
health, and the cases described by Macorps prove that where
pruritus is violent it seriously affects the animal’s general condition.
The patches may finally become confluent and the disease extend
over the whole of the neck, shoulder and back, or it may attack the
entire body, leaving it practically hairless.
When the hair has been shed, the crusts and discharge seen at the
outset disappear, and the bare spots are covered with a scaly coating,
due to excessive production of epidermic cells.
According to Gerlach, such crusts are thicker where the skin is
black, and often exhibit a greyish-white, fibrous, starchy appearance.
On unpigmented portions of the skin, which are usually thinner, the
crust is less dense, and is slightly yellowish. Gerlach failed to
reinoculate the bare patches of skin left after a primary eruption of
ringworm. Where the hair had again grown an eruption could again
be produced, though it was usually of a feeble character.
In a second form of the disease, the spots may be of very small
dimensions. The hair falls away, but there is no exudative
inflammation, and no formation of crusts. In this second form the
animals simply show characteristic circular bare spots about the
head, neck, or shoulders.
Causation. The disease is due to the growth of germs on the skin
of animals which are in a receptive condition. The parasite thereafter
develops in the hairs, the hair follicles and the epidermis, causing
lesions which vary according to the species.
At the present time three groups of ringworm are recognised as
occurring on animals, Trichophytic, Microsporous, and Favus.
Clinically the trichophytons are divided into the T. ectothrix, which
lives outside the hair, and both outside and inside the hair follicles;
T. endothrix, which penetrates the thickness of the hair itself,
rendering it brittle and easily destroyed; and T. endo-ectothrix,
which both surrounds and invades the hair.
The study of artificial growths of these fungi will probably afford
valuable information on the above points. In the ox the particular
parasite is invariably the Trichophyton mentagrophytes, whatever
may be the characteristics of the clinical lesion.
In France ringworm is particularly common in Auvergne and
Normandy, where hygienic precautions are neglected, but cases may
also be found throughout the country.
After affecting cows throughout the winter, the disease often
disappears in the spring. Throughout the winter cows are kept in
dark and often filthy sheds, where the parasite propagates rapidly,
whilst in spring they are sent to grass, where the conditions are
inimical to contagion.
Diagnosis. The diagnosis of ringworm seldom presents any
difficulty. The appearance of the lesions (Fig. 266), their particular
tendency to spread and contagious character, facilitate the diagnosis.
They entirely differ from those of eczema or mange, and should any
doubt exist, the slightest microscopic examination is sufficient to
dissipate it. In ringworm in the ox the base of the hairs is covered
with enormous numbers of spore chains, which do not extend into
the depths.
To detect the parasites it is best to shave off a thin fragment of skin
from the periphery of the patch, place it on a slide with a drop or two
of 30 per cent. caustic potash solution, and heat it for a few seconds
almost to boiling point. By applying a cover glass with firm pressure
the epidermal cells are spread out and the parasites can be seen,
especially around the roots of the hairs. Sometimes they form little
dirty-yellow masses, consisting almost exclusively of spores.
When ringworm has attacked the entire surface of the body, it is
much more difficult to distinguish from sebaceous eczema, and a
microscopic examination or experimental inoculation may become
necessary. Inoculation with ringworm material always succeeds with
calves.
Prognosis. Ringworm is not dangerous in itself. In time it may
disappear spontaneously, but when it extends over the whole body it
may be dangerous. Owing to their bare condition the animals easily
catch cold, while the epidermic proliferation is very great, and makes
great demands on the animal’s bodily powers. Under such
circumstances it is better to slaughter early.
Spontaneous recovery from small lesions may occur in two or
three months.
Treatment. The patients should be isolated, and any brushes,
combs, etc., with which they have been in contact must be
disinfected.