Author’s Accepted Manuscript

Behaviour of cement stabilized treated coir fibre-

reinforced clay-pond ash mixtures

Jitendra Singh Yadav, Suresh Kumar Tiwari

www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

PII: S2352-7102(16)30246-7
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2016.10.006
Reference: JOBE185
To appear in: Journal of Building Engineering
Received date: 1 June 2016
Revised date: 7 October 2016
Accepted date: 19 October 2016
Cite this article as: Jitendra Singh Yadav and Suresh Kumar Tiwari, Behaviour of
cement stabilized treated coir fibre-reinforced clay-pond ash mixtures, Journal of
Building Engineering, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2016.10.006
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 Behaviour of cement stabilized treated coir fibre-reinforced clay-pond ash mixtures

Jitendra Singh Yadav1, Suresh Kumar Tiwari*

Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, India

jitendershine@gmail.com

sktiwari.ce@mnit.ac.in

*
Corresponding author: Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology
Jaipur, India. Tel. + 91-9549654211

Abstract

In a comprehensive laboratory study, different tests namely, standard Proctor tests, unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) and split tensile strength (STS) tests were performed for evaluating the
compaction and strength behaviour of the cement-stabilized, and sodium hydroxide treated coir fibre
reinforced clay-pond ash mixtures. The treated coir fibres and pond ash of 0.5-1.5% and 10-30%,
respectively, were added to the stabilized cement (2% and 4%) clayey soil. A series of compaction tests
were carried out for studying the compaction characteristics. The cylindrical specimens of dimension
38.1 and 76.2 mm were prepared at desired densities and cured for 7, 14, and 28 days, after which
they were, subjected to a series of unconfined compressive strength and split tensile strength tests.
The investigation showed that the dry unit weight of the mixtures decreases and water content
increases with the addition of pond ash and fibres. The inclusion of fibres and pond ash in the

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, India. +91-9461595625

1
cementitious clay caused an increase in the unconfined compressive strength, split tensile strength and
axial strain at failure. Compared with the clayey soil, the incorporation of pond ash (10%) and treated
coir fibres (1%) in the cement-stabilized clay with 4% cement content improved the unconfined
compressive strength and split tensile strength, i.e. 3.72 and 3.83 times growth in unconfined
compressive strength and split strength respectively. The incorporation of treated coir fibre reduced
the stiffness, rate of loss of post-peak strength and changed the behaviour of the composite from
brittle to ductile.

Keywords: Treated coir fibres; Cement stabilized clay-pond ash mixtures; unconfined compressive
strength; Split tensile strength.

1. Introduction

Construction of civil engineering structures such as buildings, dams, highways and retaining structures
is at high risk of differential settlement, especially in the case of weak or soft clay, which is due to its
low shear strength and high compressibility. The shear strength, stiffness and water permeability
properties of these types of soils are required to be improved by using chemical and mechanical
stabilization or by their combined effect.

1.1 Cement stabilization

The use of cement for stabilization of clay has been in existence for a long time as an alternative
technique for many geotechnical engineering problems particularly for stabilization of subgrade soils or
granular bases under pavements or foundations. When cement is mixed with water, several chemical
reactions take place between the cement, silica, and alumina of the clay minerals. They include cation
exchange, flocculation-agglomeration, pozzolanic reaction, and carbonation [1].

2
The divalent calcium ions replace the monovalent cations, which are associated with the clay minerals
and leads to a sudden change in plasticity index, workability and strength gain. The Pozzolanic reaction
takes place between cement and minerals of clay resulting in the formation of cementitious products
such as calcium-silicate-hydrates and calcium alumina hydrates. However, soils stabilized with cement
are more susceptible to shrink and may crack [2].

1.2 Pond ash stabilization

Thermal power plants release waste materials as by-products such as fly ash, bottom ash, and pond
ash. India generates 170 million tonnes of pond ash annually and about 75,000 acres of precious land
under cover of abandoned ash ponds as reported by the Central Electricity Authority, New Delhi
(India), 2015 [3]. The generation of huge amount of pond ash has taken the situation to an alarming
stage as far as the environment, and health hazards are concerned. The rate of utilizations of pond ash
is about 35% of its total production in low-lying areas as structural fills, embankment construction, and
highways.

The poor gradation (silt to sand size), spherical shape and a small specific surface area make pond ash a
non-plastic material. The specific gravity of pond ash commonly ranges between 1.73 to 2.34. The
angle of internal friction of pond ash varies from 300 to 390 [4]. Due to the low angle of internal friction
(ϕ) and weak interlocking between the particles having surrounded shape, the shear strength of pond
ash is comparatively low to the conventional earth materials [5].

Many researchers have worked, on the ash alone and its mixes with the different type of soils and
fibres [5-16]. Bera [15] has reported the decrement in the unconfined compressive strength of soil
mixed with pond ash, as the pond ash content increases from 0-30%. The decrease in shear strength
was attributed to the decrease in the maximum dry density and increase in the optimum moisture
content corresponding to the maximum dry density, as the pond ash content increases. To overcome
these ill effects additives such as cement or lime is required to increase the strength of the soil-pond
ash mixes. However, due to unavailability of sufficient knowledge and confidence, the utilization of
pond ash has not taken the momentum yet for geotechnical purposes.

3
1.3 Fibre-reinforced soil

The brittle behaviour of the composite obtained by mixing pond ash in soil along with chemical
additives is overcome using synthetic or natural fibres or by other suitable reinforcing materials. Fibre
reinforced soil with admixtures can sustain a load even after the debonding or failure and can
effectively improve the brittle behaviour of the composites to ductile as reported by many researchers
on the investigation of the soils reinforced with synthetic fibres and mixed with lime, fly ash, cement,
pond ash and rice husk ash [13-20].

Natural fibres such as flax, coir, sisal, jute, hemp and cotton are proving to be a cost-effective method
of the soil reinforcement. Among these natural fibres, coir fibres are proven to have good tensile
strength, stiffness, hydraulic properties and resistance to bio-degradation over a long period as
reported by Girish and Ayyar [21]. Coir fibre contains the higher amount of cellulose and lignin along
with hemicelluloses and pectin. Cellulose provides strength, stiffness, and stability to the fibre.
However, it contains a large amount of hydroxyl group, which makes coir fibre hydrophilic in nature. It
leads to poor resistance against moisture absorption and weak interfacial bonding when used as
reinforcement. Lignin gives rigidity and ensures the protection of the fibre against biological attack.
Hemicellulose is hydrophilic in nature and contains a large number of hydroxyl and acetyl groups. It is
bonded to cellulose by hydrogen bonds. The flexibility of coir fibre is provided by pectin. Due to the
presence of free hydroxyl and oxygen- containing groups in the fibres, it has the tendency to attract
water molecules through hydrogen bond formation resulting in swelling of the fibres. This causes the
exposition of the cellulose molecules of the fibre to microbial attacks. The microbial attacks degrade
and reduce the strength of the fibre. Similarly, when coir fibre is exposed to the chemical environment,
hydrolysis, oxidation or dehydration reactions occur resulting into reduction in the tensile strength of
the coir fibre. To improve the durability, interfacial adhesion, and minimize the loss of strength, fibres
are required to be treated with some physical or chemical method which reduces moisture absorption
and makes fibre less hydrophilic by blocking free hydroxyl groups present in the fibre [22-24].

4
Because of its high lignin content, it can effectively be used for improving the performance of
embankments, controlling soil erosion, landfill liner and pavement sub-grade as reported by many
researchers [25-28]. The durability characteristics of coir fibres can be improved by treating it with
phenol and bitumen, which is easily available. The phenol and bitumen treatment reduce the
hydrophilicity of coir fibres by targeting the hydroxyl groups present on or within the coir fibres and
substitute the hydroxyl group by hydrophobic functional groups. The tensile strength and water
repellence of coir fibres are enhanced with the treatment of phenol–formaldehyde (PF) resin. The
hydrogen bond cross-linked the coir fibres and resin, which subsequently connect weakly bonded
networks through secondary bonds [29, 30].

Alkali treatment (NaOH treatment) of the coir fibre is highly effective to improve the physical,
mechanical and durability properties of the fibre. It reduces their hydrophilic character and blocks
hydroxyl group associated with the formation of bonds between cellulose fibres and rest of the matrix.
This reduces the water absorption of coir fibre and improves the mechanical and durability properties
of the fibre. Alkali treatment also removes the hemi-celluloses and split the fibre into fibrils, which
plays a significant role in enhancing the interfacial strength of the fibres [22-24].

The effect of chemical treatment of coir fibres on the compressive strength of clay has been studied
through a series of laboratory tests. The study reveals that unconfined compressive strength of treated
coir fibre reinforced clay is higher than that of the untreated one [31]. Rao and Balan [32] reported a
significant improvement in the strength and stiffness of sand by the addition of coir fibres. The effect of
addition of coir fibres on engineering properties of expansive soils by carrying out tri-axial shear tests,
swelling potential and consolidation tests have been studied by various researchers [25-27]. They
reported that shear strength parameters of the soil increase as fibre content increases. The effect of
the influence of coir fibres on the shear strength of clay has been investigated by Maliakal et al. [27].
They reported that gain in strength was smaller when fibre content increased beyond 1% for cohesive
soils. The investigations of the tensile and compressive strength of natural and treated soft soils have
been carried out by Anggraini et al. [28]. The addition of lime, coir fibres and prolonging the curing

5
period had significantly increased the tensile and compressive strength of soil. However, information
regarding the effect of fibre reinforcement on the geotechnical behaviour of cemented clay mixed with
pond ash is scarce.

The paper presents the outcome of the study carried out for stabilization of clay by mixing pond ash,
cement, and treated coir fibres. The standard Proctor tests, unconfined compressive strength and split
tensile strength tests were performed on the various combinations. The use of pond ash for
stabilization of cohesive soil along with other additives can lead to the cost-effective and
environmentally friendly way of its disposal. Wishful use of the waste materials would reduce the
utilization of cement for such purposes, which ultimately lead to the saving in energy and greenhouse
gas emissions. The proposed technique of soil stabilization can cause significant modification and
improvement for the construction of foundations, pavements, and retaining structures on poor
cohesive problematic soils.

2. Materials

2.1 Soil

The soil used in this investigation is Illite clay taken from Kanota, a town near Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.
The soil is classified as clay of medium compressibility, CI as per Indian Standard Soil Classification
system (IS 1498-1970) [33] and on the basis of plasticity index, it is classified as clay of medium
plasticity. Properties of soil used in the study are listed in Table 1. Fig. 1 illustrates the mineralogical
characterization of clay using the X –ray diffraction technique. The peak value or intensity (counts or
cts) value of illite is 678.95 (at diffraction angle 2θ=26.668). The other minerals found in the soil sample
are Quartz (SiO2), Calcite (CaCO3), Hercynite (Al2FeO4), Kaolinite and iron oxides such as Magnetite
(Fe3O4) and Hematite (Fe2O3), which occur in the crystalline form, are represented by the peak
characteristic as shown in Fig. 2. The particle morphology of clay is analysed from micrographs

6
obtained with the help of scanning electron microscope (Nova Nano FE-SEM 450 (FEI)). Fig. 2 reveals
the SEM image of clay. The soil particles are irregular in shape. An agglomeration of fine particles
around the coarse particles is also noticeable in the micrograph.

Table 1 Properties of Soil

Soil properties Values

Specific gravity 2.69

Liquid Limit (%) 35.5

Plastic Limit (%) 24.8

Plasticity Index 10.7

Maximum Dry Unit Weight (kN/m3) 18.9

Optimum Moisture Content (%) 14.1

Fig. 1. The X -ray diffraction analysis of Soil

Fig. 2. SEM image of Soil

2.2 Pond ash

7
The pond ash used in the investigation was found to be a poorly graded material with particles ranging
from medium sand to silt size, light grey in colour and non –plastic in nature. It was obtained from the
ash pond of Kota Thermal Power Station Kota (KTPS), Rajasthan, India by excavation of recent fills up to
a depth of 1.20 m from the top surface. The ash may be classified as Class F-type according to ASTM
specification C618-12 (2012) [34]. The physical and chemical properties of pond ash are shown in Table
2 and Table 3 respectively. The mineralogical characterization of pond ash as shown in Fig. 3 indicates
that the most common phases and minerals found in the pond ash are quartz and mullite. The most
intense peak is observed near 2θ=26.652 for quartz. The presence of aluminium oxide and calcium
aluminium oxide is identified by peaks occurring near 2θ=43.685 and 2θ=33.242 respectively. The
occurrence iron minerals in the form of magnetite and hematite at peaks near 2θ=35.423 and
2θ=33.153 respectively are also found the diffractogram. From particle morphology of pond ash, as
shown in Fig. 4, it is analysed that the pond ash samples, mostly consist of spherical particles.
Irregularity in the shape of some pond ash particles is also noticed which is due to the presence of
crushed bottom ash particles.

Table 2 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Pond Ash

Pond ash properties Values

Specific gravity 2.12

Coarse Sand (%) (2 mm- 4.75 mm size) 1.70

Medium Sand (%) (425µ-2 mm size) 12.50

Fine Sand (%) (75 µ- 425 µ size) 43.50

Silt & Clay (%) (< 75 µ size) 42.30

Maximum Dry Unit Weight (kN/m3) 12.38

8
Optimum Moisture Content (%) 27.6

Table 3 Chemical properties of pond ash

Oxide compounds Values (%)

Calcium oxide (CaO) 6.75

Silica (SiO2) 57.97

Alumina (Al2O3) 20.0

Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 7.54

Magnesia (MgO) 1.60

Others 0.35

Loss on ignition 5.79

Fig. 3. The X -ray diffraction analysis of Pond ash

9
 Fig. 4. SEM image of Pond ash

2.3 Ordinary Portland cement (OPC-43 Grade)

Portland cement of Binani Cement Company was used to bond the clay-pond ash mixtures with fibres.
The physical and chemical properties of cement are shown in Table 4 and Table 5.

Table 4 Physical characteristics of cement

Properties Values

Fineness (Dry sieving, %) 3.5

Specific gravity, G 3.12

Standard consistency, % 39

Initial setting time, minutes 35

Final setting time, minutes 600

Soundness (Expansion, mm) 4

Compressive strength (MPa,28 days) 44.5

Table 5 Chemical properties of cement

10
 Characteristic Requirement Content

(as per IS 8112:2013)[35]

Lime Saturation Factor (%) 0.66-1.02 0.78

Alumina Iron Ratio (%) Min. 0.66 0.69

Insoluble Residue (%) Max 4.0 3.60

Magnesia (%) Max. 6.0 5.75

Sulphuric Anhydride (%) Max 3.5 3.20

Loss on Ignition (%) Max. 5.0 4.88

2.4 Fibres

In this investigation, coir fibres are treated with sodium hydroxide before using it as reinforcement for
cement stabilized clay-pond ash mixtures. Known weights of coir fibres were soaked in 5% (0.1 N)
NaOH solution for 24 hours. Concentration and composition of NaOH were kept as Carbonate 2%,
Chloride 0.01%, Sulphate 0.05%, Potassium 0.1%, Silicate 0.05%, and Zinc 0.02%, respectively. After 24
hours, the fibres were removed from the beaker. The treated coir fibres were washed with water to
remove the residual alkali from the fibre surface. Then, allowed to dry at room temperature (270 C ±
20C) for 7 days. Finally, the dried treated coir fibres were stored in airtight plastic bags. Other
researchers also used the same treatment method for coir fibres [24, 31]. The length and diameter of

11
coir fibres play key role in the reinforcement mechanism. It was reported that using shorter fibers
(10mm), the surface area in contact with soil is comparatively less and hence there is less pullout
resistance resulting in less strength improvement, whereas sample preparation with longer fibers
(30mm) is difficult. A large number of fibers were reported to be projected out of the specimen and
ineffective as reinforcement. The fibers of large diameter increase the pull-out resistance and capable
of sharing more stresses induced in the soil [25]. Yan et al. [22] reported that tensile strength of the
fibre decreases as the length of fibre increases due to the higher probability of presence of the defect
like kink bands in longer fibre and failure through weak pectin inter phase oriented in the length
direction of the fibre. Keeping in view the above facts, coir fibres of length 13-15mm and diameter
0.25-0.35mm were used in this investigation. Fig. 5 illustrates the SEM image of untreated and NaOH
treated coir fibre surface. The alkali treatment disrupted the hydrogen bonding in the fibre surface and
increased the surface roughness [24]. The characteristics of coir fibre are given in Table 6, provided by
the manufacturer.

Fig. 5. SEM image of coir fibre: (a) untreated and (b) treated with NaOH

Table 6 Coir fibre characteristics

Properties Values

Length (mm) 13–15

Density (kN/m3) 14.0

Average breaking elongation (%) 30

Average diameter (mm) 0.25–0.35

12
 Average tensile strength (MPa) 90–100

3. Preparation of mixtures:

The general expression for the total dry weight W of clay –pond ash –cement –treated coir fibre
mixture is

W =WS+WPA+WC+ WCF (1)

Where WS, WPA, WC, WCF is the weight of soil, pond ash, cement, and treated coir fibre respectively.
The details of various combinations on which standard proctor tests unconfined compressive strength,
and split tensile strength tests were carried out are presented in Table 7. In preparation of all types of
specimens, first the required amount of clay and pond ash was measured and mixed in the dry state.
For uncemented and unreinforced clay-pond ash mixtures, the necessary amount of water was mixed
corresponding to the optimum moisture content of clay-pond ash mixture. If the cement was to be
added for stabilization of the clay-pond ash mixture, the dry clay-pond ash mixture was first mixed with
cement and then water was added to the mix as per requirements. The combination had cement and
treated coir fibres, a moist mixture of clay -pond ash –cement was prepared as per the requirement,
and then treated coir fibres were added to the mixtures. Proper care was taken to obtain a
homogeneous and uniform mixture of all the combination at each stage of mixing.

Table 7 Details of soil-pond ash –cement-coir fibre mixtures for tests conducted

13
W= WS +WPA +WC + WCF Variation of Ws Variation of WPA Variation of WC Variation of WCF

(% by total dry weight)

Combination 1 90, 80, 70 10, 20, 30 0 0

Combination 2 88, 78, 68, 86, 76, 66 10, 20, 30 2, 4 0

Combination 3 87.5, 77.5, 67.5, 85.5, 10, 20, 30 2, 4 0.5

75.5, 65.5

Combination 4 87, 77, 67, 85, 75, 65 10, 20, 30 2, 4 1.0

Combination 5 86.5, 76.5, 66.5, 84.5, 10, 20, 30 2, 4 1.5

74.5, 64.5

4. Experimental Investigations

To examine the probability of enhancing the engineering characteristics of the cohesive soil, using
waste materials such as pond ash and naturally available eco-friendly coir fibres with the comparatively
lower quantity of cement exhaustive experimental investigation was carried out. The standard Proctor
test, unconfined compressive strength and split tensile strength tests was performed.

4.1 Compaction test

14
The moisture and density relationship plays a key role on the geotechnical behaviour of soil. The series
of light compaction tests on the various combinations of clay –pond ash–cement –treated coir fibre
mixtures as illustrated in Table 7 were performed to obtain the maximum dry unit weight and optimum
moisture content (OMC) as per IS 2720 (VII): 1980 [36]. The results of this test are useful in the stability
of field problems like earthen dams, embankments, roads and airfields.

4.2 Unconfined compressive strength test

Unconfined compressive strength tests were carried out on various combinations as presented in Table
7. The specimens of 38.1mm dia. and 76.2 mm length was prepared as per IS 2720 (X): 1980 [37]. Three
identical specimens of each combination were prepared to minimize the error due to materials, test
conditions and for making test results more reliable. All the specimens were kept in the air tight
polythene bags and stored in a desiccator at 250C temperature for a curing period of 7, 14, and 28
days. The loading rate of 1 mm/min was applied to the samples until the samples failed in the test.

4.3 Split tensile strength test

The tensile stresses are induced in the earth structures due to the movement of vehicles, reduction in
volume due to shrinkage, alternate drying and wetting of soils, and thermal stresses due to seasonal
variation in the temperature. For determination of tensile strength of soils direct tensile, split-cylinder
test (split tensile strength test), bending tests, and double punch tensile test are used. In the present
investigation, the split tensile strength tests were performed according to ASTM C 496-96 [38]. For
determining the tensile strength of soil, which is required for estimation of stability analysis of earthen
slopes, embankments in highways, railways and airfield pavements. The specimens of the same

15
dimension as used in determining the unconfined compressive strength were prepared in the same
manner and cured for 7, 14, and 28 days. The specimens of standard dimension were kept between the
plates of the machine for the tensile strength. The rate of strain was kept 1mm/min. During the test, a
uniform bearing pressure was maintained. For this purpose, mild steel strips of curved shape were kept
at the contact surface of specimens. 10 mm wide and 76.2mm long, strips having thickness 5 mm was
used. Three specimens of each combination were prepared and tested.

5. Results and Discussion

To evaluate and understand the influence of pond ash and treated coir fibres on the compaction and
strength characteristics of cemented clay the test results of standard Proctor test, unconfined
compression tests and split tensile strength tests are presented in the sections to follow.

5.1 Compaction tests

The variation of maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content of different mixtures of clay
–pond ash –treated coir fibres stabilized by 2% and 4% cement content is presented in Fig. 6(a) and Fig.
6(b). The reduction in dry unit weight and an increase in the optimum moisture content (OMC) were
observed when pond ash was added to the clayey soil. The low specific gravity of pond ash causes the
reduction in dry unit weight of the mixtures. The reason for increased OMC may probably be due to an
increased amount of finer material having a larger specific area, which requires more quantity of water
for lubrication of particles. When cement was added to the clay-pond ash mixtures, the dry unit weight
decreases and OMC increases. The cement reacts rapidly with the clay-pond ash mixture, causing
changes in Base Exchange Aggregation (BEA) and flocculation phenomenon. The void ratio of the
mixture is increased due to flocculation process. The increase in void ratio causes the decrease in the
dry unit weight of the mix. The increase in OMC may be attributed to the absorption of water,

16
development of heat of hydration and additional water held within the flocs resulting from
flocculation. With the introduction of treated coir fibres in the mix, further reduction in dry unit weight
and the increment of OMC was noticed. This can be attributed to the low specific gravity of coir fibres
and lubricating effect of absorbed water by coir fibres, which mitigate the compaction impact.

Fig. 6 Variation of (a) Dry unit weight (b) Optimum moisture content with percentage of pond ash of
cement stabilized containing various percentages of treated coir fibres.

5.2 Unconfined compressive strength tests

The axial stress- strain behaviour of uncemented clay-pond ash mixtures are shown in Fig. 7(a). The
peak stress at 10% and 20% replacement of clay by pond ash is quite comparable to that of clay, but at
30% replacement, a drop in the peak stress was observed, i.e., from 121.7 kPa to102.61 kPa, which is
perhaps due to slippage between the sub rounded particles of pond ash and irregular particles of soil.
This sudden drop in peak stress of clay–pond ash mixtures indicates the brittle behaviour of materials.
The effect of inclusion of cement on the peak stress and axial strain at failure of unreinforced clay –
pond ash mixtures is shown in Fig. 7(b). The peak stress of the uncemented clay –pond ash mixture at
10% replacement increases from 119.17 kPa to 234.17 kPa and 431.34 kPa, with the addition of 2% and
4% cement after 28 days of curing. At higher replacement (30%) of clay by pond ash and stabilized with
cement, there is a reduction in the peak stress values as compared to 10% replacement. There is a
greater rate of loss of post-peak strength observed in Fig. 7(b), which indicates the brittle behaviour of
unreinforced cemented clay -pond ash mixtures. The tension cracks are clearly noticed in the
unreinforced specimens from bottom to top as shown in Fig. 8. These observations are similar to the
findings of other researchers also.

Fig. 7. Variations of Stress- Strain of clay mixed (a) with pond ash only (b) with pond ash and stabilized
with 2% and 4% cement (after 28 days of curing)

17
* PA- Pond ash, C- Cement

Fig. 8. Failure characteristic of unreinforced specimen under unconfined compression strength test

The combined effect of inclusion of cement (2% and 4%) and treated coir fibre (0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%)
on the axial stress-axial strain characteristics of the clay –pond ash mixtures at 10%, 20% and 30%
replacement after curing of 28 days is shown in Fig. 9(a)- (c). From these plots, it is observed that with
the increase in the treated coir fibre content up to 1%, there is an increment in the peak axial stress.
This increase in peak stress is perhaps due to the development of friction between the particles of
composite and fibre, which make it difficult for the particles that nearby fibres to change their position
from one point to another and leads to the improvement in the frictional resistance to the force
applied. Upon comparison with Fig. 7(b), it can be seen that the inclusion of treated coir fibres changes
the brittleness of the response to ductile. The failure strain of unreinforced cement stabilized clay-
pond ash mixtures ranged from 6.9% to 10.75%, which increased with the inclusion of treated coir
fibres and ranged from 12.70% to 16.75%, respectively. The axial stress of unreinforced cement
stabilized clay-pond ash mixtures increases up to failure axial strain, followed by a sudden drop. While
the reduction of post-peak stress of fibre reinforced cement stabilized clay-pond ash mixture is gradual
and followed by a post-peak softening behaviour. It is due to the surface roughness of the treated coir
fibre, which facilitates mechanical interlocking between the fibre and rest of composite [28]. As a
result, it reduces the rate of loss of the post-peak strength of the reinforced composite as compared to
the unreinforced one. The smaller rate of loss of post-peak strength is an indication of improvement in
the ductility of the composite with the inclusion of fibres [17]. In addition, Fig. 9(a)-(c) show that the
initial stiffness of the composite does not change by the percentage of treated coir fibres. Fig. 10 shows

18
the influence of fibres on failure pattern. It is clear that as the fibre content increases, the tension
cracks gradually become narrower and shorter in the reinforced composite.

Fig. 9. Variation of Stress - Strain at (a) 10%; (b) 20%; (c) 30% replacement of cemented soil by pond
ash and reinforced with Coir fibres (after 28 days of curing) * C- Cement, CF-Coir Fibres

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 10. Influence of fibre content on failure pattern of treated clay-pond ash (10%) mixture with 2%
cement content: (a) 0.5% coir fibre (b) 1% coir fibre (c) 1.5% coir fibre

The reduction in post- peak stress is gradual up to 20% replacement of cemented clay by pond ash and
reinforced with treated coir fibres. On comparing Fig. 9(a)-(c), it is readily observed that the UCS of the
cement-stabilized fibre-reinforced clay –pond ash mixes decreases with the increase in the percentage
of pond ash; however, it is found more than that of clay. The UCS decreases non-linearly with the
addition of pond ash. From the Fig. 9(a)-(c) it can also be observed that the peak axial stress value of
various combinations with the inclusion of 1.5% coir fibres content decreases. The possible reason for
the reduction in strength may be due to the formation of lumps of coir fibres, which does not allow the
further improvement in the strength. Fig. 9(c) illustrates that there is a drop in the post -peak stress
value, which may be due to the inability of the composite to impede the external load applied and a
weak interaction between the coir fibres and the cemented clay- pond ash particles.

Fig. 11 shows the effect of curing on the UCS of the various combinations at 2% and 4% cement
content. The UCS values of the various combinations are significantly affected by the content of pond

19
ash, cement, treated coir fibres and curing period. The UCS of the mixes increases as the curing period
increases. Initially, the rate of increment in the strength is high after that the same is not that much
prominent which is perhaps due to the pozzolanic reaction that accelerates during the initial curing
period. The partial replacement, of pond ash up to 20%, stabilized with 2% and 4% cement and
reinforced with 1% treated coir fibre content favourable results are obtained. There after a higher
reduction in the UCS values (at 30% replacement of clay by pond ash stabilized with 2% and 4% cement
and reinforced with 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% coir fibres) are observed. However, UCS values for the said
composite are always found more than that of clay alone.

Fig. 11. Variation of Unconfined compressive strength with Coir fibres content (%) for different
percentage of Pond ash at (a) 2% cement (b) 4% cement

5.3 Split tensile strength tests

Results from split tensile strength tests performed on the composite were presented in Fig. 12 and Fig.
13. As can be seen from Fig. 11, the STS of uncemented clay-pond ash mixtures up to 20% are
comparable to that of soil. Fig. 13(a)-(c) shows the variation of STS with coir fibre content of
combinations after the curing period of 7, 14, and 28 days. It is observed that the STS value increases
with increase in the curing period for all combinations. The gain in split tensile strength follows the
similar trend as that for compressive strength. As the percentage of pond ash increases, the split
tensile strength decreases but, however, more than of soil. The curves showed that the addition of 1%
fibres in various mixes gives the better results of all fibre contents taken in this investigation. The
inclusion of fibres can effectively diminish the deformation of the composite and further development
of tension crack due to bridge effect. With the increase in the fibre content up to 1%, the effective
contact area between fibres and the particles of mix increases, causing an increase in interfacial friction

20
between them. This possibly causes the increase in the strength. At fibre content, more than 1%, the
interaction between fibre to particles of composite decreases and fibre-to-fibre interaction dominates
because of the increase in the relative volume occupied by the fibres, which possibly leads to the
reduction in strength.

Fig. 12. Variation of stress-strain for soil mixed with pond ash under tensile loads.

Fig. 13. Variation of STS with varying amount of coir fibres for different combinations after curing
period (a) 7 days (b) 14 days (c) 28 days

6. Conclusions

This study has investigated the behaviour of clay mixed with pond ash, cement, and treated coir
fibres through a series of standard Proctor tests, unconfined compressive strength and split tensile
strength tests in addition to the characterization of materials. The following conclusions are drawn
from this investigation:

1. There is a decrease in maximum dry unit weight and an increase in OMC of the clay-pond ash
mixtures, as the content of the pond ash increases. The decrease in the maximum dry unit
weight is more significant at the higher percentage of pond ash in the composite. This may
be attributed to the relatively low specific gravity of the pond ash particles.
2. The addition of cement content and coir fibres to the clay-pond ash mixture has decreased
the maximum dry unit weight and increased the optimum moisture content because of the

21
 flocculation process and lubricating effect of absorbed water by coir fibres, which mitigate the
compaction impact.
3. The UCS of cement (2% and 4%) stabilized clay- pond ash mixtures at 10% replacement
increased by 1.96 and 3.61 times after 28 days of curing as compared to uncemented clay-pond
ash mixtures at the same replacement. There is a sudden drop in the strength and greater rate
of loss of post-peak strength of unreinforced mixtures indicating the brittle behaviour of the
composite. The tension cracks are clearly noticed in the unreinforced specimens from bottom
to top.
4. The UCS and STS of the composite are found to increase with increasing the percentage of
cement (2% and 4%) and coir fibres up to 1% fibre content and decreases with increasing the
percentage of pond ash.
5. The strength of cemented clay -pond ash mixture increases with an increase in the curing
period.
6. The UCS of clay-pond ash mixtures (at 10% replacement) reinforced with 1% coir fibres and
stabilized with 2% cement is found to be 2.55times greater than that of clay alone. This value is
observed to be 4.84 times, with a cement content of 4%. The addition of fibres suppresses the
cracks remarkably. The propagation of cracks decreased with increasing fibre content. It is
observed that as the fibre content increases, the tension cracks gradually become narrower and
shorter in the reinforced composite.
7. The STS of cement stabilized (2% and 4%) clay-pond ash mixtures (at 10% replacement) with 1%
coir fibre reinforcement is found to be 2.39 times and 4.17 times greater than that of clay
alone, respectively.
8. At a higher replacement of clay by pond ash (30%), peak stress value is observed to be
decreased for all mixtures. However, it is found to be more than that of clay. The reduction in
the post -peak stress value may be due to the inability of the composite to impede the external
super imposed load and a weak interaction between the coir fibres and the cemented clay-
pond ash particles.
9. Compared with unreinforced cement stabilized clay-pond ash mixtures, coir fibre inclusion
improves the axial strain corresponding to peak axial stress by approximately 2 times and

22
 lowers the rate of loss of post-peak strength. The inclusion of coir fibre reduces the brittleness
and causes a gradual reduction in post-peak strength, which ultimately improves the ductility.
10. At fibre content, more than 1%, a reduction in the strength is observed. It is possibly due to

decrease in the interaction between fibre to particles of composite and dominancy of fibre-to-
fibre interaction because of the increase in the relative volume occupied by the fibres.
11. The combination of treated coir fibres (1%) and cement has the virtue of clay- pond ash mixes

up to 20% replacement, can be considered as an efficient method for ground improvement.

7. Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to the staff of Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory and Material Research
Centre for their support in carrying out the laboratory experiments at Malaviya National Institute of
Technology Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. The Authors would like to pay sincere thanks to the esteemed
reviewers for their valuable comments for improvement in the quality of the paper.

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Highlights

· Treated coir fibres and pond ash was incorporated in cement-stabilized clay.
· Aim was to utilize the pond ash and treated coir fibres for improving the geotechnical
properties of clay.
· Pond ash may be included upto 20% in the cement-stabilized clayey soils.
· Inclusion of treated coir fibres improved the axial strain at failure, reduced the stiffness and
rate of loss of post-peak strength.

27
Figure 1 700 I

I
Q- Quartz
600 Q Ca- Calcite
He- Hercynite
I- Illite
500
Ma- Magnettite
H- Hemattite
400 K- Kaolinite
Ma Mu- Muscovite
Ca H
300
Mu
Ma
Mu I
200 H He

Intensity (Counts)
K
100

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Angle (2 Theta)
Figure 2
Click here to download high resolution image
Figure 3
3000 Q Q- Quartz
Ma- Magnetite
2500 H- Hematite
C-Calcium Aluminum Oxide
Al- Aluminunm Oxide
2000 M- Mullite

Q
1500

1000

Intensity (Counts)
Q H
M H
C Ma Al
500
Q
M M Q
M

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Angle (2 Theta)
Figure 4
Click here to download high resolution image
Figure 5(a)
Click here to download high resolution image
Figure 5(b)
Click here to download high resolution image
 6(a)
Figure19.0 0% CF, 0% C
(a) 0% CF, 2% C
0% CF, 4% C
18.5 0.5% CF, 2% C
0.5% CF, 4% C
1% CF, 2% C
18.0 1% CF, 4% C

3
1.5% CF, 2% C
1.5% CF, 4% C
17.5

17.0

16.5

Dry unit weight (kN/m )

16.0

15.5
10 20 30
Pond ash (%)
Figure 6(b)
18.0 0% CF, 0% C
(b) 0% CF, 2% C
0% CF, 4% C
17.5
0.5% CF, 2% C
0.5% CF, 4% C
17.0 1% CF, 2% C
1% CF, 4% C
1.5% CF, 2% C
16.5 1.5% CF, 4% C

16.0

15.5

15.0

Optimum moisture content (%)

14.5

14.0
10 20 30
Pond ash (%)
Figure 7(a)
150
(a) 0% PA
10% PA
125 20% PA
30% PA

100

75

50

Axial stress (kPa)

25

0
0 3 6 9 12

Axial strain (%)

Figure 7(b)
500
(b) 10% PA, 2% C
10% PA, 4% C
20% PA, 2% C
400 20% PA, 4% C
30% PA, 2% C
30% PA, 4% C
300

200

Axial stress (kPa)

100

0
0 3 6 9 12 15

Axial strain (%)

Figure 8
Click here to download high resolution image
 9(a)
Figure800

(a)
700 0.5% CF, 2% C
0.5% CF, 4% C
600 1% CF, 2% C
1% CF, 4% C
500 1.5% CF, 2% C
1.5% CF, 4% C
400

300

Axial stress (kPa)

200

100

0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18

Axial strain (%)

 9(b)
Figure800

(b)
700 0.5% CF, 2% C
0.5% CF, 4% C
600 1% CF, 2% C
1% CF, 4% C
500 1.5% CF, 2% C
1.5% CF, 4% C
400

300

Axial stress (kPa)

200

100

0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18

Axial strain (%)

 9(c)
Figure400
(c)
350 0.5% CF, 2% C
0.5% CF, 4% C
300 1% CF, 2% C
1% CF, 4% C
1.5% CF, 2% C
250
1.5% CF, 4% C

200

150

Axial stress (kPa)

100

50

0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18

Axial Strain (%)

Figure 10(a)
Click here to download high resolution image
Figure 10(b)
Click here to download high resolution image
Figure 10(c)
Click here to download high resolution image
 Figure
35011(a)
(a)

300
10% PA , 7 days
10% PA , 14 days
10% PA , 28 days
250
20% PA , 7 days
20% PA , 14 days
200
20% PA , 28 days
30% PA , 7 days
30% PA , 14 days
150 30% PA , 28 days

Unconfined compressive strength (kPa)

100
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Coir fibre content (%)

 Figure
60011(b)
(b)
10% PA , 7 days
10% PA , 14 days
500 10% PA , 28 days
20% PA , 7 days
20% PA , 14 days
20% PA , 28 days
400 30% PA , 7 days
30% PA , 14 days
30% PA , 28 days
300

Unconfined compressive strength (kPa)

200
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Coir fibre content (%)

Figure 12
14 0% PA
10% PA
20% PA
12
30% PA

10

Axial stress (kPa)

4

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Axail strain (%)

Figure 13(a)
60 10 % PA , 2% C
(a) 10 % PA , 4% C
20 % PA , 2% C
50 20 % PA , 4% C
30 % PA , 2% C
30 % PA , 4% C
40

30

20

Split tensile strength (kPa)

10

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Coir fibre content (%)

Figure 13(b)
10 % PA , 2% C
70
(b) 10 % PA , 4% C
20 % PA , 2% C
60 20 % PA , 4% C
30 % PA , 2% C
50
30 % PA , 4% C

40

30

20

Split tensile strength (kPa)

10

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Coir fibre content (%)

Figure 13(c)
10 % PA , 2% C
80
(c) 10 % PA , 4% C
20 % PA , 2% C
70
20 % PA , 4% C
30 % PA , 2% C
60
30 % PA , 4% C

50

40

30

20

Split tensile strength (kPa)

10

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Coir fibre content (%)