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This International Student Edition is for use outside of the U.S.

Statics
and Mechanics
of Materials
Third Edition

Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf
David F. Mazurek
 Contents vii

8 Concept of Stress 360

Introduction 361
8.1 Stresses in the Members of a Structure 361
8.2 Stress on an Oblique Plane Under Axial Loading 382
8.3 Stress Under General Loading Conditions;
Components of Stress 383
8.4 Design Considerations 386
Review and Summary 404
Review Problems 407

9 Stress and Strain—Axial Loading 411

Introduction 412
9.1 Basic Principles of Stress and Strain 413
9.2 Statically Indeterminate Problems 433
9.3 Problems Involving Temperature Changes 437
9.4 Poisson’s Ratio 452
9.5 Multiaxial Loading: Generalized Hooke’s Law 453
9.6 Shearing Strain 455
*9.7 Deformations Under Axial Loading—Relation
Between E, ν, and G 458
9.8 Stress and Strain Distribution Under Axial Loading:
Saint-Venant’s Principle 466
9.9 Stress Concentrations 468
Review and Summary 472
Review Problems 478

10 Torsion 481
Introduction 482
10.1 Circular Shafts in Torsion 483
10.2 Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range 502
10.3 Statically Indeterminate Shafts 505
Review and Summary 518
Review Problems 521
viii Contents

11 Pure Bending 524

Introduction 525
11.1 Symmetric Members in Pure Bending 527
11.2 Stresses and Deformations in the Elastic Range 531
11.3 Members Made of Composite Materials 548
11.4 Eccentric Axial Loading in a Plane of Symmetry 559
11.5 Unsymmetric Bending Analysis 569
11.6 General Case of Eccentric Axial Loading Analysis 574
Review and Summary 582
Review Problems 585

12 Analysis and Design of Beams

for Bending 588
Introduction 589
12.1 Shear and Bending-Moment Diagrams 591
12.2 Relationships Between Load, Shear, and
Bending Moment 603
12.3 Design of Prismatic Beams for Bending 617
Review and Summary 627
Review Problems 629

13 Shearing Stresses in Beams and

Thin-Walled Members 631
Introduction 632
13.1 Horizontal Shearing Stress in Beams 634
13.2 Longitudinal Shear on a Beam Element
of Arbitrary Shape 648
13.3 Shearing Stresses in Thin-Walled Members 650
Review and Summary 664
Review Problems 667

14 Transformations of Stress 669

Introduction 670
14.1 Transformation of Plane Stress 672
14.2 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress 684
 Contents ix
14.3 Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels 694
Review and Summary 705
Review Problems 708

15 Deflection of Beams 710

Introduction 711
15.1 Deformation Under Transverse Loading 713
15.2 Statically Indeterminate Beams 722
15.3 Method of Superposition 738
Review and Summary 750
Review Problems 753

16 Columns 756
Introduction 757
16.1 Stability of Structures 757
16.2 Centric Load Design 777
Review and Summary 793
Review Problems 794

Appendices A1
A Reactions at Supports and Connections A2
B Centroids and Moments of Inertia of Common Geometric
Shapes A4
C Typical Properties of Selected Materials Used in
Engineering A6
D Properties of Rolled-Steel Shapes A10
E Beam Deflections and Slopes A22

Index I1
Answers to Problems AN1

*Advanced or specialty topics

 Preface
Objectives
The main objective of a basic mechanics course should be to develop in
the engineering student the ability to analyze a given problem in a simple
and logical manner and to apply to its solution a few fundamental and
well-understood principles. This text is designed for a course that combines
statics and mechanics of materials—or strength of materials—offered to
engineering students in the sophomore year.

General Approach
In this text, the study of statics and mechanics of materials is based on the
understanding of a few basic concepts and on the use of simplified models.
This approach makes it possible to develop all the necessary formulas in a
rational and logical manner, and to clearly indicate the conditions under which
they can be safely applied to the analysis and design of actual engineering
structures and machine components.

Practical Applications Are Introduced Early. One of the characteristics

of the approach used in this text is that mechanics of particles is clearly separated
from the mechanics of rigid bodies. This approach makes it possible to consider
simple, practical applications at an early stage and to postpone the introduction
of the more difficult concepts. As an example, statics of particles is treated first
(Chap. 2); after the rules of addition and subtraction of vectors are introduced,
the principle of equilibrium of a particle is immediately applied to practical situ-
ations involving only concurrent forces. The statics of rigid bodies is considered
in Chaps. 3 and 4. In Chap. 3, the vector and scalar products of two vectors are
introduced and used to define the moment of a force about a point and about an
axis. The presentation of these new concepts is followed by a thorough and
rigorous discussion of equivalent systems of forces, leading, in Chap. 4, to many
practical applications involving the equilibrium of rigid bodies under general
force systems.

New Concepts Are Introduced in Simple Terms. Because this text

is designed for the first course in mechanics, new concepts are presented in
simple terms and every step is explained in detail. On the other hand, by
discussing the broader aspects of the problems considered and by stressing
methods of general applicability, a definite maturity of approach is achieved.
For example, the concepts of partial constraints and statical indeterminacy are
introduced early and are used throughout.

Fundamental Principles Are Placed in the Context of Simple

Applications. The fact that mechanics is essentially a deductive science
based on a few fundamental principles is stressed. Derivations have been
presented in their logical sequence and with all the rigor warranted at this
level. However, the learning process being largely inductive, simple applica-
tions are considered first.

x
 Preface xi
As an example, the statics of particles precedes the statics of rigid bodies,
and problems involving internal forces are postponed until Chap. 6. In Chap. 4,
equilibrium problems involving only coplanar forces are considered first and
solved by ordinary algebra, while problems involving three-dimensional forces
and requiring the full use of vector algebra are discussed in the second part of
the chapter.
The first four chapters treating mechanics of materials (Chaps. 8, 9, 10,
and 11) are devoted to the analysis of the stresses and of the corresponding
deformations in various structural members, considering successively axial load-
ing, torsion, and pure bending. The remaining five chapters (12 through 16)
expand on what is learned in Chaps. 8 through 11. Chapter 12 begins with a
discussion of the shear and bending-moment diagrams and then addresses the
design of beams based on the allowable normal stress in the material used.
The determination of the shearing stress in beams and thin-walled members
under transverse loadings is covered in Chap. 13. Chapter 14 is devoted to the
transformation of stresses and design of thin-walled pressure vessels. The
determination of deflections in beams is presented in Chap. 15. Chapter 16,
which treats columns, contains material on the design of steel, aluminum, and
wood columns.
Each analysis is based on a few basic concepts, namely, the conditions
of equilibrium of the forces exerted on the member, the relations existing
between stress and strain in the material, and the conditions imposed by the
supports and loading of the member. The study of each type of loading is
complemented by a large number of examples, sample problems, and prob-
lems to be assigned, all designed to strengthen the students’ understanding of
the subject.
The material presented in the text and most of the problems require no
previous mathematical knowledge beyond algebra, trigonometry, and elemen-
tary calculus; all the elements of vector algebra necessary to the understanding
of mechanics are carefully presented in Chaps. 2 and 3. In general, a greater
emphasis is placed on the correct understanding of the basic mathematical con-
cepts involved than on the nimble manipulation of mathematical formulas. In
this connection, it should be mentioned that the determination of the centroids
of composite areas precedes the calculation of centroids by integration, thus
making it possible to establish the concept of the moment of an area firmly
before introducing the use of integration.

Free-Body Diagrams Are Used Extensively. Throughout the text,

free-body diagrams are used to determine external or internal forces. The use
of “picture equations” will also help the students understand the superposition
of loadings and the resulting stresses and deformations.

Design Concepts Are Discussed Throughout the Text Whenever

Appropriate. A discussion of the application of the factor of safety to
design can be found in Chap. 8, where the concept of allowable stress design
is presented.

The SMART Problem-Solving Methodology Is Employed. Students

are presented with the SMART approach for solving engineering problems,
whose acronym reflects the solution steps of Strategy, Modeling, Analysis, and
Reflect and Think. This methodology is used in all Sample Problems, and it
is intended that s­ tudents will apply this in the solution of all assigned problems.
xii Preface

Case Studies. The principles developed in this text are used extensively in
engineering applications, particularly for design as well as for the analysis of
failures. Much can be learned from the historical successes and failures of past
design, and unique insight can be gained by studying how engineers developed
different products and structures. To this end, real-world Case Studies have
been introduced in the text to provide relevancy and application to the prin-
ciples of engineering mechanics being discussed. These are developed using
the SMART problem-solving methodology to present the story behind each
Case Study, as well as to analyze some aspects of the situation.

A Careful Balance Between SI and U.S. Customary Units Is

­ onsistently Maintained. Because it is essential that students be able to
C
handle effectively both SI metric units and U.S. customary units, half the exam-
ples, sample problems, and problems to be assigned have been stated in SI units
and half in U.S. customary units. Because a large number of problems are
available, instructors can assign problems using each system of units in whatever
proportion they find most desirable for their class.
It also should be recognized that using both SI and U.S. customary units
entails more than the use of conversion factors. Because the SI system of units
is an absolute system based on the units of time, length, and mass, whereas
the U.S. customary system is a gravitational system based on the units of time,
length, and force, d­ ifferent approaches are required for the solution of many
problems. For example, when SI units are used, a body is generally specified
by its mass expressed in kilograms; in most problems of statics it will be
necessary to determine the weight of the body in newtons, and an additional
calculation will be required for this purpose. On the other hand, when U.S.
customary units are used, a body is specified by its weight in pounds and,
in dynamics problems (such as would be encountered in a follow-on course in
dynamics), an additional calculation will be required to determine its mass
in slugs (or lb·s2/ft). The authors, therefore, believe that problem assignments
should include both systems of units.

Chapter Organization and

Pedagogical Features
Each chapter begins with an introductory section setting the purpose and goals
of the chapter and describing in simple terms the material to be covered and
its application to the solution of engineering problems.

Chapter Lessons. The body of the text has been divided into units, each
consisting of one or several theory sections followed by sample problems and
a large number of problems to be assigned. Each unit corresponds to a well-
defined topic and generally can be covered in one lesson.

Concept Applications and Sample Problems. Many theory sections

include Concept Applications designed to illustrate the material being pre-
sented and facilitate its understanding. The Sample Problems provided after
all lessons are intended to show some of the applications of the theory to
the solution of engineering problems. Because they have been set up in much
the same form as students will use in solving the assigned problems, the
Sample Problems serve the double purpose of amplifying the text and dem-
onstrating the type of neat and orderly work students should cultivate in their
own solutions.
 Preface xiii
Homework Problem Sets. Most of the problems are of a ­practical nature
and should appeal to engineering students. They are primarily designed, how-
ever, to illustrate the material presented in the text and help the students
understand the basic principles used in ­engineering mechanics. The problems
have been grouped according to the portions of material they illustrate and
have been arranged in order of increasing difficulty. Answers to problems are
given at the end of the book, except for those with a number set in red italics.

Chapter Review and Summary. Each chapter ends with a review and
summary of the material covered in the chapter. Notes in the margin have
been included to help the students organize their review work, and cross ref-
erences are provided to help them find the portions of material requiring their
special attention.

Review Problems. A set of review problems is included at the end of each

chapter. These problems provide students further opportunity to apply the most
important concepts introduced in the chapter.

New to the Third Edition

We’ve made some significant changes from the second edition of this text.
The updates include:
∙ Case Studies. Case Studies have been added to all chapters to provide
the student with real-world engineering problems. These address how
engineers approached the evaluation of p­ roblems that occurred and how
they developed new designs.
∙ Text Revisions. The authors have continued to edit the language to
make the book easier to read and more student-friendly.
∙ Photographs. We have updated many of the photos appearing in the
third edition.
∙ Revised or New Problems. Over 20% of the problems are revised or
new to this edition.

Acknowledgments
The authors thank the many companies that provided photographs for this
edition. We also wish to recognize the efforts of the team at McGraw-Hill
Education, including Shannon O’Donnell, Senior Marketing Manager; Heather
Ervolino, Product Developer; and Laura Bies, Senior Content Project Manager.
Our special thanks go to Amy Mazurek (B.S. degree in civil engineering from
the Florida Institute of Technology, and a M.S. degree in civil engineering
from the University of ­Connecticut) for her work in the checking and prepara-
tion of the solutions and answers of all the problems in this edition.
We also gratefully acknowledge the help, comments, and suggestions
offered by the many users of previous editions of books in the Beer &
Johnston Engineering Mechanics series.

John T. DeWolf
David F. Mazurek
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 List of Symbols
a Constant; radius; distance PU Ultimate load (LRFD)
A, B, C, . . . Forces; reactions at supports and q Shearing force per unit length; shear flow
connections Q Force; vector
A, B, C, . . . Points Q First moment of area
A, 𝒶 Area r Centroidal radius of gyration
b Width; distance r Position vector
c Constant; distance; radius rx, r y, rO Radii of gyration
C Centroid r Radius; distance; polar coordinate
C1, C2, . . . Constants of integration R Resultant force; resultant vector; reaction
CP Column stability factor R Radius of earth
d Distance; diameter; depth s Length
e Distance; eccentricity S Force; vector
E Modulus of elasticity S Elastic section modulus
F Force; friction force t Thickness
F.S. Factor of safety T Force; torque
g Acceleration of gravity T Tension; temperature
G Modulus of rigidity; shear modulus u, v Rectangular coordinates
h Distance; height V Vector product; shearing force
H, J, K Points V Volume; shear
i, j, k Unit vectors along coordinate axes w Width; distance; load per unit length
I, Ix, . . . Moments of inertia W, W Weight; load
I Centroidal moment of inertia x, y, z Rectangular coordinates; distances;
J Polar moment of inertia displacements; deflections
k Spring constant x, y, z Coordinates of centroid
K Stress concentration factor; torsional α, β, γ Angles
spring constant α Coefficient of thermal expansion;
l Length influence coefficient
L Length; span γ Shearing strain; specific weight
Le Effective length γD Load factor, dead load (LRFD)
m Mass γL Load factor, live load (LRFD)
M Couple δ Deformation; displacement; elongation
M, Mx, . . . Bending moment ε Normal strain
n Number; ratio of moduli of elasticity; θ Angle; slope
normal direction λ Unit vector along a line
N Normal component of reaction μ Coefficient of friction
O Origin of coordinates ν Poisson’s ratio
p Pressure ρ Radius of cuvature; distance; density
P Force; vector σ Normal stress
PD Dead load (LRFD) τ Shearing stress
PL Live load (LRFD) ϕ Angle; angle of twist; resistance factor

xv
 1
Renato Bordoni/Alamy Stock Photo

Introduction
The tallest skyscraper in the Western Hemisphere, One World Trade
Center is a prominent feature of the New York City skyline. From its
foundation to its structural components and mechanical systems, the
design and operation of the tower is based on the fundamentals of
engineering mechanics.
2 Introduction

Introduction Objectives
• Define the science of mechanics and examine its
1.1 WHAT IS MECHANICS? fundamental principles.
1.2 FUNDAMENTAL
• Discuss and compare the International System of Units and
CONCEPTS AND
U.S. Customary Units.
PRINCIPLES
1.2A Mechanics of Rigid Bodies • Discuss how to approach the solution of mechanics
1.2B Mechanics of Deformable problems, and introduce the SMART problem-solving
Bodies methodology.
1.3 SYSTEMS OF UNITS • Examine factors that govern numerical accuracy in the
1.4 CONVERTING solution of a mechanics problem.
BETWEEN TWO
SYSTEMS OF UNITS
1.5 METHOD OF SOLVING
PROBLEMS
1.6 NUMERICAL
ACCURACY 1.1 WHAT IS MECHANICS?
Mechanics is defined as the science that describes and predicts the condi-
tions of rest or motion of bodies under the action of forces. It consists of the
mechanics of rigid bodies, mechanics of deformable bodies, and mechanics
of fluids.
The mechanics of rigid bodies is subdivided into statics and dynamics.
Statics deals with bodies at rest; dynamics deals with bodies in motion. In
this text, we assume bodies are perfectly rigid. In fact, actual structures and
machines are never absolutely rigid; they deform under the loads to which
they are subjected. However, because these deformations are usually small,
they do not appreciably affect the conditions of equilibrium or the motion
of the structure under consideration. They are important, though, as far as the
resistance of the structure to failure is concerned. Deformations are studied in
a course in mechanics of materials, which is part of the mechanics of deform-
able bodies. The third division of mechanics, the mechanics of fluids, is sub-
divided into the study of incompressible fluids and of compressible fluids. An
important subdivision of the study of incompressible fluids is hydraulics,
which deals with applications involving water.
Mechanics is a physical science, because it deals with the study of
physical phenomena. However, some teachers associate mechanics with math-
ematics, whereas many others consider it as an engineering subject. Both of
these views are justified in part. Mechanics is the foundation of most engineer-
ing sciences and is an indispensable prerequisite to their study. However, it
does not have the empiricism found in some engineering sciences, i.e., it does
not rely on experience or observation alone. The rigor of mechanics and the
emphasis it places on deductive reasoning makes it resemble mathematics.
However, mechanics is not an abstract or even a pure science; it is an applied
science.
The purpose of mechanics is to explain and predict physical phenomena
and thus to lay the foundations for engineering applications. You need to know
statics to determine how much force will be exerted on a point in a bridge
design and whether the structure can withstand that force. Determining the
force a dam needs to withstand from the water in a river requires statics. You
need statics to calculate how much weight a crane can lift, how much force
a locomotive needs to pull a freight train, or how much force a circuit board
 1.2 Fundamental Concepts and Principles 3
in a computer can withstand. The concepts of dynamics enable you to analyze
the flight characteristics of a jet, design a building to resist earthquakes, and
mitigate shock and vibration to passengers inside a vehicle. The concepts of
dynamics enable you to calculate how much force you need to send a satellite
into orbit, accelerate a 200,000-ton cruise ship, or design a toy truck that
doesn’t break. You will not learn how to do these things in this course, but
the ideas and methods you learn here will be the underlying basis for the
engineering applications you will learn in your work.

1.2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
AND PRINCIPLES
1.2A Mechanics of Rigid Bodies
Although the study of mechanics goes back to the time of Aristotle (384–
322 B.C.) and Archimedes (287–212 B.C.), not until Newton (1642–1727) did
anyone develop a satisfactory formulation of its fundamental principles.
These principles were later modified by d’Alembert, Lagrange, and Hamilton.
Their validity remained unchallenged until Einstein formulated his theory of
relativity (1905). Although its limitations have now been recognized, newtonian
mechanics still remains the basis of today’s engineering sciences.
The basic concepts used in mechanics are space, time, mass, and force.
These concepts cannot be truly defined; they should be accepted on the basis
of our intuition and experience and used as a mental frame of reference for
our study of mechanics.
The concept of space is associated with the position of a point P. We
can define the position of P by providing three lengths measured from a
certain reference point, or origin, in three given directions. These lengths are
known as the coordinates of P.
To define an event, it is not sufficient to indicate its position in space.
We also need to specify the time of the event.
We use the concept of mass to characterize and compare bodies
on the basis of certain fundamental mechanical experiments. Two bodies of
the same mass, for example, are attracted by the earth in the same manner;
they also offer the same resistance to a change in translational motion.
A force represents the action of one body on another. A force can be
exerted by actual contact, like a push or a pull, or at a distance, as in the case
of gravitational or magnetic forces. A force is characterized by its point of
application, its magnitude, and its direction; a force is represented by a vector
(Sec. 2.1B).
In newtonian mechanics, space, time, and mass are absolute concepts
that are independent of each other. (This is not true in relativistic mechanics,
where the duration of an event depends upon its position and the mass of a
body varies with its velocity.) On the other hand, the concept of force is not
independent of the other three. Indeed, one of the fundamental principles of
newtonian mechanics listed below is that the resultant force acting on a body
is related to the mass of the body and to the manner in which its velocity
varies with time.
In this text, you will study the conditions of rest or motion of particles
and rigid bodies in terms of the four basic concepts we have introduced. By
particle, we mean a very small amount of matter, which we assume occupies
a single point in space. A rigid body consists of a large number of particles
4 Introduction
m F=G
r
F introduces the idea of an action exerted at a distance and extends the range
–F
M the particle is defined as the weight W of the particle. Suppose we set M
Fig. 1.1 From Newton’s law of gravitation,
two particles of masses M and m exert forces
upon each other of equal magnitude, opposite
direction, and the same line of action. This
also illustrates Newton’s third law of motion.
occupying fixed positions with respect to one another. The study of the
mechanics of particles is clearly a prerequisite to that of rigid bodies. Besides,
we can use the results obtained for a particle directly in a large number of
problems dealing with the conditions of rest or motion of actual bodies.
The study of elementary mechanics rests on six fundamental principles,
based on experimental evidence.
∙ The Parallelogram Law for the Addition of Forces. Two forces act-
ing on a particle may be replaced by a single force, called their resul-
tant, obtained by drawing the diagonal of the parallelogram with sides
equal to the given forces (Sec. 2.1A).
∙ The Principle of Transmissibility. The conditions of equilibrium or
of motion of a rigid body remain unchanged if a force acting at a given
point of the rigid body is replaced by a force of the same magnitude
and same direction, but acting at a different point, provided that the two
forces have the same line of action (Sec. 3.1B).
∙ Newton’s Three Laws of Motion. Formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in
the late 17th century, these laws can be stated as follows:
FIRST LAW. If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the
particle remains at rest (if originally at rest) or moves with constant
speed in a straight line (if originally in motion) (Sec. 2.3B).
SECOND LAW. If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero,
the particle has an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the
resultant and in the direction of this resultant force.
This law can be stated as
F = ma (1.1)
where F, m, and a represent, respectively, the resultant force acting on
the particle, the mass of the particle, and the acceleration of the particle
expressed in a consistent system of units.
THIRD LAW. The forces of action and reaction between bodies in
contact have the same magnitude, same line of action, and opposite
sense (Chap. 6, Introduction).
∙ Newton’s Law of Gravitation. Two particles of mass M and m are
mutually attracted with equal and opposite forces F and −F of magni-
tude F (Fig. 1.1), given by the formula
Mm
(1.2)
r2
where r = the distance between the two particles and G = a universal
constant called the constant of gravitation. Newton’s law of gravitation
of application of Newton’s third law: the action F and the reaction −F in
Fig. 1.1 are equal and opposite, and they have the same line of action.
A particular case of great importance is that of the attraction of the
earth on a particle located on its surface. The force F exerted by the earth on
equal to the mass of the earth, m equal to the mass of the particle, and r equal
to the earth’s radius R. Then, introducing the constant
GM
g= (1.3)
R2
 1.2 Fundamental Concepts and Principles 5
we can express the magnitude W of the weight of a particle of mass m as†

W = mg (1.4)

The value of R in Eq. (1.3) depends upon the elevation of the point considered;
it also depends upon its latitude, because the earth is not truly spherical. The
value of g therefore varies with the position of the point considered. However,
as long as the point actually remains on the earth’s surface, it is sufficiently
accurate in most engineering computations to assume that g equals 9.81 m/s2
or 32.2 ft/s2.
The principles we have just listed will be introduced in the course of
our study of mechanics as they are needed. The statics of particles carried out
in Chap. 2 will be based on the parallelogram law of addition and on Newton’s
first law alone. We introduce the principle of transmissibility in Chap. 3 as
we begin the study of the statics of rigid bodies, and we bring in Newton’s
third law in Chap. 6 as we analyze the forces exerted on each other by the
various members forming a structure.
As noted earlier, the six fundamental principles listed previously are based
on experimental evidence. Except for Newton’s first law and the principle of
transmissibility, they are independent principles that cannot be derived mathe-
matically from each other or from any other elementary physical principle. On
these principles rests most of the intricate structure of newtonian mechanics. For
Photo 1.1 When in orbit of the earth, people
more than two centuries, engineers have solved a tremendous number of prob-
and objects are said to be weightless, even
lems dealing with the conditions of rest and motion of rigid bodies, deformable though the gravitational force acting is
bodies, and fluids by applying these fundamental principles. Many of the solu- approximately 90% of that experienced on the
tions obtained could be checked experimentally, thus providing a further verifi- surface of the earth. This apparent contradiction
cation of the principles from which they were derived. Only in the 20th century can be resolved in a course on dynamics when
has Newton’s mechanics found to be at fault, in the study of the motion of atoms Newton’s second law is applied to the motion
and the motion of the planets, where it must be supplemented by the theory of of particles. Source: NASA
relativity. On the human or engineering scale, however, where velocities are
small compared with the speed of light, Newton’s mechanics have yet to be
disproved.

1.2B Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

The concepts needed for mechanics of deformable bodies, also referred to as
mechanics of materials, are necessary for analyzing and designing various
machines and load-bearing structures. These concepts involve the determina-
tion of stresses and deformations.
In Chaps. 8 through 16, the analysis of stresses and the correspond-
ing deformations will be developed for structural members subject to axial
loading, torsion, and bending. This requires the use of basic concepts
involving the conditions of equilibrium of forces exerted on the member,
the relations existing between stress and deformation in the material, and
the conditions imposed by the supports and loading of the member. Later
chapters expand on these subjects, providing a basis for designing both
structures that are statically determinant and those that are indeterminant,
i.e., structures in which the internal forces cannot be determined from
statics alone.

†
A more accurate definition of the weight W should take into account the earth’s rotation.
6 Introduction

1.3 SYSTEMS OF UNITS

Associated with the four fundamental concepts just discussed are the so-called
kinetic units, i.e., the units of length, time, mass, and force. These units can-
not be chosen independently if Eq. (1.1) is to be satisfied. Three of the units
may be defined arbitrarily; we refer to them as basic units. The fourth unit,
however, must be chosen in accordance with Eq. (1.1) and is referred to as a
derived unit. Kinetic units selected in this way are said to form a consistent
system of units.

International System of Units (SI Units).† In this system, which will

be in universal use after the United States has completed its conversion to SI
units, the base units are the units of length, mass, and time, and they are called,
respectively, the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), and the second (s). All three are
arbitrarily defined. The second was originally chosen to represent 1/86 400 of
the mean solar day, but it is now defined as the duration of 9 192 631 770 cycles
of the radiation corresponding to the transition between two levels of the funda-
mental state of the cesium-133 atom. The meter, originally defined as one
ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to either pole, is now defined as
1 650 763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red light corresponding to a certain
transition in an atom of krypton-86. (The newer definitions are much more precise
and with today’s modern instrumentation, are easier to verify as a standard.) The
a = 1 m/s 2 kilogram, which is approximately equal to the mass of 0.001 m3 of water, is
defined as the mass of a platinum-iridium standard kept at the International
m = 1 kg F=1N Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, near Paris, France. The unit of force
is a derived unit. It is called the newton (N) and is defined as the force that
Fig. 1.2 A force of 1 newton applied to a
gives an acceleration of 1 m/s2 to a body of mass 1 kg (Fig. 1.2). From Eq. (1.1),
body of mass 1 kg provides an acceleration
of 1 m/s2. we have
1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/s2 ) = 1 kg · m/s2 (1.5)
The SI units are said to form an absolute system of units. This means that the
m = 1 kg
three base units chosen are independent of the location where measurements
are made. The meter, the kilogram, and the second may be used anywhere on
the earth; they may even be used on another planet and still have the same
a = 9.81 m/s 2 significance.
The weight of a body, or the force of gravity exerted on that body, like
W = 9.81 N
any other force, should be expressed in newtons. From Eq. (1.4), it follows
that the weight of a body of mass 1 kg (Fig. 1.3) is
W = mg
= (1 kg)(9.81 m/s2 )
Fig. 1.3 A body of mass 1 kg experiencing
an acceleration due to gravity of 9.81 m/s2 = 9.81 N
has a weight of 9.81 N.
Multiples and submultiples of the fundamental SI units are denoted through
the use of the prefixes defined in Table 1.1. The multiples and submultiples of
the units of length, mass, and force most frequently used in engineering are,
respectively, the kilometer (km) and the millimeter (mm); the megagram‡ (Mg)
and the gram (g); and the kilonewton (kN). According to Table 1.1, we have
1 km = 1000 m 1 mm = 0.001 m
1 Mg = 1000 kg 1 g = 0.001 kg
1 kN = 1000 N
†
SI stands for Système International d’Unités (French).
‡
Also known as a metric ton.
 1.3 Systems of Units 7
Table 1.1 Sl Prefixes
Multiplication Factor Prefix† Symbol
12
1 000 000 000
000 = 10 tera T
1 000 000
000 = 109 giga G
1 000
000 = 106 mega M
1
000 = 103 kilo k
100 = 102 hecto‡ h
10 = 101 deka‡ da
0.1 = 10−1 deci‡ d
0.01 = 10−2 centi‡ c
0.001 = 10−3 milli m
0.000 001 = 10−6 micro µ
0.000 000 001 = 10−9 nano n
0.000 000 000 001 = 10−12 pico p
0.000 000 000 000 001 = 10−15 femto f
0.000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10−18 atto a
†
The first syllable of every prefix is accented, so that the prefix retains its identity. Thus, the
preferred pronunciation of kilometer places the accent on the first syllable, not the second.
‡
The use of these prefixes should be avoided, except for the measurement of areas and volumes
and for the nontechnical use of centimeter, as for body and clothing measurements.

The conversion of these units into meters, kilograms, and ­newtons, respec-
tively, can be effected by simply moving the decimal point three places to the
right or to the left. For example, to convert 3.82 km into meters, move the
decimal point three places to the right:
3.82 km = 3820 m
Similarly, to convert 47.2 mm into meters, move the decimal point three places
to the left:
47.2 mm = 0.0472 m
Using engineering notation, you can also write

3.82 km = 3.82 × 103 m

47.2 mm = 47.2 × 10−3 m
The multiples of the unit of time are the minute (min) and the hour (h).
Because 1 min = 60 s and 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s, these multiples cannot be
converted as readily as the others.
By using the appropriate multiple or submultiple of a given unit, you
can avoid writing very large or very small numbers. For example, it is usually
simpler to write 427.2 km rather than 427 200 m and 2.16 mm rather than
0.002 16 m.†

Units of Area and Volume. The unit of area is the square meter (m2),
which represents the area of a square of side 1 m; the unit of volume is
the cubic meter (m3), which is equal to the volume of a cube of side 1 m.
To avoid exceedingly small or large numerical values when computing
areas and volumes, we use systems of subunits obtained by respectively
squaring and cubing not only the millimeter, but also two intermediate
†
Note that when more than four digits appear on either side of the decimal point to express
a quantity in SI units––as in 427 000 m or 0.002 16 m––use spaces, never commas, to sepa-
rate the digits into groups of three. This practice avoids confusion with the comma used in
place of a decimal point, which is the convention in many countries.
8 Introduction

submultiples of the meter: the d­ ecimeter (dm) and the centimeter (cm). By
definition,

1 dm = 0.1 m = 10−1 m
1 cm = 0.01 m = 10−2 m
1 mm = 0.001 m = 10−3 m

Therefore, the submultiples of the unit of area are

1 dm2 = (1 dm) 2 = (10−1 m) 2 = 10−2 m2

1 cm2 = (1 cm) 2 = (10−2 m) 2 = 10−4 m2
1 mm2 = (1 mm) 2 = (10−3 m) 2 = 10−6 m2

Similarly, the submultiples of the unit of volume are

1 dm3 = (1 dm) 3 = (10−1 m) 3 = 10−3 m3

1 cm3 = (1 cm) 3 = (10−2 m) 3 = 10−6 m3
1 mm3 = (1 mm) 3 = (10−3 m) 3 = 10−9 m3

Note that when measuring the volume of a liquid, the cubic decimeter (dm3)
is usually referred to as a liter (L).
Table 1.2 shows other derived SI units used to measure the moment of
a force, the work of a force, etc. Although we will introduce these units in
later chapters as they are needed, we should note an important rule at this

Table 1.2 Principal SI Units Used in Mechanics

Quantity Unit Symbol Formula
Acceleration Meter per second squared ... m/s2
Angle Radian rad †
Angular acceleration Radian per second squared ... rad/s2
Angular velocity Radian per second ... rad/s
Area Square meter ... m2
Density Kilogram per cubic meter ... kg/m3
Energy Joule J N⋅m
Force Newton N kg⋅m/s2
Frequency Hertz Hz s–1
Impulse Newton-second ... kg⋅m/s
Length Meter m ‡
Mass Kilogram kg ‡
Moment of a force Newton-meter ... N⋅m
Power Watt W J/s
Pressure Pascal Pa N/m2
Stress Pascal Pa N/m2
Time Second s ‡
Velocity Meter per second ... m/s
Volume
Liquids Liter L 10–3 m3
Solids Cubic meter ... m3
Work Joule J N⋅m
†
Supplementary unit (1 revolution = 2π rad = 360°).
‡
Base unit.
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 IX
AFTERWARDS Rose never quite knew how she endured the voyage
home. Her love for her father was so deep, so tender, they were so
bound together by a hundred ties not only of affection but of
sympathy and tastes and interests, that the very thought of losing
him almost broke her down. It took both Cousin Emily Carter and old
black Aunt Hannah to comfort and sustain her during those ten days.
But when she reached Washington Allestree met her at the station
with good tidings; the judge was out of danger. He had been very
near death and came back slowly from the Valley of the Shadow.
However, he had come back and Rose knelt beside his bed and
cried her heart out with joy to feel his arm around her. How pale and
thin and wasted he looked. He had aged so much; poor Rose, she
saw it and forced a smile to disguise it even to herself. But he was
unaware of the shock which the sight of him gave her, and he forgot
his illness in his eager interest in her account of Paris and her final
success. She told him very little of those long months of struggle and
depression, of the thousand little pinches and trials that they had
been through to keep from asking an extra penny from him.
After Rose came the judge began to mend more rapidly; old Mrs.
Allestree said he had only been pining away for the child, but she
knew better, being a wise old woman. She knew that the judge had
been struggling all the year to stave off the foreclosure of the
mortgage on the old house which he and Rose loved so well. She
knew, too, that he had almost failed when that mysterious
arrangement was made for him by an unknown party; the message
came that the mortgage had been taken up, and he could have all
the time he wanted and at a lower rate of interest.
This news, so amazing and so unprecedented, had been
synchronous with the judge’s breakdown and had, Mrs. Allestree
believed, contributed to it. The sudden relief had snapped the strain
on his nerves, and he slipped down into a state of coma. However,
she did not tell Rose this, nor her suspicions, which were fast
becoming certainties, about the mortgage; she only kissed her
affectionately and made her sing to her the song which had won
such an ovation from the French critics, and which Cousin Emily
Carter had described with enthusiasm before she departed to the
Tidewater region, where she hoped to cut her own asparagus bed
and set out her flowers undisturbed by Parisian manners and
customs.
Allestree welcomed Rose with even greater relief than his mother
and the judge, but wisdom had taught him to rejoice in silence, and
he did so, being careful, however, to send promptly for her portrait
which, according to the agreement between Mrs. Allestree and the
judge, could not be loaned during Rose’s presence in the house, but
only as a consolation in her absence. But the judge sighed deeply
when they told him it had been returned to the studio again.
It was during the first days of her father’s convalescence that Rose
found Margaret’s letter to her among his papers; not knowing Rose’s
address in Paris, Margaret had sent it in the judge’s care and he had
overlooked it when he forwarded the letters, as he did, once a week.
By a strange accident it had slipped under some pamphlets in the
basket on his library table and lay there until Rose, rearranging his
papers one morning, came upon it and recognizing the writing broke
the seal with some trepidation, for Margaret had never been an
intimate correspondent, and Rose divined some serious reason for
this long closely written letter. She was alone when she found it, and
she went to the open window and stood there reading it.
Margaret, moved by the deep sorrow and passion which had swept
over her poor troubled soul in those last days of her life, had poured
out her heart. She told Rose all; that she had come between her and
Fox; in her wild and covetous jealousy she had thought to wrest
happiness from despair; to keep his love she had been willing to lose
all, and she had lost! She concealed nothing, the last pitiful words of
the letter, a remarkable letter of passion and grief and self-sacrifice,
told Rose that she was going to give up her life to her children and
try to live down her desertion of them.
Rose read it through to the end, and then covered her face with her
hands, trying to shut out the terrifying picture that it had
unconsciously drawn of a woman, desolate, shipwrecked, without
hope in earth or heaven. The terrors which had possessed
Margaret’s soul swept over hers. All that Mrs. Allestree had told her,
and that Gerty, poor, voluble, good-hearted Gerty, had enlarged
upon, filled out the scene. The lonely walk, the visit to the studio, the
unfriended and miserable death; she did not know of those other
scenes in the church and the curiosity-shop where Margaret had
found her heart, but she did know of a strange girl who had brought
a single white lily to lay in Margaret’s dead hand and gone away
weeping bitterly.
She had blamed poor Margaret, judged her; Rose felt it at that
moment and accused herself of heartlessness; of Fox she dared not
think. In the new light which this letter shed on the situation, she
began to understand how cruelly he had been placed, and there, too,
she had judged!
Poor Rose,—her father had inculcated stern and simple lessons and
she had tried, before all things, to be just; but to be judicious and
calm and in love at the same time was an impossible combination.
She dashed the tears from her eyes, and thrust Margaret’s letter into
her pocket and went about her duties with the air of a soldier on
guard, but her lip would quiver at intervals and she could not sing a
note when the judge asked for one of the old ballads that he had
loved as a boy, and Rose had learned, to please him.
It was about this time that she began to wonder if the old house must
go, or if her father had been able to meet all the payments due upon
it. She dared not ask him, and he said nothing, but she noticed that
now that he was able to be moved into the library every day and
sometimes into the garden in the warm spring sunshine, that he sat
for hours at a time in a brown study with a deep furrow between his
brows, and constantly pushing back his hair from his forehead, as he
did in moments of perplexity. She was afraid to speak, lest any
mention of the trouble which had so beset him would bring back the
fever and a relapse, so she had to content herself with hope and
waited for some sign on his part.
The old house had never seemed so dear; the mantling vines were
full out in new foliage, birds were nested on the southern wall toward
the garden, and the old garden-plot itself, so sheltered and secluded
by the house and the high brick wall which shut out the street, was
just coming into bloom. The roses she had set out the spring before
were in bud, and the peonies were blooming. Rose looked about her
with a sigh and forgot that she would, perhaps, be one day a great
prima donna with the world at her feet. Such things do not always fill
a woman’s heart.
Meanwhile the judge had written and despatched a letter with great
secrecy, and one morning, after he was wheeled into his library, he
told Rose that she might take her sewing into the garden for he
expected a gentleman on business and he might be there half an
hour. She obeyed him with a stifling sensation of anxiety; she knew it
was that mortgage, that terrible mortgage, and his reticence
convinced her that he was concealing bad news from her. She took
her sewing out to the little arbor in the corner, where the library
windows were out of sight, and she tried to sew, but her fingers
trembled so that she lost her needle and, having neglected to
provide herself with another, she sat and watched the robin on the
lawn and wished money grew up like grass out of the well tilled earth
and was of as little consequence. Yet, all the while, it was not of
herself she thought but of her father, broken in health, old and
careworn, facing those inexorable obligations without even her help.
The judge alone in the library watched the clock with an anxious eye,
and thought of Rose and all it would mean to her if he could save the
property. When he lay near death the one overwhelming horror of his
heart had been to leave her at the mercy of the world. The old man
glanced about him with the same fond recognition of familiar objects;
it is strange how dear these inanimate things, which were here
before we came and will be here when we are gone, become so
valuable to us. To the judge they had associations. The picture over
the mantel had been bought by his grandfather, those books dated
still farther back in the family; the clock had belonged to his mother’s
great grandfather, the old secretary of polished mahogany, with
secret drawers and brass mountings, was an heirloom,—it had held
a will which had nearly disrupted the family two generations back.
Small matters, but to an old man inexpressibly interesting and
sacred. Of the house he did not like to think; that was full of
memories of his wife, and he could not now explain the madness
which had led him to mortgage it to pay off more pressing claims
which had followed his first heavy losses.
 X
ROSE had been ten minutes in the garden, and the judge was
beginning to fidget in his chair when he heard the front door open
and shut and at last steps came toward the library. A moment later
William Fox entered the room. As he came into the mellow light from
the open window the judge was struck by the change in his strong
pale face. The old smile which had come so easily to his lips, and
which, at times, had almost the sweetness of a woman’s, was gone;
the brow and chin had a new resolution. The man was changed.
Judge Temple saw it and held out his hand with a sudden impulse of
warmer sympathy than he had felt before. After all, Fox had met it
like a man and paid the cost.
On his side, Fox was as strongly affected by the broken appearance
of the old man in his invalid chair with his white head and his sunken
eyes. “My dear judge,” he said, “I hope you’re feeling better? I was
glad to obey your summons, though I’m not sure that I understand
the reference in your note.”
The judge looked at him a moment in silence, then drawing a letter
from his pocket, opened it and handed it to him. Fox took it with
evident reluctance; as he read it he colored a little and folding it
hastily, handed it back without a word.
“I did not know until yesterday, sir, to whom I was indebted,” Judge
Temple said slowly, his lip trembling slightly from weakness and
profound emotion.
Fox stirred uneasily in his chair, his color deepening. “I didn’t intend
you to know it at all, judge,” he said, almost with an air of diffidence;
“I presume I owe my betrayal to Berkman. However, I want to assure
you—since it is known—that you can have all the time you desire; I
consider it a good investment!”
The judge’s spectacles grew misty and he took them off hurriedly
and wiped them, his thin hands shaking as he did it. “I thank you for
your confidence,” he said quietly, when he could speak; “you’ll get it
—every cent.”
“I know it. I tell you I consider it a good investment, the best I ever
made,” Fox retorted smiling; “I’m not usually so judicious in my
ventures.”
The old man tried to force an answering smile but he failed, his head
sank on his breast and his hands, lying on the carved arms of his
great chair, still trembled. Fox looked at him in some anxiety, half
afraid that the excitement and relief had been too much, and bitterly
indignant that his secret had been betrayed. It had been a difficult
matter for him to take up the mortgage, for he was by no means a
rich man, but he had vowed in his heart to save Rose her home, the
home that he knew she loved so well, and half the joy of doing it had
been to do it without her knowledge; but it seemed impossible to
keep a secret which, from its very nature, must be shared with
others.
The change in the old face opposite was alarmingly sharp.
“My dear judge, you are too indisposed for business; let me ring for
assistance,” Fox exclaimed, with real concern.
But the judge protested. “Sir, I’m better to-day than I have been for a
year,” he said, a slight break in his voice; “I see my way clear, I’ll be
able to save this property, I—” he broke off and passed his
handkerchief over his eyes; there was a moment’s painful silence,
then he held out his hand. “God bless you, Fox!” he broke out
suddenly, “it was killing me to lose it—”
They shook hands. Fox had risen and his face was colorless. “Don’t
tell her, judge,” he said abruptly.
The old man started and was about to speak but, meeting the other’s
eye, refrained. Many things came into his mind, among them a
memory of Rose’s face at Mrs. O’Neal’s ball. It was a bitter moment;
no man was good enough for her, and this man had been too much
talked about! Yet the child’s happiness was near his heart.
With a certain reluctance Fox turned at last to go, and as he did so
his glance passed through the open window into the garden. “I can
reach the gate by this path, can I not?” he asked, moving toward it.
The judge started uneasily, with an involuntary gesture as if to detain
him, to keep him back at any cost, but Fox did not see it and the old
man sank back in his chair quiescent. His lips moved but he said
nothing; after all, had he a right to interfere? Unconsciously the
younger man went out of the window and down the two short steps
to the gravel path.
The judge watched him disappear behind the Persian lilac with a
fascinated eye. Then he took out his handkerchief again, and
passing it swiftly across his brow pushed back his scant white hair
until it seemed to rise up in active protest. The glare of the May
sunshine suddenly hurt his gaze and he shook out his handkerchief
and threw it over his head, closing his eyes.
Aunt Hannah, opening the door a moment later, with a pleasant
jingle of ice in the mint-julep glass on her tray, peeped in, thought
him asleep and cautiously and discreetly closed the door again. “Fo’
de Lord,” she murmured, “ef it ain’t de fust time dat he didn’t kinder
sense dat de julep was comin’; I reckon he’s right po’ly!”

Fox turned the corner by the lilac, walking slowly, holding his hat
behind his back, his bare head bowed. His face was gloomy with
thought, and he almost passed the arbor. At the turn a glint of white
caught his eye and he looked up quickly and saw Rose industriously
sewing without a needle, her head down over her work and the
sunshine filtering through a trellis of vines on her soft bright hair and
her white gown.
He came toward her with an exclamation of unrestrained joy, but as
their eyes met a wave of mutual feeling swept over their souls and
left them mute. Between them seemed to lie the sorrow and the love
of that beautiful and unfortunate woman who had separated them.
The language of conventionality was no longer possible; Rose tried
to speak, but her words died in an inarticulate murmur. The anguish
of Margaret’s letter came back to her; it had saved Fox in her eyes;
she no longer condemned him, she no longer felt it a duty to avoid
him, but she found it impossible to tell him of the change in her heart
by any commonplace word of friendship. Her hand had slipped from
his eager grasp and lay trembling on her work. It was terrible to
betray herself so; her cheek reddened and tears of mortification
came into her eyes. But to speak to him of common things at such a
moment—how could she? And he made no effort to help her, but
only watched her, his soul in his eyes. The marks of suffering on his
face touched her, too; the lines had sharpened, the gaze deepened
and become more introspective, the shock of primitive passions had
really decentralized his life. He smiled at the sight of her, almost the
old eager smile, but even that light had died out of his face now, and
in the pause she seemed to hear her own heart beating against her
breast.
He stood looking at her. “How long must I be silent?” he asked at
last.
Rose busied herself in a fruitless attempt to thread an imaginary
needle, and her slender fingers shook. It had been in her mind to tell
him that Margaret had written her, but as he spoke a sudden intuition
of the truth arrested her impulse, a flood of light poured in upon her,
illuminating the twilight of her thought. She felt that he must not only
never know of Margaret’s confession—she had not meant to tell him
that—but not even of her letter. It was impossible to answer him; her
lips were tremulous as she looked up and met his grave, compelling
gaze. In her look, so full of buoyant and beautiful youth, there was
not even the shadow of reproach. Her simplicity, her renewal of
confidence in him, were profoundly touching; the bitterness and
humiliation of the past months seemed at last sanctified by her
forbearance. The secret agony which had torn his heart during the
long winter fell away from the present; it belonged at once to the
past, sinking into that long vista which leads to oblivion. To-day was
beautiful and strong with hope.
Before her youth and purity William Fox experienced a feeling of
sudden and complete humility. “Can you forgive me?” he asked, in a
low voice.
Margaret’s letter seemed to breathe its message in her ears.
“There’s nothing to forgive,” Rose said simply.
“You understand?” there was passionate eagerness in his glance;
his love for her was sweeping away the obstacles from his mind,
leaping up again to demand its right to exist.
“Yes,” Rose said, with white lips, “I understand, not fully—but—”
“And now?” he was strongly moved; not knowing whose hand had
lifted the veil of her misunderstanding and far from divining the truth.
“And now?” the tears gathered in her eyes and fell unheeded; “I
cannot but think of her love—her unhappiness!”
“And you still blame me?” Fox stood motionless, his face resuming
its stern reserve.
Rose shook her head. “I—I cannot!” she murmured, remembering
that confession, and the thought of it sealing her lips.
He started, the color rushing to his temples, the kindling passion of
his glance transforming him. “Rose!”
She looked up through her tears, and as suddenly hid her face in her
hands. “I am afraid!” she murmured brokenly, “out of—of all this
sorrow can there be happiness?”
Fox sat down beside her and gently took her hand. “You mean you
cannot trust me?” he asked soberly.
For a moment she did not answer. He looked down at her drooping
profile, the lovely arch of her brow, the soft cheek and chin; her eyes
no longer met his. “Or is it that you do not love me?” he said quietly.
She raised her head at that, and the dawning sweetness of her
glance illumined his soul. “It is because I love you—that I can no
longer judge!” she faltered, with trembling lips.
He met her look without a word; language, for the moment, had not
significance for them.
Silence, filled with the sweet murmur of summer life, the fragrance of
flowers, the audible rustling of the magnolia leaves, seemed to
enfold them in a new and beautiful world.
THE END.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:
Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been
standardized.
Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE REAPING
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