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Princi pies of
Singapore
Busiuess
Law

UY
LOO WEE LING
 ... CENGAGE

Principles of Slngapor,e O 2020 The Authors

Business Law, Third Edi tion
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by 1he
Edited by copyright herein may b-e reproduced, transmitted, stored
Loo Wee Ling or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic.
or mechanjcal, In cluding but n ot limited to ph otocopying.

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Development Editors:
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THIRD EDITION Elaine Chew ISBN: 978·981-48·7584·4
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Every errori has been made to trace all sources and copyr lght
holders of news arucles, Hgures and lnformJtion In this
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the earl!est oppon unlty.

Printed in
A.ustroli<> • Br•nl • • Su1goporc • United Ktngdom • Un1led St11tH Prini Number: 0 I Prinl Year: 2019
 This page inremio11a//y left bhmk

To Our Students
 Conttnts

Chapter 8 Consideration and Intention to Create Legal Relations 199

Loo Wee Ling
Chapter 9 Capacity and Privily of Contract 233
Contents Loo Wee Ling

Preface to the T11ird Edition ix Contents of Contract

List of Autlwrs xi Chapter Hi Terms of the Contract 273
Table of Cases xiii
Loo Wee Ung
Table of Si11gaporc tegislatio11 xxxv
Table of Foreign L-egislntion u;; Chapter 11 Exemption Clauses 311
Table of Treaties 11nd Conventions Iv George Slwioy & Dorws Quek Anderson

Vitiating Factors
PART I INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS LAW
Chapter 12 Mistake 341
Chapter I Business, Society and the La\\r 3
Lee Pey Wom1 & Keuuy Chug
Gary Chan & foge11e K /j 1rm
Chapter 13 Misrepresentation 373
Chapter 2 An Overview of S.ingapore Legal History and Development 25
I.ow Kee Ym1g
Et,gene K B 'ffHI
Chapter 14 Economic Duress, Undue Influence and Unconscionability 397
Chapter 3 Legal Processes and Institutions 41
Pearlie Koh
Gnry C/inn
Chapter IS Illegality and Public Policy 425
Aune Magdnliue Netto & La11 Kwan Ho
PART II BUSINESS CRIMES AND BUSINESS TORTS
Chapter 4 Business Cri1nes 69 Discharge of Contract
Low Kee Ytmg & Mclinfl Chew Chapter 16 Perforn1ance and Breach of Contr;;lct 455
Chapter 5 Business Torts 87 Alvin Sec
Lee Pey Wom1 Chapter 17 Frustration 479
Chapter 6 Negligence 125 Low Kee Ynng
Gnry Chnn Chapter IS Remedies for Brench of Contract 499
Alvi11 See
PART Ill THE LAW OF CONTRACT
Comparative Contract Law
Formation of C.ontract Chapter 19 Comparative Contract Law 527
Chapter 7 Offer nnd Acceptance 167 Howard Hul!ler
George Slie11oy & Eunice Cluw

Vi
 Conttnts

PART IV SPECIAL AREAS OF BUSINESS LAW

Chapter 20 Agency 559
Penr/ic Kolr
Chapter 21 Business 583 711is page i111e111io11ally left bhmk
Penrlie Kolr
Chapter 22 Sale of Goods 613
Steplren Bull
Chapter 23 Intellcctual Property 673
Saw Clreng Lim & Gladys Tan
Chapter 24 Information Technology 715
Warren Chik
Chapter 25 Co1npl!tition Law 749
Hnwnrd Hunter
Chapter 26 International llusil,ess 777
Austin P11/ltl

Subject Index 821

vii
 Prcftoe to the Third Edmon

Breach of Contract: rrspcc1ivtly. by Alvin See. Several (other) nt\v authors - l!unice
Chua, Dorcas Quek Anderson. Gladi•s Tan and Kenny Chng - came on board to
update and add their wisdom to txi>ting chapters.
Preface to the Third Edition The many who have faithfully contributed time and effort in brmging out th1>
enhanced third edition deserve my hear1re1t thanks. My special thank< go to 1he
In 2006, the idea lor the Principle.< or Singapore Busincs. L•w was born. II took authors for their kind cooperation and dcdicn11on in this endeavour, despite their
root from a desire to have a >Uitablc textbook for non-low undergraduates taking the bu>y schedules. Special thanks too •re due to the publishers, Cengage Learning
Rusincss Law course 111 the Management University (SMU). 'Ille was nnd their staff, in pal'liculor their Senior Bdilorial Manager, Han l.rnn Siew, nnd
10 go beyond laying out basic principles of Singapore business law 10 engaging the Senior Editor. Kennclh Chow, for Iheir unwavering eJTorts in ensuring
student in deeper reflection of some of the more compkx legal is>ues. 1 his vision was a volume we can be proud of.
set in motion when I.ow Kee Yo11g, then Interim Dean of the soon· to·be SMU School 111e previous editions have served our inlended readers well • student< ond
of Law, encouraged and my erstwhile colleague, George Shenoy, to helm the imtruclors of S.\·I U and other educational 1mlilutions, and lay business person>. My
project as cO·ednor• An initial team of 16 faculti• and one adiunct member of the hope is that the third edition wtll do hkeMse.
School of l.aw brought their years of experience In pracuet, mdustry >.od academia
together m the \\Tiiing of the first edition of 2009. School of Law Loo Wee Ling
As we embarked on the proicct, we rt:tlised th•t the lay business pcr>on, apart Singapore Management University /!t/11or
from Business Law ;tudents from SMU or other 1erllary would have July 2019
use for such a work. And so the needs of non-law students •nd the wider business
community were reflected in the choice of topics in the inili.11 and subsequent editions
of the work. The;e included essrntial topics in contract lnw, bu;iness torts and crimes.
and selected lop1cs of relevance to business such ai: ngcncy, business organisat ions.
i11tclltctual property, information technology :md compctllion lnw. 'lhe topics of
comparative co111roc1 lt•w and International busines< provide the global persp<"<'.live so
in Ihb crn.
We worked 111 features to aid understanding of the kgal concepts - diagrams,
table< and figure' 1ha1 help to illu1mna1e the inter-relauon<h1p of the many legal
rules, and 1llu.irat1ve c.s .. to pro,,de elucidation. 'Reflec1mg on the law' boxe< serve
to nudge the tt•drr to think about the more complex but ..sue> and the
unsettled ones. We 1001. can- 10 reduce lcg3lese, where po>S1ble.
The $UCCess of the lim edition saw the bringing out of the •tcond in 2013. With
the retirement of George Shenoy. I now bring to you, •• the •ole editor. the third
ed111on In 2019. ·n1e law i< as st.a1cd on 4 May 20t9.
As with the first and second editions, it is a collective effort. We sought 10 do
rnorc updutc the Jaw; we )Ou,ghl lo in1prove upon the previous editions., ntaking
change> to enh:111ce the pedagogical v11lue. In line with 1111>. o nu mber of in
the 3rd cdilion were porlinll)' 01• suhslnntialli• ·111rcc choplrrs were writlen
anew - Chapter 4 on 'llu;iuess Crimes' by Low Kee Yang and Melina Chew, ond
Cha1>ter• 16 and 18 on ' Perfo1111once. Breach and Agreement ' ,md 'Remedies for

x
 list of Autho"

Sow Cheng Lim

UM (U"'-5.ty of camtiridge). Advocalt & SolocllO< (Singajlo<e). Associaie Prol9$SOI' of Law (SMU)

List of Authors George Shenoy

PhD (London), Advocate (Bombay High Court), f0<mtr AHoaate ProfesSot of Law (Prectoct) (SMU)

f;ugcne K B Tan
JSM (Stanford), Advocate & Solicitor (Singapore). Auoclote Profe"°r of Law (SMU)
Stephen flull
LLM (Harvard University), Soflcllor (England & Wates), Attorney·•t·law (New Yotk), Barrister and
Solicitor (New ZeoJond), Assoclote Professor of Law (Practice) (SMU) Alvin See
BCL (Oxfotd), LLB (L8<1ds). Associate Profouor of law (Educatloo) (SMU)

Gary Chan
LLM (SOAS, London), Attorney & Counsetor-at-law (New YOl1<), Advocate & Sol""'°' (Singapore), Eunice Chua
LLM (HatVard University). Advocate & Solle/tor (Stngap0<0), former Asslslant ProfesSO< of Llw (SMU)
Profes$0f o1 l.fw (SMU)

WarrcnCh1k Gladys Tan

UM (U""'-«y London), LLM (Tulane UnlY.,...ty), Advocalo & So1oci10< JO Advocate & Sohator (S.ng-t). 8Sc (tlons). lltt Saencos (Biorneclal S<>tnc.)
Attorney end Counselot-ot-law (N- Yori<). SoficilOf (England & W.IH). Associate Professor of Low (NUS). DwtCOOr. David lJewelyn & Co LLC Advocalos & Sohators
(SMU)
KcnnyChng
Howard Hunter LLM (Harvard University). ASSistant Prot.soor of law (SMU)
JO, Yale u·ntvtrslty 197l, Protessor of Lew Emeritus and former Dean (Emory UnivertJty), former
ProfesSO< of Law and PrHl<font (SMU).
Melina Chew
LLB (Slngoporo Management Unlveralty)
Pearlie Koh
LLM (Melbourne), Advocate & Solicitor ($/n9apore), Associate Profo11or of Law (SMU)
Dorcas Qllck Andem)n
LLM (Harvard University). Advocate & Solicitor (Slngop0<0), Assist ant Professor of Law (SMU)
Lau Kwan Ho
LLM (Now Voli< Unlv1<11ty), AdllOCllte & $oi>Citor (Singapore), A11J1tont ProftllOf of Low ($MU)

Lee Pey Woon

BCL (O•lotd), AdVOC<ltt & Sollator (Songopore). Associott Proft110< of Low (SMU)

Loo Wee Ling

UM (Sydney). MVOC<ltt & Sollc:ilOf ($ongopore). Astoe:tott Pfolt110< of Low (Educetoon) ($MU)

Low Kee Yang

PhD (K1ng'1 College, London), Advocate & Solicitor (Songoporo), A11odatt Proft110f of Law ($MU)

Anne Magdali nc Neuo

PhD (K\119'1 College, London), Barrister-at-Low (Lincoln'• Inn), Advocott & Solicitor (SlngePQre),
Former Adjunct Faculty (SMU)

Austin
$JO (Harvard), (Dost of Cofumllta), former As1odalo Profo11or of Llw (Praoctice)
(SMU)

xii

Table of Cases
A A>t• Pacific Publishing Pte Lid v P1onc<r's & Leaden (Pubhmcu) Ptc Lid
A Schr0tdcr Mu>lc l'ubll'h1ng Co Lid v Macaula)' IJ97-I) I WI R IJ-08 ... , .••..•.•• IS.S7
Abuse of• l>ollltnan1 Po'11ion bi• SISTIC.com Pie Lad, CCS 6001008107 (4 June 2010)
. . • • • • • • • • • • . . . • . • . .. 25..JO
llCR v 1hom«>n M«l1ul Pte IAd (20171 I SLR 918..... . • .. .. .. . • .. .. ......... 18.32
ACCC v April lnt'I Mk1g Servs 120111FCA153. ...... ....... ........ . Box 25.1
Adam,. W•rd 119171AC309 .. .. . . ... . .. . .. ..... , ........ ••. .. .•. 582
Adam• v Cop< lndu,1rl•• pie I 199012WLR657...... ., ............... ., .......... 21.27
Adams v Llnd<ell (1818) I 8 & Aid 681 .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. • • .. • .. .. . .7.62, 19.23
Addt< v Gramophone Comp•n)'. Lid I 19091 AC 488. . , • , , , , •. , . . . . . . . . 18.28
AcrO·G•lc PI< I.Id v lmgetl MJrinc Engineering Ptt IAd 12013] •I SIR 4119..•... 16.50. 18. 11
Ailsa Craig Fishing Co Ltd v Malvern Fishing Co Lad and Secuncor (Scotland) Lld
I1983] I WLR 96'1 ... . ... . ............ . ............. .......... ....... 11.29, 13.56
Airbus lndus1rlc GIF. v l'Mci I 1998) 2 IVl,R 686 ........................ . ......... 26.27
Akerhiehn v De More I 1959 I AC 7139 ....................... . ...................... 13.20
Alboiero, 1hc I 19771 AC 774 ..................... , ......... 9.71. 9.72. 9.73, 9.74. 9.76
Albrecht '' limld GQ, 390 US 145 ( 1968) .... .... .... .. ... ..... ... . . .. .... llox 25.2
Alcoa Mineral< of l•m•i<• Inc v Broderick J2002I I AC 371 .•...•..•............. .. 6.77
Ake 1..obb (G>ragc>) IJd v Total 0<1 (Great Britain) Lid 1198311 WLR 87: affirmed
11985) 1 WI R 17.1 .. . .. . .. .... .... .. .. • . • . • . . • . .. . . 14 14.55. 15.59
Alt\'. 'lhc 119891 I Llo)d-. Rep 138 ............ .. . .. .. . . . . .. ...... 14.9
Altxand<r v Rl)-.on 1193611 KB 169. • • . . • . .. .. .. •••• , ......... , • .. 15.12
Alfr«I McAlp1nc Con,lructic>n I 1d ,. Ponalown IJd 120001 3 \\1 R 946. , , .••.. , •.•.. , 9.7J
AllCJrd v Sltnn<r (1887) 36 Ch D 145.................. .. .. . 14.31, 14.39
Allen v Gold Reefs of Wm Afnu Ltd 119001 t Ch 671 . • , .. . • . • 21.6-1
Alh•n• lnsur•ncc Co v Aii;••on lnsuroncc Co SA [20081 f\\'CA C1v 1455.. . •. 7.SJ
Allplu> llolJmg• Pt< Ltd v Phoon Wui Nyen 120 161SGHC144 .. , .. ... .. ...... 18.52
Aloe Vera of An1cnca, Inc v Asiank Food (S) Pt< Lad 120061 3 Sl.R 174 , ..•. 26.11>2. 26. 103
1\hogotf v Robin Ml.) 56......................... , ........... , ........ 12.29
Aluminiu1n lndwitric Va.1s...cn HV v Romt,Jpa Aluminium 1,,td I 19761 2 All Elt 552 .. ... 22.7 1
Alvin Ni<hollls Nathan v Rallles /\.,.,, (Singllpore) Pie l..1d 120161 2 SU\ 1056 , • , , , , . , . 18.3
Anderson L11I v D:rnlcl . .... ...... ..... . ........ . ............... . 15.9
Angila 'lclevi>lc>11 Lid v Rced 11 97211QB60.................... , ....... IH.IO, Box 18. 1
Animal C<>nccrns Re•c•r<h & Edurnlion Sodeiy v Tan 80011 Kwcc 12011) 2 SLR 146••.. 6.39
Anns v MertOll I ondon llorough Council [19781 AC 728 .. • .•. , 8, 6 9. 6.12. 6.13. 6 JS
Anh Con ""°" l'lc l.td v Bergrr P•lnl• Sing•poro l'le l.td 120121 I SI R 427. . . . . . . . . I I.I I
Table of Cases
Anwu Palnck Adrian v Ng Chong & Hut LLC 120111 3 SLR 761. . . ,. •• •• 6.18
Aqu• Art Ptc Lid'' Goodmon lXHlopmenl (S) Pie Lid 12011 ) 2 SLR 865., 15 23
Areo<. Lad v EA Ronaascn & Son )19331AC470 ..................... 16.7. 22.31. 22 43
Ar<lle Shipping Co Ltd v Mobtho AR. The Taira 119901 2 Llo)'d"s Rep 51... , 2012
Amu1rong v Jackson (19171 2 Kii S22 . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. • .. • 20 45
Arm.<1ro11g ' ' S1roin 119521 I KR 232. .... . .. . .. .. ........................... , 13.33
ARS v ART 120151 SGHC 78 ....... ,......... .. .. .. . • • .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . • . . . • .. .. S JO
An•I Chandrnn v Chew Chm Aik (Suil 1896 of 1998. judgmml doted 19·06-200-0). , , . 5 67
Mui Chand ron v Garish ore [20001 2 SLR 446.. .. ................................ , 18 28
Ashford Shire Council v Dependable Motor< l'ly Ltd I 1961 J AC 336.......... . ....... 20. 11
1\>hluck Wilham Grover v SctClcor i'lc I.Id (20 121 2 SLR .• .. , . ... •. ,, •. .. .... , .. 26 28
Ilotel l Ltd v Srnrwoud A11io l'adfic Managtn,e1t1 Pie Ltd
120051 I SlR(RJ 661 .. .. . .. . • .. . • .. . .. ............................ 18 23
1201114SLR 381 ......................... .. ................ 23.S. 23.116, 23 118
A>bkson v Home S.vings Ass'n, 416 Nl\12d 786 (MNApp 1987)... .. ... . . • . • 19.7·1
Ai..<$0('.iatcd Electric & Gas Insur.a.nee Scr,1ic« Lid '' Europc.m Rc1nsur.mcc Comp.iny o( Zunch
120031 I WLR 10-ll .. . . • . • • • • • • . . . ... . ... . .. . . .......... •• . .• 10 SO
A>SO<tat«I lapaJ\CR Bank (lmernauon>I) Lid ' ' Cml11 du l\onl SA
(198911 WLR255 , • • . ... 12.16.12.17, 12H. 1229
A')-lum (Colombia v Peru) 1950 ICI 266.. . . . .. . .. . .. .. . . . • . .. . .. . • • . • • .. • 26.7
Ali01 E.<prcss Lid v Kafco (Importer> and D1m1bu1ou) Lid I19891 I All ER 641 . . .. I U
Allorncy Gener.ii v Blak<l20-01 I I AC . .. . .. • .. • . . . • .. . • .. .. . .. 18 S9
AUVI Trodcmark. Re I 19921 I SIR 639............ .. .. .. . . . .. . . .. . • • . .. • . .. • . . . • 23 11
Aw•rng bin Oollah v Shun Shing Co11>truclio11 & hngine<ring Co Lid I 19971 3 SLR 677
.. . ... .. ... . ... . ......... '' .• ' ' . . ' . . . ....... . ... . ... .. . ' . .... . ' .. ' 6 62
B
112C2 Lld v Q11oine Pie Lid 12019) SGl lC(I) 3.. ..... ..... ........ ....... .. . llox 123
Baker v Wil loughby I 19701 AC 467......... , .. . ................. . ................ , 6 72
Balfoun• Balfour 1191912 KR 571 ..........................................8.71, 873
Rank Lmc v Arthur Capel 11919) AC 435 . . .• . ... .. . •• 17.36
Bank of Amen .. v Ojoni \l"od13ja (19941 2 SIR 816. . . . . .. . • . .. . . •.• • • • .. . • • 26 27
Bank ofCrt<l11 and Commtrcc ln1ern•11011•l SA'' Aboodi• 1198912 WLR 159...•••. 14 ·10
Bonk of East Asia Lid. The v Mody Sonal \I 120011 4 SLR II 3 • • • . IH). H 19
R;nk of Ind•• v Roi Bohadur Singh I SLR 328 .. . ............ , • , • , ••• 9.1
B•nncrman v Whllc (1861) 10 CBl\S 841. •• . . . ................ 10.27. 1340
R•nque RruSS<ls Lamben SA v Austr•han :-1211on•I lndustne< Ltd (1989) 21 NSWLR 502
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S78
Barcelona Tnction. Ligh1 and Power Com1i.11)'. Lim11cd (8clg1um v Spain) (1970) IC) 3
· • · · • ........ • · .. • .. · · .. · .. " · · • .. · • · .. · · • .. · • · .. ·.. . • . .. .. ..... 26 IS
Rord.1y; R.ink Pie v O'Rrien (19941 I 1\ C ISO .............. . ................ , . 14 47
B•irker v C<>rus (UK) pk 120061 2 AC 572 ... . .. , ........ , ........................ 6.70
Barnes & Co v Toye ( 1884) 13 QIJD 410, , .. ,, .• , .......... , . .. ....... ., ........... , 9. 19
llnrneu v Chelsea & Kcnsing1011 llospli.1111%9) I Qll 428 ......... . ....... , . . , ... .
"'"""''' Armstrong 11 9761 AC I04 ........................................ 14.3, 14 23
B•sil Anthony Hermon v l'remler Security Co opcrauvc Lid 120101 3 SLR 1IO., ..• , . S.74
Reale v TllylorJ 1967)3 All FR 253.... .. • .. . .. • . • .. .. .. . • .. . . • .. . .. .... 22 44
XJV
 Table of Casts Table of CoS<S

Beatun· E & F Buuoe Ltd (1938( Ch i08 .. . . . .. . .. • 21.60 c

ll«kkcll Pte Lld " O.u1sche Bank AG (2009) J SLR(R) 4S2 . . .•• 534 CA.II Ttthnologi« Pit Ltd v N•w<on Builder> l>t< Lid (201712SLR940 ........ 1068, 16.J2
B<e<hanl Group Un111td'• (Am<><ycillin) Applicauon (1980) RPC 261 .. .. ....... 23.55 Cahco Prin1er> Ass«iaiion IJd v B•r<I>)" Bank (1930) 38 UL Rq> !OS KBD ........ 2049
Beihai Zlngong Propeny Devdopnirm Co v Ng O>oon Meng Calhshcr vlhschotfmcnn ( 1870) l R 5 QB 449.. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . • 8 26
(1999) 1 SI R(R) 527 .. .. .. . .. .. .. .... .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . !ft.S I, 18.53 Camp""ll v Park (1954) 2 DLR 170. .. . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. . .. .. IS 48
Bell Corp '' 1\•·omblcy (2007) 550 US 54-4.. . . . . . • • • . . • • . . • . ••••.•••• 25.8 C•nada Ste,.msh1p Ltnes Ltd ,, R I1952) l All ER 305 ....... .11.31, 11.32, 11 34, 11.35, 11 67
Bell v Lever Brolhm, t1d 11932) AC 161 .... .... . .. . .... .• . .... 12.IS, 12.18. 12.25, 21.54 Ct1paro Industries pie v Dickman IJ990l 2 AC 605 . ...... . 6.13, 6.JS, 6.25. Box 6.1, 6.31. 6.32
Benlcn Pie Lid v Au1henhc llu1lder Pie Lid (20 18) SGllC 61. .. , .. , , .. , .......fl.38, 8.4 J Cor & Univcrs>I Flnnnec v Caldwell ( 1965) I Qll 525 ... •. .. •• ....... •. ....... 22.76, 22.90
Rcuneu, F.x park ( I 32 l!R 893 ................... ........... . ... .. .. .. .. ..... 20.46 Corllll v Carbolic Smoke R•ll Comptmy I18931 J Ql1 2S6 ... ... .......... .. . 7.J2. 7.24, 8.J3
Beswick v Beswick I J96R I AC SR ... .............. ... ...... .. .. .. .. 9.SI, Box 9.3, 9.58, 9.69 Cnrricrnet Global Ltd v Abkcy Ptc Ltd 120101 J SLR 454 .......... ....... .. .. .. .. .. . 9.M
lligos '' llr>u,lcd I195 II I All eR 92. . .. .. . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . .. .. . .. . . .. .. . .. . . .. . 15.26 Co•s• di Rlsammio della Repubbllca di San Marino SpA v Barclnys Bank Ltd (20 J 1I 8WHC 484
RNJ v SM lff 'lrohu I.Id 120141 2 SD.R 7 ' ................... .. ' .......... '' .. '' .... 6.23
' ................................ . ..................................... 13.13, l) .)6
Bolam v Fricrn I lo>phal Management Commiute ( 1957) I IVLR
. .. .. .. .. , .. , • , .. .. .. .. . .. .. • .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . 6.53. 6.57. 6.58, 6.59, 6.60 Co<>cll & Co Ltd v Broome (1972) AC 1027 ..................................... SSS
Boli1ho v C11y •nd llockney lluhh Au1hority ( 19981 AC 232 .............. 6.58. 6.59, 6-60 Ca<sidy v Daily Mirror Newspaper< Ltd ll929) 2 KR H I .. .. . .. .. . .. .. • .. .. .. 5.S I
Bohon Lomb<rl (1889) 4 J Ch !.> 295 .. . .. ... .. .. 20.24, 2026 CMn1c Compon<nls Ltd v HtU & Smtth Ltd 11982) RPC 183. .. .... .. .. ......... 2361
.... ....... ... . .. . . . . 650 CllS Sonv Lui v Amstnd Consunm l;.lttiromcs Pie ( J988) AC JOI).. .... • .. . • .. • S 29
ROM ' ROK (20191 I SIR 349........................... • H .29, H .57, CCS 400/001/08 (2 July 2008) .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. • .. • • 25.J6
Bond Worth Lld, Re ( 19801 Ch 22ll .. .. .. .. .. . . • .. .. • .. .. .. .. .. • ... 22.71 CCS 400/002/0hnd 400/00)!06 (5 March 2007) • .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . • 25 24
Bo"'""' Sh>nd (18n) 2 App Cu 455 .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .... • .. 22..19 CCS 400/00J/06 (10 January 2007) • .. .. .... .. 2510
BP Otl ' ' l'.1np1re F\lalal Pctrolc<>< 332 F3<1 333 (5th Cir 2003) .• , . • . . . •••••.•••••• 19.15 COL Ho1els lntemauonal lld v Ponlloc Mann• Pie I.Id (199811 SLRCR) 975
Bradbury v Morgan (I 862) I H & C 249.... ... .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. • • .. • .. .. .. .... 7A9 . . . . . . ............ ..... ............. . ....................... . . . 23.111, 23.112
Rr.dcr D•rucl John '' Cammenb•nk AG (2014) 2 SLR 81 , . , • , . , .•••••.. , .. 838. 8 40 Cenirol London Proper11" l'rus1 Ltd v lligh 'h«• llouse [ 1947) KB 130 .......... 847
Bridsc v C•1n1>hcll Di>eoun1 [1962) AC 600 ..................... , . . .. .. . ... .. .. . 19.86 Chai Cher Wan v SOL Techrtologi<> PI< Lid (20 121 J SLR 15.2 ..................... 22117
Brimelow v Ca.,on I J924I J Ch 302...................... ......... ... ........... 5.18 Chan Chee Kien v Perform.in« Molor< l20J SI S(;Hc; 54 .. ............ ... 22.46, 22. 11 9
Brimncs, The ( 19751 QR 929. . . .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . . . .. . .. .... 7.37 Chan Cheng Kuni v Wah Tai Bnnk Ltd I197 II I Sl.R 22 .. ... . ................... .... I0 54
Brinkerhoff M1m1lmc Drilling Corp v J>T Airfosi Scn•iecs h>done.la (1992) 2 1)1.R 776 Ch1111 Chen!! Wah v Koh Sin Chong Jorcclclle (20 12) I Sl.R 50'6 ........................ 5.S2
.. ....... .. . ' ... ' ... ' . .. .. .. . ' ............ ' .. . . ....... ' . .. . ' .. . ' ... ' . .. .. .. . ' ... 26.26 Ch:in Gek \'ong v ViolCI Ncllo l20ISJ SGI IC 20A .. ........ . .. ...... ...... .. ....... , 9.40
Rrlnldbon Ltd v S1ohag S111hl und Stahlwarenhand<ls Grubl I ( 1983) 2 AC 34 •. . ••. . •• . 7.59 Chan Wing Seng v PP [J997I J SI R(R) 72J .. , .•..........••...•...• 4.47. 4.49, Figure 4.1
Brilbh Motor 'l'mdc Aw1ci111lo11 v Salv•dori (1949) Ch 556.. ....... .. . . • .. •• ... •. .. . 5.9 Chandran o/l Subbiah v Dockel'i Mo1rlnc Ptc Lid (20 10) 1 SLR ?86.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 S2
Brllish Northrop v 'lhltom I19741 RPC S' ....................................... 23. 11 Chapchon v Barry Urban D1Slritt Co11nc1I I19101 I Kil 532. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. Box 7,3, 11 I)
British Sugar pie v fame< Robertson and Sons Ltd (J996I RPC 281 .. . .. .. .. 23.92 Chaplin v Frewm (Publuh<rs) Ltd I 1966] Ch 71 , . . . . • • . . • • . . • . . . . . . 9 26
Rritish \<\'c-.. 11nghou-,c Flcctnc and Co Ltd v f.l«tnc Choppell & Co Ltd ,. Ne1tle Co Lid (I ll60) AC 87 . .. . . . .. . .. • 8 8, 20
Comp:my of London (J912I AC 673... .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . J8.45 Ch•rpl• v Cooper (18-11) J3 M & w 252 ..... • .. 9.17. 9 2l
Bro3dl•y Conmucuon Pie Lid v ALman Design Pt• Ltd (20181 2 SLR 110 Ch•nhrook Umtttd v P<mnunon Honm Umh<d (20091 I AC llOJ .. .. .. .. .. .. J9.36
. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. , .... ...... .... . .. 12.H. I) JS, U .JO. 13.60 Chamr v Sullh= (19571 2 QB 117 . 22 104
Brogd•n v Mc1ropoh1•n (I 8n) 2 App Cas 666. .. • .. • .. • .. .. . 7.56 Chuc" N<WS Group N<W>papers Lid 120031 l;.\1LR 218 .. . .. .. .. .. ... .... .. .. .. 5.53
Brown'' Gould 119721Ch53 ... .... ... ... ... • .. ... · · .. 7.80 Ch< Som b1• Yip v Pt• Lld •nd anoihtr (1989) Sl.R 721. ................ .. • 940
Browning v Morn• (lnS) l Cowp 790............ .. .. . ............. IS.21 0.ce« v 'lhomas (19941 1 All 1-.R 35 .. , .. , .. , .. .. • .. • .. .. . .. .. . .. .... .. .. 14 ·M
Browning'' l'ro"lnclal ln.urane< Co of C.nada {1873) LR S l'C 263 . • • •.•..•.. 20.36 Cheng Alb<ri v 'l'.<t Wai Chun P•ul (2000) 4 11 KC I . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. • • • .. . ..... 5.74
Bryan v (1995) 128 Al R 163 ......... .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. 6.38 Chm Kok Lr:ons v Pro;pcrl:md l'te Ud (20051 2 SIR 4114 ....................... 6.9S, 9 76
Ruckman l,obor•1orlc. (A>i•) Ptc J,1d v Lee Wei lloong I J9991 3 SIR )33 .. .. . .. .. . 15.45 Chlmn Sec Tong v Ling llow Doong 119971 I SI R MS. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. ..... , 5 SS
Bunge c:orpor.lllon. New York v 'l'radax Expo11 SA Panama I J9AI I I WI.I\ 7J J ........ J0.6J rhln R11y Ching v Merchanl Vc111ute< Ptc 1.td [200SI 3 Sl.R 142 .. •. ... •. .. • .. . .. •... SS9
Butler Mllchinc Tool Co v £x Cell 0 Corporntlon (Englnnd) Lid I J979I I Wl,R 40J China l\csour<:cs (S) Pie Lid v M"gcn111 Re;our<r; (S) Pte IJd I19971 Sl.R(R) J03 . .. ... 17.35
... . ....... .. ... , .. , , ... .. .. ................... .. .. ........... , . .. ... .... 7.74. Rox 7.2
Chn11 Suon Tze v Mini;tcr for 1lomc Allnl" I 1988) 2 SLR(R) 525 • . . . • . . . • • . . . , ••. 3.16
Hui wick v Crttnl I 1921112 KH 4R3 . ............ .. . ................ , .. .. .. . , .. .. ... 20.33
Byrne v Dc.111< I19371 I KB 81S .. ....... .. ... ...... .. .. . .... , .. , ......... , ... , .. .. 5.65
or
Chromalloy Acrosm1ccs ,. Arnb llcpubllc Fgyp1 939 F Supp 907 (DOC 1996) ... 26 IOJ
ChuJ Choon Ch<ng v Allgrcen Prop<r11« Ltd (2\HWI 3 SI R(R) 724 . . . 1051
Byrne v Vt1n '1lcnhoven (1880) 5 CPD 344 .. .. .. . .... .. .. , , .. , . .. .. .. . . .. .. • ..... .. 7.34
Chua Keng Mong v Hong Really Ptc Lid 119931 ) >LR(I\) JJ7 ........ .. . .. .. . . 18 46

xv
 Tabl• of Cam
Chua Kian Kok v PP [ 1999) I SLR{R) 826 .... . .. . ... . .•................•• . ......... 4.42
Chwce Kin KeOJlg v Digih111dmoll.oom Ptc Ltd (2004) 2 SLR 594, (2005) 1 SLR 502
... . .... . ... . ... . .... . ... . .. . ........ 7.21. 8.81, 12.27, 12.28, 12.29, 12.35, 12.36, llox 12.2,
. .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. ... . ....... .. ... 12.36. 12.37. 12.3$, 12.57. 14.2, 24.22. 24.47. 24.51
CIBC Mortg•ges Ltd v f'iu I 1994 I I AC 200 ..... . ... . . . .. ......... . .. .. .. .. .. .. ... I4.32
City Chain S10res (S) Ptc Ltd v Lo<0i' Vuillon Mallcticr (2010) I SLR 382 .. •. .. •. .. ... 23.91
CLAAS 1\!edical Cet)tre l't<-' Ltd v Ng Boon Chi1\g
(2010) 2 SLR 386 .................................... .. 9.59. 9.6 1, 15.37, 15.55, 15.61
Clarke Beryl Claii-e v SllkAlr (Singapore) Pte Ltd 120021 I SLR(R) I 136. ... . . . ... .. . ... 4.13
Clcarlab SG Ptc Ltd v Ting Chong Chai [2015) I SLR 163 . .. •.. . ••. . ... . 23.74, 23.75, 23.80
Clemen" v L & NW Ry I 1894 I 2 Q B 482 .......... .. .. .. ....... .. .. .. .. .. . ......... 9.25
Clunis v Camden and Islington Health Amhority (1998) QR 978 . ... .. ........... . .... 6.82
Clydebank Engineering v l)on Jose Ramo< (19051 AC 6 ... .. .. . ... . .. . . ••.. . .. .• .. . . I9.86
Coco v A N Clark (Engineers} l..ld I 1969] RPC 4 I .. .................... . ........... 23.73
Collen'' Wright ( 1857) S E&ll 647 ................ . ... ...... ........... ...... . .... 20.56
Collusive for 1'ermile Control, CCS 600/008/06 (9 January 2008) •. .. ... 25.8, 2S. I8
Columbia Asia He.lthcore Sdn Bhd v Mong llin Kil Edward (20 1•1) 3 SLR 87 .. .. ...... 9.62
Comb v PayPal. Inc 218 FSupp2d I 165 (ND Cal 2002) .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. ... . .. ... .. 24.29
Combe v Combe ( 195 1) 2 KJI 215 ... ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... ...... ...... .. S.10. 8.63
Comfort Manogement v PP 12003 1 2 SLR(R) 67 . . . ... . ................. . .. . ... . ..... 4.20
Commercial llnnk of Austrolia Ltd '' Amadio (1983) I 5 I CLR 447.. . . . • . . . • . . . • . . . . • . 14.56
Computer Aswcintc.< UK IJd v 'lhe Software Incubator Ltd 120181 EWCA Civ 5181. .... 22.9
Conor Medsysterns Inc v Angiotcda Pharmoccuticals Inc 12008] Rl'C 28 ... •. .. •. .. .•. 23.55
Consmol Singapore (l>te) Ltd v Ban.k of Arnerico Trust & Savings Association
( 1992) 2SLR828 . ... . ....... .. ........... .. ...... . ..................... . ... 11.54
Co-01> lnsumnce Society l..ld v Arg)•ll Storts Holdings Ltd 119971 2 WLR 898 . ........ 18.63
Cooperatit\•e Centrale BA (trading as Rabobank Jntrrnational).
Singapore l!r3nch v Motorola lllectroni« Ptc l.ld (20 1I ) 2 SLR 63 ... . .. .......... 7.8 1
Cope v Rowhrnds (1836) 2 M & W 149.. . ....... .......... ....... . ... .. .......... . 15.8
Coulls ,, !Ingot's E•ecutor and Trusiee Co l,td ( 1967) Al.R 385 ..................... Box 9.3
Courtney & Poirburn v Tobini Bros (Hotels) Ltd 119751 1 All E.R 716 ........... .. ... 22.2 1
Couturier v H•stie ( 1856) 5 lll.C 673 ... . .. ... .. ..... ....... ....... .. .. . .. . 12.11, 12. 12
Cowcrn v Nield [ 1912) 2 KB 419 ...... ....... .. . ...... ... ......................... 9.25
Cmnclc;m Properties Ud v Nosh (1977) 244 EG 547.. .. • . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. • . . . .. . . . .. 13.58
Cm.swell v Poller I 1978) I WLR 255 . ... . ..... • .. ... .. . ... .. .. .. ... .• . •.. . ........
Cristian Priwim• Yocob v Wibowo lloediono (20 17) SG HC 8 . .. •. .. .•. . ••. .. •. . ••.. 18.56
Crofter Hnnd Woven Harris 'l\,.eed Co l.td v V<1tcl1 I 1942] AC 435....... . .. .. ........ 5.30
CTN Cash ond Carry l..ld v Gallohcr Ltd I 19911 4 All ER 714.• .. .•. .. • .. •. .. ••. . .•. 11.21
Cundy v Lindsny (IR78} 3 App Cas. 459. . ...... .. . ... . .. .. ............. . 12.48, Pigur< 12.3
Currie v Mlsa (1875) LR 10 Exoh 153 ............................ .. .......... . ......8.4
Curtis" Chemical Cleaning and Dyeing Co 1195111 KR805 ............... . .. . . .... 11. 10
Cutter v Powell (1795) 6 Term Reports 320 •.. .. ... •. .. •• ... . . , .. ... .. . 16.18. 16.19, 16.23
CW Conlinental Corp v Polee Ltd 120161SGllC224 .. . ... .. ... ...... .. .. . .. ... . .. 22. 125
D
D&C Ruiklcr> v Rm f 1966) 2 Qll '617 .. . ... .. .. .. .. .. . ... . ....... ... . .. .. ... . .... 8.62
Dalh\h Real Estate and 'JOurism Holding v Tiw Ministry of Religious Affail'S,
Government of P:1kis1:m 12011 ) AC 763. . ... .. .. .. .. ....... ........... . .. 26. 103
D•nicl v Dttw 120051 2 l'CR 365.. .. ... . ... . ... . ... . .. .. . . ... . ... .. .. . ... . .... 14.26
xvii
Tabl• of Cam
Darby v Boucher ( 1694) I Salk 279 .......... . .. . ... . . ............................. 9.24
Dardan<1 Ltd v Y\lkos Oil Company (2002 I 2 Lloyd's Rep 326 ....••. .. •• .. •. . .•• .. •• 26. 10 I
Darlington Borough Council v Wil<.<hi1-e Northern Lid (1995) 3 All ER 895 .. . .. . . .9.72. 9.73
Darwish M K F Al Gobaisht v House of Hung Pte Ltd I 1995) I SLR(R} 623 .•.... .. ... 10.28
Dauila IAd v Pour Millbonk Nominees I.Id I 1978) Ch 231 ......................... Box 7. I
Davis Contraciors " l'archam UDC (1956] AC 696 .. .. ........... 17.6. I7.S. Box 17.1 , 17.24
DC Thomson & Co Ltd v Deakin I I952 I Ch 646 . . ... . ................. . .. . ......... 5. 13
De 8\lssche v All ( 1878) 8 ChD 286............................................... 20.48
De l'ran««:o v Bnrnum ( 1890) 45 Ch D 430 .............................. . .. . ... .. 18.63
De/ohn v '!he TV Corpora1ion lmernauonal et al 245 FSupp2d 913 (CD Ill 2003) ..... 24.27
Dcnnmk Productions Lid v Roscobel Produc1ions Lid ( 1967) CLY 1999 ...•...•....... 9.26
Derry v Peek ( 1889) U\ App Cas 337 ........... .. ... .............. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. I3.30
Devclopmmt Bank of Sing;ipore Ltd v Yeap Teik Leong I 198SI 2 SLR(R) 201 . . ......... 8.46
DHKW Mukcling v Nature:< F<mn Pte Ltd ( 1999) 2 SLR 400 ......................... 5.61
Dick Benlle)' Productions Ltd v Harold Smith (1965) I Wl.R 623 ........... . . .. ... .. 10.33
Dickinson v Dodd< ( 1876) 2 Ch D 463 .......... . ... . ... ...... ... ... . .. .. . .... 7.35, 19.29
Dickson Trnding (S) Ptc Ltd v Tronsmarco Ltd [ 1989) 2 MLI 408 .....•...•...•.... Box 7. 1
Doctor'$ Asso<intcs Inc ,, Lim Ens Wnh (1radi11g as SUllWAY NICHE}
120121 3 StR 193 . ... . ........ . ........... . ... . ............. . ... . .. . ........ 23.86
Donoghue" Slevcnson I 19321 AC 562 .•. . .• , ..•...•...•.. , ••.. 6.5, 6.6, 6.7. 6.9, 6.14, 6. 100
Douglas v IIcllo! l.td (2008) 2 WLR 920 ........... .. .. ........... .. .. .. .. ....... ... 5.37
Doyle v White City Stadium Ltd I 1935) I Kl! 110 . ... . .. ... ....... ... . .. .. . ..... .... 9.26
Or. Miles Mcdic"I Co v John D Park & Sons Co (1911) 22 US 373 •. .. •.. . •.. . •.. . Box 2S.2
l)unlop Pne umatic l)•rc Company. tin•ited v Kew Garage and Mo1or Comp;iny. l.imilcd
119151 AC 79 .... . .. .. .. . ........ ... ... . .. . ... . .. . ..... . .... . . . . IS.SI, 18.52, 19.86
Dynasty Lil\c Ltd (in liquidation) v Sukamto Sia 12014) 3 SLR 277 .. .. •. . ....••. . •.. 10.14
Dysart Timbers J,td v Roderick Willit1rn Nielsen (2009) 3 NZlR 160................... 7A8
E
EC Investment Holding Pte l.td v Ridout il<'sidcnce Ptc l.td 12012] I SLR 32 .• •• . , ••• 18.62
EC lnv.,.tment I lolding Ptc l.td v Ridout Rc>idcncc Pte \,Id (Orion Oil l,td and
Anothe<, iniervcncrs) [201 112SLR 232. . ...... .. . ....... .. ........ . .. .. .. . . 14.4. 14.9
Eastern Reso urce Management Services: Ltd v Chiu Teng Con.sLruction Co Pte Ltd
(2016) SGllC IM ............................................................ 14.4
Ecay v Godfrey (1947} HO I.I L R<p 286.. . .. .. .. . . ... . . .. . . ... . . .. . .. 10.26, 13.40
Edgington v Fitzmaurice ( 1885) LR 29 Ch D 459 , .. ....... . ............ . ... . ... 13.8, 13.23
Edw'1 rd Wong Finance Co. J.td v Johnson. Stokes and Mosler (198'1) AC 296 ...•... 6.54, 6.56
lldwttrds v Carter (18931 AC 360......................................... . ......... 9.29
l'.dwin Hill & Partners v First National Finance Corpn I 19891 I WLR 225 .. ••. . ... . ... . 5. 19
Edwin1on Con1mcrcit\I Corporation \' Ts11vliris Russ (\.Vorldwidc Salv;i,gc & Towilgc) Lld
('Ihe Seo Angel) 12007) 2 l.loyd's Rep 517 .. .. ... . . .. .. .. . ... .. ... .. .. . ... .. ... I7AO
EFT Holdings Inc v Marint<knik Shipbuilders (S} l'tc Ltd 120 14) I SLR 860 ... . ... . ... . 5.34
Eia.n Tauber Pritchord v Peter Cook (19981 EWCA Civ 900 .......................... 10.31
Ei-Net 1,td v Yeo Nai Meng 120041 I SLR(R) 153 . .. ....... . ................ . .. .. ... 18.45
Eng Chioi Shoong v Cheong Soh Chin 120161 4 SLR 728 •• .. ••. . ••• . ••• .. •• . , ••. . ••• 16.24
En1ores Ltd "Mlles l'ar Corpornlion I19551 l QB ll., .•........•...•...••. .7.57. ?.59
Esso l'ctrolc Ul\I Co l.ld \' Garage (S1ourport) I.Id rI!)68) AC 269 .. .. . ... . .... Is.ss
of I.e.'(' Rui Feng Dominique Sarron. deceased v Najib Hanuk bin Muhan1n1ad Jl.llal
(2016 1 11 SLR •138 ...........................................................8.29
xvill
 Tobi< of Cases
Eug<ma. Thd1964I 2 QB 226... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . ................. 17.39
fa'<ning !':cw< Assn" Pc1<r>0n. 477 FSupp 77 (DOC 1979).. .. .................. 19.n
E\'Crgrttn lnt<rn•llOn•I SA v Volksw•g<n Group Sing•pore Pt< Lui
[200-11 2 SLR CR) 457.............. .......... ........ .. .. .. .......... 26.28
E"i•. The (No 2) {198J[ I AC 736 .. .. .. .. ....................................... 17. 10
F Go Dante V.1p v Bank Austrfa Crtdltanstah AG [20 11I 4 SLR 559 ... . .. . . ..... ....•.. 6.52
Faccendo Chicken I.Id v l'owler [1 9871Ch1 17 .............. .. .. .. . ....... ... 15.42, 23.80
Fairchild v Cltnhavcn Funeral Services Ltd [20031 I AC 32 . . .. .. .. .. ••. .. •. .. .. ... . .. 6.70
Flu·lcy v Skinner [2002] 2 AC 732 . . . ... . ........ . ... . ....................... 18.31, 18.33
Fawcett v Smcthur.t ( 1914) 84 LJKB 473. .. ................ .. .. .. .. .. .......... . 9.20
FE Global Eltctronin Ptc Ltd "Trek Technology (Singaporr) J>te l.td (20061 I SLR 8 74
....... . ......................... . ... .. .. .. .............................. 23.51. 23.61
Lands: Commis11oioner v Be1'1fot1 En1erprises l199RJ l SLR 855 .. ......... ...... 21.5
Fehhousc:" Rmdlc)' (1862) 11 CBNS 869 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. • .. • .. ........... 7.69
Fenncn• Rlakc [1900) I QR 426 .......................... .. . .. . .. . .. ........ 8.55
Fibros• Spolu Akcyjn• v Fairbairn Lawson Combe Barbour, IJd )19431 AC 32
. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 17.42, 22.85
Financong.< Ltd" Stim>On ( 1962) I WLR 1184.......... ... .. .. .. ...... 7.47
First "-'i• C.p11>l lrwt>tm<nts I td v Ctnfrale S.nk & Tru>t (201 71 SGHC78 .. 10.14
First Cumncy Choict Pt< Ltd v M•m·Line Corporal< Holding> ud [20081 I SLR(R) 335
.. .. . .. . .. .. .. .........................................23.54, 2J.59. 23.61, 23.67
Fil'>t Energy (UK) 1.td v llungarfan lnt<rnational Bonk Ltd {19931 2 Lloyd'• R<p 194
.. · · . ............... .. .•. .. ...... .. .. .. .. . . ... . . .........•...•.......••. . .•. . Box 20.1
Fi<her v Rell (I %01 3 All ER 73 1 ............... . .................................. 7.26
l' ilch v Dewe< [ 192 112 AC 158 . ... . .......................................... . .. . 15.44
Flamelltc (S) l'te Ltd " I.am Heng Chung [200 114 SLR 557... .......... .......... .. . 23. 11
Foakes v llccr ( 188'1) 9 App Cos 6()5 .......................................... .f'l.13, 8.45
l'ong Maun Yee ' ' Yoon Weng I lo I 19971 2 SLR 297 .. •. .. ... . ... . .... 6.54, 6.55, 6.89
Foo Jong l.ong Dennis v Ang Yee Lim Lawrence 12016] 2 SLR 287 .. . •.. .. •...•.. . ... . 8.75
Forciront Medical Technology (Ptc) ud ,, Modem·P•k Ptc ud 12006) I SLR(R) 927
........................... ..... .... ...... ........................ 10.44, 10.48, 10.SI
For,.n v Vtmon Communications. Inc 805 A2d 1007 (DC 2002). . • . •.••...•.. 24.27
Forstlm ng..kticsc:l•k•pc1 Vc'1• '' Butcher ( 1989) AC 852. . . . • . • . . . • • . • . . • 6 89
Frttman & tockyer v Buckhurst P• rk Propntics ud (19641 2 QB 480 ....... 20.40
frost v The Aylesbury Dair)' Co ud ( 1905] I KB 608 ... • . • . , . . . 16.4
G . ... .. ................ .. ... .. .. .. ... ... ....... ... .
Gan Chtng Ch•n v C•n Meng Hui (2005] SGHC 55 .. . .. .. .. .. .. .... 1439
Garnac Gr•111 Co Inc v llMF Faure & Fairclough l.td f l96il) AC 1130 ........... ..... 20.8
Gator Shlpprng Corpn v Trans -Asi>tac Oil SA (The Odenfield) 119781 2 Llo1·d» Rep 157
................................................................................ 16.57
Gaus>cn v Morton (1 830) 10 ll &C 731 ............................................ 20.60
G•y Choon Ing v Loh SZ< Ti Terence Peter (20091 2 SLR(R) 332
................................................. 7.8. 7.50, 7.74, llox 7.2. 8.41. 82. 14.59
Geier v Kuj11w11. Wc>ton & Warne B1·os (Tron<port) IJd f 1970) I 1 lo)'d'• Rer 364 ...... 11.17
Gcnelabs l) iogno>llC> v lnllitut l'>steur 120011 I SLR 121.. .. •.............. .. •..... 23.51
General £1rctrlc Credit Corp ,, Xerox. 490 NYSld 407 (AD 1985) . . ....•. 19.73
Gcncrnl Tm:'' l'lre<tonc 1)•rc (197?) RPC 457 .................... ........ ...... 23.SI
xix
Table of Cam
George Mnchell (Chtsttrhall) Ltd v Fmncy Lock Sttds ud )19831 2 AC 803 II 16
GllSP Inc v AB Elmromc Lid (2010) EWllC 1828 (Comm).................. . .. 7.76
Glahe ln1<rna1ional Expo AG v ACS Computtr Pt< Ltd (19991 I SLR 166. on appnl
[19991 2 SLR 620...... .... .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. • 17 40
Gl•morg.•n Coal Co v South Wales Minm' i"<de,.tlon (1903) 2 KB 545 ........... .. 517
c;la;brook Bros v Glamorgan County Council ( 1925) AC 270 ......................... 8.30
Godfrey v Demon Internet Ltd 120001 J WLR 1020 ................ .. .. . ............. 5 66
Goh Loy Kh im v Isabel Redrup 1\ gency Pte 1.td (20 171 I SLR 546 .................. .. . 5.77
Goldcorp Exchange, Re ( 19951 I 1\ C 74.. .... . .. . . .. .. .... . .. . . .......... 22.67, 22.68
Golden Season Ptc u d v Kniros Singapore I loldings Pte Ltd 120 15) 2 SLR 751. ......•.. 5.S9
Goldsoll v Coldman 11 9151 I Ch 292 ............ ............ . .......... ...... ... .. 15.65
Goldsworth)• v Brickell 1198711 Ali ER 853 .............. ............... .......... 14.)7
Gore v Gibson (1843) IJ M & W 623 .. . .. .. • . .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. . . 9 40
C'iov('rnmcnt of Zanz.ibar ,. Bri1h;h (l.ancas1tr House) [2000] I \VlR 2333
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. • .. • .. ................ ...... ..... 13.5 1, 13.58
Go"emors or the Pc.bod)' Donauon Fund" Sir tmd..y Pul<inson & Co ud (1985) AC 210
...................................................................... 612
Gract Eltttncal Englnttnng Pte Ltd" To O.um l:ngmttnng Pt< Ltd (201811 SLR 76 • 662
Grant "Australian Knnung M1ll1 ( 19J6) AC 85 .. • .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 22 4·1
G1tat P<ace Shipping Ltd v T»vliris S.luge I td 120031 QB 679
................ . 12.19, 12.20, 12.22. 12.23. 12.24, 12.25. 12.26, 12.27, Box 12.1. hgurt 122
Greene v Keener, 402 SEld 284 (G•App 1991 ). .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . • 19 29
Grl<t v Bailey ( L967) I Ch 532.. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 12 24
Gross v Lewis Hillman 119701 Ch 445 .. ... .. . ............ . ......... .. . ............ 1).27
Culf Pctroch cm Pte Ltd v Pctrotec Pte Ltd (20 181SG llC83 . ....... . ....... 8. 19, F1gur< 8.3
CWK W I v Dunlop Rubber Co 1.td (1926) 42 TI R .... . .. .............. ........ . 5. 11
H
I I P.rsons ( I ivcstock) Ltd" Uttley Ingham & Co Ltd l197S) QB 791 .. ............... 18.44
II R Moch Co v Rensseleor Water Co. 159 NE 896 (NY 1928) ................ ....... 19.61
Hadley v Baxendale (1854) 9 Ex 341 ..... 18.40, 1841, 18.42. 18.43. Rox 182, 18.44. 22.99
!lady H•rtanto ,, Yee Kit Hong (20 14) 2 SIR 1127.. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. • .. .... S 80
Hamilton v l'apakura District Council (2002) 3 NZLR 308. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • 22.S4
Hands v Slaney (1800) 8 TR 578. .. . • .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . . . . 917
ll•nn• v OAMPS Insurance Ltd (2010) NSWCA 267 . .. .. .. .. • .. . .. . . ••• IS 66
Harhngdon and Leiru.ter Ent<rpn«> Lid v Chmtophtr Hull Hn< Art Ltd (199111 QB 56-1
2245
llnron bin Mundir v Singapore Amateur Athletic A'-'O<l•llOn (1991 I 2 SLR(R) 494.. • 18 28
Hnmngton v Kent [19801 IRLR 35J ................... . ....................... 17 27
Hl\rtley v Ponsonby (I 857) 7 El & 81 872 . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . 8.3-1
l l11rtog v Cohn & Shields (19391 3 All FR S66 ...................................... 12.32
llnrvela Investments l.td I ' !l oyal Tru>t Co or C.1nada ( 19861 I AC 207 .. . ......•...•.. 7.32
l h1ynes v Horwood I 19351 I KB 146 ........ . .. .. .. ....... .. ... .. ......... ........ . 6.85
lle,1ly v llowlell & Sons (1917) I KR 337 ........ . ... . ... .. ....... ..... .. .. ........ 22.66
llcdley l!yrne & Co Ltd" Heller & l>•rtr><rs l.td ( 1964) AC 465
........... ... ...... ... ........................... . 6 28. 6.32. 6.33, 6 35, 13.2, 13.3, I).)•I
llclby v M"tthews ( 1895) AC 471 .. .... ... . .. . .... .... . . .. .... . .... .... ... ... 22. 11
IMl<r F.ctoring (Singapore) Ltd v Ng Tong Y•ng I 19931 I SLR(R) 495 .......••..••. 15 40
xx
 Table or Cases Table or c....

Hel)'· Hutchin>on v Rroyhead Ltd 1196811 QB 549 .....•. , ....•••••••.•••..• 20.12, 20.40
llcndcrson v Merrett Syndicotcs Ltd jl9'JS) 2 AC 14S .............. ,...... .. . .6.96, 13.4
He1bett Morri> Ltd v Saxelb)' jl916] AC 688 ............ .. ....... ,, ......... IS.41 , 15.43
Heskell v Co11tl11e11tol Expres_< IAd I 1950) I All cR 1033 ... .. .................... , , . , l 8.38
I lcwlcll· Pack11rd Singapore (Sole>) l'le 1,td v Chin Shu llwa Corrina [20161 2 $1.R 1()83 .....
... .. ................ .. . ... .. ...... ........... . ... .. .. ...... ............... . ... 10. 15
He)'don's ea« (IS84) 3 Co Rep 73 .. .. • .. .. , , . . . . . . • .. . .. . • .. .. • .. .. .. . . .. 3.51
11111 C••uolty ond GeneraJ Insur.nee v Ch•>C Manhattan Bank 120031 UKllL 6 . • 11 .33
Hii Chh Kok v Om Ptng Jin London Luucn 12017] 2 SLR 492. .... . . . . . ....... 6.60
Hilton v 1\Kker (1888) 39 Ch D 669 . .. .. . . , . . . . .. 22-26
Ho Seng Lee Construcuon P1e Ltd v N1>n Chuan Construction P1e Ltd 120011 4 SLR 407
......... ". .. "............... . .. ". ".................. . • . .. 12.22, 12.29
Ho Soo Fong v Standard Chartered Bonk 120071 2 SLR 181.. .... .. . .. .. .. . • .. 6.n
lloenigvl<0•<> l 1952)2AllERl76 ..... , ....................... 16.22. lloxl6.I
Holcim (Sl11g.11'o rc) Pie Ltd v Prcci>< Development 1>1e Ltd 12011] 2 SIR 106.. . • 17.24, 17.36
Holl1111d Lcedon f>tc Ltd (in v C & 11 1hnsport Ltd 120131 SCI IC 28 1
....... '".''' . '' ." ........ ' ....... ' .. '' ...... . ... ' .... ' ... . .. '.' ...... ' •.. 11.22
Hollier,, Rambler Moton (AMC) Lid I 19721 2 QR 7 1 , , .• , . .. , ......•.. •. ... 11.24, 11.30
Holman v John>on (1775) I Cowp 341 • .. • .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. • .. .. ... 15.2
Hong Leong Fin.in« Ltd,, Ton Gin Huoy (199911 SLR(R) 755., • , • , • , 18 SI, 18.52
Hong l.<0ng Fmon« IJd v T•r Kww Neo 119911 2 SUt(R) 841. ... . . • ......... 8.46
Hongkong & Booking Corp Ltd v Jurong t.ng1nttnng lid (2000( I SLR(R) 204
. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . .. .. :no. s.n
llongkong Hr Shlpp111g Co Lid v Kow.,.kl K1w1 Kal<ha l;d I 19621 2 QB 26
....... , ...... , , ........ . . .. .......... , , . , ....... . .......... 10 60, Table 10.1. 22.1 8
l loughton v Tr.falg.r Insurance Co ( 19541 I QR 247 .. • .. .. .. .. . . . . . . • . • . .... 11 27
Hou>ehold rirc 1111d Carriage Aecldcnl ln11im 1cc Co v G ront {1879) 4 E• I) 2 16 ........ 7.63
Howard Murlne & Dredging v Ogden & Son• (F..xcov.llions) 119781QB574 ....... .. .. 13.38
Howml v Pickford Tool Co Ltd I I Kii •117 ............ .. .............. , .. 1652
l luckerbyvf.lliot 1197011 AllF.Rl89. ,, ..................................... 4.27
Hugh<J v Liverpool Viclort> L.gaJ l:rttndly S0<1tly I 19 16) 1 KB 482•..•. , •• , , •• , .. 15.19
Hughe; v Lord Advocalt (19631 AC 837 , .. . .. .. • .. .. ... .. . • 6.75
Hugh<$ v M<1ropoht"'1 Radway Comp.1ny (1877) 2 Al'f' C.. 439 ... . • .••. 8.SO. 8.56. 8.6S
Hulton v Jon•• II 910) AC 20 . . . . .. . .. • • .. .. . . . .. . . . . . • .. • . . . 5.58
Hutton v \\'amn (1836) I M & W 166 , . • .. . .. . .. . .. • .. • .. .. .. . .. . 1054
lluyton SA'' Peter Cremer Gmbli & Co jl999I I I.lord\ R<p 620 , . .• . .... . • 14. 19. H .23
liyd< v Wrench (I R40) 3 Bm• 334 ..• " ". ' .. ' ' •..... . ........ ' ". " .. " .• " ' •. '. 7.4 I
Hymon v llymon 119291 AC601. ., ........ , ...................................... 15.12
llyund11I I l<11vy lndustncs Co v P'1pn1lo1>0ulo> I 19AOI 2 All ER 29 ................ . ... 22. 13
ICI vComrnk>J<>n 119721ECR619, 11972) CM IR 557 .. .. .......... .............. 25.8
ICI v 5ha1wdl I 19651 AC 656 . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. ... .. .. • .. . . 6.85
lkumcn< Smg•por< Pt• lid v Leong Che< Leng 1199313SLR24 6JI
lmbr« ,, McN<1lly 12008) HCA 40 . . . . • • •. . •. . •• • • • 6.48
IMC Avlauc>n Pty Lid,. Alt•111 Khuddtr 11.C (2011) 282 ALk 717 (2011 ) 248
. . . . . . "' ....... "' ............. " .. ........ ... . .. 26103
Impact l'undlng Solution< Lid '' AIG Furore ln•uroncc Ud 12016) UKSC 67 .. .. ... 11.28
lnche v Sh••k Alli• bin Om Ill' I 19291 AC 127.. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .. • .. ....... 14.41
Industries ond Gtn<r•I Mong>ge Co Ltd v Lcwu [1949) 2 All ER 573. .. • . . . .. 20.47
Ingram v Little 1196111 QR 3 1 ................ , 12.43, ll.H , 12.45, 12.47, F1gutt 12.3
Initial Service• Ltd v Putterill I 1968] I QB 396 ... . ...... , ........................ 23.76
lntcrfoto l'icturc Libr.ry v Stiletto Visual Progrnmnm Ltd 119891 Qll 433 ....... 11.21, 11.22
Ira""'" D"rson<> v Ong Soon Kini (2002) 2 SLR(R) 26 1..............•...•.......••. 18.35
Irvine & Co v Wmon & Son< ( I880) S QBD 414. . . .. .. • .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.33
J T Stn1f0<d & Son> lid v 1.indley (19651AC269 ..........................5.12. 5. 13
Jackson v Horizon Hohd•)"> (197513 All ER 92 • .. . . . . .. . .. .. 9.70
Jom<C! (Mohammed) v \\'all Street Joum•I Europe Sprl 12007 I I AC 359 • • Ui
Jarvis v $WOJ1' four> Ltd (1973) QB 233... .. . . . . . .. .. . • .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . IS.),()
Jct Holdmg Ltd,. Coop<r Cam<ron (Srngapore) Pt< Lid 1200514SLR417... 11.18
fet llolding Ltd and 01hers v Cooper Comeron {Slng•rorc) Ptc Ltd (2006) 3 SLR 769 . . 6.89
fla ng Ou v EPG Bank AG (20 1IJ 4 SLR 246 , , ....... . .... . ...... . , ................ 11.57
JIO Mineral• l·ZC v Mineral £nierprlses Ltd (20 11I I SLR 391. ..... .. ........... 26.J, 26 26
lobling v A-.oci.1ted Dolrie< ( 1982) AC 79'1 , , . , .. .. .... , .. .. • .. .. .. .. .. , , ... 6.72
John Shaw & Sein< (Salfor.I) Ltd v Sh.-v I 19351 2 KB 1 IJ ................... . ...... 2 1.36
Johns Manville Corrora11<>n'• !'>tent I 19671 327 , .. , . . . . . . • . . . . . • • . . • • . . • 23.55
JohMOnvAgnewl198-0IAC367. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1827.2289
J-Ollc)' v Sutton London Borough Coundl 120001 I Wl.R 1082 ......................... 6.15
Jones Bro• ( Hun>i.nton) I.Id v Stewns [19551 I QB 275. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .... .. • 5 15
Joncs v Pad•"•tton 1196911 WLR 328 . • .. .. ... .... ........... .. • $72
Joscdync v Xl<M:n I 19701 2 Qll R6, (19701 2 WI R 509.. . .. • . . .. . . . . . . •. .. . • ... .. 12.56
foseph Constant111< v lmperlol Smelting [1942) AC 154............ ,........... 17.28
Joseph Mathew v Singh ChiranJ<eV [20 101 1 SLR JJS .... , . . . . . . . . . • . . . . , .. , , . 24.4,1
fSI Shipping (S) Vtc 1.td v 120071 4 Sl.R (R) 460 .. ,, ........ 6.49, 6.59
JTC v Wishing Stnr (No 2) (20051 3 SLR 283. .. .. ...... , ........ , . , 13.24, Box 13.1 , IJ.46
Jump Rope (Slngopore) 120161 SGPDPC 2 1 ........ , .. , • .. .. . .. • .. . • . . .. , 24 S7
Ju>tlogin Pie Ltd v 0\'el'>ta·Chinesc Banking Corp 1.td (2007) I SLR(RJ 425 . . . . . . 18 23
K
K>ncheniung., The (199011 U<>yd's Rep 391 .. . .. •. .. .... . . . . • 22.116
Koy lam Cot\>tructlon & lhding P1e Ltd v Soon Dougl» (1'1c) Ltd [?OIJI I SLR I . . 11 .55
Kca Holdmgs Ptc Ltd v Gan Boon Hock 12000) ) SIR 129 • .•. . .• .• .• 21.54
Kearlcyv'lhom<on(l890)24QBD742.......... ,, ............... ..• 1525
Keighl<y, Moxs1ed & Co v Du1•nt (1901 f AC 240 ................. . ........... 20.20. 20.35
Kell)''' Partington (1833) 4 R & Ad 700,,, , ...... , .... , ................. , ..... 580
Kcnd:ill v i la1nllton ( 1879) 4 App Cas 504 . , , . .. .. • .. .. .. . • .. . . . . . .. . . . • . ........ 20.37
Kennedy v IOe 'l'raJror,I I 18971 AC 180........................... . ................ 20.2
Kenrick v Lowrcnc< ( 1890) 25 QBD 99 .. , , .. , .. , .. .. . . .. .. . .. • .. . . . .. . 23 11
Kcnwell & Co Pie I Id v Southern Ocean Sh1pbu1ldln3 Co Pie ( 19991 I SI R 214 . I I .SS
Khoo Bee Kcong v Ang Chun Hong (2005( SGHC 128.. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . 6 89
Khoo fame;, Dr" Gunapathy d/o (200212 SLR 414 ... ..... ... .. 6.59
King's Norton Mei.I Co (IJd)" F.dridge, Mmett, 11>d Co (IJd) (1897] 14 TI.R 98 .. 12 .51
Kimi Cotton Co lid v R•nchhodd•s KW.•YJ• Dcwa.n1 (1960) AC 192 ..... ..... 15.20. 1512
Kleinworl Re"'on ltd v M•l•y<,. Mining Co1p llhd I WLR 379. ....... . R.78
Klcmworl ll<n'on v Clo,gow Ctty Council (No 2) I 19971 4 All FR 641 , . .. .. . • , 13.1 1

••I x•ll
 Tabl• of Cam
Klerk·Elias ,. KT Chan Clinic Pte 1.td (1993) I SLR(R) 609 ................... 16.56, 18.47
KLW Holdings Ltd v Straitswol'ld Advisory I.Id 120171 5 SLR 184................ . 8.25
Koenigsblau v Sweet I1923 12Ch3 14....... . .. .. .. .. . .. ... . .. .. . 20. 18
Koh Lin Yee v 'lcrmtrial J>te Ud (20 l 5I 2 SLR 497 ...... . .............. .. .... II . SO, 11.56
Kong 'Jhai Sawmill (Mil'i) Sdn Bhd, Re ( 1978) 2 ML) 227 ..... . ......... , .. . ... 21.66
Kr<ll v Henry (1903) 2 KB 740....................................... .. .. . ... 17.22
Kwei Tek Chao v Briti<h Traders & Shippers Ltd 11954) 2 QB 459 ................... 22. 122
L l.iverpool Cjty Council v Irwin I19771 AC 239 ... ................... ..... .. , ....... 10.50
I. Sdtuler AG v Wickman Machine Tool Sales Ud I 1974] AC 235 .......... .... 10.64, 10.65
1:Es1range v F Graucob L.td (1934 I 2 KB 394 ................................... II. 7, I2.53
l.aclbroke v William Hill I1964] I WLR 273 ........... .. ........................... 23.24
I.am Chi Kin Povid ,, Pcu!Sche Ran k AG 12010] 2 Sl,R 896 HC .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .$.54, R.55
Lam Chi Kin David v J)eutsche Ronk AG 1201 I) I SLR 800 CA ........8.54, S.59, S.60. 8.61
l..imbcrl v Lewis (1982) AC 225 .................................................. 18.39
l..m1gcl v Retz 250 NY 159 (1928) . ................ . .. .. .. .. ....................... 19.75
Larcsc v Creamlond Dairies, 767 F2d 716 ( IOth Cir 1985) ............. .... .......... 19.73
Latham v Credit Suissr First Boston 1200012SLR693 .. •... •. .. ••. .. .. .. •. .. •. .. ... 10. 14
Latham v Credit Suisse First Boston 12000 J 2 SLR(R) 30 . ... . •. . ••• ... •• . •.. .. .. ... .. l0. 14
Latimer v AEC Ltd I19531 AC 643 . ........... .. ..... ............ ... .......... , ... . 6.51
Laurence v Lcxcourt Holdings Ltd 119781IWLR 1128 .. ..... .... .. .. ..... ....... ... 12.24
Law Society of Singapore v Tan Gu at Neo Phyllis 120081 2 SLR(R) 239.. . . . ... . 3. IS
Lawrence v Fox 20 NY 268 (1859) . . . . . . . . . . 19.57, 19.59, 19.60
LB (Plastic.<) Ltd v Swish Products I.Ad l1979l l'SR 145 . .. . ........ . .. .. . . ... 23.23
Le l.ievre v Could 11893) I Q B 49l . .... .... .. .. ..... .... .... .... .... . . ... 13.30
Lear v lnternation'1 1Galleries I19501 2 KR 86........................... . ... 13.47
I.ED 1.inear (A,ia) Pte 1.td v Kri,Utc Ptc l.td 12017) SGHC ISO...... . .•..••.... I0.68, 22.56
Lcc Chee Wei v Tan Hor Peow Viclor [20071 3 Sl.R(R) 537. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. • .. .. .. . . .. I 0. 12
Lee Christina" Lee Eunice (1993) 2 SLR(R) 6·1 4...... . ... . ..................... . ... 16. 13
Lee !Gen Meng v Cintom:rni Fronk 1201 5) 3 Sl.R 1072 . .•...•..••.. . .•...•. .. .. ... . . 24.3 1
Lee Kuan Yew v Chee Soon )uan 12003] 3 SLR(R) 8 ............................S.64, 14.20
l••c Konn Yew v Davies I t989J SLR 1063 .... . .. ... ............... .. ....... BI. 5.69. 5.72
Lee Seng Heng v Gullrdi<m Assurance Co l.ld 11932 1 MLI17 ....... .. ........... . .... 7.64
Lee Siong Kee v Beng Tiong Trlldmg, Import and Export (1988) l're Ltd 12000) 3 SLR(R) 386
...... .. ........................ ........ .. .. ....................... ... .... 16.24, 16.52
l.eegin Creative Leather Products, Inc" PSKS, Inc (2007) 551 US 877 .•. .. •• .. •. .. llox 25.2
Lofkowirz v Great Minnupolis Surplus Store (1957) 86 NW2d 689, USA . .. •. . .•. .. ... . 7.24
Ldman, Ricardo v Noble Resources Ltd (20 181 SGHC 166. .. .. .......... . .. . .. . .. . .. . 9.77
I.ck Gwee Noi v Humming !'lowers & Gifis Pte Ud 12014 I 3 SLR 27 . .... . .. . ... . , . . . IS.67
l.emon Grass Pie Ltd v Peronakan Place Complex Pte Ltd 12002) 2 SLR(R) SO . ... .. ... 10. 14
l.ew Ch"<' Fai Kevin v Monmry Authority or Singapor< 120121 .......... . .. . ... . ..... 4.54
Lewis v Averay I19721 I QB 198 ....................................... 12.44, Figure 12.3
l.i Siu Lun v Looi Kok Pok 12015 1 ' I Sl.R 667 ...................... ........... ..... 5.31
liM Kok Mong v Ow Wnh Foong l2008) 4 SLl\(I\) I 65 ... .. ........... ... ...... . ... . 6.99
l,ict1w Anst.olt v Mll\ Sttd UK 120121 All ER (Comm) 54 . .. •. .. ... . ..... •. ..• . .••.. 11.H
Lifestyle 1.99 Pte Ltd v SSl.99 Pte (l/a ONE.99 SHOP) 1200012SLR766 .... ..... 23. 113
Lim Rc11g Chcns v Lim Ngcc Sing (2016) 1 SLR524 ... . .. .. ... ....... .. .. .. .. ....... . 8.26
Lim Eng Hock Peter v Lin Jlan Wei 120101 4 SLR 331 .. .. ........ .. . ....... . ......... 5.79
xxlll
Tabl• of Cam
l.im Feng Chieh (for111c1·ly tradmg as lnlrn·Smit Agencies) v GS Auto Supply Pte Ltd
11993] 2 Sl.R 489 ............ . ..................... . ... .. .. ... .... ........... 21.6
Lim Geok Hi;m v Lim Guan Chin 119931 3 SLR(R) 183 ...... .. ............. .. 14.27, 14.57
l.im K1111 Som v Shcritfa Taibah bte Abdul Rahm<m I1994) I SLR 393 . .. .. •. .. •....•. 17.25
Lim Sze F.ng v I.in Choo Mee 120191 I SLR 414 ... .. ...... ........... .. ............ 10. 15
l.im Weng Kee" PP 120021 2 Sl.R(R) 848 .......... . ....... ... ......... ........ 4.58, 21.S l
Linden Gardens Trust v Lene<tn Sludge Disposols 119941 1 AC 85 ....... . ............ . 9.il
Lion Labor:i.torics Ltd v Evans 11984] 2 All ER 417 .. .. .. ... ....... . .. .. ............ 23.76
LI Korbctis v Transgrain Shipping BV [2005) EWHC 1345 (QB) . .• ... •. .. •• .. •. .. ... . 7.63
Locken v Charles Ltd I19381 4 All ER 170 ......... . ........................ ... .... 22.13
London & Nfnshonatand ExpJorntio1ls Co Ltd v New Mashon3Jand Exploration Co Lid
11891] WN 165 ............ ........................ . . ...... . .. . . ............ 21.54
London Artists Ltd" Linler Grade Organisation Ltd 11969) 2 QB 375 ................. 5.73
tonrho v Faycd (No S) I 19931 I WLR l,189 ........... .. ............... ..... ........ 5.31
l.onrho v Fayed 119901 2QB479 . ....... ... .. . .. .. .. ....... .. .. .. ................. S.36
tonrho v Faycd 119921 I AC 448 .. ... . ... .............. .. . ............. ...... ..... 5.33
l.otus (France v Turkey) (1927) PCIJ Rep (Ser A) No. 10 .. .. ... . ... . . .. . ... .. .. . . .. . . 26.7
Love & Co Pte Ud v The Carol Club Pie 1,td [20091 I SLR(R) 561 . ... •... •. . ••. .. ••. 23.85
Low Peng Boon v Low Janie 119991 I SLR 76 1 ... . ... . ....... . ..................... 21.66
Lowe v Lon1bonk 119601 I WLR 196 ... . ... . ......... .... . ........... ............ 13.60
Lubbe v Cape Pk 12000) 4 All ER 268............................................. 26.2 1
Ll1<ky Realty Co Ptc Ltd v I ISBC Trustee (Singoporc) Ltd 12016) l SLR 1069 . .. •• .. •. . 10. IS
l.umlcy v Gye (18531 E&B 216. . .... .... .... ..... .. . . ...............S.S
M
Magee v Pennine Insurance Co Ltd I19691 2 QR 507.. . . ... 12.24
Magcllt111 lntcrnotionol Corporation v Salzgitter llandcl Gmb!I, 76 FSupp2d 919 (NDlll 1999)
IVlll ZR 304/001 Federal Supreme Court of Germany, 9 Jan 2002 ............ .. .. 19.49
Mahidon Ni<hiar b1e Mohd All v Dowood Sultan Kllmaldin 12015] S SLR 62 . .. •... •. 12.55
Mahmoud and lspahnni, Re (1921) 2 KB 716... . ...... .............................. 15.6
Malik v Bank or Cr<dit and Commerce International SA ( 1998) AC 20 •. 10.49, JO.SO. 18.28
Man Finnncinl (S) Pte Ltd (formerly known as: E D & F Mni1 Intcrna1ional (S) Pte l..1d} v
Wong !h1rk Chuan David 12008] I SLR(R) 663
....... .. ... ..... .... 10.63. 10.65. I0.66, 15.33. 15.37. 15.4 1, 15.42. 15.47, 15.55. 15.60. 16. 12
Manches v Trimborn (19<16) l 15 LJKR 305 ... .. ..... .. .... . ....... ... ............... 9.44
Mano Vikront Singh v Cargill TSf. A<i• Pte 1.td [20121 SGCA 42: 120121 I SLR 311 .... IS.S I
Mansource Interior J>te l.td v CSG Croup Pte 120171 5 SLR 203 . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 8.64
Maple Flock Co Ltd v Universul Fumilurc l'roductS (Wembk)') Lid 11934) l KB 148
... . ... .. ... . ... ... . .. ....... . . ......... .. . ... . ... . ... ' ....... . . .......... 16.19, 16.47
Mar< Rich & Co AG,. Ri>hop Rock Marine Co Ud I19961 AC 21 I•..• •. .. •• .. •• ..• •• . 6.36
Mnredelanto Compania Navi<ra SA v Bergbau· Handel Gmbl-1, 1 he Mlhalis Angelos
[1971) I Q ll 164, ............................ .. .... , ........................ 10.65
Marina Cell'lr< Moldings Pte Ltd v Pars Carpet Gallery Pit Ltd I19971 2 SLR(R) 897 ... 11.34
Mantlmc Notional Fish v Ocean Trnwlcrs 119351AC524 ... . ....... . .. . .... . .. .. .. 17.30
Marlow v Pitfield (1719) I p Wm.I 55R .. .. .. . ... . .. .. .. ... ......................... 9.24
Marslrnll v NM Financial M;mogcment IAd 11995) I WLR 1<16 1 ..... . ............ . ... 15.63
Mason v Pr<>vhlent Clothing and Suppl)' Co l.td 119131AC724. . .......... 15.42, 15.43
Maynard v West Midlands Regional l k alth Authority I19841 l WLR 634 .. .. .. .. .. ... . 6.53
xxiv
 Tabl< of Cam
Cer:unic Center, Inc .., Nuova D'Agostino.. SPA, 144 F3d 1384
( I Ith Cir 1998) . . 19.38
McDougall v Aeromarine of Emsworth, Ltd (1958) 3 All ER 431 22.28
Mcloughlin v O'Brian (1983] I AC 410 .6.44, 6.45
McRne v Comrnonwenhh Disposals Cornmission ( 195 1) 84 CLll 377
... 12.12. 12. 17, 18.9. 18. 11, 18.12
M<rc•ntile Union t'unrantee Corp l.td v Ball 1!937] 2 KB 498.. . ............. 9.28
Merck v Pharmaforte (20001 3 SI.R 717 ............................................ 23.5 1
Meridian Funds 1\.1:m'1gcmcn t Asia l,td v Securities Com1nission 11995) 2 AC SOO
................ . ......................................................... 21.21, 21.29
Merrill v Mcrritl ( 1970) I WLR 12 11 ...........................................8.73, 8.74
Mctropoli1an International Schools Ltd v Dcsigntcchnica Corpn 12011 ) 1 WLR 1743 ... . 5.66
MFM Restaurants Pte Ltd v Fish & Co Restaurants Pte Ltd (20 11 ) I SLR 150
. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. ... . ... . ... . ... .. ... . ... . ... . ... .. ... . .. 18.40, Box 18.2
Midgulf International Ltd v Group Chimique Tunisien (20 101 EWCA Civ 66 . .. .. .. .... 7.54
Midlink Development Pte Ltd v 'fhe Stansfield Group Pte Ltd (20041 4 SLR(R) 258
.7.50, 7.70
Mid·South Packers. Inc v Inc, 76 1 F2d 1121 (5th Cir 1985) .
Mineral Enterprises Ltd v JIO Minerals FZC 12010] SGHC 109
Mitfam hHerDational Ltd v 1v1odey Resources Pie Ltd 12014 ) I SLR 1253 .
Mitsubishi Corp RTM 1iue1·nn1ional J>te lid v Kyen Resources Pie Lid 12019) SGHCR6
. .. . . .. . . .. . .
MK Distripark Pie Lid v Pedder Warehousing & Logisti<s (S) Pte ttd (2013) 3 SLR 4 33
. .. .. .. ....... . ... .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. .. .. ........... .. .. .. ......... 18.23
Mogul Steamship Co Ltd v McGregor Gow & Co (1892) 1\C 25 ......................... 5.3
Montgomery v Lanork.<hire Health lloard (2015) 2 WLR 768 ......•...•..••...•....•.. 6.60
Moorcock. 111c ( 1889) t4 PD 64 .................................................. 10.42
Morris v CW Martin & Sons Ltd ( 1966) t QJl 716 ... . .. ... . ....... ... . .. ....... . ... . 9.87
Motor Insurers' Bureau of Singapor·e v AM General Insurance Bhd (2018) 4 SLR 882 .. . 9.77
Mo1ours Lid v Euroball (West Kent) Lid (2003 1 f.WJ·lC 614 ......................... 11.59
Mountford v Scott ( 1975) I All ER 198.. .... . .. .. ... . . .. .. ....... .. ............ 7.38
Mf'-Bih Pte Ltd v Oey Wid;irto (1999 ( I SLR(R) 908... . ••.. ..... 16.58, 18.48, 18.54
MSM Consulting Ltd v Tlllizania 12009( EWHC 121 (QB).
Muirhead v Industrial Tank Specialities Ltd ( 1986) QB 507
Multiplex Con.<truction.< l'ty v Abgarus (1992) 33 NSWLR 504. .
Muh i,<ervice Bookbinding !Jd v Morden 119791Ch84
Murphy v Brentwood District Council ( 199 1) I AC 398 . . .. . .•. . . . .. .
Musumeci v Winadell Pty Ltd (1994) 34 NSWl,R 723.. . ••. ... .. . •.. ...... l!ox 14. 1
N Omir
Nllsh v lnn1"ll (1908) 2 KR I .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. . ... .. ... .. . ... .. ..9.19. llox 9. 1, 9.35
Natfcrrous Pte Ltd v Trndclink l h1rdwore J>tc Ltd (2005) SGllC 131 .................. 22.47
National Acrotcd Water Co Ptc Ltd v Monarch Co Inc (2000) 2 SLR 24 •. .. •. .. •. .. ... IS.33
National Employers' Mutual GcncrJ.1 Insurance Association Ltd v Jones l 1988} I AC 24
............ .. ........... . ... . ............ . ... . ............ . ... . ............ . ... 22.79
Nelson v Dahl ( 1879) 12 Ch D 568 .. ............... .. ............... . ............ 10.54
Ncma, The (1982( AC 724.. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. . ... .. .. .. ... .. .. . ... .. ....... 17.23
xxv
Tabl< of Cam
Neuleship v Weston (1971( 2 QB 69 1. .. . . .. . . 6.48
New Zealand Shipping Co Ltd v AM S;1ttherwaile & Co Ltd (The Eurymedon) ( 1975( AC 154
.. .. Box 7.3, 9.80, 19.54
Ng Buay He>ck v Tan Keng Huat ( 1997( 2 SLR 788 . . . . . .. . 13.38
Ng Giap H<>n v Westcomb Securities Pte Ltd (2009) 3 SLR(R) 518.. . . . . 10.36, 10.48
Ng Koo Kay Benedict v Zim Integrated Shipping Services Ltd (20!01 2 SLR 860 .. . ... .. 5.53
Ng Lay Chc>o Marion v Lok Lai Oi (1995) 3 SLR(R) 77 .............. .. . ............ 10. 14
Ngiom Kong Seng v Lim Chiew 1-lo<k (20081 3 SLR (R) 674 ........... . .. .. ....... .. . 6.44
Niblcn v ConfcC1 ioners' MoterilllS Co Ud (192 I) 3 Kil 387 .. .. ... . ... •. .. .. .. .. ... . . 22.35
Nippon P•irtt (Singapore) Co Ptc Ltd v IC! Paint (Singapore) Ple Ltd (20001 3 SLR(R) 465
............................................................................... 23. 11 3
NLS Pty v Hughes (1966) 120 CLR 583 . .. .. .. .. ....... .. .. .. .. ... .. .. . ... . ... .. ... 19.86
Nordcnfclt v Maxim Nordenfelt Guns llnd Ammunition Co (l894] AC 535
. ... . ... . ... .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. .. .. •.. . ... . ... . ... .. •.. 15.35. 15.36, 15.37
North Ocean Shipping Co Ltd v Hyundai Construction Co Lid (The 'Atlantic Baron')
(1979 1 QB705... . ... 14.4, 14.24
Norwest Ho ldings Pte Ltd (in liquidation) v Newport Mining Ltd (20 10] 3 SLR 956
19.33 . .. . 7.6, 8.69, 12.22
26.26 Norwest Ho ldings Pte Ltd (in liquidalion) v Newport Mining Ltd (20 11 ] 4 SLR 617 . . 7.78
24.45 Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v Guatemala) (1955) ICJ Rep 4 . .. . 26. 17
Novelty Pte Ltd v Anrnnresorts Ltd (20091 3 SLR(R) 216
22. 11 . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . .. .. .... . ... . ... . .. .. ... 23.89. 23.94, 23. 114. 23.115. 23. 11 9
NTUC F<>0dfa1-e Co-operative I.Id ,. SIA 1;nsineering Co ttd (2018) 2 StR 588 ...... . .. 6.4 1
0
OllG Ltd v Alhm (2008) I AC I
.. 5.7, 5.11. 5.13, 5.25, l'igures 5. 1 & 5.2. 5.35. 5.36, 5.37, 5.39
Otcidental Worldwide Investment Corp v Sktbs A/S Avainti, Skibs A/S Glarona, Skibs A/S Navahs
('Ilic "Sibocn' t1nd the 'Sibotrc') ( 1976) I Lloyd's Rep 293 .. ... . ... ...... . .... . 14.3, 14.6
Ochroid Tmdi11g l.td v Chua Siok Lui (1tadi11g as VIE lmpot1 & E•porl) (20181 I SLR 363
. .. ....... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. .. . 15.13, 15. 14, 15.26, 15.27, 15.28
Olivayllc Pty Ltd v Fllonwcg AG (No 4) (20 10) FCAFC 62 .. •. .. .• ... •. .. •. .. .. .. .•.. 7.60
. 7.55 Olivine Capital Pie !Jd v Chia Chin Yon (20 14] 2 SLR 1371 . . . . 12.28
. 6.71 Olley v Marlborough Court Ltd (1949( l KB 532 ................................... 11.14
19.86 Ooi Ching Ling v Just Gem Inc (20031 l SLR(R) 14 ...... .. .. ....... .. . ... . ........ 18.56
14 .54 Ooi linn Sun v Bee Hun Meng 11991( Sl.R 824.. . . .. .. 6.62, 6.8 1
. 6.12 Orchard Cen tral Pte Ltd v Cupid Jewels Pte Ltd (Forever f>te Ltd, non-party
(2013) 2 SLR 667 ............ . ................ . ................ . ............. 8.54
Orient Centre Investments Lid v Socieie Generole (2007] 3 Sl.R(R) 566...... . . .. . 13.24
Ltd v Williams ( 1957( I WLR 370 ... . ... .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. ... . . 10.32, 13.40
Out of the Box Pte Ltd v Wt111in Industries Pte Lid 12013) 2 SLR 363
... . .. .. . . 18.40. 18.43, Rox IR.2. l!ox 18.3
Overbrooke Estate v Glencombe Properties (19741 1 WLR 1335 ...................... 13.57
Ovcrseo·Chinese llonking Corp Ltd v Chng S0<k Lee (200 1) 4 SLR 370.... 14.43, Figure 14.2
Ovcrseo-C:hinesc Honking Corp I.id v ·nrn ll:ck Khong (20051 2 Sl.R 694 . . .. . . .. . ... . 14.29
Overseas Tankship (UK) !Ad v Morts Dock & Engineering Co Ltd (Wagon Mound) (No 1)
(1961 ) AC 388. (No 2) 11967) ........................................ 6.52. 6.73, 6.74
Oversea.< Union Enlcrprise 1.td v 11lrte Sixty Degree J>tc l.td (2013) 3 Sl.R I . . . .. . 18.53
xxvi
 Tablc of Casts Table of CoS<S

OYtrseas Union huu,.net Lid v Tuttgum lnronn« Co l20Cll I .l SLR 3.lO . • .. • • . • • • . 7.36
p PST Energy 7 Shipping UC v 0\\1 Bunkcr Maha ud (Thc Res Cogitans)
P:.<ific M>rin< Sh1pbu1lding Pie ,, Xin Ming liua Pi< I td 120141 102 ....... 22.SO
P>natron v Le• Chcow l cc 120011 3 SLR 405... ........ . , ..... ,. .. .. • 13.23, 13.24
P:.ng Kol F• v 1 lrn Oioe Phlng 11993) 3 SLR 317....... .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. ....... 6.47
Panwdl Pie I td v 11\dian !lank (No 2) 120021 4 SLR 963. , . , . . .. .. .. .. .. .. ........ 7.44
Pao On v L.iu Yiu I.ons 11980) AC 614., ..............8.IS. llox 8.1, 14 .7, 14.9. 14.12, 14.24
l'arndinc v Jone ( 1617) Alcyn 26 ....................... ,, ........... ,, ........ , .... 17.3
Paris v Stepney Borough Coull<il I 195 1I AC 367 , .. ..... , , ........ , , .. , ........ , ... . 6.50
Parker v Soulh Ea.tern Rollway 2 CPD 416 ......... , .. , .... , .... , .. , .... , .. , 11.12
Parkw.ty Propcrli<> Pi< Ltd v Pnge One - The Rook Shop Ptc Ltd ( 19851 Sl.R(R) 204 . , 18.64
Parnutcr v Coupl•lld (1840) 6 M & W 105 .................. , ....... , , ....... 5.48
Patcl v Ali 119841 Ch 283 .................................... , , .. , .......... 18.63
Patridge v Crinrnd(n ( 1968) I WLR 1204.. ..... ....... ....... . ............... 7. 18
Pearce v Brook> (1866) LR I f:x 213........... .. . . .. . .. .. .. . . ............. 15.12
Poeui• lntcrmark Lid' ANZ Bwking Group Ltd 120061 EWCA Ctv 386 •.••.. 13.24. 13.60
!'oh Nam Ktt v Pd1 1_.m Kong (199611 SLR 75....... .. ..... 14.39, 1457
Perch-.! v Wnght 2 Ch 421 .. .... . .. • .. .. .. . .. . .. .. • ........ 2157
Perry F.ngmttring Pl'Y '' ll<mold AG 12001) SASC 15.. .. .. ... .. ......... 19.IS
Pcnimmon llom•s I 1mited v Ovc Arnp & P.rtners l.im1tcd (20171 hWCA 373....... 11 .28
Pctcr's American O<llcacy Co Lid v lleath (1939) 61 CLR 457 , .. . .. . 21.61, 21.65
Peters v l'lcnnng (18•10) 6 M & W 42 .,,.............. .. • ,. , .. , ,. ........ ,, 9.17
Pl l llydnmlic1 Engrnttrmg Ptc Ltd v Airtrust (Hong Kong) Ltd 120171 2 Sl.R 129
................ ,,,,,,.,, ................. ,, .... ,,,.,, .......... , ... 18.3, 18.58, 1860
Pharmaceutical So<ICI)' of Great Rrltarn v !loots Cash Chcn1"ts ( 1953) I Qll 401
.. '' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' ... ' ... ' ' ... ' ... ' .. '' ... ' " ...... ' ... ' .. '' ... ' .... ' ' .. ' ... ' .... 7.27, 24. 14
l>hillip• v Brooks, l.td ( 1919) 2 Kl! 243 . . , ...... , .. . , .•. , , • 12.42, 12.43. 12,44, Figt1ro 12.3
Phoenix: Gcne-ro1.I ln.,ur.Lncc Co or Creect SA v Administralla Aslgur"1llor de Slat
I19881 Qll 216 ................... .................... ....... , ........... IS.S. 15.8
Pickford< Ltd v Ctl«tlc• 120031 EWCA Civ 1741 ... ... .... .. .............. 7.39
Pilmorc v Hood (18J8) S Ring NC 97 ........ .... . ... ... . ..................... 13.17
Pinnd's Case ( 1602) 5 Co Rtp 117A. ......... . ...... .. .... 843, 8.-14. 8.45. 8.47
Plani\;;ure PAC v G.cllc Inn> Pte Ltd (20071 4 Sl.R(R) 513 • . . . • .••• 6.49. 659
Plu; Group I.Id v (20021 fWCA Ch• 370.. . .. .. . .. • .. .. 21.54
Polo/Lauren Co. IP Thc v Shop· In O.:partmmt Slore Pte ltd. 11>< (20061 2 SI R(R) 690
.... 23.93
Portuguc;c Comolld•tcd C<>r1><r Mm« Limned, Re 45 Ch 0 16 • . . • . •• , . 20.27
PP v Low Atk Meng (2007) 2 SLR 814 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4.7
PP v Loh Soon Aik Andrew 120131 SGHC 16 .......... .. • .. • .. .. ,, .......... 4.8
PI' v Low T1ong Choon I 19981 2 SLR(R) 119 ........... ,, ............ , ........ ..t8, 4.SO
PI' v Monk l'mg Wuen Nh1urlcc (1999)., ............ , ....................... , , ... , 4.10
PI' v 'l'•m Pook Sam ( 1999) I SLlt(R) 1022. ............ , , ........ , ........... , .. , 4. 11
l'V v Teo Al Nt•c 11995) 2 SLR 69 •. , ........ , . , ..... ,., ......... , ,., , ........ , ... 23.28
Vr<sltlcnt Marine (l'tc) 1.td v Kojhno Singapore (l>te) LLd I19941 SCI IC 68, •. , .... , •. ,, 16.6
Press Auton1.1llon f>tt Led \• Exhibilion P.orw\\1·Jlns l'tc Ltd
(20031 I Sl.R 112 ..................... .. . . . . . ,, , .. .. .. ,, .. .11.7, I I.SS
Printing •nd Numcric.tl Rcgl>tering, Co v Samp<on (1875) LR 19 t<1 462 .,, •. , ... , . . 14.l
Proform Spo<u Management Ltd v Proocu•·c Managm><nt Lid
120071 1 All ER (Comm) 356 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. ••• 9.27
(20161 2 WLR 1193.. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .......................... 22.11, 22.95
PT Asunn.i Jasa Indonesia v Dcxoa Bank SA 120011 1 SLR 597 ...................•. , 26.99
PT Ma>ter Mandiri v Yama7-"ki Comtructlon (S) Pt< Ltd 120001 3 SLR(R) 797 ...... •. 18 45
PT Sandipala Arthaputra v STMiu odc<tronic• Asl• Pacific Pte Ltd 11018] I SLR 818 .. 2263
l'r Soonlee Mctalindo Perk•» v Slupping Pt< 1.td 1200714 SLR(R) SI .....•.. 11 29
PT Surya Citr-• Multimedia v Singapore Pte 12019) 3 StR 461 ......... 22.27
Q
Qont•U & O rang.star Co·opcrnLion Agreement, CCS 1100/003f06 (10 January 2007),, .. , 25. 10
QR Net Co Ltd v E.irnson Management (S) l'tc Ltd 120071 I SLR(R) 1 . . . . . , .•. , • 23.73
Qingdao Boh;U Construction Group Co. ud v Goh Te<k Ben:g 12016] 4 SLR 977 .... 5 47. 5.61
R
R & R Cu,.oms Rrol:er> Co l.ld v lJnltcd Oonnnion• Tru.11 Ltd 1198311 WI R 321
• ............... .. . • • ......... ... 1149,
R (Mlllcr) v Secretary of State for Ex1hng the European lJnion (2017) \..'KSC S •••• 26 11
R 1,.,shcl,d v Shc111 (1914) 3 KR 607 .. .. . . .. • .. .. • .. .. • 9 36
R ' ' Anomey·General for England and Wale• 12003) UKPC 22 .•• , . • • • 14 13, 14 26
R v 801v Strcet Metropolitan Sttprnd1ory M•g1stme, <J partc Pinochet Ugart< (No 2)
(2000) I AC 119 ................... ,,, ,, ............................ 2616
R••Clarkc( l927)40CLR227 ............................................ ,,..,, 7.71
R 1• I> 120071 EWCA Crim 1937............. , .. , ...... . ............. ,,.......... . 4 28
R v Willans ( 1858) 3 Kyshi< Repoll 16 ...... , .. ,, ......................... . , ....... 2. 11
l\adclltfc v 1::\-ans ( 1892) 2 QB 524 ,, ........ , .. , .. • .. .. . . . .............. ... 5.4 I
Radford v De Froberville 119771 I WLR 1262,, ................................... 18. 19
l\allk< Town Club Pte Ltd v I.Im fng I lo..k Peter 12012) I Sl.R 374 .. . ............•.. , 5.28
R•1tfc1>tn 7..enirolbank O!lerr<ich A(J v Roy.I Bank of Scotland pk
12010] FWllC 1392 (Comnl) ..................................... 13.58, 1360
Rainfore.t Tr•ding Ltd" St.ie Bank ut India Singapore (2012] 2 SLR 713.. . , , . , 8 16
Rapbah Ju1mbhoy ,. Amccrah R Jum"1>hoy I 1997) l SIR 802 • . • • • • • • • • . 14 27. 14
R•m• Corporation v Pr0\-..1 Tin md Gen<r.tl ln\'<<tm<nh Ltd (1952) 2 QB H 7 ...... 20 39
Ramahng•n> Ravmthran v The Attotn<)' General 120121 2 SLR 49 .. • .. .... 315
R•nmh s/o Kmhn•n ' 'AXA Life lnsur>n« S1ng•por< PI< Lld (20151 ·I SLR 1 • • 618. 6 ).I
R•n>rsh s/o Krishnan ,. AXA Luc lnsuronce Smg>porc PI< Lid 12016) 4 SLR ..... b l•I
Ran.,g>te Victoria Hot<I v Monte6or<(l866) l.R I Ex 109.... .. .. .. ... .. . ..... 7 IS
Rarlican A.ia l'te Lid v Global Cont•lner l'te Ltd 12002) I SLR(R) 701 . , . 11 .29
RSC l'rop<rti<• Ptc Ltd v Defu l·urmturc Ptc Ltd (2015) I SLR 997 ............ 13.36. 13.39
RDC Coner<tr Pte Ltd v Sato Kogyo (S) l't< l.td 120071 4 SLH(R) 413
... " . " ... " .. " ... "." ... 10,68, 'l';ibl< 10.1, 10,69, 10.71. 10.72, 10,73, 10.74, 16.42, 22. 17
Reckltl & Cohna11 Products Ltd v Hordc11 Inc11990] I All P.R 873.. . .......... . 23. 11 0
Rccor.l'l'V Ptc Ltd v Mcdl11Corp TV Slng.ipore Pt< I td 12011 J I SLR 830 .. .....• , , ••. 23.26
RcJgr.ivc v Hurd ( 1881) 20 Ch D I , , .. , , .. , ...................................... 13 24
R<g•I (I lo>tings) L<d v Gulllvcr (1942) I All l\R ... , .. , ....... ..... ........ , ... 21.55
Regu' (UK) 1.ul v Epcot Solutions I id 120081 fWCA Civ 361..................... , . 11 Ml

xxvi1 XJCYHi
 Tabl< of Cam
Reichman v Beveridge 120061 llWC A C iv 1659 , . . .. .. .. .. .. ... 16.57
Resorts World at Sentosa Pte Ltd v Lee Fook Kheun 120181 5 SLR 1039. . ' 9.40
Review Publishing Co I.Id v Lee Hsien Loong 120101 I SLR 52. . ' 5.53, 5.82, 5.85
Reynolds v Times Newspapers Ltd (200 1) 2 AC 127 . . .5.84, 5.85
Rickshaw Investments Ltd v Nicolai Baro!'1 von Uexkull 120071 I SLR (R) 377 26.26
Roberts v Gray ( 19 13) I Kil 520 .. .. ' 9.22
Roberl$(J1) Quay lnvesunent Pte Lid" S1etn Consult.ants Pie Ltd (20081 2 SLR( R) 623
. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. . 18.40
Robin M Bridge v DelleOns (19841 I AC 705 ' .. .. .. .. ' .. ' ' .... .. .. .. .. ' ........ ' ... 15.48
Robin v Goh Roon C hoo (1965 ) MLI 2 15 . •. , .... .. .. . ... , ........ .. ...... , .... , ... 12.29
Robin1011 v llonmm (1848) 1 Ex 850 ... , .. , . .... .. ...... , .. , ..... .. ...... . .... 18.3, 18. 11
Roe v Minister of llcahh (195,t) 2 QB 66 ............ , .. , , ............ , .. , , .... , ... , 6.'19
Rookcs v Rarnard ( 1964) AC I 129 ...... , ..................................... .5.21 , S.25
Rose & Frank Co v I R C rompton & Bros Ltd 11923( 2 KB 261 ..... . ............ . ... . 8.76
Routh v Jones I 1947 ) I All ER 179 . . .... . .. ....... , • .. .. .. .
Routledge v Grant ( 1828) 4 Bing 653 .... .. ....... , ... , 7.38
Routledge v McK"y (19541 I WLR 615..
Rover International Ltd v Cannon E'ilm Sal.s Ltd (1989) I WLR 912
Rowland v Divall I 19231 2 KB 500 . 22.118, 22.128
RO)"'I Bank of Scotland pie v Et ridge (No 2) (2002) 2 AC 773 . .. .. 13.28, 14.25, 14.32, 14.33,
.. .4.35, 14.37, 14.38, 14.42, 14.43, 14.48, 14.49, 14.50, 14.51 . 14.52
Royal British Bank v 1\Jrquand ( 1856) 6 E&B 327 , .. , ,, .. .
RSP Al'chi1ec1s Planner$ & Engineers v Management Corporation Slrata Title Plan No 1075
("Eastern l. agoon·) ( 1999) 2 SILR 449 .... .. .. .. .. . ........ .. ...... . ........ . ... . 6.38
RSP Architccls Plonners & Engineers v Ocean Front Pte Lid ( 1996) I SLR 113 , •. , , •. , , 6.38
RTS Flexible Systems I.Id v Molkerci Alois Muller GMRI I (2010) UKSC M .. , .. , , , ... , ?.?9
Rubicon Computer Systems Lid v United Paints Ltd (2000) 2 TCLR 453 , , , • , , , •. , , .. , 22.39
Ruxlcy Elcclronics and Construclio·n Lid v Forsi1h 11996) AC 344 .......... . .. 18. 20. 18.30
s .... 13.30
S Pacific Resources Lid v Tomolugon Holdings Lid 12016) 3 SLR 1049 ... . .•. . ..• . ..... 8.20
Sadler v Whitemon (1910) I KR 868 ... , .. .. ........ , ... , ... , ........ , ... , .... , ... 2 1.69
Sainsbury v Streel [ 1972) I WLR 834.... .. .. 17.32
Salom;m v A Saloman & Co Lid I 1.897) AC 22 .. .. .. .. ................ . ...... 21.23, 2 1.27
Samsonite IP lloldings SARL v An Sheng Pte Ltd 1201?) 4 SLR 99 .. ........ , .... , .. 23. 10 1
San lntornolionol Pt• l.td v Keppel Engineering Pte I.Id 11998 ) 3 SLR(R) 447 .. .. .. . . .. 16.35
Sandar Aung v P;irkWil)' Hospilals S ingapore Pte Ltd (lrnding as Mount Elizabeth Ho,<pilal)
(200?) 2 SLR(R) 89 1 , ....... , , ... , ............ , ... , ............ , ... , .... , ... 10.18
Sarika C o1rnoisseur Cofe Pt< Ltd v l'ermo SpA 12013) I SLR 531 . . . . .. . 23.93
Saunders v Anglia Building Sociely I 1971 I AC 1004 ... . ... .. ... . ... . ....... .. ... 11 .9, 12.54
Scornmell and Nephew Ltd v Ouslon ( 1941 J I All ER 14 .. , ............ , .. , , .... , ... , ?.82
Schawel v Ret1de 11913] 2 IR 64. .. . ... 10.26
SeolSon v Pegg (1861) 6 H & N 295 . ........ . ... . ............ . .................... . 8. 31
Scott v Dllvis (2000) 74 ALJR 1,110 .. ............ , .. .. ......................... , ... , 20.3
Stoll v l.ondon & SI Katherine Co (1865) 31i & C 596 . . . .. .. .. ... .. . . 6.62
Seruuons Ltd v Midland Silicones Lid (1962) AC 446 . .. .. .. ... . ... . ... ..9.52, Box 9.3, 9.80
Seo-Land Service Inc v C heong Fook C hee Vincent 11994) 3 SLR 631 ............ , ... , 8.38
Seover '' Ranso m, 224 NY 233 ( 19 18) . .. .. .. .. .... 19. SR, 19.59
xxix
Tabl< of Cam
Seilw;ird Ill Frederick O liver v PP ( 1994) 3 SLR( R) 89 . . 4.40
Sec Toh Siew Kee v Ho Ah Lorn Fcrrocemenl (Ptc) Ltd [2013] 3 SLR 284, ,., , •.. ,, .• ,, 6.23
Selectmove l.td. Re (1995] 1 W LR 474 . . . .. . . . .. .. ... . .. . . . .. . .7.69. 8.45
Sembcorp Marine I.Id v PPL Holdings Pte Ltd 120131 4 SLR 193. .. . I0.15
SH Cogent Logistics Pte Ltd v Singapore Agro Agricullural P te Ltd (20 1·1 ) 4 SLR 1208
.... .. .... . ' ' .. ' ' .. .. .. .. .. .. ' .. .. ' . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. ' 5.28
Sh;mklin Pier LD v Detel Products l.D ( 1951) 2 All ER 471. . 9.79
Simon Global Solutions Ptc Ltd v LG International (Singapore) Pte Ltd (200 I) 3 SLR 36S
. .. .... . ...... .. ............ .. . .. ........ .. . ... . .. ... . .... .. . ..8.40, 14.1 5. 14.19
Shaw v Lighthousexpress Lid (20 10) EWCA Civ 161 . . . 7.83
Shearson Lehman llutton Inc v Maclaine Watson & Co Lid (No 2) (1990) I Lloyd's Rep 44 1
.. .. .... .. . ' .. .. ' .. ............ .. ' .... .......... .. ' .. .. ' . .... .. .. .. ' ...... .... . 22.102
Sheng Siong Supermarket Ltd v Carilh1 Pte ltd (2011) 4 SLR 1094 . . . .. . 12.56
Shipton, An<lcrson & Co v Weil Rros (1912] I KB 574 . .... . ....... . .. , . ............ . 16.8
Shirlaw v Southern Foundries ( 1926) Ltd 11939) 2 KB 206 .. , ... .. .. .. .. , ............ 10.43
15.48
Shogun Finance Lid v Hudson (2004( I AC 9 19
. .. .. .. .. .• ... .. .. •. . , .. .. .. .. 12.'14, 12.45, 12.46. 12.47, 12.49, Box 12.4, Figure 12.3, 12.57
.. .. I0.29
Sim Tony v l.im Ah Ghee 11995 ) 2 SLR 466.. .. .. .. .. . .... . ... .. ...... . ........ .. .. . 8.16
. .. 22.129
Sim v Streic h (1936) 2 All ER 1237 . 5.48
Singapore Woodcroft Manufacturing v Mok Ah Sai [ 1979) 2 ML) 166., •. ,, .. ,, .. , , .. , 17.25
Singsung Pte IJ d v l.G 26 lile<tronics Pte l. td 12016) 4 SLR 86 .. .. ........... . 23.36, 23. 11 0
SiSTIC.com Pte Ltd v Compelitioll Commissio1l of Singapore (Appeal No. I of 2010}.
, .. . 21.43
Competilion Appell I Board (28 May 20 12} ... . ........ . ....... . ................ 25.30
Siu Yin Kw'1n v Eastern Insurance Co Ltd ( 1994) 2 AC 199., .. ,, .. ,, .. , ,, .. ,, . 20.35, 20.36
Skandinaviska Er1skilda Baoken AB (Pub)). Singapore Hranch v Asia Pacific Breweries
(Singar ore) Pte Ltd 12011 [ 3 SLR 540 ....... . ... . .... . ....... . ........ 6.92, Box 20.1
SM lntegr:>ted Tr:rnswore Pte IJ d v Schenker Singoporc ( Ptc) Ltd (2005) 2 SLR(R) 65 1
.... 24.43
Smile Inc Dentol Surgeons Pte Ltd v Lui Andrew Stewart (20 12) 4 SLR 308 ........... 10.15.
Smilh New Court Securities v Scrimgeor Vickers (Asset Ma11agcmc111} (1997) AC 254
Smith v Eric S Bush 11990) I AC 831 ........... . ... . .... . ....... . ............ 6.87. 11.53
Smith v Hughes (187 1) LR 6 QR 597... . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. 12.34
Smith v Leech Brain & Co Ltd ( 1962) 2 QB 405.. . 6.76
Smith v Littlewoods Organisalion Ltd 11987( 2 WLR 480 ... . ....... . ................. 6.27
Smith v M"whood (1845) 14 M & W 452 ............ , ... , , ....... .. .. , ... , ........ 15. 10
Sociele des !l'rod uits SA v Petr.1 Foods Lid (20 17 ) I SLR 35. .. . . 23.87, 23. 105
Societe halo-Beige pour le Commerce et l'lndustrie SA v Palm and Vegeiable Oils (Malaysia)
Sdn llhd, The Post Chaser I 1982) l All ER 19........ ,, .. , ............ . , .. , .8.53, 8.61
Societe Noli<:>nole lndustriclle Aerospatiale v Lee Kui fak ( 1987) 3 WLR 59... .. .. 26.27
Solle v Butcher (1950) 1 KB 671 ... . ........... .. ... . ....... . .... . . 12.23. 12.25, Box 12.2
Soon Kok Ti,mg v DllS !lank Ltd (20 12) I SLR 39? ....... , . ........... . .. , , ........ , ?. IS
South Australi:.\ Asset !\1:1.nagcme1H C.:Orporatiot'I v York Montague 1.Jd 119971 AC191 . . 18.36
South Western General Property v Marton (1982) 263 EG 1090 .. ... . ... . ... . ... . .... 13.59
Southern Found ries (1926) I.Id v Shirlow [19<10) AC ?0 1 ... , ........... , ... , ........ 2 1.46
Southern Oect111 Shipbuilding Co Pie Lid v Deu1sehe Bank AG (1993) 3 SLR 686.. . 7.70
Sp;mdeck ELOgineering (S) f>te Ltd v Defence Science & Technology Agency (2007) 4 SLR 100
' .. ' ' .. ' ' .. '' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' ... ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' ... ' . 6.7, 6.15 . 6.20. 6.21, 6.22. 6.39. 6.40, 6.42
SJ>l>rtnn S1eel & 1\lloys l.td v Mortin & Co (Contractors) I.Id ( 1973 ) QR 27.. .. .. .. . 6.11
xxx
 Tabl• of Cam
Specht v Netscape Communications Corp 306 F3d 17 (2d Ctr 2002) .................. 24.28
Spcedo Motoring Pte Lid v Ong Gek Sing [2014] 2 SLR 1398 •.. . •.. .. •. .. •. . . 22.52. 22.133.
..................... " .. " .. " . . " ... " ............. . " ......... 22. 136. 22.141, 22.145
Spedman v P;1scal 10 NY2d 313, 178 NE2d 723 (1961) .............................. 19.77
Spencer v !larding (1870) LR 5 CP 561., .. ,, ........ , .. ,,, .. ......... , ........ , ... , 7.3 1
Girls v Aprilio World Servi« [20021 EWCA Civ IS. CA . ....... .. ... . .. . 13..16. 13. IS
Spilioda Maritime Corp v Cansulex Ltd I19871 AC 460 .............................. 26.26
Sports C-0mte<Lion Ptc Ltd v Dcutc. Sports Gmbll [2009] 3 SLR(R) 883,, .•• , .• 10.68, 10.69.
............................ I0.71, 10.73. 10.74, 10.7S. 10.76. 10.78, 'fable 10.l. 16.42. 22.17
S1>ring v Guardian Assurance pie ( 19941 3 All ER 129 . . .... , .. . , .. , ... , .... . .....15.33, 6.34
Springwell Navigation Corp v JPMorgan Chase Bonk 120101 EWCA Civ 122 1.. ... , ... 13.60
Spurling v l!rnd,how I1956] I WLR 46 1 .............................. , ...... 11. 21, 11.23
St Albons City & DC v International Compulers Ltd (19961 4 All ER 481 .......... .... 22.9
Standard Chartered Bank v Coopers v Lybrand (1993] 3 SLR 712 ................ , .... 6.31
Stondnrd Chnrtered l!ank v P.1kiS1nn National Shif>Ving (No 2) (2002) 3 WLR 1547
............................. '" .......... ' .. ...... ............ ..... .... " 13.)0, 13.31
Stoic Oil Co v Khan (1997) 522 US 3 ................ , .. , ..................... , Box 25.2
Sla)rwell Hos:pitali1y Group Pty Ltd v S1<1rwood l-lotds & \Vorldwide Inc
(2014 1 I SLR 911 ...................... ....... .. ............... 23.90. 23.9'9, 23.112
Steinberg v Scalo (Leeds) Ltd [ 1923) 2 Cb 452 . .•. , .•. ,, •. ,, •• ,, •.. ,, . , , .•. 9.12, 9.30, 9.35
Stc1·cnS<m v Mcl.ean (1880) S QRD 346............................................. 7.42
Stilk v Myrick (1809) 2 c,un p 317
...................................8.32, 8.33, 8.35, 8.36. 8.37. 8.40, Box 8.2, Tnblc 8.1, 8.42
Sto".ni11 Gdanska SA 1• l,atvian Shipping Co 12002) 2 Lloyd:< Rep 436 .•. , .... ,. 16.SI, 16.52
Stone & Rolls Ltd v Moore S1ephc1>s 120091 I AC 1391. .............................. 6.82
Strnits Engineering Contrncting Pte Ltd v Mrrteks Pie Lid I19951 3 SLR(R) 864 . . , , .. , 18.23
S11·otcd1 S)•stems Ud v Ny:un Chiu Shin (alias Yan Qiuxin) (200SI 2 SLR S79 . .. .. ... .. 15.46
Su Ah Tee v Allister Lim and 1hrum11rgan [2014 1 SGHC IS9 ........................ 18.26
Sudbrook Trading E.<tole v Eggleton I19831 I AC 4•M .......... , .. , , ............ , .... 7.80
Suikcr Unie v Comini.sion. I1975) ECR 1663: I 1976) I CMl.R 295 ............... , .... 2S.8
Sun Qi v Syscon Pto lld 120131 SGHC 38 ........................................ 22.11 9
Sunrise Crane, The 120041 4 SLR 715 ....... ,, .•. . . , , , •. , .... , .•.. 6.24, 6.2S. Box 6.1. 6.52
Super Colfccmix lvlonufacluring Ltd'' Unico Trading Ptc l,td 120001 2 SLR(R) 214
...... .. ..... ............................... ............. .................... .. 23. 11 3
Super Servant Two, The I 1990) I Lloyd's Rep I .• , .............................. , ... 17.30
Suthcrl.i><I Shire Council v li cyman I19851 60 ALR I . . , .. ,, .. , •.. ,, ... , •.. , .... , .. ,, (>. 12
T Trek Technology (Singapore) Pie 1.td v FE Global Glrctrouics Ptc Ltd 12005) 3 SLR(R) 389
Tom Tak Ch11en v Khnirul bin Ahdul Rohin.m 120091 2 SLR(R) 240,, .. ,, .•...... ,, ., , 14.9
Tamiz v Googl• [2013) I WLR 21S I........................................... , .... S.66
Tamplin Steamship v Anglo·Mexico.n Petroleum Products I 19161 2 AC 397 ... , ... , ... ,, 17.5
Tun Soo Leng David v Um 1hian Chai Charles I 1998) I SLR(R) SSO
... . ....................... ...................... .. 16A8, 16,5S, 16.58, 16.59, 18.45, 18.55
Tan Tze Chye v PP (1997 1 I SLR(R) 876 ..... ,, .,, ................ , ............ , .... 4.34
Ton Yeow Kho<m 1· Tun Ytow Tot (No I) I2000) 3 Sl.l\ 3•t I , ..................... , ... , 7.SO
•rang Siew Choy v Ccrtact Ptc Ltd ( 1993 ) 3 SLR 44 ........................... .. , ... 23.80
T;1y Joo Sing v Ku Yu Sang 11994) 3 SLR 719, ...... . .............................. , 18.27
Tnylor v llhnil (19961 CJ..C. 377 .................................................. 15.12
Taylor v Rowers (1876) I QBI) 29 1. ....... ............ , ...... ,. ............... , .. , IS.24
.xxxi
Tabl• of Cam
Tnylor v Caldwell (1863) 3 8 & S 826 .............................................. li .3
Tekdnt:• Interconnections Ltd v Amphenol (2009) EWCA Civ 1209.,, .•. , ... , ..•...•. , 7.75
Tembusu Gr.owth fund Ltd v ACTAtek Inc (20 18) 4 Sl.R 1213 .. , .. , ......•• . ,. 16.34, 16.37
Temple or P·rc:.h Vihe<lr (Cambodia v Thllilond) (1962) JCJ 6 •. , , .• , , .. , , , •. , , •. , , .• , , 26.9
Teng Ah Kow v Ho Sek Chiu (19931 3 Sl.R 769 ..... ...... , ......................... 6.62
T<:<> Kcng Pong v Public Prosecutor I19961 2 SLR(R) 890 •... •. .. •• . , .• , .. •. ,, •. , .3.36, 4.14
1lrni Kenaf Co Ud v Keck Seng (S) Pie Ltd jl992( 3 SLR(R) 194 .... . . .. . ............. 20.3
Thllkc ,, Mamice 11986) QB 644 ... , ........ , .. ... ..... .. , ....... , ... , ............. 16.5
'me "Bunga Melatl S" 12016( 2 SLR 11 111 ...... .. .......................... ........ 20.42
'!he "Cherry" (2003 1 I SLR(R) 1171 . .. .. .. .. .. ............ , .. .. ....... .. .. ,, ....... IS.35
'!he "l'eitg H:1ng" l200ll 3 SLR(R) 864............................................. IS.JS
The "STX Mumbai" 12015) 5 SLR I ... ................... . ........................ 16.37
11tc Achillc•s [2008 1 3 WLR 345......................... . ..................... Box 18.2
The of Inland Revenue v Muller & Co's Mnrgarin• l.Ld (1901) AC 217
............................................................................... 23. 111
The Heron II ( 19691 I AC 350.. ................... .. ............... , ............. 18.38
'me Wellne"-< Group Pie Ltd v OSIM International Lid [20161 3 Sl.l.R 729.. • ,, .•. , ... ,, S.34
111omas v Bradbury. Agnew & Co Ltd ( 19061 2 KB 627 .... . ....... . ... . ............ . 5.7·1
'n\01npson Ltd v Robinson (Gunmakers) Ltd (1955) Ch 177, ........... , .... 22.103. 22. 104
111ompson v London, Midland and Scottish Railway Co [19301 I Kl\ 41 .............. 11.1 6
'lllomson Plaz.i (Ple) l.td v Liquidators o( Yaohan Dcpor1mcnl Store Sing;;iporc Ptc Ltd
(20011 3 SI.I\ 437 ... .. .................... . ... . .................... . ... . .7.78, 14.2
'!home v Motor Trade Association I19371 AC 7?7 ......... , ....... , ............ , .. , 14.20
'lhornton v Shoe Lane Parking Ltd f 1971( 2 QB 163 ........... . Box 7.3. I I.IS, 11.20, 11.22
Tickctmaster Corp v Tickets.Com. Inc 54 USPQ2d 1344 (CD Col 2000)•. ,, •. . , ••. , ..• 2•1.28
Ting Siew May v Boon Lay Choo (2014 ) 3 $1.R 609 ....................... IS.7, l:U4. 15. IS
Tinn v Holfmonn & Co (1873) 29 LT 271 ... ,, .. , ..... , , , , ....... , ................ , 7.72
Tjong Mark r:.dward-s v PP )201SI 3 Sl.R 37S ........... ........... .................. 4.50
Tong Gutm Food Products Pte Ltd v Hoe Huat Hng Foodstuff Pte Ltd )199 11 1 SLR(R) 903
............................................................................... 23. 11 6
Tong Sc<1k Kan v Jaya Sudhir Ml Jay<trum IZ016I 5 SLR 887 .. .. ....... ............... . 8.54
Torquay l loicl Co Ltd v Cousin• 1196912 Ch 106 .. ... , .. , ......................... S. 1·1
Tozzi Sri v Bumi Armada Offshore Holdings Ltd (20 17) S SLR 156 .................... 5.10
Trnde F;icili1ie; Pte Ltd 1• Public Prosecutor ( 1995) 2 SLR •l7S .. , .. . , , .• , , .• , .. .. , .•. , 21.26
Ttansniko Pte Ltd v Communlcalion Technology Sdn Bhd) 19961 I SLR 580 . . ... . ..... 7.59
Trnn1o<e:m Drilling UK l,ld v Providence Resources pie 12016) EWCA 372 •. ,, •. ,, ,. , 11.28
v Commission, Case '1'- 141/89 (1995], ECR 11·79 1..... .......... ...... .. 2S. 16
................................................................................ 23.S4
Triangle Aulo Pte Ltd v Zheng Zi Construction Ptr Ltd )200()) 3 SLR(R) 594 . , •• , , •• , 18.SO
Tribune lnvcsllt>ent Trust Inc v Soo>an Tt:iding Co Ltd l200DI 3 SLR 405 .... . ... . .S.7, 12.48
Tndent Turboprop (D11blin) Ud v First Plight Couriers Ltd (2009] EWCA C1v 290., .. , 11.39
Ts:1kiroglou & Co 1.td v Noblec 'lhorl Gmbt-1 11960) 2 QR 31K........ 17. 19, Box 17.1 , 17.24
TSC Europ•• (UK) Ltd v Massey I19991 IRLR 22 .................................... IS.33
'l\olk v Moxhay (1848) 2 Ph 774 ....................... ............... ..... ........ . 9.88
1\1rf Club Auto Emporium i>te Ltd v Yeo Boong Hua [20181 lSLR655
........................... . .............................. IK.3, 18.1 1. 18.12.18.24. 18.60
'l\1rner v Grovlt 120021 I WLR 107 .......... , ..... , . , ............................ 26.27
TV Medio Pte Ltd v De Cruz Andreu Heidi 1200413SLR 543.,, •• ,,,.,,, •. ,, •• , .6.71. 6.94
'I\\•cddlc v Atkinson (1861) I R & S 393, ................ .. ............ .S.18, !lo.< 9.3. 9.58
xxxll
 T•bl< of CaS<S Tobi< of Casts

u Wdbams v Rolfey Bros & N1cholb (Conu·•cton) Ltd (1991 ( I QB I . .. 8.35, S.37, 8.33. 839,
Ultr.ima"'' Corpor.illon v Touchc 255 NY 170: NE 441 (1931) ......................6.9 . .• •... •• .••..••. •• 8.40, 841 , Box 8.2. T•bl< 81. 845. 8.81, Ro• 141
llnic>n Cub1dc Corp. Re 809 Fed 195 (2d Cir 1987) .••..•• . •.•..•..•••.••• .. .• . .... 26.21 Wdsh<r v ess.x Ace• Health Authorit) 119881 A(; 1074 . .. . •. . . . .. . .. • . . .• . . ... •• 6.53
llniitd Rank ofKuw•1t v llammond ( 1988) I \\'LR 1051 .• . .. . •. . . . . . . 20.40 Wm Lin• (UK) Led v Masi<rparl (Singapore) l't< Lid (20001 2 SLR 98 . . . . . •. 20 8
lln11ed Ovtrs<» R;nk Lid v B;nk of China (2006] I SLR(R) 5 . , . • • . . • . • 20.42 Wm Suprtme lnvesemtnl (S) Pee IAd v Johoroh b1e Abdul Wah•b (1997( I SIR 679. • 17oi0
Vnih::d Project C<m,uhunt• Ptc Ltd v Leong Kwok. Onn (tn,drng ;u I cong Onn & Co) Wind>urfing lnlernation;I v Tabur ( 1985( RPC 59. . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • • • . . • 23.54
(20051 4 SLR 214 . . • . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .. •• .. • .. ... . ... . 6.83 Wing Joo loong Ginseng Hong (Singoporel Co l'ee Ltd v Qinghai Xmyu•n Foreign 1hd• Co Ltd
Univmnl Cargo Carrie,. Corporati<>n v Citati ( 1957] 2 Qll 401 .... ... •. .. •. .. •• ... • . 16.36 (2009] 2 SLR(R) 8 14 . . .............. , , . . . . . . . . . . • . .. • . . . • • . . . •. , ... 2H3
Uni\'ertii<: Tnnki-hipx Inc or v Tmn1>por1 \\lorkcrs PtdetJtlou Winn v Bull (1877) 7 Ch D 29 . .. ... .. ... ... . . ...... . ................ .. ... . ... .. . 7.78
li9R3I I AC 366 .. .. .. .. ... . ............. . . . ... . . , . .. .. .. ... 14.7, 14.8. With" O'Flanogao 119361 Ch575 . . , . .. .. .. ... . .. .. ... . ... .. .. . ..... . . ... ... . . , . • . 1). 18
Univcrsny or London Press Lid v Universitr Tu1orial Pre"' Lid ( 1916) 2 Ch 601 • .. •.• 23. 11 Wolcro P1c I.Id v Lun Arvin Sylvcslcr (2017) I20 171 4 SLR 747 .. •. ... • .. ••. .. .. , . •... 5,39
or
UOL Dcvelopinenl (NovcnJ) Pie LLd v Commis.<ioner S1omp Dulle; 120081 I SLR(R) 126 Wong Lai Keen v Allgreen Proptrli<> Lid 120091 I SLR(R) l48 . ....... . .. ... . ... .. .. . 12.22
.... .. .. . .. .. ... . ... .. .. . ...... . ......... . .. . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 7.31 Wong Seng Kwan v PI' l2012J 3 SLR 12.. . . . . . .. ...... .. .. .. .. ... . . .. . .. .... 4.) 1
Woo Ko.h Woi v Chew Ai llua Sondm (2014) 166 • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . • . . 18S7
v Woodar lm«Slmcnl Dcvelopmcnl Lid v Wunp<)' Cnns1ru<tion UK Lt.d I 1980) I All FR 571
Vancou\'cr Mah and Sake Brewing Co Lid v \lancou\'er Brewen<• Lid (1934( AC 181 • · • ···•· · · • .... . .. ... ..• .••• .•. .• .• . • .. • . .. .. . .. . .. •• .• • 9.iO
Wooldridge ,. Sumner I 1963) 2 QB 4) • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • . • 685
•• •• .••.. .•. .. .• •. .. •• 15.56
Varl<y v Wl11pp (1900( I QR 513 . . . ... • . . . . . . . • • . . • • . . . • . . . . .... . .... 2H3 Wrolh•m Park Eo.<>1e Co Lid v Park>ide llom« Ud (19741 1 WLR 798 ... ... • • . •• • . 18 H
WT Lamb & Sons v Gonng Bnd: Co (193211 KB 710.. . • . • .. . . . . . . . . . • 206
\li<1om Laundry (Windsor) Lid v Ne ..man lndwtnes Lid ( 1919] 2 1'8 528
Wu Yang Construruon Group Lid ,. Zhejiang lm)'I Group Co. Led (2006) 4 SLR 451
. . •. .••. . . • . 18.42. Box 18.3
Vireu•l Map (Slngaroro) PI< l.1J , . Suncool lntcm•uonal Pet I.Id (20051 251. R 157. .. .. 23.11 14 .7
Wyall v Kreghnger & Femou (193311 KB 793.. 15.62
Viio Food Producb Inc v Unus Co Lid 119391 AC 277 . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . 26.23
Viwelly v Mud1is Sclec1 Library Ltd ( 190012 QB 170.. .. . •.. .... . .. . . . . . • . 5.86
Volk,. Cn« 5/69 ( 19691 ECR 295 .. . . .. ... . ... .. .. .. ....... .. .. .. .. ... .. 25. 19 x
Xi; Zhengy-Jn v Geng Changqlng (20 15) 3 SLR 732 . ...... .. .. ... .. ... . . 10.15. 10.21 , 18.51
w
y
W I Alan & C(1 Ltd'' l!I N.1>r llxpnrt and l1npor1 Co ( 1972) 2 Q ll IK9 . .... . . ...... . .. 8.53
Wade v Simeon (1846) 135 ER 1061. . . .... . ... .. . . . .... . .... , .. , .. ... . .. . ... ... ... 8.27 Y.ll.S. F&B Group Pie Lid v Soup Resrnura111 Singapore l'te Lid (20 15) 5 SLR 1187.. ... 10. 15
Wail. Re I 1927) I Ch 606 .. .. .. .. ... .. ... . ... . .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. . , ...... ....... . . 22.SR '""'Jun•• Attorney·Genernl (2015 1 I SLR 752, . .. . . ..... .. .. .. ... . ... ... . . . .... . H> 1
Wakley v Cooke 118491 4 hxch 511 . .. ... .. ... ...................... . .... . .. .. .. . . 5,67 \\11> Ktng Sonny v P•'ifi' PrhM h11e1 Pie J.!d I I SJ.R(R) )8S. , , , , , I
Walker v Wunborne (1976) 3 ACLR 529.. .. .. .. .. . . . • . • . • • . • • . • . . . . llox 21.1 Y:uuda Fire and /\1arinc Insurance Co or Europe LIJ v Orion ,t..1..a.rine lnsunncc Undcrwn1lng
Wahm v Morgan (1861) 3 GF & ) 718.. . ... . . . . . . • .. • • • • . • . • . • • 13.14 Agency Ltd (19951 2 WLR 49 • , • 20 8
Wahon ln1erna1lon•I Grour (Singapore) Pie Lid v Yau K"·ok Seng Wln11on (2011 ) SGHC 144 Y<O Soong Hua v Turf Club Aulo Fmporium Ptc l)d (20181.) SLR 806..... . • • . • • • 5. 10
•• •• .• ..... .. .. .. .. ... ....... • . . . . . . . . .. 5.39 \'co P<ng Hock H•nry v Pal Lil)' . . • . . . . .. .. .. .. . . .. . . . . 6.S3, 665
Wud Lid v R1gn•ll (196711 QR 534 .• .... •.•. • 2264. 22.!>4. 22.109 Yeo Yok< Mw v Ng Li.mg Poh (19991 ) S29 • • • • • . o 51
\\'arn<r Bro1htrs l'1<tur<> Inc v l':cl<on (1937) I KR 209. . • . . • . • •• . • • . . 18.64 Yokog•w• Engmcmng A'" Pee l.cd •• "lhMtcl I ngme<rlng Pie Lid (20091 2 SI R(R) 5U
\\'ucsll• Smg>pore P1e Lid v Lau Yew Choong (20171 5 SI R 261! ..... • • , . 11 18. 11 19. 14.4 ·• · · • · · · .. ...... .... .•. .. ••• ... .. . . .. . ..... . 855
WalSOn v Orn<> ( 19311 I Ch 455 . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . • . . • . •• • . •• • • . . . . ... . 20.28 Yong \'u1 Kong v Pubbc Prostcueor (20101 3 849 . •. . •. . •• . . . . .26.7. 2611
Watson v P•rk Roy•I (C•l<rcrs) Ltd ( 1961 1 I WLR 727.. ••. •. , . ... .. . . .• . 21.5 Yuen Kun \"tu" Allorney-Gcn<nl of llong Kong ( 19881 AC 175. ,.. . .... . •• . . •• . . • . 6 12
Wall v l.ongMlon )19301 I KB 130 . ........... . .. . .. ...... . .. .. . .. . . .... . . ... 5.81
Wee Poh Huch Florence v Motors Ltd )20041 l SI R(K) 58 ., . . .• .. . 18.26. 18.30 z
Wee l\ichor<I v Wong Mtng Meng & Parlner< ( 1995) 3 Sl.R 68 . .. .. ... ...... ., ... . . ... 5.80 Yu Sl1an v Li•rn lleng Con<lrucelon (19RR) Pie I 1d 120091 2 SLR (R) 587 ... .. .. .. 6 52
Wee Soon Kim Anthony v Lim Ch<ll' Pee 1200514 SLR(I\) 367 .. , .. , .. . .. ... .. .. ... . . 24.44 Zhou Weld<>ng v Li•w Kai t.ung (2018 1 3 SLR 1236 . .. ...... . ..... . ....... . .. .. ... .. 18.56
Weller v Dcn1011 ( 192 1) 3 Kil 103 . ... .. ... . ... . ... . ... . .. ... .. .. . , ... .. . ... . ...... 2 1.5 Zurich lnrnrance (Sm!J'1porc) l'le IJd v il Cold l111orior Oe•lg11 & Construciion Pie lid (20081
Wellmix (lntcrna1ionol) l'•c Lid'' Lau Yu Mon (2()06 1 2 SI. I\ 117 ,., 12,30, Box 12.2
3 SLll(R) 1029 .. ... .. .. ... . ... ... . ...... .. . .... . .. , .. .. .. ... . .. 10.10. 10.15, 10. 16
Whilc ond Ct1r1cr (Coundl;) I Id v McGregor ( 196212 1\C 411 .. .. ... .. . .. .. . 16.54. 16.57
Whitt v Blutll ( 1853) 23 l.J Ex 36 .. • • . . .. .. . • • . . • . .. . • . . • • .. • • . .. . .. • . ... . .. ... 8.2•1
Whi11ing1on v Seal H•rn<(l900) 82 LT •19.. .. . . . . .................. , 13.39
William Morlon & Co v Muir Rro1'1m & Co (1907) SC 1211 .•• , . .......... .. . . 1049

JCXXIU XXJUY
 Table of Singaport kgislation

Conununity Mediation Cer1tres Ac1 (Cap 49A. 1998 Rev E.d). .. . . 2.49
Companies Act (Cap 50, 2006 Rev Ed} . . . .. .. .. 4.55, 21.48
'4 . 21.8, 21.14, 2 1.1 5
17(3) . . 21.3
18(1) .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 2 1.14
19 .. . .. .. ... ... .. . .. 21.16
19(5) . .. .. ... .. ... 21.16
19(61\). . .. .... ...... .. .. . .. ...... .... . ........ . . .... ............... .. .. 21. 1 I
20/\ .. .. .. .. ............ .. .. . .... .. ...... . .. . ..... . ... .. ............... .. .. 21. 16
Table of Singapore Legislation 22 ... . .. .. . ............. . ... . ............ . ..... " .. ... .. ...... . ........ .. .. 21. 17
23 . ... .. " . .... . ........ . .. . .. " . ........ .. .... " .. ... .. ...... . ........ " .. . 9.47
23(1) . .. .. .. ............ . .. .. ............ . .. .. .... . ....... " .. . .... " ...... 2 1.19
23(1A) .. ... . , .. .. .. . .... .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. .. . ... .. ... . ... .. .. . ... .. .. .. ... 2 1. 19
A 23(18) . . ............ . ... . ............ . ... . ........ . ....... .. .. . ........ . ... 2 1. 19
Applirnion of Engli:ih Law Mt {Cap 7A, 1994 Rev Ed) , . , , , , , •• , . , , , 2.34. 9.lo, 9.32, 10.sz. 25 • • • • ••• •• • I•• •• •• J • t • ••• •• • It• •• •• J • t •• •• •• • It• •• t • • • • • • , .9.46) 9.471 2).191 21.20
. . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . .. .. .. . .. . . .11.4, 13.3, 22.2 25(3) .. .. .. .. ... .. ...... .. .. .. .. .. ... 21.20
Apportionment Act (Cap 8, 1998 Rev Ed}.. .. .... . .. .... .. ............ . .... .... . . .. 16.23 25A . .. .. .. .. .. .. . ........ . . .. . .. . . ...... .. .. 21.42, 21.44
Al'bilr;1tion (Foreign Awards) Act (Cap I OA, 1985 Rev Ed) (repealed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.45 25B. • .. .. .. .. .. • .. 21.43, 2 1.44
Arbitration {International lnvestmen1 Disputes) Acl (Cap l l, 2012 Rev Ed)... . .. . 26.82 25C. .. ... .. ... .. .. 21.44
250 .. . .. ... 21.44
B 37 . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 2 1.17
Bills of Exchange Act (Cap 23, 2004 Rev Ed ) 39 . ... . . .. .. .. .. .. .... .. 9.56, 21.59
sU. . . . . .. .. .. . . .. . 20.55 4 1 ... . .. .. .. .... .. . .. ... . .. .. .. .... ...... . ........ . ... .. ........... .. .. 9.49, 20.2 1
Bills of Lad ing Act (Cap 384, I 994 Rev Ed) 4 1(1) . .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. . ........ .. ...... . ........ . ... .. ........... .. .. .. .. . 9.49
. 9.68 4 1( 2) . ... " .. " .. " . .... . .. . .. " .. " . .... . ....... .. .. .. ....... . ... .. " .9.49, 20.55
' 2.
Bu.<1iness Name.<1 Registr.itio1) Act 2014 (No 29 of 2014} 1•15 ... .. .. . ............. . .. .. .. .. ........ .. .. . .. ... ........... . ... . ........ 2 1.45
'4. .... . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . 21.4 14 5(1) .. .. .. ........... .. .. .. ............ . ........ . ... . .. . ............ . .... 21. 16
4( 1){m) .. .. . .. .. .. .. .... .. . . . .... .... .. .. . .. . . .... . .. . ..... ... . 21.4 156 . ... . ................................. . ........ . ... .. ... . ............... 2 1.53
4( 1)(n) ... .. . ........ .. .. . .. .. ............ . ........ .. ...... . ........ .. .. . ... . 2 1.4 157 . .. .. ................ .. .......... " ... . ........ . ... .. ....... . .4.57, 21.51 , 2 1.56
S{l) ... . .. ... .. . ................ . .... .. .. .. ...... . ........ .. ............... . 21.4 157A . .. ........ . ....... . ................ . ................................. 21.36
20 . .... .. .. . ... . ... . ............ . ........ .. ...... . ........ .. ...... . ........ . 21.4 159 . .. .. ... . ........ . .. .. ... . ........ . .. .. ........ . ... . ... . ............ . ... 21.52
3 1 . .... . .. .. ... . ... . ....... . .... . ........ .. .. . ... . ............ . ... . .... . ... . 2 1.5 162. .. .. 2 1.14
3 I(5) .. . .. .. .... . .. .. .. .. ... . .... . .. , , .. , , .. .. .... , .. , ............. , .. , , ... , 2 1.5 163 . ... . ...... .. .. .. 2 1.14
184 . ... . ........ .. .. 21.31
35 ' .... ' '." " .. " .. " .. ' " " " .. " .. " .. ' "" " .. " .. " .. ' "' ' "" " .. ' " ' ' 2 1.6
Business Trusts Act (Cap 31A, 2005 Rev Ed) . .... . ................ . ............ 21. I, 2 1.79 184A- 1.84 F. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 21.3 1
184G . • .. .. .. .. .. • .. .. 2 1.29
c 205 A .
205C. . .... .... ....
.. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ...
.. .......... . ........ . ... .. ........... .. ......
21. 14
2 1.14
Civil Low Act (Cap 43, 1988 Rev F..d}
2 16.. . . ........ .. .. .. ............... . ... . .... . ... .. ...... . 21.6 3. 21.65. 21.66
5 .. .. .. .. .. . ........ .. .. . .. .. .......... ... ............ .. .. . ...... .. .... .2.34, 2.35
2 16A . .. .. .. ... . .... .. .. . .. .. ........ .. .. .. .. . ... .. ... .. ...... . ... . ........ 21 .58
Civil l.aw Acl (Cap 43, 1999 Rev E<I)
Thirteenth Schedule . .. ... .. .. .. .. . ... .. ... . ... . ... . ... .. ... . ... . ... . ... .. ... 21. 14
s 4(8) .. .. .. . .. ' . ... ' .. .. .. . ' . ' .. . ........ .. . " ... . ........ .. ...... . ... ' . ... . 9.8 3 Companies {Model Cons1itutions) Regulations 2015, 5833/2015 ... •. . .•. .. •. .. .• . 2 1. 17
6 .......... ' ... ' "' ' ....... ' .. .. ' .. .. ............ ' "' ' ............ ' .... ' ... 19.42
First Schedule
6(d) " ' ' .. ' ' ' " ' ' " ' ' " " .. ' ' .. ' ' ... ' .... ' " ' ' ' " ' ........ ' ... ' ... ' ' ... ' " ' 2'1.43
Art 73 . . .... . ... . .. .. ........ . .. .. .. .. ........ . .. .. ... . ... . ........ .. .. 2 1.45
21 '' .. '' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' ... ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' ' .. ' ' ..••.. ' ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' .. , ' .. ' ' 6.80 Art 74 . . ........ . .. .. ... . ............ . ........ . ...... .. ................ 21.45
28(4) .. . ... . ................ . ........ , .. , , .. , , ............ , .. , , ........ , ... I8 .53
Art 83(1) .. . ......................... . ........ . ........................ 2 1.32
35(1) .. . .. .. ........... " " " ............ . ... " ...............................9.7
Art 85 . . . ... . ............ . ... . ........ . ... . ... . ................ 21.53
35(4)(a)- (d ) . ............ . .. .. ............ . .. .. ................ . ........ . .. .. ..9.8
Art 94 ...... .................................. . .................... . ... 21.29

xxxvi
 Tablt of Singaporr l cgislotion Table o( Singaport lt'.gislation

Competition Act (Cap SOB, 2006 Rev Ed ) .. . ... .. . .. 3.35, 25.3, 25.4, 25.9, 25.20, 25 ..22, 25.39 2( l)(b). . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .... .............. 9. 58, 9.59, 9.60, 9.62
s 2( l ) . ...... ... . .... . ...... ... .. ...... ... . ....... . ... ...... ... . ... . ... .. .. .. 25.9 2(2) ...... . ........ . .... . .......... ... .. .. ........ . . .......... 9.58, 9.59, 9.60, 9.62
s 34 ....................... . ........ 25.3. 25.6. 25. 10, 25.19, 25.20. 25.21. 25.23, 25.45 2(3).... ... ... .. . ... . ............................ . ................. 9.58
s 47 . .... . .... . .. . ... .• . ..... 25.3, 25.14, 25.26, 25.27, 25.30, 25.31, 25.32, 25.33, 25.45 2('1) ... . ... . ... ... . . .... . ... .. .. ... . . .. .. . ... . ............ . ............ . .... 9.57
' 47(3) ........... . .... ..... ...... ... .......... .. .. .. ........ .. . ........ . ... 25.27 2(5) .. .. ........ .. . " ... .. ....... .. ..... .......... ' ... .. . " ............ .9.53. 9.64
s 48-53 ..... .. ........ ..... ............... .. ................ . ........... ... 25.26 2(6) ..................................... . ........ ' ....... . ............ .9.63, 9.82
'54 . ........ ... ...... ..... . ........ .. .. . 25.3, 25. 14, 25.35, 25.37, 25.39, 25.42, 25.45 3( 1) ............... .. .. ..................... " ........ ............... . ...... 9.65
s 54(5). ' ... . ... .. .......... .. ... . ... . ' ... . ... . ... . ... .. ... . ........ .. 25. 36, 25.39 3(3) ................. ... ..... .. ..... ..... .. . .. .... . . ........................ 9.6 1
' 54(7) ... . ....... ... .... ... . ... ........ . .. .. .... . ........... ..... ......... . 25.38 3(3)(•) ..... . ................................................................ 9.65
'55 ... . ........ ...... .... .. .. ........ .. ...... .. ............... .... .. .. . ... 25.35 3(3)(b) .... ............. ............ . " ............ ' .................... .. ... 9.65
s 92 . ... .. ...... ........... ... . ........ . .. ...... .. ........ .. .. . ........ . ... 25.22 4(6) ........ .. .. .... .. ........ .. ...... .. ...... ... .. ....................... .. 9.63
SS 56-60 ... , ................ ., ....... .. .. . ... . ......................... , . .. 25.35
7(1) ...... . .................. .. .................... . ....................... . 9.56
SS 54(2}(a) 10 (c) . . ............................ ., .. ....... ... .... .. .... .. . ... 25.36
7(2) ............................. . .. .... ...... .. ............ ... .......... ... 9.56
·n1ird Schedule .......... , .. .. .......................................... , ... 25.22
7(2A) .................................... . ... . ... .. ... ...... .. .. .. ....... .. . 9.56
Constitulion {A 1nendmcnt) Acl (Act 8 o( 196S) .. .. .. . •.. ..... •... . ........ . .. ... ... 2.28
7(3) It• I I ao I I t I I I • o• 1 I o 1 I I t• I I I• I I • o I 1 1 o I 1 I o• 1 I I a• I It I I• o I I' I I I 1 o J I I I a 1 I I o I I 9,56
Constitution (Amendment) Act (Ac1 19of1969) ............................... , .... 2.32
7(4) ............ .... ... .. .. . ............ ...... .............................. 9.56
Constitution (Amendment) Act (Ac1 2R of 20 16) ... ...... .............. ........ . ...... 3.7
8( 1) ... . ........ . ... . .. . . ........ ........ . ... . .............................. 9.54
Constitu1ion or 11\e Republic of Singo.port (l999 Reprinl)
8(2) .................... . ................ . ................... " ............. 9.67
35(8) ... ... ... . . . .. . ....... ........ ...... . ... . ....................... ....... ..4.5
39( l )(c) . .. • . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. • • . .. .. .. • . . • .. . .. • . .. • . .. .. .. • . . .. . .. • . • • .. .... 2.40 Contributory Negligence and Personal Injuries Act (Cap 5 4, 2002 Re" Ed )
39A ............ . ....... . ................ .. .. . .............................. 2.40 s 3.. ........ ...... .. . .. ............ .. . ... . .... . .. .. . ........................ 6.88
C onsumer Pro1ee1lon (Pm Trading) Act (Cap 52A, 2009 Rev Ed) ... ... . .. 3.35, 11.6 1. 1 l.6R, Copyright Act (Car 63, 2006 Rev Ed) ......................................... 23.S, 23.9
.. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. • .. . . . ........ .. . .. ........ 22.6, 24.29 Part \I . .. .. . ... . . ... . .. .. ... . ... .. .. . . . .. . ... . ... . . . . . .... . • . . .... . .... . ... 23.37
Part Ill ................... . ....................... T:tblc 22.3. 22. 132. 22.133, 22. 145 Divisio11 6 .. ......... .. . ... .. . , .• .. ....•. .. .........•...••..•• . ... • .. .• ... •. 23.39
s2( l) .. . ................... . ............................................... 11.61 s 7( 1) ..... ............ .. ..... ........... .. ........ . ............. 23.8, 23.16, 23. 33
4 . ... .. . ... . ... .. ... .. ..... .. ............ . ... . ............ . ....... . .... . ... l l.62 7(2) ...... " ............ ' .................................................. 23.32
6( 1) .. ....... . .. .... ...... ..... .. ........ ...... ..... .. .. ...... ......... .... 11.63 7(2A) .................. . .... ., ..... ..... ...... ..... , .. .. .... ..... .......... 23.32
11 (1) ..... ... .............. .. .. .... . .......... . ..... ....... .. .... .... .. . . .. 11.63 7A.. ................ . ........................ . ..... . ............... . ........ 23.8
I 2A(5)(c) .. . ................ . .......................................... . .. 22. 145 10(1) . ................ .. ........... ..... ...... ... .. ... .. .. .. ........... .. .. 23.24
121!(3) ........... ... .. . ... ...... ... . ... .. . ........................ . ....... 22. 134 16 .. .. ...... ..................... . .. . ............. . ....... . ............ .. .. 23. 12
12C( 1) . . . .. . ... . • .. . . . • . . • .. . • .. . ..... ••. . . .. . • . . . ... .... .. . .. .. .. . ... . .•. 22. 138 17 ... ............... . .. ...... ........ . ... . .. .. .... . ........................ 23.12
12C(2) .. ....... . .... . ... ..................................... ..... . ... .. .. 22,138 2SA ... . .. . ., ... . ... . ... .... .... .. ...... ..... . ............................. 23.20
12C(4) ....... .............. ........ ...... .. . .. ............ .. ........... ... 22. 139 26 . ........................ . ......... .. ...... .. ... . ...... ..... .. .... ...... 23. 19
120 ... ........ .... ..... ... .. .. ........ .. ..... .. .............. .... ...... .. 22.142 26(1)(<) .. ....... . ... . ........ ' .. .. .. ... .. . ... . ... ' . .. .. ........... . .. " . ... 23.20
120(3) .. .. .. ... . ... . ' .. .. .. .. ... .. ....... .. .. . ... . ' .. .. ... . ....... .. .. . ... 22.142 27 .. .. ...... ........ .. .. . ............ . ............ . .................... . ... 23. 11
12E ......................... . ............................................. 22. 143 27(1) . .. ........ .. . " ................... ' . ........ . ........................ 23.13
121' .... . ... . ... .. ..... .... .. . ... .... . ... . . ............ . ... .... . .. . . ... . ... 22. 14 1 27(2) ................. ..... ........... .. . . ............. ....... ... .. .... .... 23. 13
13 .. ........... . , ... . ............ . ...... .. ... . ... . ... . ............ . . 11.64,22.145 27(4) ....... .. .... ...... ..... .. .... . .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . ....... .... .... ........ 23. l3
IS(I) .................................................................. . ... 11.64 28(2) . ..... ............. . .......................................... .. ...... 23.lS
16 . ........................ . .. ......... .. . .... .... .... .... ..... .. ....... ... 11.63
28(3) .. ..... ............ .. .. . ........ . ............ . ... .. ............... . ... 23. 15
First Schedule . ............................................ , ... . ........ , , .. 11.6 1
28(6) ..... " ............ . ................... .. .... . ....... ................. 23. 15
Second Schedule . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . 11.62
30(2) ... ....... ....... ..... ........... .. ...... ........ .... ..... ...... ...... 23. 16
ConsumL·r Protcctio1\ ( Fair T rading) (A1neudment) Act 20l6 ( Ac1 25 of 20 16) . ... . .•.. I t.66
3()(3) ....... .... ............. .. ............... .... . ... .. ...... ..... .. ..... . 23. 17
Contract (Rli;hts of Third Parties) Act (Cap 538, 2002 Rei' Ed) . , •. , ... , . , .. 3.35, !>.53, 9.55,
... . ... . ... .. . .... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... . ... . ... ... .. .. .. . ... ... . ....... ..9.68. 9.91, 19.55
30(4) ............................................. ' ........................ 23.17
30(5) . ........... .. .. .. ...... ........ . ... . .... . ... . ... . ... . ............ . ... 23.17
s 1(2) ...................... . ........... .. .. . .. .. .... ........................ 9.56
30(6) . .. ... .. ... .. ......... .. ....... .. .. .................................. 23. 17
1(3) ... . .. ... .............. . ................. . ............ .. .. . ........ ' ... ' 9.56
3 1 ........... ... ... " .. .... ............. ........... ... ............... 23.22, 23.25
2 ........................................................................... 9.65
2( I)(o) .. .. ... .............. .. ............ .. ..... ........... ............ . .... 9.58 32 ........................ ....... .... .... . ........ ........... ........ 23.27. 2).2R

xxxvll xxxviil
 Tablr: of Singaport ltgislation Tablr: of Singaport ltgislation

33... .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .... .. . .. .. ... . .. .. .. .. . ... . .. . . .. .... 23.27, 23.28 193C.. . . .. . . . .. . . .. .. . ... . .. . . .. .. .. ...... . .. . 23.4 1
35 .. .. . .... . ................... . ............... .. .................... . ... 23.29 193C(2}(b} .. ..... ... .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. 23.42
35(2) .. .. . . ... . .... .. .. . ................ . ... . ............ . ... . ...... 23. 30, 23.3 1 1930 . . . .... .. .. .... . .... .. .. . . .. .. .. 23.4 1
35(3) .. . ................................. . ............ . ... . ........... .. ... 23.3 1 1930 (1)(a) .. ... .. .. .. ... .. .. 23.4 1
35(4) .. . .. .. .. .. ........... .. ............ . .. .. ................ . ........ . ... 23.3 1 1930 (1 )(b} . .. . .. .. .. 23.41
36 .. .. ... .. . . .. . ... .. ...... . .... .. .. . .... . ....... .. .. . .... . ....... . .. 23. 29, 23.33 1930 (2)(b} . • .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 23.42
37 ... .. .. .. . ... . ... ... ..... . .... . ........ .. ...... . ........ .. ...... . .. 23. 29, 23.33 1930 (4}(b).. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. ... .. ... 23.42
82 ... .. . .. . . ... . .... .. .......... . ........ .. ............... . ............ . ... 23.20 1930A ... .. . .. .... ...... .. .. . .. ...... .... . .. .. .... . . .... ......... .. .... .. .. 23.41
82(1 )(b) . .. . . . .. . ... .. .. . ... . .... .. .. . ... .. ....... .. ...... .. ....... ... . .. .. . 23.20 I93DA(2) .. . . .. . . ...... .. ... .. .. .. .. . ... .. .. . .... .. ... . ....... . ....... .. ... 23.42
83. .... .. .. .. .. .. ...... .. .. . .. ...... . ...... .... .. . ... 23.20 193DR . . .. . . ............ . ... . ........ .. .. . ....... .. ... .. ...... . ........ .. .. 23.41
84 . .. .. ... .. .. .. ... 23.20 193DC .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... . .. . .... . ........ .. ...... .. ... .. ...... . ............ 23.41
85 . 23.20 193DD .. .. .. .. .. ........ . .. .. ............ . .. .. .. ... ........... . ............ 23.4 1
86 . .. .. 23.20 193DOA ... .. .. .. ....... .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. .. . ... .. ... . ....... . ... . ... .. ... 23.44
87 . 23.13 1930 08 ............ . ... . ............ . ... . ........ . ....... . ... . ........ . ... 23.44
88 . 23. 13 1930 0 c •••••t • • • • • J • t • • • • • • • It• • • • • J • t • • • • • • • It• • • t • • • • • J • t • • • • • ' t • •• • 23.44
89 . . ... 23.13 1930 E .. ............... . ............... . ............................. . ... 23.4 1
92 .. .. .. ... ...... .... . ... 23.15 194(3) .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. • .. .. • .. .. .. 23. 18
93.. .. . ..... .... .. .............. . .... . ........... .. ... 23.1 5 200( I) . .. . .. .. .. .. .. • .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. • .. .. ..... ... . .... ......... .... 23.35, 23.36
94 .. .. .. ... . .... . .. . .... . ... . ........ . .. .. ... . ........ . ... . ............ . ... 23.15 252COA .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .... , . .. . . .. . .. . . .. .... .. ...... .. 23.44
95 . .... . ................................. . ................ . ............ . ... 23.15 252COll .. .. ........ . .. .. ............ . .. .. ........ . ... .. ................... 23.44
96 ... .. . ............ .. ................... . ................ . ............ . ... 23.15 252CDC . ... .. ............ .. . .... ...... .. . ... . .... . . .... ............. .... .. 23.44
97(2) .. . .. .. ............... .. ............ . .. .. ............... .. ........ . .. . 23. 16 Copyrighl (Border Measures) Rcgul;.tions
98(2) .. . .. . . ... . ... . ....... ... .. . .. .. .... .. .. . ... . ... . .... .. .. . ... . .... . ... 23. 16 (Cap 63, Rg 5. 2009 Rev Ed} .. . ............ . ........ . . ........ . .............. 23.39
119 .. .. .. .. . ... . ... ... ..... . .... . ........ .. ...... . ........ .. ...... . .... . ... 23.22 Copyrigh1 (l' h•grontly Infringing O nline Location) Regulalions 20 14 (S802/2014) .. .. .. . 23.44
119(2)(0) . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. . ........ . . .. . ... .. ....... . ....... .. ....... . ... .. .. . 23.37 Copyright (International Protection) Regulations (RG2. 2009 'Rev Ed) . .• .. .•. .. •. .. .• . 23. 14
I 19(2)(b) .. . . .. . .... .. .. .. .. . ... .. ....... .. ...... .. ....... ... . .. .. . 23.37 Corruption, Drug Trafficking and Other Serious Crimes (Confiscation of Benefits) Acl
I I9(2)(c) .. . . .. .. ......... .... .... . ........ .... .... . .. . ..... ..... ... 23.37 (Cap 65A, 2000 Rev Ed).. . ............ . .. .. .. .. . . .. . ... 20.47
I I9(2)(d) .. . .. . .. • . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. • .. 23.37 52(2). . .. .. .... .... . .. .......... . .. . .. ... . ........ . .. .. .. .. ...... . 4.23
119(4) .. . .. • . .. • • .. .. . .. .. • .. .. 23.37 Countcrw1iling :rnd Anti-Dumping Duties A<t (Cap 65R. 1997 Rev Ed) .. .. .. .. . 26.34. 26.37
119(5) ",." ,..' " .. " .. ' ,. . " .. ' " .. " .. " .. .. ,. ' " .. " .. " .. 2).37 Part Ill . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 26.38
120 .. .. 23.37 s 2 ... .. ... . ........ . .. .. ... . ........ . .. .. ... . ............ . ................ 26.37
120A .. .. ... . ...................... .. 23.37 3.. . . .... .... .. .. . .... .... .. .. . .. ...... . .................... . .. . 26.45
123 .. . .. .. .... ...... ..... .... .. .. . . .. 23.22 Criminal Procedure Code (Cap 68. 2012 Rev Ed)
136 ..... .. ... .......................................................... . ... 23.38 ; 303 . . . .. . . ........ .. .. . .. .. ........ .. .. .. ...... .. ... .. ...... . ........ .. .. . 3.45
136(1) .. .. .. ........ . .. .. .. .. ........ . .. .. ... . ........ . ... . ... . ........ . ... 23.38
359 .. . .. ............ . .. .. ............ . ............ . ... .. ................... . 3.36
136(2) .. ... . ............................. . ... . ............ . ............ . ... 23.38 s II .. .. .. .. ............ . ... . ........ . .. .. ... . .... . ....... . ................ . . 4.5
136(3) . . .. .. ........ . .. .. ... . ........ . .. .. ... . ........ . ... . ... . ........ . ... 23.38
136(4) .. ............ .. ................... . ................ . ............ . ... 23.38
0
136(3A) . .. .. ... .. .. .. .. . ... .. ... . ... . ... .. ... . ... .. .. . .... . ... . ... . ... .. .. . 23.38
Defam ation Act (Ct11> 75. 2014 Rev Ed)
136(6A) . .. .. .. .. ... . ....... . .... . .. .. ............ . ........ .. ...... . .... . ... 23.38
136(611) . .. ... .. .. .. .. .. . ... . .... .. ...... .. ....... . ... . ... .. ....... .. .. .. .. . 23.38
; 4. ... . . .. .. ............ . .. .. ............ . .. . .... .. ... .. ...... . ... . ........ . 5.47
5 . .. .• ... •. .. •. .. ... . .. ... .. .. .. .. .•• . ••. .. •. .. .. .. .• .. ... . ••. .. •. .. .. . .5.43, 5.47
I 401l( I) . . . . . .. . ........ .. .. . ... .. ....... . ... . ... .. ....... . ... .. ... 23.39
1401! (4) . .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. • .. . .. . .. . .. . .. 23.39 7 ..... .. .. .. ............ . ... . ........ . .. .. ... . .... . ... . .. .. ................ . 5.87
140H(7} . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. 23.39 8.. . .. .. ........ ......... ........ ................. . ... ............. .... . 5.67
9 . .. .. ... .. ..... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. . .. ... .. .. .. 5.7 1
140M(I ) ... .. .. ... .. ....... 23.39
184 .... 23.14 10 . ... . . .. . .... . ........ . .. . .... . ........ . .. . .... .. ........... . ............ . 5.88
193A .. . .... .... .. .. .... . •. . . ... . .... .. .. .... . . . .. 23.4 1 12 . .... . ................ . ................ . ........ . ........................ . 5.83
193B... 23.41

xxxix xl
 Tablr: of Singaport ltgislation Tablr: of Singaport Ltgislation

E 94(e) .. .. .. . . .... . .. .. .. .. ... I0.14

Elecironic Act (Cap 88, 20 11 Rev Ed) .. ... . . . . . . .. . . . . .. ... ..24.12, Table 24.2 94(f) .. . . . . 10.14, 10.15, 10.17, 10.22
Part Ill .. .. . .. ........ .. .. . .. .. ........ .. .. . .. .... .... .... .. .. . .. .... .. . .. . 24.42
TV ... .. . .. .. .. .. ... . .... .. . ... .. . .... .. .. .. .. .. .. . ........ .. .. . ... . .. 24.40, 2"'42 F
v... .. .. ... .. .. .... .. ....... ..... ....... .. ........ ....... .. ........ .... . ... 24.46 l'•ctors Act (Cap 386, 1994 Rev Ed)
VJ . . ... .. .. .. .. . .... .. .. . ... .. .. . .... .. .. . .. ..... . .... . .. . 24.52 '2( 1) . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. . .... .. ...... .. .. ... ...... .. ....... .. .. 22.74
' 2. .... .. .. .. ...... . .. .... . ..... . . .. . .... .... .... . .. ...... ... ... .. . .. 24. 36, 24.45 8 .. . .. .. .. .. ...... .. .... . .. .. .. .. .... . .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. . 22.78
4 . .. .. . ... . . .. .. .. .. .. . ........ .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. .. . ... .. ....... ... 24.13, 24.43 9 .. . .. ... .. .. .. .. ... . .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. ... . .. .. .. .. ... .. ... . ... . ... . ... 22.79
5 .. ........ . .. .. ........... . .... . ........ .. .. . ... . ........ .. .. . ... . .... . .. . 2•!.13 Frustrated Contracts Act (Cap 115, 1985 Rev Ed) . . . .. . , •. .. •.. . .• , . . .. . 17.42, 17.43, 17.51
6 . .. ....... .. .. . ... .. ....... . ... .. ....... . ... . ... .. .. . .... . ... . .... . . 24.13, 24 .36 ' 2(2) . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .... . .. .. .. . ...... .. . ...... 17.44, 17.47
7 .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .... ... . .... .. .. . .... ... . .... .. .. . .... ... ... 24. 13, 24.36, 2(3) .. .. .. ... .. . .... . .. .. .. ... .. . .... .. .. . .. . .... .. ... . .. . .... . .... .. .. .. .. 17.46
s ...... .. .. . .... .. ...... .. .. .. .. . .... .. .. . ... .. .. . .. .... ...... .. .. .. . .. . ... 24.36 3('1) .. .. .. .. ' .. . .... . .. .. .. .. ............ . .. .. .... . .. .. .. . .... . ........ . .. . 17.48
9 . .. .. . .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .... .. .. . ... .. ....... .. ...... ... ...... ... 24.36, 24.45 3(5) .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . ... . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . ... 17.49
10 .. .. . .... .. .. . ... .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... . .... . .. .. ... .. .. . .... . .. .. ... .. . 24.36, 24.45 3(5)(c) . .. ...... .. ................ . ....... . ....... .. ........... . ....... . . .. . 22.85
11 .. .. . . .. . . .... . .. . .... . . .. . .... . .. . . .. . . . .. . . ... .. . 24.13
12 . . ... 24 .13 H
13 . . .. ... . .... ..... . .... . .. .... .. . ... .... . .. .... .. . .. . .... . .. .. . .. . 24 .22 Hire-l'urchase Act (Cap 125, 1999 Rev Ed) .. . .. .. .. ...... .. ........... ... , .... . .... 22. 14
I3(1)(a) . .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. .. . ... .. ....... , . .. .. .. . 24 .22 6( 1) .. .. .. .. .... . .. .. .. .. .. .. .... . .. . . .. .. ... . .... . .. . . .. . .... . ....... . . .. . 11.46
13(1)(b) .. .. .. .. . .... . .. .. .... . .. .. .. . .... . ........ . .. . .... . ....... . .... . ... 24.22 6(2) .. .. .. .. .. .. ........ .. .. . .. .. .. .... .. .. ...... .. .. . ............ . .... .. .. 11.46
13(2) .. . .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... . ... . ... . .... .. .. . ... . ... .. ... 24 .22 6(3) ... . ... . ... .. ....... . ... . ... .. ....... . ... . .... . ... . ........ . ....... . ... 11.46
13(3) .. .. .. .. • .. • .. . .. • .. • .. .. .. .. .. . ... 24.22
14. ..... . . .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . .... . .. 24. 15, 24.48
IS ... .. . .. .. ... . ... .. .. . ... . .... . ........ .. ...... . ........ .. ...... . .... . .. . 24.49
Income Tax Act (Cap 13,1, 2014 Rev Ed) .. .. . ... . . . .. .. .. .. .. . ..... . .. . ... . ... . ..... 6.83
16 .. .. .. ........ . .. .. ........ . .. . ........ . ........ . .. . .... . ....... .. ... . ... 24.S l
s 36A . . . .......... .. ...... .......... 21.77
16(1) .. .. .. . ... .. .. .. .. . .... . ... .. .. .. .. .. ... 24 .51
lnternnLiona I Atbitration Act (C ap l 43A, 2002 Rev Ed) , .. . , .. . , .. . . •.. . , .. . , . 26.89, 26.99
16(2) .. . .. .. .. • .. .. . .. .. .. . .. • .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . 24.51
lntcrpretolion Act (Cap I , 2002 Rev Ed)
17 . . .. . . .. .. .... . .. . . .. . . .. .. .... . .. . .... . .. . .... .. .. . .... . .. . .... . .. 24. 41 , 24.42
s 9A .. .. ............ . .. .. ............... .. .. .. .... . .................... .3.SI, 3.52
18 .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. . ........ .. .. . ... .. .. . .... . ... . ... .. ....... . .. 24.41 , 24.42
19 .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. . .... .. .. .. ....... .. .. . .... . ....... .. .. . .... . . 24. 41, 24.42
L
First Schedule . .. .. ........... . ......................................... ... 24.13, 24.43
Land Acquis ition Act (Cap 152, 1985 Rev Ed) . ... . ........ . ....... . .............. Box I. I
Second Schedule . .. . . .. .. .. . . ... . .... .. ...... . . .. .. .. .. .. . 24.40
!.<gal Aid tmd Advice Act (Cap 160, 2014 Rev Ed). . . .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . .. .. 3.60
Third Schedule .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. ...... .. ....... .. .. .. .. . 24.40
Fourth Schedule .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. . .... . .... . .. . 24.40 !.<gal Profession Act (Cap 16 1, 2001 Rev Ed)
Employment Cloims Act (Act 21 of 2016) .... . ... . ... . ........ . ... .. .. .. ....... . .... 3.35 s 11 1 . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . ... . .... . .. .. ... . .. . 24.44
Limit;otion Acl (Cap 163, 1996 Rev Ed)
Employment of Foreign Mtmpowcr Act (Cop 91 A, 2009 Rev Ed)
24/\ .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. . .... .... . ........ .6.97, 6.98
s5 . .... .. . . .... . . .... .... .... . .... .... .... .... .. .. . .... . 4.59
24A(3) .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. •.. . .. , . , •. .. •.. . ... . , •. .. .. .. ... . ... . 6.97
Employment of Fo1-eign Workers A<t (Cnp 91 A. 1997 Rev !ld)
2•tB... .. .. .. ............ . .. .. ............ . ... . ................ . ............ . 6.97
' 5(3) .. . .. .. ... . ........... .. ... . ....... . .... . ... . ............ .. .. . ........ . •I.20
241!(3) . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .......... . .. .. .. .. . .. . .... ... .. .. .......... . 6.97
Enterprise SingopoT<' Board Act 2018 (No 10 of 20 18) . . ........ . ... . ............ . ... 11.66
Lim ited Lit1bility Partnerships Act (Act •12 of 2005) . .. .. .. .. ... . .. .. ••. .. •. .. ... . .. .. 9.56
Evidence Act (Cap 97, 1997 Rev Ed) . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . 10.6
Limited Lit1bilil)' Partnerships Act (Cap 163A, 2006 Revised Ed) . ••. . ••• .. •• .. ••. 21.I , 2 1.75
65 . .... . .... .... .... . . .... .... .... . .... .... .... .... 10.9
s 4.. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ... . ........ . .. .. ... 21.76
93.. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ........ . .. .. .. .. ... . . .. . lo.6, 10.9. 10.10. 10.11 . 19.35
4(3) .. . . .... .... . .. . . .... .. .. . .. . . . .. . .......... .... . . 21.76
9•1. .... . .. .. ............ . .. .. .. .. ........ . 10.8, 10.9. 10.10. 10.11 , 10.14, 10.1 7, 19.35
5( 1) .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .......... .. .. . 21.76
94(b) .. . .. ... ....... . ........... .. ....... . ... . ....... . .... . ................ 10.14
8 ..... .. ....... . ........ . ... . ............ . ....... .. .. .. ....... . ....... .. ... 2 1.76
94(c)... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . 10. 14
9(1) ... . ................ . ................ . ........ . ... . ... . ............ .. .. 2 1.77
94(d) .. . ... ........ . .. .. . ........ . .. .. .. ... ....... . .. .. .. . .... . .... . ...... . 10.14
9(2) ............ . ....... . ........ . ................ . ........................ 2 1.77

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limited Partnerships Act (Cap 163B, 2010 Re"ised Ed) . .. . . . • ...... 21.), 2 1.73 17 . . .. . . ... . .... . ... . ... .. .. . .... . ... · • · · .. .. . .... . . .. . ... . ... . ..... .. ..... 23.50
s 6( 1). . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . 21.74 17(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . • . • . . . . . • . . • . . • .... ... . ... . . . . . .. . . ... ... . . 23.50
6(2) .. . .. .. . •. . .. ... . ... 2 1.74 25(4) ...................................................................... 23.47
6(3) . . ... .. .. .. .. . . . 2 1.74 30(1)(a) . .. . .... ....... .. . .. . . .............................................. 23.63
First Schedule . ... .. .. .. .. . . . .. . 21.74 33 .. .. .. ... . ... .. ....... . ... .. .. .. ....... .. .. . ... .. .. ....... " . ........ . ... 23.57
34 .. .. . . . .. . . .. . .•. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .•. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. ... 23.57
M 34(1) . ... .. . . .. . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. .. . 23.57
Maintenance of Parents Act (Cap 1678, 1996 Re" Ed). .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. 3.9 66 ... . ............ ...... ........... ...... ...... .. .. ... .. .............. ... .. 23.62
Maritime and Port Authority of Sii>gapore Act (Cap I 70A. I997 Re" Ed). . 2 I .8 66(1)(a) . .. .. , .. .. .. ..... . .. . .... .. .. ... . .. .. . .... .. .. . . .. ... .. . ... .. .. .. .. . 23.62
Minors' C ontracts Act (Cap 389, 1994 Rev Ed} . . . . 9.32 66(1 )(I>) . ................ . .... " .......... . ........ . .. ... . .. ........... ... .. 23.62
' 2.. .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. 9.39 66(1)(c) . ... . ... . , . . . . . . . . . .. . , . . . . • . . . .. .. .. .. .. . 23.62
3( 1) . . . . . . . . . ... . ... . .... . . .. . ... . ....... • . •.. . .... 9.34, 9.36, 9.37. Rox 9.2, 9.38 66(2) . ... .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. . . . . .. .. .. . 23.64
3(2) . . . . . . . . .. ... . ... . ................................................. 9.33 66(2)(a) . .. ... .. ............... .. ............ ..... .. .. .. .. . .... ...... .. .. .. . 23.64
Misrepresent:ttion Act (C:tp 390. I 994 Re'' Ed) .........•................•...•• I 3.3, I3.34 66(2)(1>) . .. . .... .......... .. . ............. .. ...... .. ........... . ... . ........ 23.64
s 2( 1) . ... . ... . ... . ... .. ... . ...... .. 6.42. 10.25, 13.35. 13.36, 13.37, 13.43. 13.50. 13.53 66(2)(g)' ". ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' ' .. ' ' " ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' ' .. ' ... ' ' .. ' ' ' " ' ... ' ' .. ' • " ' ' " • 23.64
2(2) .. . . .. ... .. . ... ... .. .. . ... .. . ... ... .. .. ... 13.43, 13.49, 13.50, 13.51. 13.52. 13.53 66(2)(i) . . .. . • " .. ... . ... . ... . ... .. ... . ... . ... . ... .. ... . ... . ... . ....... . . ... 23.64
2(3) ... .. . .. .. .. ........... ... .. . ............ . ... . ............ . ... . .... . ... 13.53 67 .. .. ... . .. . .. .. .. .. • . ... .. . • .. .. .. .. • . ... .. . • .. .. .. .. .. .. • . ... .. . • .. .. .. . 23.66
3 ...... . ................ . .. .. ............ . ... . ................ . ........ . ... 13.55 67(1 )(a) ...... .. .. .. ... . .. .. ... .. ....... . .. ....... .. .. ... ...... .. .. . ... ... . . 23.66
Misuse of Drugs Act (Cap 185, 2008 Re'' Ed) 67(1)(1>) .. .. . ... .. .. . ... ... ...... .. .. . .... .. ...... .. .. .. ....... . ... . ... .. ... 23.66
s SA .. .. ... . .... . .. .. .. .. ... . ................ . ......................... . ... 26. 14 67(1 )(c) .. .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. .. •. ... . ... .. .. .. ...... •. ............... •. ..... 23.66
Motor Vehicles (Third Party Risks o nd Compensation) Act (Cap I 89, 2000 Re" Ed) 67(1)(d ) .. .. . ... .. ... . ... . ... . ... .. ... . ... . ... . ... .. ... . ... . ... . .... . .. . . ... 23.66
s 9(1).. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . ....... . ... . .. ....... .. . . ... . 9.68 67(1)(e) . .. .. . .. . .... ... . . ... . ... .. • . .. ... . • .. . ... .. .. .. • .. . ... . • .. .. .. . 23.66
69(1 ) . ... . .. ... .. .. ... . ... . ... .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. ... ...... . ....... ... .. 23.67
p 7 1 ... . .. .. .. ............ . .. .. ............ . .. .. .... . ... ........... ...... .... 23.65
Parliament (Pri" ilcgcs. Immunities <1nd Powers) Act (Cap 2 17. 2000 Re" Ed) 7 1(1) . .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ....... . ... .. ........... . ... . ... .. ... 23.65
s 7... .. . ... . ............ . ............ . .. .. ... .. ....... . ............ . ....... . 5.76 7 1(2) . ... .. . .... .. .. . ... . ... . .... . ... . ... . ... . .... . ....... . ....... . ... .. .. . 23.65
8.. . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . 5.76 7 1(3) . . . .. . ... . ... .. .. .. . .. . ... .... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. . .. . . .. . . .. . ... . 23.65
Partnership Act (Cap 39 1, 1994 Rev Ed ) 76(1 ) . ....... .. .. .. ... .. . ... .. .. .. .. ... .. . ....... .. .. ... ...... . ... . ... .. ... 23.63
' I. ..... .. .. ........ ...... . ................ .. .... ..... ... .. .. ...... 21.68 76(3) . ... .. . ... .. ....... . ... . ... .. ...... .. ... .. .. .. ... . ....... . ... .. .. .. ... 23.63
s .......... ... .. ........... .. ... ......... ... .... .. ..................... . .. . 21.70 7? .. .. ... .............. .. ................ . ........................... 23.6&. 2l.69
8 .............................................................. ...... ...... 21.70 77{3)(a ) .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .•. . . . •. . . .. . 23.68
9 .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . ... . .. .... . . . .. .. ... . .. .... . . . ... 2 1.7 1 77(3)(1>) .. .. .. .. . . .. . . .. .. .. . .. .. . ... .... .. .. . .... . . .. . ... .. .. . . . .. . ... . .... 2).68
Patent.< Rules 1995 (Cap 22 1, R I , 21)()7 Rev Ed) 77(3)(<) .. . ... . .... . .. ... . ... .. . .... . ........... .. .. .. .. ....... . ....... .. ... 23.68
r 47(1 ) ...... ... ........... . .. ... ........... ............... .. ........... . .. . 23.63 I 13(1) ............................................. ... .. ................... 23.59
Patents Act (Cap 221, RI . 2005 Rev F.d) .. .. .. .. . 23.45 Penal Code (Cap 224, 2008 Rev Ed ) ....... ...... ...... ... . ........... .. .......... .. 4.32
s 2( 1) .............................. ...... . ....... ... ...... . ............ . ... 23.52 24 . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .•. . . . .. .. .. .. 4.35, 4.42
13(1) . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ............... 23.48 25 . . .. . ... . .. .. . . .. . . .. . ... . .. .. . . .. ... . . .. ...... . . .. . .. . . .... .. .. .. .. . ... . . 4.42
14(1 ) . ... ..... . . .... . . .. . ... . .. .. . .. .. . . . . .. . . .... . ... . . ..... . . ........ . .. . 23.49 t20A . .. ....... .. .. ... .. . ........ . .. . .... . ....... .. ... . ....... . ... . .... . ... . 5.27
I 4(2) . .. .. .. ........ ...... . ............... ....... .......... ........ ..... .. . 23.49 16 1-165 . ................ . ................ . ........ . .. ................ .. . ... . 4.43
1'1(4) ...... . .. .. ........... .. ... . ............ . ... . ............ . ........ . ... 23.52 405 . .. .. ... . ... .. ....... . ....... .. ....... . ....... .. ... . ....... . ........ . ... . 4.32
14(5) .. . ... . .................... ... ...... ...... . ............... ...... ...... 23.52 4 15 . .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. • . .. · ·· · • ·· · . .. . . • . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .4.39
I 4(5A). . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . ............... 23.52 499 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. ..... . .. .. .. . .. . .. ... . . .. .. .. .... ..... . . .. . . ... . .. .. 5.47
14(58) .. .. .. ... . .... . . . .. ... . . ... . .. . ... .. .. . . . ... . ... . .. .. ... . . ... . ... . .. . 23.52 499(1) ... .. . ... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. .. .. ....... . ... .. ... . ... . 5.47
IS , ........ , .. , ,. ... , .. ,, .. ,,. .. , .. ,. ...... .. .. .. , , .. , ...... .. .. .. , .. ,. , ... 23.S3 Pmonal Dato Protection Act 2012 (Act No. 26 of 2012) . .. ... . ... . ... •. .. .. ... 24.52. 24 .55
16(1 ) .. . .. .. ............................. . .. .. ......................... . ... 23.56 s 2.. ... .. .. . ... ...... ... .. ........... . ... .. ....... . ... . ... . .... . ..... 24.55, 24 .58
16(2) .. . ... ..... ........ . ... ..... ........ . ... . ............ . ................ 23.56 3. .. .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . ............ . ... . . .. .. .. .. ... 24.57
16(3) .. .. .... . . .. .... .. . ... . .. .... " . ... .. .. . .. .... " . .. .. ... . .. .... .. . .. . 23.56 4{4)(o) ....... .. .. .. . ... ....... .. .. .. . ... ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. . ... ... .. . .. . 24.SS

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4(4)(b). .. . 24.58 Reciprocal Enforcemenl of Commonwealth Judgments Act (Cap 264, 1985 Rev Ed) .. .. 26.29
4(6) .. . . .. . 24.56 ...... .. 26.98
11 .. .. . .. . 24.57 Reciprocal Enforcemenl of Foreign Judgments Act (Cap 265, 200 I Rev Ed) . .. .. . 26.29, 26.98
13 . ....... .. ... . ... ... ..... . .... . .... . ... .. ...... . ........ .. .. . ... . .... Table 24.3 Rtpublic of Singapore lndependtnce Act (Act 9 of 1965)
14 .. ....... . ... .. .. .. ....... . ... .. .. , .... . ... . ... . ... . .... . ... . .. 24.59, Table 24.3 s 7. ... . . .... .... .... . 2.29
15 . . . . . . . 24.59, Table 24.3 ResidenLial Propcrty Act (Cap 274, 2009 Rev Ed) .. . . ....... . . . . . . . 15.23
16 .. .. . .... . ... . , .. .. .. . .. . ..... .. .. . .. . . . ....... . . ... .. . . . .. .. .. 24.59, Table 24.3 Rules of Courl (Cap 322, R5, 2006 Rev Ed) .. .. .. .. .. .. • .. . . .. .. .. .. .. . ..2.44
17 .. .. . ... ... ...... .. ........... .. ...... .. ....... .. .. . ... .. ... . .. 24.59. Table 24 .3
18' ' .. ' ... '' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ... ' .... ' ' .. . ... ' ' ....... ' ' ...... ' ' ... ' .. 24.59, Table 24.3 s
20 .. ....... . ... .. ... . ....... . ... .. ....... . ... . ... . ........ . ... . .. 24.59, Table 24.3 Sale or Goods Act (Cap 393, 1999 Rev Ed)
2I . .. . .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. .... . .......... Table 24.3 ... . .... . .9.16. 10.!, 10.52, 22.2, 22.3, 22.4, 22.5, 22.7, 22.9, 22.10, 22.11, 22.12.
22 .. ... .. . . .. .. . , .. .. .. ... . ..... .. .. . .. . . . .. ..... .. .. . .. . . . ... . .. . . .... Table 24.3 ... .. 22.14, 22.16. 22. 18, 22.23, 22.33, 22.59. 22.61, 22.86, 22.88, 26.48, 26.50
23 .. .. . ... ... .. . ... .. .. . ... . .... .. .. . ... .. ....... .. ...... .. .. . .... ... . . Table 24.3 2( 1) .. .. .. ... .. 22.10, 22.21
24,, .. ,, •• ,,, . ,,, ., ,, .. ,, •• ,, •. , ,, .. ,, •. ,, .• ,, •• , ,, •. ,, •• ,, .• ,,, ., ., •. , T.1 blc 24.3 3(1) ........ 9.16, 22.15
zs . ' ... ' ... ' ' ... ' ... ' ... ' ... ' .... ' ... ' ... ' ' .. ' .... ' ....... ' ' ...... ' ' .. ' T.1blr 24.3 3(2) .9.21. Box 9.1. 9.23
26 . . ... .... . ........ . ........... . ........ . ....... . ........ . ....... . . .. . Table 24.3 3(3) . . .... .... .. .. . ........ .9. 17, 9.43
36 . .... . .... .. .. .... ... . .. .. . ... .. ....... .. ...... .. ....... . . .. 24.63 4( 1) .. . .. .... . .. . .. 22. 15
37 ... .. . .. .. ...... .... ..... . ..... .. ..... .. ........ .. ...... . ........ .. .. . ... 24.63 6.. .. .. . .. .... . .. ... 22.IS
43(3) .. . .. ... .. ' ........... ' .... ' ........ .. ..... .. ................ . .... . ... 2•1.63 7.. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . ... .. ...... . ........ . . .. ......... .. .... 22.83, 22.85
44 .. .. .. ... . .... . .. .. .. .. ... . ............ . ... . ........ . ... . ............ . ... 24.63 8 .. .. . .. ........ .. . .. ... . ........ .. ...... . ........ . ... .. ........... .. ...... 22.2 1
45 . . ............ ............................................... .... . .. . 24 .63 9 . ' . .. ' ' ' .. ' ' .. ' . .. ' . •.. ' ' .. ' . .. ' . .. ' ' •.. ' ' •. ' . •. ' . •. ' ' .•. ' ••. ' . •. ' . .. ' ' ... 22.22
Second Schedule . . .. . ... .... . .. .. . . .. . ... ..... .. .. . . ...... .. .. . .... . ... . Table 24.3 10., .. ,, .. . , ............ , .. . , .. .. ........ .. ....... , ... .. ...... , .. Tobie 22.1, 22.27
'Third Schedule .. .. .. .. .. . ... .. ... , . .. . ... .. ....... , ... . ... .. ....... , .. . . Table 24.3 10(1) . .. ................ ' ................ ' ........ ' ... ' .. . ' .......... 22.58, 22.92
Fourlh Schedule . , .. , , ...... , , ... . , •. , ... , . .. , . ... , , ...... , , ....... , ... , Table 24.3 11 .............. . .. . ............. . ............ . ... . ................ . ....... 22.55
Fifth Schedule ... . .. .. .. .. ... . ........ . ................................. Table 24.3 I 1(2) ............... . ........ . ... . ... . ............ . .. .. ............ . ... . ... 22.20
Sixth Schedule .. .. .... ....... ., .. .. ....... . ........ . ....... . ....... . . ... Table 24.3 I 1(3) ........... . ............ . .. .. ... . .... . .. . ........ . ................... 22. 118
Eighth Schedule........ ..... . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. • .. . .. . • .. .. . . .. 24 .64 12 .. ... . ........ . .. .. ... . ........ . .. .. ... . ........ . 11.46, 22.4 1, 22.55, 22.56, 22.113
P:1rt IV . , .. .. .. .. .. .. ........... , . .. . .... , ....... , .. . , .... . ....... . ... . Table 24.3 12(1) .. ...... .......... . .... .. .. 10.52, T.1 ble 22.1, 22.34, 22.36, 22.37, 22.118, 22.128
Part V • , , .. . , .. , , .. , , ....... , , .. , , ....... , ... , ... , , .. , .... , ....... , , .. , Table 24.3 12(2)(a). . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. Table 22.1, 22.38, 22.39
Part \II . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. . ... Table 24J 12(2)(1>) ... . . .. . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .'lbble 22.1. 22.39
Pan IX. .. • . .. . . . . ... 24.62 12(3) .. .. .. .. • . .. .. • .. .... . .. .. . 22.40
Personr.I Da1::1 Protection (Do Nol Coll Regi$tq1) Regulations o( 2013 12(4) .. .. .............. 22.40
(S709/ 20 13} ' ... ' .. .. .. .. ' ... ' .... .. .. .. .. ' ... ' ........ .. .. ' ... ' .... .. .. . ... 24.63 I 2(5) . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ... 22.40
Personal Dahl Protection (Exemption from Scclion 43) Order o( 2013 13. .. . . . .. .... I 1.46. 22.27, 22.55, 22.56. 22.113, 22. 134
(S817/ 2013) . .... . .. .. ... . ........ . .. .. ................ . ................ . ... 24.63 13( 1) . . . .... .... .. .. . .... . ... .. .. . .......... 10.s2. Thble 22. 1. 22.42. 22.44, 22.46
Practice State1neot on Judicial Precedem 1994 . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . 3.40 13(3) .' . ................ ' ............ . ... ' ... ' .... ' ... .. .. . ... ' ............ 22.44
Pre,1enti01\ of Cor1·up1io1\ J\ ct (Cop 241. 1993 Rev Ed) .. .. . . ..• . •• ... •. . •.. .. .. .4.43, 20.47 14 '' ' .' ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' ....... ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' ... ,) 1.46, 22.'19, 22.52, 22.55, 22.56. 22.113, 22. 134
s 5. , .. , , .. , , .. .. .... , .. , , .. , , .. , , .... .. .. , .. , , ............ , .. , ......... .4,44, M S 14(2) . .. ........... .. .. .. ............ , .......... 10.52, T.1 blc 22. I, 22.50, 22.52, 22.54
6 .. ' ............ ' ... ' ... ' ............ ' ... ' ........ .. .. ' ... ' ............ ' .... 4.46 14(28) . ' ' .. ' .... ' ....... ' ' .. ' .... ' ... ' ... ' ' .. ' ' ... ' ... ' ... ' ' ... ' .. ' '' 22.50, 22.5 1
8 .. . ... . .... .... . ... . ... . .. .. .... . ... . .... ............. . .... 4.51 14 (2C) .......... ' ................ ' ................ ' ............ .. .. ' ....... 22.53
37(1} .. . ... . ............ .. .. . ............ . ... . 4.51 1<1(3) ....... , ... . .. .. .... , .. .. .. . . . .. . ............... , . .......... Tobie 22.1, 22.54
Proressional Engineers Acl (Cop 253. 1992 Rev Ed) 15 .. ................................. . 11.46, 22.27, 22.47. 22.55, 22.56, 22.113, 22. 134
' 11 (1),, .. , , .. .. ........ . ... . .. .. ........ . ... . ... . ........ . ............ . ... . 15.4 15(2) . .. .. .. . .. . . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. ...... . ........ Table 22.1, 22.47, 10.52
15(2)(a) ... .. .. .. .. • .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .......... . ... ... . . ... 22.48
R 15(2)(c ).. .. . .. 22.49, 22.53
15A ..22.6, 22.1 8, 22.27, 22.56, Table 22.3, 22.113, 22. 11 5
Rapid Transil Systems Act. . ... . ... . ... .. ... . ... . ....... . .... . ... . ....... .. ... . ... 25.22
16. .. .. .. . .. .... .. .. .. . .. .... .. .. 22.63
17 . .. .. .... .... .. .... .. ..... .. . .. .. .... .... ....... 22.63

xiv xlvi
 Tablr: of Singaport ltgislation Tablr: of Singaport ltgislation

18 . . .. . . . 22. 64, 22.69 50(2) . .. .. . .. .. ........ .. .. . .. .. .. ... 22.99

19 .. .. . . .. . 22.70 50(3) . . . .. 22.99, 22. IQI, 22.102, 22.103, 22.104, 22.124
20 . .. .. 22.8 1 SI . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .... . Tab le 22.3, 22.124
20(1) . . . . . 22. 81, 22.83 51(3) . . 18.16, 22. 124
20(2) .. .. .. 22.82 52 . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 'fab le 22.3, 22.130
20A . .. .. . 22. 68, 22.69 53 .. .. . .. Table 22.3, 22.126
2 1(1).. 22.72. 22.73, 22.75 54 . .. . . ... ..... . .. . . . .... . Table 22.3 . 22.106. 22.127
23. .. .. ... .. . .. .. . .... . .... . .. ..... .. ...... .... 22.76, 22.77 57(2) . . .. .... ...... . .. .. .... .. ...... . ...... ... ... .. .. . ........ .. ...... . 7.30
24 ... ...... . ... .. ... .. ........... .. . .. ... . ........ .. ...... . ... . .... .. .. . ... 22.78 6 1 ... . .. .. .. .... .. ...... . ........ .. ...... . ........ . ... .. .. . ........ .. .. 22.9. 22.6 2
25 .. .. . .... . ... .. .. .. .. . ........ . ... . ... . . ....... . ... . .... . ... . ... . .. 22. 79, 2 2.90 6 1(1) . . . .. .. ............ . ... . .... .. ...... . ....... .. ... .. ...... . ........ .. .. 22.2 5
27 .. .. . .... .. .. . ... .. ...... . .... .. ....... . ....... . ... . ... .. ... 22.24. 22.S.7. 2 2. 11 5 6 1( 5) . . . .. .. ...... ... .. . . .. .. ... . ........ .. .. . ... .. ... .. .. .. .. . ... . .... .. .. 2 2.64
28 .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...... .. ... .. .. . .... . .. .. ... .. .. . .... . .. .. 16 .16., 22.30, 2 2.58 62(2) . .. .. .. ........ . .. .. ... . ........ . .. .. ........ . .. . .... . .. .. .. 22.8, 22.1 5, 22.85
29(1 ) . .. ... . ... .. .. .. ....... . ... .. ....... . ... . ... .. ....... . ... . ... .. ... . ... 22.25 Sale of Good s (United Nntions Convention ) Act (Cap 238A. 2013 Rev Ed ) ... .. .. . 10.52, 22.3
29(2) .. . ... . ........ . ... . ... . ........ . ... . ... . ........ . ... . ............ . ... 22.25 ........ . ... . ............ . ... . ............ . ............ . ... . ... . ... . .. Tobie 24.2, 26.48
29{3) • • • t • • • • • t • t • • • It• •• • t t t •• •• •• • It• •• •• •• t • • • • • • • t t • • • • • 22.28 Securities ond Futures Act (Cap 289, 2006 Rev Ed) . • . . . . . . . . . . . ... 4.52, 2 1.1 5
29(4) .. .. . .. ....... .. ...... .. ....... .. ....... 22.26 s2 . .. .. .. .. . .. . . .... .... . ... ......... .... . 4.53
30. . .. . .. .. Table 22.1 2 18 . .. .. .... .... .. .. . .... .... .... . .. .. 4.52, 4.54
30(1) .. .. .. .. . 16.25, 22.3 1 2 18(2) .. ... .. .. .. .. • • . .. ....... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4.53
30(2) .. . .. . 22.3 1 2 19 .. . . . .. . ............. . .. . ............. . ........ . ... .. .......... . .... .4.52. 4.54
30( 2A) . . 22.6. 22.3 1, 22.11 5 2 19 (2) . . ............ . ... . ......................... . ... .. .................... 4.53
30(5) . . . .. . 16 .25 22 1 .......................... . ........................ . 4.52
3 1(1 ) . .. .. .. 22.32 232 . .. .. .. .. .. .. .... . .... .... .... . . ...... .. .. . .... .. ...... . .4.52
3 1( 2) .. . .. .. .. .. .... .. ......... .... ...... . ........ .. ...... . ........ .. .. . ... 16.46 Singapore Regulations 1823 . .. . ,, .. ,, .. ,, .. . , .. . ,, .. , ... ,, .. . , .. , , ... ,, .. , ... . , .. . , , .2.9
32 .. .. ... .. .. .. . ... .. .. . ........ . . .. . ... .. ....... .. .. . ... .. ....... ... . .. ... 22.26 Spom Control Act (Cop 31 IA. 2008 Rev Ed ) . .... .. ...... .. ........... . ........ .. .. 24.62
34 ... .. . .. . . ... . .... .. .......... . ........ .. ...... ... ...... .. .. . ........ . .. 22.11 7 s 3. .. . . ............ . .. .. ............ . .. ...... . ... .. .............. . .... 24.65
35 (1 )(b) . .. .. .. .. ........... .. ... . ........ .. .. . ... . ........ .. .. . ... . .... . .. 2 2.11 8 4 . .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. •. .. ... . ... . ... . ... . .... 24.65
35(2) .. . .. .. ........ . .. . ................. . .. .. ............ . ... 22.48. 22.S.7, 22. 11 7 5 ..... .. .. . ............. . .. . ... .. ............... .. ............ . ... . ........ 24.6 5
35(4) .. . ............ . ... . ............... .. ............... .. ............ . .. 22. 119 6.. .. . . . .. ...... .. .. . .. ..... ... .... .. . ....... .. ... .... . .. .. .. .. ... . .... 24.65
35(5) .. . ............ . .................... . ................ . ............ . .. 22. 119 7 .. . . ........ . .. .. .. .. ........ . .. .. ... . .... . ... . ... . ................ 24.68
35(6) . .. ... .. ...... .. ....... . ... .. ....... . ... . ... . ... . .... . ....... . ... . ... 22. 11 8 Fim Sch edule .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. . ... . .... . ... . ... . .... . ....... . ... . ... .. ... 24.68
3SA .. . .... . .. .. ............ . ... . ................ . ............ . .. 22.12 1 State Cou r ts Act (Cap 321, 2007 Rev Ed) .... . ... . ........ . ........................ . 3.44
36. • ................................ . .. 22.117 State o f Sing.ipore Act 1958. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . ... ...... .... .. . .. 2.20
37(1) .. . .. 22.106 Sup ply of Good.< Act (Cap 394 , 1999 Rev Ed) .. . .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ....... .. ...... .. ... 22. 14
38( 1) .. . .. 22.107 s 2. ... . . .. . . ... . .... .... . .. . . .... .... .... . ... . .... . .. . .... . ... . .... .... 11.47
39 . . .. 22.107 Sup reme C ourt of Judicature Act (Act 24 of 1969) . . . . . . . . . 2.32
4 1 . . . .. . • . .. . Table 22. 2, 22.107 Sup1·eme C ourt of Judicature J\ct (Cap 322. 2007 R<v Ed) . .. .. . . .. .. •. . . .•. . •.. .. .. .. 3.38
42 . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. • .. . .. .... .. Table 22.2
43 . . ........... .. .. . ... .. ....... .. .. . .... . ... . ... . . .. . Tab le 22.2 T
44 ... ...... . ........ .. ...... . .... .. ...... . ........ .. ...... . .... . Tnblc 22. 2, 2 2.108 Tcrroristn (Suppression of Financing Ac:t (Cap 325. 2003 Rev Ed} .. , , .. , , . . , , ... ,, . 13ox 4.l
47 . . .. ... . ... .. .. •. . . ..• . •• .. •.. .. .. . . •. .. .•. . ••. .. .. .. •• .. .•. .. •. .. .. . T.1ble 22.2 Third C har t<r 1855 ....... . .. .. ............ . ... . ........ . ... .. .................... 2. 13
48 .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ...... .. ... . ........ . ... . ... .. ....... . ... . ... . ... . Table 22.2 Thode Morks Act (Cap 332, 200 5 Rev Ed) ........ . ... . .... . .. . .... . ... . ............ 23.82
48(2) . .. ............ . .. . ................. . .. .. ............ . ............ . .. 22. 110 Part vr . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. ........ ... 21. 101
48(3) .. . ............ .. ........................... . .... . ... . ............ . .. 22. 109 '2( 1). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . ...... 23.83. 23.84. 23.89, 23.9 4
49 .. .. .. ............ . .. .. ... . ........ . .. .. ............ . 22.58, Table 22.2, T.1 blc 22.3 2(7) .. . . .. . .... . ........ . ....... . ........ .. ...... .. ........... . ... . .. 23.R9, 2 3.99
49(I) .. . .. .. .... . .. .. .. .. ............ . .. .. ............ . ... . ................ 22.95 2(8) ... . ................ . ................ . ........ . ... .. ............. 23.89. 23.99
49 (2) .. . ... . ... . ... .. ........... .. .. . .... . ....... .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. ... 2 2.95 2(9) .. . ................. . ................ . ........ . .................. 23.89. 23.99
50 . . ... . ............ . ... . ........ . ... . ... . ........ . ....... . ... .. Tab le 22. 2, 22.124 4( 1) .. .. .. . .. ... .... .. . .. . .. 23.82
50(1 ) .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. • .. .. .. .. .. .. • .. • . . .. • .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . . ... 22.98 4( 2) .. . . ........ .... .... . ...... .. ........ . ....... . . ..... .. .... . ........... 23. 109

xlvii xlviii
 Tablr: of Singaport ltgislation
5(2) . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . ...... ... .. . .. . ... . . . ... . ... . .. . .. .. ... .. 23.96
5(4) . . . .. .. . ....... ... ........ .... .. .. ........ .. . . .. .. . .. . ....... . .... . .. . 23.97
7 . .. .. . . .. . . . .. . . •. . . .... .. . . • . . ................................. 23.84
7( 1) .. . . . . . . . .. ...... .. . . .. . . ... .. .. .. .. ... . .. ... .. .. . ... ... .. . ... .. .. ... . . 23.84
7( l)(o) ... •. .. •. .. .. .. ..• . ••. .. •. .. ..• . •.. .. •. . ••. .. •. .. •.. .. •. . ••. .. •. .. ... 23.84
7(l)(b) . . . .. .. • . .. .. . · • · . .. . . .. .. . · • · . . . .. .. ... · • · .. .. . · • ·· .. . 23.84, 23.86
7( 1)(<) ... . .. ....... .. .. .. . . ... .. .. .. .. . . . . ... . . . . . ... .. . .. . .. . . . . ... . 23.84, 23.86
7( 1)(d) . . . • .... . . •.. ... .• . ••• . ••. .... • . •. ...•.. ••. ...... •. ...... ••. ..• 23.84, 23.86
7(2) ................................. . .. ... . .. ... .. .. . . .. ... .. . ... .. .. ... . . 23.86
7(3) .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. ... . .. .. ...................... ' ' ... 23.87
7(4) ..................... ... .. .. .. .. .. ... . ' .. . ... .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. ... 23.88
7(5) ... . ... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. .. .. ... . .. ........... .. . .... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... 23.88
7(6) .............•............•............ • ... •. .. .. ... .. .. •.. . ... . .. ... .. 23.88
8 . ..... .... .. .. .. .. ... .. . ... . ... .. .. .. ... . ....... .. .. .. .. ...... 23.84, 23. 89, 23.99
8( 1} '• ' ' t • ' • • • o I It• • ' '• I ' t • ' ' too • ' • •I ft • ' ' • o • Ito• • ' • o I It• • ' • o o ' • o • • ' • 23,89, 23,90
8(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . ... . • .. .. .. .. .. .. . 23. 89, 23.90
8(4) . . . . • • . . . .. . . • • . . . • .. • . .. • . . . . . •• . • . . . . .. . • • . . . . • . . • . . . . . • . • . . . . . . . 23.94
8(9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .. . . .. . .•. . . . .. .. .. • . • . ... . .. • .. .. .. .. .. . 23.95
9( 1) .. .. .. . . .. . . ... .. . .. . ....... .. ... . . . .. ... . ... .. ·· • · •· .. .. • . ••. .. .. .. .. . 23.95
10(1) . . . . . . . . • • . . • . . . . . .. . • . . . . • . . • . . . . . . • . • . . . .. 23.96
15(2) ...........••.....•.••..•...... . . •. . .. .. . •.. .... . . •. . .. •. . ••. ..•. . .. •. 23.97
18 ... . ... . ... .. .. .. ... .. .. .. . ... ... . .. .. ... .. . ... ... . .. .. .. ... . ... ... . ... . . 23.97
19, .... ' ... ' ... ' ................ ' .. .. . .. ... ....... . ....... ' ............ ' ••. 23.97
22' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' .. ' ' ........... ' .... ' ................ ' ................ ' ... . ' ... 23.97
22(1 )(•) ...... .. . ... ... ...... . .. ......... . .. .. . .. ......... . .. .. . ... .... . .. .. 23.97
23 . . . . .. . . .. . .•. . . . .. .. .. .. • . .. .. .. • .. .. .. .. .. . 23.97
23(4) ... . ..... . .. .. .. ... . ....... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. ... . .. .... . . ... .. ... .... 23.97
26(1 ) . ........... .. ... . ... .. ... .. . ... .. .. . .... . ... . ... .. .. . .... . ... . ... . ... 23.98
27' .... ' .. ' ' ............... ' .... ' ................ ' ................ ' .... ' ... 23.99
27(1 ) . . .. .. .. .. .. •. ... . . .. •. . •.. ...... •. . .. .. . •. .......•. . .. •. . • •...•. . . ... 23.99
27(2) . ... ...... . .... . ... . . ... ... .. ....... .. .. . ... .. ... . . ..... . . ... .. .. .. .. . 23.99
27(3) •. . . .. .. .. .. •. ... •. . . ................ . .................•.............. 23.99
28 . . . • . ' ............ ' . .. . .. ......... . . .. . ' . ........... . ... . ............ ' •• 23. 100
28(1 )(0) . .. . ' .. .. ........... '' ... ' ............ ' ... ' ................ ' .... ' •• 23. 100
28(1)(b) .. .. .. .. .. •. ... . ... .. . •.. ...... •. ... .. . •. .......•....•.. •• ......... 23. 100
28(1)(<) .. . .. ........ . ........... .. ... . ... .. .. . ... .. ... . ... .. .. . ... ... . .. .. 23. 100
28(2) •. . . .. .. .. .. •. ....................•.. . ....•........... . .............. 23.100
28(3) .. ' ... . ........ ' ....... . ............ . ........... . ................ . ' •• 23.100
28(4) .. ' . .. ' .. .. ........... '' ... ' ............ ' ... ' ............ ' ... ' .... ' •• 23. 100
29 ... . ... .. .. .. .. •. ... .• .. .. . •.. ...... •. ... •. . •.. ... . .. •. ...•.. ••. . .. . .. .. 23. 10 1
31 .. .. .. .. . .... .. .. . ....... .. ... . ... . . ...... ... .. . ... ... . . ... ... . .. .. 23. 102
3 1(2)(•) . . .. .. .. .. •. ....................•................•...•...•.... . ...• 23. 102
3 1(2)(b) . ... . ........ ' ...... '' ............ ' ............................. ' •• 23.102
3 1(2)(c) ' .. ' ' ............... ' ' .. ' ' ... " ....... ' ....... ... ...... ' ........ ' •• 23. 102
3 1(2)(d ) .. .. .. .. . ••. . .. .• . •.. . •.. . .. . . . •. ... •. . •.. . .. . .. •. . .. •. .. .. . .. . .. .. 23. 102
3 1(3) . . . . .. . . .. . . • . . . . . .. . . .. . . • . .. . . . . • .. . . .. . . • . . . . .. .. .. .. .. 23. 102
3 1(5)(c) .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. . ... . ... .. ... . ... .. .. . ... .. ... . ... .. .. .. ... 23.102, 23.108
32.' .. . ' ... ' ........ ' ... ' .. '' ............ ' ................ ' ... ' ........ ' .. 23.102
xlix
Tablr: of Singaport ltgislation
32(1) . . . ... . .... . ... . ... .. .. . .. . . . ... . . . ... .. . .. . . . .. . . ... . ... . .. . .. .. .... 23. 102
32(3) . ... .. .. .. .. .. . .... .. .. .. .. .. .. . .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. . ... ... . 23. 102
33 ... . '' ... ' ............ ' ... ' .................... '' ... .. ...... ' ... ' ....... 23. 102
33(1) .... .. . . .. .... . . .. ... .. . ....... . . .. ... ...... .. .. ...... ... ..... ... ... . 23. 102
34 . . .. . . .... . .. ...... . . . . . ... ... . . .... .. . . . ... .. ... . ... . ... .. .. .. .. ... . 23. 102
34(1) ... . .. . ...... . .. . .. . ... .. .. .. ... ... . . ... .. .... .. ..... . ... . ........... 23. 102
35 ... . ... .. . ... .. .. . ... ... .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. .. . 23.104, 23. 1OS
35(1)(•)' .. ' ' ••. ' ' •. ' . ... ' .. ' ' ... ' ' •. ' ... '' .. ' .... '' •. ' ' •. ' .... ' ... ' .... ' •• 23. 105
35(1 )(b) .. .. .. .. .... ' . •. ... •. . ....... • . •. ... •. . •.. .. •. ...... ••. . .......... • 23. 105
35(1)(<) .. .. . . . . . .. ...... . . . . . ... ... .. . ... . ... . ... .. ... . ... . ... . ... . .. . ... . 23. 105
35(2)(0 ). . ... . .. .. ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. • . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. . ... .. . • 23. 104
35(2)(1>) . ....... .. .. . ... ... .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. .. . ... .... 23. 104
35(2)(c) , .. . ............. ' .. . ' ............ ' ....... '' ... ...... .. ' ........... 23. 104
36 ....... .. ....... .. . . .... .. . ... . .. .. . .. ... .. ... . . ......... ... .. .. . ... . ... 23. 106
38(1 ) •...•...........•................•....•..•....•.......••......••..... 23. 106
38(2) . ........ . ... . .. .. ...... ....... ... . .. ... . .... ' .. ... . .. ... .. ... . .. ... . 23. 106
38(3) . ' ' .. ... ...... .. ... ' .. ... ....... . ... ' .. ... ... ' ... ...... .. ' ........... 23. 106
39(2) . '' ....... ' ........ ' .. ... . .................. '' ........... ' ... ' ....... 23. 108
39(3) . .. .. .. ... .. .. . .... .. . .. ... .. .. .. ... . .. .. ... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... . ... .. .. 23. 108
39(4) • ... •. .. •. .. .• ... • ... •. .. .. .. .• .. •• ...• . .. .. .. .• ..• •. .. •. .. .. .. .. .. •. 23. 108
42(2) . ... .. . .... . ... . .. ... .. .. ... . ....... .. .. . ... .. .. ... ...... .. ...... ... . 23. 107
42(3) . ... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. .. .. ... . ... ... . .. .. .. .. .. ... ...... .. .. . ... ... . 23. 107
46(1) . . .. . .. ... . .. .. ... . ... .. ....... . ... . ... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. .. .. .. 23. 103
46(2) . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . ....... . .. .. . . . . . .. .. ... . .. . . .. 23. 103
47 . ... .. ....... . ....... .. ....... . ....... ' . ... . ....... . .... . . .. . .. 23.103
u
Unfa ir Conlroct Terms Act (Cop 396, 199•1 Rev Ed) ... ,, 10.36, I 1.4, I l.5, 11.28, 11.36, 11.37.
........ , .. , , ............ , .. , , ........ 11 .38, I 1.39, 11.41. 11.51. 11.57, 13.55. 22.3 1, 24.29
s 1(1) .. . ....... . .... . ........... .. .. ............... .. ... . ........ . .. .. ..... 11.41
1(3) . . ... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. . ... ... . ... .. .. ... . .. .. ... .. .. 11.37, I 1.40, Figure I I.I
2 . ... . ... . .. ... .. ...... ... . .. ... .. ....... .. .. . ... .. .. ... . ...... 11.37, I 1.39, I 1.4 1
2( 1) . • . . . . . ............................ .. ...... 6.87, I 1.42, Figure I I.I
2(2) .... . ...... .. ... . ... .. ...... .. ... . ... . ........ . ... ..... .6.87, 9.66, 11.39, 11.43
s 2(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . 6.86
2- 4 .. . ... ...... .. ....... . ... .. .. ... .. . ... . ............ .. .. . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . 11.39
2-7 .. . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . 11.40
3. .. .. . . . ... . •. . . ... . . .. . . .. ••• .. ... . . . .. . . ... .• . . • . . . ... . .. .. .. .. .. . I 1.44
3( 1) .. . .. .. . . .. ... . .. .. . .. .. .. .. ... . .. .. . .. .. . . .. .. .. ... . .. ... . . 11.44, Figure I I. I
3(2) . • . . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . • . . • • . . . • . . . . . . . . • . 11.45
4 . ... .. ... . .. ... .. . .. ... .. .. . .... .. .. . ... .. .. . .... .. .. . ... . ... .. .. ... .. .. . . 11.39
6 .. ' .. '' ................ ' ... ' .... . ........... ' .... ' ............ 11.46, 11.52. 22.55
6(1) .................... ' ................ ' .. .. .... ' ... ' .............. 11.46, 22.4 1
6(2) ............ ' .. ' ............. ' ................ ' .. .. .................... 11.•16
6(3) ............ .. .. ' ............ ' ... ' ............ ' .. . ' ... ' ........ ' ... ' ... 11.46
7. ' ' ... ' ' ...... ' ' ....... ' ' ...... ' ' ....... ' ' ...... ' . .. ' ' ... ' ' •• ' .11.39, 11.47, 11.52
7(2) .. ' .. .. .. .. ... . .. ... .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. . ... ... .. ... . . ... .. .. ... .. . ... 11.47
7(3) ... .. ... . .. .. ... . ... .. ... . .. .. ... . ... .. ....... . ... . ... . ... .. ... . ... .. .. 11.47
 Tablr: of Singaport ltgislation

7(3A) . . .. .......... I 1.47

7(4) .. . .. • • . .. . • . I 1.47
8.. .. .. 13.55
JI 11.43
I 1(1) .. .. .. .. .. .. , . 11.51 , 11. 52, 13.55
I 1(2) . . . .. . 11.52 This page inremio11a//y left bhmk
11(5) . . .. ........... 11.51
12..... . . . .. • • .. • . . . .. . ... . .. ... ... 11.37, 11.50
12( 1) . ... . ... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. ... ...... ... ...... .. ...... ... . ... . . 11.48
12(1)(•) .. . . . .................... . . .. .. .. ... .. . ... .. ...... ... ...... .. ...... . 11.50
12(1 )(b) .. . ... . ... .. ... ..... ... .. .. ...... ... ...... .. ...... ... ...... .. ...... . I I.SO
I 2(2) . ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. . ... ... . ... .. .. .. . ... .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. . 11.48
12(3) . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. .. .. ...... ... .. . ... .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 11.48
14 . . .•. .. •. .. .. .. ... .. •. .. .. .. •.. . ... .. .. .. •. .. •.. . ... . ... .. •. . 11.40. 11.42, 11.46
26 • • • • • • ! • • • • • t • t • • • t t • • • • t t t •• •• •• • It• •• • t • • • • • • • • • • • • • J l ,39

First Schedule .. , ........ .. 11.39, Figure I I. I

par;1 I . .. ... . ... . .. . . .. . I 1.39
panl 2 . .. .. . .... . ..• 11.39
parn 3 . . .. . 11.39
pAra 4 . . . .. . I 1.39
Second Schedule . ... . . .. 11.52, 11.53, 11.58, 13. 59, 22.55

w
Workplace Safety and I leal1h Act (Cap 354A, 2007 Rev Ed) .... •.. ... •. . ••. ..... 4.55, 4.56
Workplace Safety and Health Act (Cap 354A, 2009 Rev Ed) . . . . . • • • . . • • . • • . . . . . . . 3.35

Ii
 Table of Foreign kgislation

N
New York Convention on •he Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbi1ral Awards 1958
.. . ....... . ... .. ........... .. ............... .. .......... .. ... .. 2.45, 26.89. 26.98. 26.100
Art V. . 26.89, 26. 10 1
V(I) .. .. .. .. ........ . .. .. .. .. ............ . .. ... ... . ... .. . .. ............ .. . 26. 104
V(ll). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • .. . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . ... . 26.105
North A1'11crican Free Tuade Agreenlent. . . ... 26.33

p
Table of Foreign Legislation
Protection e>f Birds Act 1954 (UK) . . . ... . 7. 18

R
Renl Reslriction Ordinance l949 (Uganda).. . 15.20
A
Restatement of Contrncts. S42 (1932) (US) .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. . ... .. .. . 19.29
Age of M1 1971 .... .. .. .. .. .. ..... .... .. ,. .. .. ............ ... .. •9.7 Resldlen1cnl (Finl} of CMlr;cls §133 (1932) (US) .. . ... .. .. •. ... . .. •. ... .. . ••. ... . . 19.59
Restatement (Second) of Contracts §43 (1981) (US)... .. . . .. ... . ... . . . . . . . . . .... . 19.29
B Restatement (Second) of Contracts §302 (198 1) (US) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... •. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 19.59
Rcrne Convention for the PrOle<:tion of LilcrOr)' :.tnd 1\ rtistic \Vorks .. . . .. •. ... .. ... . . 23.14 Resintemcnt (Second) of Cont r:1cts §309 (198 1) (US) . ... .. .. .. ... .• . •. ... .. . •.. ... . . t 9.63
Build ·Orcrate-Trans fer Law [Republic Act No 77 18) (Philippines) . .. . 26.69 Restatement (Second) of Controcts §3 11 (1981) {US).. . . . • . . . . • . • . . . . . • . .. . . . 19.62
Restatement (Second) of Contracts §3 17 (198 1) (US) . ... .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 19.69
c Reslnternent (Second) of Contrt1cts § 3 18(2) ( 198 1) (US) .. .. .. ... . .. •. ... .. . ••. ... . . t9.7 t
Competition Act 1998 (c 41) (U K) . 25.2 Restatement (Second) of Controcts §321 (1981) {US).. . . . .. . . ... . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . 19.76
Constitution of the United States ofi" America (US) Restatement (Second) of Contracts§ 328 ( 198 1) (US) ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. •. .. .. . 19.74
Arl II, s 2 . ... .. . ... ... . ... . ... .. ... . ... . ... . .. ... .. .. . ... ... .. . .. ... .. .. .. . 26.11
l 4th Arnendment . . . . . • . . . ... .. . . . . . . • . •.. . .. . .. .. . 26. 17 s
Contract (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 (UK) .. ... . .. .... ...... . ... . .. .. .... . .. . 19.55 Sale of Goods Act 1893 (UK) . ... . ... .. ... . .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .22.2. 22.18
Second Chtrrter of Justice 1826 (UK} . .. .. .. .. .. ... . .. ... .. .. ... .. .. .. . ... .. .. .. 2. 10, 2.11
E Sherman A1'1i-·lhist Act ( 1890) . . .. . • . . . . . • . .. . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . Box 25.2
Elcclronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act 2000 (US) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 24 .38 Statute of Frauds 1677 (UK) . . ... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. ... . .. .. ... . ... .. . 19.41, 19.42, 19.44

F u
Family Law Reform Act 1969 (UK) ... . ... .. ... . .. ....... .. .. . ... ... ...... .. ...... .. ..9.7 UK competition law (Competition Act 1998 (c 41) (UK)) . .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ... . .. 25.2
Fertilisers and Fccding Stuffs Act, 1906 (UK) ... .. .. . .. ... ... ...... .. .. . ... . ........ . 15.8 Unft1ir Contract Terms Act 1977 (UK) . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. ... .. . 11.4. 11.36, 11.67
Uniform Commercial Code (US) . . . . .19.32, 19.35, 19.43, 19.48. 19.50
L Art 1·203 . ... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. .. ..• . •. ... . .. •.. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 19. 13
IA1w Reform (Enforcement of Contr;icts) Act 1954 (UK) 2 & 3 Elit 2, Ch 34 . . . • . . . . • . 19.42 2 . .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. ... . ... . ... . ... .. ... . ... . ... . ... .. . 19.1 7, 19.47
l-'lw Reform (Frustrnted Contr.cts) Act 1943 (UK). .. . t7.42 2-205 . 19.33
Limited Partnerships Act (UK) .. .. ...... .. .... .. .. . ... ... . . .. .... . . .... ... . ...... . 21.73 2·207 . ... . ... .. .. ... . .. .. .. .. ... .. ... . .. ... .. . ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. . 19.47
2·210 . ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ... . ....... .. .. .. ... . ... . ... . ... .. ... 19.69
2-210{'1). ... 19.74
M
2· 718 . .. .. ... .. .. .. ... . .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .• . ••. .. •. .. .. .. ••. . ... .. •. .. .. . 19.88
Misrepresentation Act 1967 (UK) . .. .. ... ...... ... ............... .. .............. . ..13.3 9·204 . ... .. . ... .. .. .. ... . .. ... .. .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .. .. .. ... . ... . .. .. ... .. ... t9.76
Uniform Elec1ronic 'J'ra1u1actions Act 1999 (US) . . . . . . 24.38
US Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (26 USC §60380) . .. .. .. .. •.. .. .• . ••. .. .. . 26.14

liv
 Table'. of Treaties and Conventions

1(3) . . . . . .. . . .. . .•. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. . . ... 26.90

5. . • .. . .. . . · • · · · ... .. ... . ....... . ... . .... . . . . 26.9 1
8 . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . ... . . .. . .. ... . ... ... . .. ... . .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. . ... .. .. . 26.92
9 ..... ' ' " ' .... ' .. ...... ' .. , ' ............ ' " ' .... '' ... ""' .... ' "' ' ""' .. .. 26.93
18 .. .. ... .. . •.. .. ..• . •. ... .. .. .. .. ..• . •.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . ••. .. .. . •.. .. ... 26.95
22 . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. ... 26.95
28 . . . . .. ... . . .. ...... . . .. . ... .. . . .. ... . . .. . ... . .. .. . . .. . ... . ... . ... ... . . 26.96
28(3) . . . .. ... .. . . ... . .. . . . . ... .. .. ... . .. . . . . .. ... .. .. .. ... . ... .. ...... .. .. . 26.96
Table of Treaties and Conventions 30, .. . ' ' " ' .... ' ... . .... ' " ' .... ' ... . .... .. ...... '' ... .. ...... ' "' ' ""' .... 26.97

u
UNIDRO IT Principles or ln1erno1ional Commercial Contracts 2010. ,. ,., . , •. . , . 19.16, 19.32
Art 1.7... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . ... .. ... . .. .. .. . .... l9.13
A 2.4(2) . . . .. .. . . ' . ... .. .. . ... .. .. ' . ... . . .. . ... . . ... . ... . ... . ... ' . ... . . .. 19.33
Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures,,,.,,,.,,,, .. , .•. ,, •. ,, .. ,, .. , 26.39 2.6(2) . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . ... . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . .. . .. .. . 19.25
Agreement on Trade Related Measures . 26.80 2. 11 .. . . .. . . ........... .. .. .. .... .. ..... .. ........ , .. .. ..• . ••. , . ...... .. .. . 19.5 l
Anti-D umping Ag reemenl . . . . . . .. ... . , , . .. . . . . . . .. , . . . . . ... . . ... . ... . . .. . . .. . 26.36 2. l7 .. ... . .. ... . ... .. .. .. ....... .. .. ... .. .. .. . ... .. .. .. ... · •·· · . .. .. .. .. ... l9.40
2.20 . . . .. . .. ... . ... . ... . ........... . ... . .... l9.S I
c 2.21 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . ... . l9.5 1
Convention on the Use of Electronic Communk<'l tions in lntern:.'ltional Contracting . .. . 24.11 2.22 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. ... .. . ... . . . . . . ... . ... . . .. . ... . . ... 19.5 1
Art II . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . 24.15 7,4, 13 . ' . " ' ' ........ . ... ' ... ' .... . .. .. ... ' ... ' ""' . ... . ... .. .. ' ... ' . ... . ... 19.89
12 . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ... . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . ...... . . .. . .. .. . . . . .. .. . 24.49 Unifonn Dorrn.lin Name Dispute Resolution
13 , . ... . .. . . ........ . ... . ... .. .. . .. . .. .. .. ....... , . ...... ... ....... . ... . .. . 2•l.26 United Nations Convention on Contracts for the lnternationa.1 Sale of Goods . .. . 10.52, 19.14,
14 . " "' . " "' ""' ... . ... . ... .. ""' ... .. .. . ' " "' ""' ... . ......... ""' ... . ' ... 24 .5 1 . .. .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . 19.32, 19.38, 19.39, 19.40, 19.43, 19.50. 22.3, 22.4, 22.5. 26.48
Part II . . .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. . . .. .. .. . . . . .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. . . .. . 26.52
G 111. ... ' ' .. , ' .. , ' .... .. .. ' .. ,' .. , ' ........ .. .. ' "' '' ... .. .. . ... ' "' ' ""' .. .. 26.53
General Agrecn1ent on Tariffs and Tm.de . . .. . . .. ... .. . ... .. .. .. .. .. ... . .... .. 26. 30, 26.36 Art I ( l )(a) . .. •. , . ... . ... .. .. .. .. . . ....... , ... .. .. .. ... . ....... . ... .. ... . ... 26.50
General Agreeinent on Trade in Services. . . . . . . . . . •.. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . ... .. .. .. .. . 26.80 2 .. • . .. ....... .. ....... . ....... .. ... . ....... . .... . ... . ... 26.51
3. .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. .. .. . . . .. . ... .. .. . . .. . 26.5 1
H 3(2) .. . . . .. .. .. . ... .. .. . .. .. .. .. . ... . .. .. . ... .. .. .. .. . . ... .. .. . ... .. .. . 19. 15
Hugue-Visby Rules . .. .. . . . . 6.36 6 ..... '' " ' .... ' ........ ' " ' .... ' ........ .. ..... .. ' ........... ' "' ......... 19. 15
7 . . ... ' ' . ........... . ... . ... .. ........... ' . ....... ' ....... . ................ l9. 14
8.. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . ... .. .. . . ....... ... . .. .. .. .. . l9.37
l 8(2) . . . . ...... . . .. .. ... . . ...... . . ....... . . ...... . . ... . ... . ... . . ....... . .. . 19.25
Centre for che Seule1nent of lnvestme1H Disputes . .. . .. . .•• . • . . . . . 26. 81, 26.83 9 . .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. . ... ... ...... .. .. .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. . 19.37
Art 25 .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . ... . •.. .. .. . . .. . 26.82 l5(2) . '' '" ' ............. ' " ' ... .. ........ .. .. ' .... ' ........... ' "' ' ""' .... 19.27
16(l) . . ' " . . ' ... . ...... .. " .............. . " ...... . .. . ' ... . ........ . . 19.27. 26.52
M 16(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . ... .. 19.33, 26.52
Model l,aw 0 11 Electronic Commerce 1996 .. .. .. .. .. .. •.. .. .. .. .. 24. 1O. 24.1l , 24. 34. 2•l.48 l 8(2) . . . . ...... . . . ...... . . ...... . . ... . ... .. ....... . ... . ....... .. . . . . . 19.27. 26.52
Model Law on Electronic Signatures 2001, •. ,, .. ,,, ., , , •. ,, •. ,, .. ,, .. , , 24.33, 24.35, 2•1.36 19 ... . ... .. .. .. .. .. . ... ... .. .. .. .. .. . ... ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. . 19.48, 19.49. 19.5 1
Art 7 .. .. .. . .... . ... . .. ... . ... ... . .. ... . ... .. . .... . .. .. .. ... ...... . ... . .... 24.34 19(1 ) ....... ""' ........ ' .... ""' ........ ' .... ""' ' ....... ' .... ""' ........ 19.48
Model Law on International Com1n ercial Al'bilrntion 1985. , . . . 2.45, 26.89, 26.94, 26.99, l 9(2) • .. ' .. . ... ' ' ....... . ' .. .. .. .. ... . ... . ' .. ' ... .. .. .. "' .... . ' .. . .. 19.48. 26.52
. . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. .. .. . . .. . . .. . . ... . 26.101. 26.105 19(3) .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. ... . . . .. .. .. . . . .. ... . .. .. .. .. . . . . .... . . ... . . ... .. 19.48. 26.52
Arl 1(1) ,, .. , ,, .. , .. , ,, .. ,,., , .... ,, .. ,, .. ,, .. , .... ,, .. ,, .. ,, .. , .. , , .... , .. , 26.90 2.4 . ' . . . I • • • ' • • • ' • •• • ' ' • • ' • •• ' • • • ' • • • • ' ' • • I • •• ' • •• • • • • • I • •• ' • • • ' • •• • ' • • • ·1able 24.2
25 .. ' .. .. .. .. .. ' . .. ' . •.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. •.. .. .. .. .. .. •.. .. .. . •.. .. .. .. ... .. .. 26.53
30,' ........ ""' ' .. . ..... ""' ""' ' " ' ..... ""' .... ' .... ""' ""' ""' .... ' ... 26.54
3 1- 44 .' . ... . ... .. .. .. .. , .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ....... . ... . ....... . .... . ... . ... 26.54

lvi
 of Treaties and Conventions

35 ..... ... ...... . ... 26.54

41 .... 26.54
53..... . .. .... .. .... 26.55
54 ...... ... . ... . ........ . .. .. ... ...... ... ..... ... ..... .... .. .. . ... ...... .. . 26.SS
57 .. ... . ... ... . .. .. .. ....... . ... .. .. , . ... .. .. . ... ... . .. ... ... . . ... . .... . ... 26.55
58 . .. .. 26.55 This page inremio11a//y left b hmk
66- 70 .. . ...... . ......... . ..... ..... .. . ... . ............ . .. .... ... ....... . ... 26.56
71 .. . ...... ... ... .. . ...... ....... ... . ................................. 26.57
72 ....... .. . ............ . .. .. ... ...... ... ..... ... ..... .... ..... ... ...... .. . 26.58
74 ... .. . ............ .. .. . ................ .. ............... .. ........... . ... 26.58
82 . .. .. 26.58
United Nations Convention on 1he Use of Elec1ronic Communicalions in
hlltrnntionnl Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19. 14
Unil'--d Slates of 1\merica-Singaporc Free Trade Agreement 2003 .. . ,, .. , .. . , .. .. 26.8. 26. 19.
"" "" "" ' "" "" "" "" ' " ' ' "" "" " " ' "' ' "" "" " " "" ' 26.33. 26. 79, 26.82
Ch;ipter XV 26.79
Art 15.4.1 .. .... 26.79

v
Vienna Convention on the l.aw of Trea1ies l 969 . . . 26.6

Ivii
 This page inremio11a//y left bhmk

PART I

Introduction to Business Law

 Principles of Singapore Business law

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The law is an amalgam of theory and practice. Al " 1hcoretic.1I and
Business, Society and the Law p hilosophical level, the meaning and found'1tion of "law" pose a weigh!)•
a nd perplexing question for philosophers, la\\-yers, judges and law academics
:'!like. Each of us is also keen!)' aware of the profound and pract ic;1I elfeels of
I.I Introduction
the law in our everyday lives. It is inextricably connected to the overlapping
don1ains of ethics. sociology and econon1ic developn1ent. a1nongst others.
1.2 What i s Law?
Law is thus a "many-splcndourcd" thing th"t traverses several disciplines.
1.3 Law as Norff1 s
Th is brief chapter hopes lo elucidate "law" within the broader canvas of its
1.4-1.5 Positivisnt
interactions and web of relations arnongst these various fields.
1.6- 1.7 Na1urnl Law
1.8- 1.9 Posilivism an<l Natu.ral Law: The i\'t iddlc Road
1.1 0 Other Schools of TI1ought WHAT 1s LAw?
Ethics and Law 1.2 funda1n(•ntnl question of the 1neaning of ""Jaw" invites numerous queries.
1.1 1 Ethics as Norms Within tl1e mirrow scope of this section. we can only hope to provide a
1.1 2 The Differences between l,egal and Eth ical Norms b rief sketch as 10 how one might approach the issue. What follows is a very
1.13- 1. 17 ( 1) Authority and processes condensed sun1mary o f the n1ajor dttvdop1ncnts concerning the foundat ions
1.18-1.19 (2) Scope of' application o f "law''. This is kno,•n as the study of jurisprudence, Lhc legal philosophy
1.20- 1.21 (3) Sanctions or science of law. We hope thot it will serve as a precursor to a deeper
1.22 Legul Enforcemenl of Morality appreciatio n of the bases of law and its interactions with business and society.
1.23 PosiLivist Ll!w and Ethics
Law as Norms
Relationship behveen La\v and Society
1.24 Society's Code of Conduct 1.3 Let us begin with the rudiments. It is generally occepted Lhat "law" ls. al its
1.25 Obedience lo Law$ core, :1 set of nonns which prescribe a course of conduct These state
1.26- 1.35 Factors Deten11ining Law- Society Linkages what sl1011/d or ought 10 happen. In this regard, they may be distinguished
1.36-1.38 Legal Structu res from the laws of natural science such as "water boils at 100 degrees Celsius•
1.39- 1.41 1-egal Culmres which are amenable 10 factua l verificat ion. Legal norms. on the other ha11d,
1.42- 1.44 Legal Trndilions cannol be either true or false. lnstead, they essentially prescribe wh3t ought
to be. l'or instance, "one ought not lo kill anoLher person" is a legal norm in
Relationship between Lnw and Economic Development most. if not all. socielle.<.
1.45- 1.48 Law and the Management of Risk
1.49- 1.50 Law and Economic Development in Singapore
Positivism
I.SI 1.4 l·faving estnblished the b:lsic core of the "law" as a set of nonns, we can
explore the various jurisprudential approaches and per.pcetives. One school
of thought. known as positivist jurisprudence, treats the "law" as a set of

4
 Chapttr L Busintss, So<itty and tht uw
norms thal nrc and 1mintaincd pursuant to some legal authorit)'
within a legal sy>tcm. "lhc legal posilivbt. John Austin {t790- 1859'), defined
"law" {in John Au<tm , 1/tc Provi11cr of Jumpn1de11ce Dctrrmirrrd (1954)) as
a set of coercive commands from a d<1cnnina1e person or bod1• of persons
(known as th< >overeign) which arc habitually obeyed by the population.
These coercive commands constitute a type of norms broadly defined. Hans
Ke1'en (t881 1973), another legal po>itivi>J, contended in 71rt Plfrc 1l1tory
of l11w (lranslatcd by Max Knight, 1967), thal the legal >)'Stem consisL< of
norms backed by sanctions which arc derived from or vnlidn1cd by higher
norms. 11,is leads us uhima1ely to the "ba>1c norm" (grrmdriarm) from which
we cannot den\'e an)' higher norm. 1 his basic norm, according to Kdsen.
1s selected on the basis of its efficacy w1thm the legal system as a whole
(ic, the people generally conform to the basic norm). In some jurisdtction$.
thi> basic norm may underlie the highc>l fow of Lhe land embodied in the
1espective written con:stilutions.
1.5 II LA Hart ( 1907- 1992), in his work Cotrrr/11 of Law (1961), argued for a
more soph1sllcateJ conception of a legal S)'Stem as a system of rule; Af'3J'I
from the "prim•ri•" rules which impo« duucs on the popul>11on (which art
quue similar to A11>ti111on coercive comm•nds), 1lart obsrrved th3L there are
also "secondary" rules witl>in a legal sys1cm that create, determine. eliminate
or modify the prinlllry rules. Examples or "primary" rules ore those found
in criminal law (>CC Chapter 4) and the l.1w of torts (sec Clrnptcrs 5 and
6). "Seconda1 y" rules include those wh1d1 stipulate the powers 3Jld duties
conferred on the 1..,g1slatur<, Executive and Judiciary (<cc Chapt<r 3) as
well as rules which f.icihtate the making of contracts (see Chapt<r> 7-9).
These "secondary" rules arc subdivided into three cntegories, n.1me))', rules
or adjudication (to conler power on officials to pass judgment and nnplcment
the rules), rules of change (to confer power to pass legislat ion to effccl
changes) and 1 ulcs of recognition (to the criteria by which the
rules within the legol system arc ''ahdMed). Apart from the requirement
that the rule• of the legal •ystem must be generally obeyed by •IS private
CJlllens. these latter rules of recognition must be accepted by the officials
within 1he legal >yitem from an "mtern•I poinl of Thi< "intrrnal
point or view" refer. to the critic•! rclkctive attitude of an uilici•I to
certain patterns of social behaviour as ll common standard. 1hc ollicial.
when he or she reflects 011 social bchtivlour, inquires whe1her on<· ough1 10
du (or omit) c<rtaon acts and the rca>ons.
s 6
Natural Law
1.6 Another major jurisprudential school of thought is that of natural law. In
c:ontrast to positivis1n, natural lav.• juris11; take the view that Jaws
Wllhin a legal system arc not necess;inl)' bu1 that there are objecth'<
and higher >tanduds or criteria which must be fulfilled before nonn may
be regarded ., These standards or criteria are generally based on
truths about human n.lture. ethics and rc;ason. Natural law juriiats have since
lime immemorial relied on the cxbtencc or a supernatural deity or God.
some human life purpose and its underlying reasons or cer1a111 sclf· e\•ident
truths. For example, John Finnis conlcnds in his seminal work Natural Law
n1rd Natural Riglus (1980) that natural law is the set of principles
on practical reawnableness in the ordering of human hfo and community.
•there are cerlain forms of .,,If.evident human good (ie, object> of value 10
h umans) such as life, knowledge. sociability, acslhcLic experience, religion
a nd praclical rea>onablencss, and l' h1nls •11ggcs1s that Lhe purpose of "lnw•
is to realise the con11non good of the hu1nun communlty.
1.7 Thus. whilst the po<111v1st would treat a leg•I norm as binding insofar as it is
cr<atod or mnde in a certain manner (for rxample, by Parhamont passing a
piece oflegislation). the natural low 1unst would look towards certain
ethical standard; (usuall)' of general or un iversal application) to resolve the
is.ue. An oli· cltcd illuslrntion <>f lhe dlniculLies in subscribing to n pure
positivist stance concerns the status of the lows of the Naii Germany regime.
These Nazi laws may l>e consistem with pure pos11h1sm. but the n;itural law
1urist would a<k whether such Nazi ).,,•• ouglrt to be reg>rded a< From
a natural l•w point of \1ew, some, if not all. may contend that the so-calleJ
Nazi laws 1•cre so oppress"'" and unfoir that they should not be rogarded 35
"l•w", even though they had been duly passed by Lhe relevanl nu1 horilics. Yet,
at the same time. the >O·called objective standards within a pure naturalist
t hcory may be vulne1able to cri1icisn" of vagueness and sub1ec1"'1ty.
Positivism and Natural law: The Middle Road
1.8 Some jurists have lhus tended lownrds a middle palh between pure positivism
Md naturalism. A few examples would •ullic<" here. Lon l'ullds ( t902- 1978)
"internnl mornlit)' of law" suggested that In order 10 qualify :1s n legal si•stem.
the .statutes inu'I 1o.ath.fy proC'tduroi1 rcquiren1ents: the ha\'e
lo br sufficiently genrral. made known to the public, pro)ptcti\'C in rtTrct,
 Chapter 1: Busintss, and tht Law
dear 3nd without eo11tradictio11s. capable of being complied with and so
on (see 'Tlie Morality of /,nw ( 1964)). Tiiese procedural requi re:ments. a.1
the reader would be awnre, go beyond the pure positivist position that
norrns are ''lnws" as long as they e.-naniue fro1n cornpetent aut hori1ies
within a legal system. Hart, in his Concept of Lnw, described a model
of the conditions that are sufficient and necessary for the existence of a
legal system. Indeed, he referred to this work as "an essay in descriptive
sociology''. Yet, at the same time. lian argued that, to prevent society from
descending into chaos, there should be a "minimum content" of n3tural law
based on certain hun1an facrs (such as hu1nan \1 ulnerubility. approximate
equaJity, Jimitcd ahruisnl) li111iled resources, ctc). According to Harl. there
is a nalural necessity for certain niininn 11n forms of protection for persons,
property and contracts.
1.9 In addition. Hart would concede that his system of rules is not all-embracing
since the scope of son1e rules n1ay be uncertriin. For ex-a1nple, the rule that
no "vehicle" may be brought into the p<lrk may be unclear as 10 whether
bicycles are disallowed as weU, ahhough the centra.1 core of the rule may
be clear. Ronald Dworkin, a renowned legal J>hilosopher, countered that
Hart had ovel'looked the significance of "principles" (such as " 110 man may
profit from his own wrong") as an important component of the legal S)'Slem.
Principles, he said, argue in a certain direction but do not necessarily lead to
a part icular legal outcome as compared to rules that arc applied in an "all-or-
nothing" fashion. These relatively more llexible and malleable principles can.
arguably, :iccommodute nah1rul law precepts, although Dworkin appeared to
suggest that there is one right answer to an)' particular 1egal problem (see,
eg. Dworkin's Lnivs F.'11pire (1986)).
Other Schools of Thought
l.10 Apart fro1n the abovt-, there arc nun1erous other jurisprudential approaches
which must be mentioned (if only in pa&<ing) such as American Realism
which focuses on the use of cmpiricil focts •nd law to make predictions as
to how court.s will decide, the Law mui f;c0110111ks approach which is based
on the economic efliciency of outcomes, the C-0rrective versus Oistri/1111/vc
justice approaches to particular areas of law such as torts, •mJ the approaches
embodied in Sorlologirnl /11risJ1r11de11ce and Sociology of law 1·elating to the
interactions between Law and society.
7 8
Principles of Singapore Business law
The above examples represent only some of the possible approaehes and
perspectives 1owards the exploration of "law" and legal systems. Nonetheless.
we hope it a tlavou1· of the potem ial richness and complexity of
j urisprudence •nd legal philosophy which the reader might wish to delve
further into.
ETHICS AND LAW
Ethics as Norm s
I.I I We have ment ioned above that "law" is a set of norms that prescribe a
course of conduc1 and that the norm "one ought not to kill another person"
is one example of a legal norm. ll1e reader rnay legitimately ask: is not the
uorrn against killing also an ethicnl norm! As a starting point, we note that
and "law'' are si1nilar in at least one respec1, th:-ic is. ihey ::ire both
nonus prescribing a certain course of conduct. Within the lega.J context,
these legal norms may be referred to as "rules", "principles·: "guidelines"
a11d other similar terms. For instance, a rule that companies are required
lo register with the relevant authorities prio r to con1n1encing business is
a legal "norm''. Similarly, within the eUiical sphere, we may also refer to
ethic;il norms as ''rules': "principles" or "guidelines·: For example, the rule
o r principle thal one oughl not to lie is a.111 ethk:.il norn1. In relation to
"form", I.here docs not appear to be t>ny sig,,ificant difference between the
discipli nes of et hics and law.
The Differences between Legal and Ethical Norms
1.1 2 But are there not n1atcrial between legal und ethical nornis? Let
us exami11e this by reference to questions of the "what. who. how and
why" variety:
o Who or which body creates or authorises an e1hical or legal norm {"the
authority")?
o How are ethical and legal norJns 1naint::tined or modified ("the
processes")!
o To whom arc ethical and legal norms appl:ied ("the scope of application")?
o WIH1t :n·e the respective sanctions for a breach of ethical ,md ltgal norms
("the sanc1ions")?
 Chap1'r 1: Busints,s. Sot'itty and 1ht Law
(1} Authority and processes
1.13 Let us diS<uss questions rela11ng 10 "au1honcy" and "proce.sses" 1oge1her.
Assume lh•t "legal norms" arc posi1ivis1 in nature. rrom the perspective
or 1hc legal pos11ivis1. 1hc relev•nl au1hori1ics wi1hm a leg•I sys1em are 1he
lcg•I il»titullons, bodies or within n par1icubr 1urisdic1ion 1hat are
conferred specific lcg"I powers. For example, 1hc Lcgisl.llur< is empowered
lo pass legislalion in Parliament which p ro hibits an1i-compe1itive
1. 16
agreements in Singapore. Tiie Execu1 ive may be cnthled 10 issue m inisterial
regulat ions. 'lhe judge is e1npowercd co pass JUdgmenc an a cour l roon1 on
lhe npproprmle con1pensa1ion to a victiln of a road accident. Hence. we can
••Y that the norm> created b)• the rdcvant •uLhoritiC• via the acccp1ed legal
constitute the set of "legal norms" within the parametrrs of the
legal SY""'"
1.14
With rc•pect to ethical norms, howevrr, the delermmation or the authority
and proce>s« is more controversial. The moral .c1or may deter mine for
himsdr the appropriate course or conduc1 when faced with a particular
problem. Somelimes, the appropriote ethical re•pon>r may be obvious,
intu itive or lnrgely experiential, such as saving one's baby from 1hreatened
1.1 7
d11ngcr. 'I he moral actor may, allernativcly. choose to look !owards ethical
reasoni nij for guidJnce and direct ion when he a 1norc intractable
d llcm mn. Since lime immemorial, philosophers such os Ari>1otle. lmmanuel
Kanl, Confucius, Joh n Siuarl Mill '1nd o thers have pondered over 1hesc
ethical issu<> and endeavoured to construct and develop theones and
framework' lo de1ern11nc how one <hould conduc1 in a consistcnr
( 2) Scope of applicalion
and ralional manner.
1.18
I.IS Mill'> gener•I 1heory or utili1ariamsm, for 111>1ance, ad,'OCaled tha1 one
>hould acl lo the cxlcnl 1ha1 doing so promoics general happiness. Thal is. ir
1he pleasure or benefits accruing from an aciion outwC1ghs lhe pain or costs,
1hen 1hc ocrion •hould be undertaken. lns1cad of the model of u1iliunamsm,
o ne may find a <lislribu!ivc justice model more pcr>11asivc. A proponcnl or
the dlstrlbu1ive juslice model may argue, for lnsionce, 1hat 1hc needy in
society >hould obraln propo1·1ionately more o f the bt•ncfi1s than the wealthy.
Ahcrmuivcly. one might rely on Kantfon ethical imperat ives that one ought
to net •tecordi ng 10 a rule of conducl thot one would will to be 1he universal
9 10
Princ1plts of Singapott Busintss law
standard for e1•errone else, and that one should resperi human beings <U
ends in lhrrnselves, ralhtr 1hon only as a means 10 one's end. For ins1onct,
slovery ough1 to be obolishcd since no raiional person would demo 10 be a
s lave or 10 be trea1cd as one: in addition, 10 1rea1 another human b<mg as
a slave is 10 1rea1 him or h<r ns n means only. These are merely ex'1mples of
t he many 1heories and modes of e1hical reasoning.
Essentially, 1hc discipline of ethics is a search for underlying objw ivc
s tandards and reasoning for tuking. or no! taking, " parliculal" course
o r aciio n or conducl in any given •ituation. As can be seen. there Is
pOICnlially, a greal diversity or ethical theories, Outlook.' and judgmcnU
on any issue. It may be dilficull lo accommodal• these diverse (and
sometimes contradiclory) "ethic.I" lhtones, oullooks and judgmen1> wi1hin
a Se! or precep!S opplicablt IO a particular jurisdiClion by constn>US. 1ne
potential diversi1y g1vts to rehuavdy greater uncer1:a1nl)' conctm1ng
the accep1oncc and legiumacy or tthical norms ..ithin a >oe1tl)'• when
compared 10 legal posi1lvh1 norms which may be more easily "loca1td"
wilhin !he posi1ivis1 legal
furr her. there 1> no generally .icccpted process by which ethical norms
a re created, maint•uned or mod ified. ' Ilic creation and cvolutioi1 or
ethicol
11orms arc likel)• 10 lake pince in a more diffuse and indeterminate manner.
"Jhcrc is an absence of formal proccssc• for the crcalion, maintenance and
rnodificatio11 or ethical Mondards and \'alucs.
In lerms of 1he •scope or c!lucal norms may be or general
(or universal) or >pccific application. lthiul norms. such as 1he Kanrian
ethical imperolivc> mcnuoncd above, arc of universal applica11on. l:.thical
norm.s may also "ddrcss >pccifacJUy the oblisalions and nghl> or person< in
specific capacille< or role>. such os the employee> or direclors or a company
i.n relation 10 business c1hics. Legal norm>. similarly, ha\-c both general •111J
• pedfic application. Mos! o l the prov1S1ons slipul"'ing cruninal offence•
(such a• murder nnd cheating) 11orn1'illy apply to all persons within 1hc
j u risdiction. and do 1101 USUOJly >inglc OUI J>Ol"licular lypes or groups or
persons for separa1e trea1ment. In roc1, to do so might invhe accu,Mlon< or
u11faimess and di>crhnl natlon. ' l11crc arc also legal norms (as In company
 Chapter 1: Busintss, and tht Law
hlw) that specifically aiddress the duties of a director of 3 company. simibr to
ethie al norn1s.
1.19 The material difference bel'"een et hical and legal norms in terms of the
"scope of application" is that legal norms. due to the historical devclopmem
of sovereign states. tend to emphasise their "territorial" or
jurisdiction, unlike ethical norms. ·me domestic laws of one country apply
generally to its citize1is or to activities underl"ken within its territorial
boundaries and may differ quite significantly from the laws of another
(fo re ign) country. 'fucsc divergences in the respective domestic laws c.an
create inconvenience worse, chaos especially in 1r:111snatio11al affairs
and transactions. Thus, countries attempt Lo .seek) where possible. the
harinonisalion of these disparate laws in this increasingly globaliscd world
we live in. Public international Jnw is the sel of Jnws which governs and
regulates the rebtionships between sovereign states and the international
1egal ,i:yste1n (eg. an :i ntern<ltional convention regulating the interprelation
and effects of treaties signed by states). Private international law. on
the other hand, deals with cases involving foreign elements such as
issues relating 10 the applicable governing law in Intcrnet defamation or
transborder litigation. Not surprisingly, natural law has played a signi.ficanl
role in the inlcrmltio nal legal system in the search for universal objectiw
sttu1dards applicable to all, such <1s the development of human rights.
ll is generally less common for one to speak of ethical norms <1S having
s pecific "terrilorinl though we arc aware that h istorical and
cultural factors have al tin1es been e1nployed in atte1npls 10 "differentialc"'
o ne value syste111 fro1n another 3 la lhc ..Asian versus \Vester n values"
debate of the 1990s.
(3) Sanctions
1.20 Legal sanctions are normally specific and formal. The main sanctions
under crhnina1 law arc capital in1prison1nent. fines and other
penalties. In civil law, the main sanction is the obligation of the person
who commits the civil wro1ig to compensate the ot her parl)' for losses or
damage. For example. the party who breaches a contractual obligation may
be required to compensate the other pnrty for the lnucr's loss oi profit;
resulting from the breach. Ot her legal sanctions may include Llte specific
performance or the legal obligat ion or the perpetrator may be rest rained via
11
Principles of Singapore Business law
an injunetion from c3rrying out partieular aets. 1he extent by whieh legal
sanctions arr enforced in a particular case 1nay vary fron1 jurisdictio n to
jurisdiction.
1.21 O n the other llllnd, the sancLions for a breach or an ethical norm arc usually
more informal compared to legal sanctions. These may include the social
disapproval of an act ion or reprisals from other persons. For instance, lying
to frie nds might invite soda! disapproval fro1n one's peers but only so1nc
forms of lying. such as cheating offences <Uld misrepresentations which
induce nnolher to enter i11to a contract, attract legal sanctions.
Legil! of MQrill!ty
1.22 A rdat<•d question arises: should all morality be enforced by the law? Mill
a rgued. in 011 Liberty (1859), that legal enforcemenl should be undertaken
o nly for the purpose of preventing harm to others. The UK Wolfenden
Report on Prostitution and llomoscxuality (1957) ("the Report") staled that
there is a realm of private life which should not be subject to legal comrol
a nd enforcement. 111is subsequent!)• led to the now famous Devlin-Harl
debate. Lord Devlin disagreed with the Repo rt and countered that the law's
function is 10 maintrun public mo111lity, wl1ich constitutes rui important
aspect of human society. He argued that conduct provoking feelings or
"inlokrancc, indignation and disgust" should be suppressed by the law, lest
the fabric of the socict)• crumbles as a consequence. Hart. 0 11 the otlier hand,
doubted the broad connections drnwn by Devlin and cautioned against
unduly curtailing freedoms in the name of public morality, though Jlarl
conceded that !here should be some core shared lllorality in any society.
s uch as the prohibition of murder.
Positivist Law and Ethics
1.23 \\le can now exan1ine) in a J:>Cncral fashion, the relationship bel\..·een positivist
law and elhics. In modern societ ies, ethical and positivist lega.i norms would
c;werlap partially. Indeed, some moral norms, such ;is the concept or equity
a nd foirness, are embedded in positivist kgal norms, thoush the scope and
manner of applicotlon may vary. Outside lhis overlapping area, the legal
norins •tre distinct fron1 ethical norn,s. 1be reasons why 1hese norn1s do not
correspond perfectly may lie in the difficuky or translating certain moral
11orms into positivist law. the conscious decision to leave certain conduct to
12
 Chap1'r 1: Busints,s. Sot'itty and 1ht Law
indtv1dual moral rnnscience, or that law has not kepi pace with the
de"elopment of ethical nonns within the soci<ty. ·1here could al$0 be othu
pr.c11cal reasons (such as limited parliamentary tune and resources).
RElATIONSHIP BETWEEN l.Aw ANO S OCIETY
Society's Code of Conduct
1.24 H is a u·uis1n that no society can func1 lon whhout n of rul es, norJns
and value. (we shall refer to 1hem collectively as "code of conduct"). 1bis
code or conduct need 1101 alwai•s be enshrined as law for II 10 be observed and
effective. Ahhough commonly used. laws are not the onl)' means by which
desirable and desired of indh•1duals, businesses, governments
and other orga111sations can be encouraged Consider, for a moment, how
families and <thnic business ne1works rcgula1e their conduc1 vrs-ii· 1•is famil)'
members other businessmen. In these social and economic groupings,
1here ii hlllc use of the formal proctsses of law Informal rule. govern.
Even though lh<y do not have the force of l>w (und<r<iood l)'pically as
laws found m Slatute books), they can help 10 regulate beh•viour towards
desired ends.
Obedience to Laws
1.25 W hal h l11h11t makes people obey laws (formal and non-formal) and how can
we enhance complian<e? People obey lhe low for reasml>, including
obedience 10 a legicim3te authority, abiding by their per•onal convictions
and the fear or uncllons imposed by 1hc la.v for non compliance. Th< law,
understood h<rc as l<'gislation passed b)• • compctenl ksulature, does nol
Offer J OnC•>1le-fit>·alJ .olullon 10 the l$SUh •nd problems faced by any
society. Oft<n, th< law s<ts the m1n1mum .tand.rd of bcha\'1our <xp<eted
•s well "' provides o .et of sanctions if the law i• breached. Let us tal<e the
man.1gcmenl of road traffic in citi<s a. an example. Lows can be passed to
prevenl iraflic violations such as illegal parking and drink·dnving. and to
n1trn•gc the \'Olu me o f traffic entering 1he city area durlni; certain designated
periods. I low do people and businessc> react to the traffic h1w regomc? How
do 1hc law c11forccmen1 ngencies respond 10 1he road users' behaviour on
the road;? What follows is an outline of some factors 1hut can determine
lhc u1illt)' of law> in fos tering desired bclm•iour and the intimate linkages
bc1ween lnw nnd soc1e1y.
13
Princ1plts of Singapott Busintss law
Factors Determining Law- Society linkages
1.26 f 1w is darit)' and knowledge of the law. Ate the laws in question clear or
ambiguous? 1r the l•ws nre 2mb1guous on the expected bcha,four, thtn non
compliance could result because road u.crs might be unaw•re th•t lh<y ore
committing traffic viola1ions. I r so, the legislation can and should be llmended
to remove 1he ambiguity and to make clear ! he scope of 1he law. Secondly,
n re t he traffic laws and sonclions for violatio ns widely k nown by the ro.1d
users? How accessible nrc the laws? While ignorance of 1he law h 110 excuse,
ii is cssentiDI 1hnt non-compliance is no1 due to road users' ignorance or
the applicable laws. 1r so, maklng the l•ws accessible and embarking on an
educational and publicity drive might be neces5'lt)'·
1.27 &rand is the concepl of deterrrncc. 1he current laws moy not hn't the
r«1uisi1e dct<rrent cffec1. '!he intuitive regulatory to a •ituallon of
(traffic) "lawlessness" " 10 mcrea>e the legal sanctions or pumshmen1. More
severe disincentive' \\'Ould act QS ·slicks... discouraging would·bt \liolators.
This would be relevant in cases where the punishment is too light 10 >erve as
a serious deterrent. Howevrr, •s studies have shown. there 1< an up1>rr hnut
to deterrence. Even with punitive sanctions., hard core or irrational
wiU not be deterred by >anctions that other law-abiding and rntional road
users 01herwisc would.
1.28 It should come as no surprhe t hat there h a regulatory p1•rumid wi1h a range
of from dmt rent 10 for the diffemn
types of Lraffic viohuions. For Jn,1.ince. a.s dnnk·driv1ng as a very serious
problem, sc,·ere pum>hmcnh rangini; from suspension and revocation of
driving licences 10 iail terim, refl<et the level of moral culpab1l11y of
Violators and societ)'°s •bhorrenu of such conduct. Also. there 1s a nocd
for proportionality in 1ho unct1ons meted out Legal sanction; that arc
excessively harsh nught affect th< legi1rn1acy of the laws. l.aw enforcers
may then be reluc1ont to cnforc< thcm, resuhmg m the uncuoM bt1ng
paradorically u ndt-ruscd. llcncc, 11 i> critic-al for the legal >ystcm to be
sensitive lo t he dynamic interaction; between t he law and the ndap1ivc
s lrulcgies of 1hosc 1hnt the law in q uestion seeks to reg11la1e. This would
e nable the authorities to belier CJllbr•lC tlU" effective zones or clctcrrcncc.
1\no1hcr complcmc11rn1y appronch is to provide incentives or "carrots". for
exan1ple. lower insurance pre1nlun1s, for rnotorists who obey the laws and
hove good driving records.
 Chapter 1: Busintss, and tht Law
l.29 111il'd is the Meed for consistelll and fair enforeement of the law. A well-
drafled set of laws clearly sets out the expected minimum behaviour. Such
laws require effective and impartial ellforcement to achieve their desired
effect. Non-compliance may well be an is.<ue of enforcement (especially 1he
lack of il). Weak and ineffectual enforcement of traffic laws l ranslalc into
road users' perceplioms that they can get away with their violations. Studies
have shown that the extent of a proscribed activity (in this case, traffic
violations) is negatively correlated to the perceived certainly of punishment.
TI1erefore. there will be fewer violations when road users perceive •Or beliew
that active enfor(crnent in place resulting in being rnore likely 10
be caught.
l.30 Enforcement can nlso be aided through the use of technolog)'. such as
closed circuit TVs. and giving the police Jnore c nfo rceincnt powers such as
requiring mandatoq• b lood tests or breath analysis of suspected drink-drivers.
The intent is to demonstrate that there is a commitment to the enforcement
or traffic Jaws, wilh i ncreased .surveillance being fodlitatcd by tcchno1og:y.
This must be supported by effeclive and efficient law enforcement, otherwise
violations would resurne once the lnckadnisical co1nn1itn1ent and effor1s
towards enforcenu:nt are noliced. In so1ne .societies, there 1nay also be a
problem or corruptiol\ where violators get away with their offences by bribing
lnw enforcement officers. If so, then efforts would also have to be directed
towards curbing the corrupt praclices o f the law enforceJnent offic.ers.
l.31 Po111'1/i, the legal syslem has to manoge perceptions. In deciding whether
to obey a law, a per.son's perceptions on tlie likelihood of his transgression
being caught would matter. While med ia blitzes and intensive enforcement
crackdowns would result In •deterrence effectiveness'; success is often
lc1nporary unless the enforce1ncnt efforts are sustained. Furt hennore, if
keen enforcement is accompanied by publicity campaigns and blitzes, the
perception of the like lihood of punishment is likely to be positiwe for law
enforcen1enl efforts as public consciousness of the law and enforccn1l'nt is
raised ("the sermon elfcct"). However. such etfotts will sec declining util ity if
1hcy are accompanied by poor or in,1dequate enforcement. as was discussed
earlier. Using traffic Iaw :is an exan1ple, the re is the need ror such to
have regulatory credibility and their acceptance as a legitimate source of
regulotoq• authority. "111is requires I hat the fows are - and are seen to be -
just :ind for the coin1non good (public safety considerotions) as well ns their
being applied fairly without undue harshness or laxity.
15
Principles of Singapore Business law
l.32 Fifil1, as legislative fiats cannot be completely etfeetive in ineukating desired
legal nonns, info nnal and dtctntra1ised sanctions such as social norn1s and
peer pressure can complement the formal legal framework. Such infotmal
controls ate potentially a more effective mode of enhancing compliance. In
a weak legal environ1ncnt, particularly, social nunns and inforn1al sanctions
can have the desired regulatory effect in preventing opportunistic
Where fonnal laws are in align1nent with con1rnunity standards of appropriate
behaviour, the fear of external non-kgal sanctions and social disapproval has
a significant regulatory and conforming effect.
1.33 An appcaJ to Qnc's own n1oral co1n rnitn1c nl to obey laws can also engender
strong compliance effects. As laws catlllot compel compliance, the objective
of internal compliance is to socialise rMd users through the internalisation
o f Lhc desired norms and an appreciation of Lhe public good that the trallic
Iaws seek to uphold and promote. lnfonnal sanctions arc likeli• then to be
1nore effective in de:iling \vi1h 1ninor 1ransgre..ssions, such as not tC>ming to a
co1n µlele stop at sto p signs.
1.34 Given the practical limits to policing and prosecution , such an in1ernally
driven 1nodc of con1pliance could be far n1orl' e ffective. Even for n1ore
serious violations. social norms - in addition to formal, legal sanctions -
can raise compliance levels through the social stigma and shome allnched
to such illegal and socially (and morally) repugnant conduct. For instance,
drink-driving can be targeted through demonstrating the moral callousness
a nd culpability trnd the negati\'c repercussions of such an act. Here. moral
s uasion provides an additional layer of deterrence and in forn1al sanct ions on
violators.
1.35 'lhe above example of n1anaging traffic issue.s demonstrates that low is not
a lways a panacea for the muhifocetcd societal problems. Indeed. there is a
patent need lo cCJnsider bw in its sodetnl context. What would be apparent is
that no legal system is fully autonomous in that it is completely independent
o f the society in which it operates. While law matters immensely in a legal
system. such a syslem cannot be effective if it ignores considerat ions such
as ethics and pressure fron1 interest groups serving busines.sj civil society
a nd economic interests. These social forces operating outside of tbe legal
system provide• better understanding of the intel'l'ace and interaction o( law,
society and rest of this section looks at con11non txplan3tory
concepts used. namely. legal structures, culture (including legal culture) a.nd
16
 Chapter 1: Busintss, and tht Law
legal lfaditions. in helping us to lmter understa11d the relationship
law and society.
Legal Structures
1.36 A legal system's structure c<in be regarded as its "hardware': Legal s tructures
are the compo.sit.e units that do the work of legal systems and include
legal actors, for t'Xample, lawyers. legislators, police, judges, legal. scholars.
etc (I H Merryman. "On rhe Convergence (and Divergence) of the Civil
Law and the Common Law• ( l 9RI) 17 Stn11ford Journal of /11temnt io11nl Lnw
357). ·n1c structure determines the patterns and framework of proe<sses.
actions and outcomes of the legal system. Rlankenburg's innovative
comparative socio·le,gal studies of the then West Germany and the
Netherlands, two cou.nt.rics silnilar in socio·ccono1nic tcrins and attitudinal
cultures, demonstrate how the legal infrastnicture can create inceiit ives
and disincentives for the use of the formal legal system {E Blo11kenburg,
"'t he Infrastructure for Avoiding Civil Litigation: Comparing Cultures of
Legal Behaviour in the Netherlands and West Germany" ( 1994) 28 U.111
nm/ Socicl)' Review 789). Usage of the court system is effected through
the inculcation of either a litigation-avoiding {Dutch) or a litigat;on·prone
(West German) min.dset. The Dutch "infrastructure of avoidance" has
"filtering institutions)• in t.he fornl of 1nore alternatives, such as pre·court
conllicl institutions, many forms of legal consultation beyond tine formal
legal system. the "routinising'' of issues such as traffic cases to displace
1he1n fron1 1he court calendars, and "dejudicialisntion.. in w·hich social
institutions rntht'r th an the courts regulate private contl ict. 1lic Gern1t\n
system, on the other hand. draws conflicts into the courts by discouraging
alternative dispute resolution and by consciously keeping the court s effective
(cllicicnl and inexpensive), creating little incentiv<' for disputar.ts not to
use them.
l.37 The legal s tructure intc1'3cts intilnately with the legal culture to condition
the Dutch legal actors' attitudes. values and beliefs towards llhernative
modes of dispute resolution. This interaction is demonstrated in Ht1ley's
classical study of the ""reJuclant Japanesr litigant" n1yth he shows lhal
there arc cultural at11·ibu1cs in Japtu1cse S<>cial organisation and values -
sh:.11r1e, co1nn1uni1ariain consciousness ::tnd (enr of corn rnunity ostracisalion
- thllt mnke the JapM1esc rellll ivcly litigation-averse (J 0 Haley, "l'hc Myth
of the Rclucuu1t Litigant" ( 1973) 4 /011runl of Jnpn11ese S111rli<'S 359).
17
Principles of Singapore Business law
However. there are also structural foetofs that reinforee these cultural
inhibitio ns lO litigation, including inst itutio nal such as
delays in the court si•stem, the lack of lawyers, the courts' limited ability
to enforce their decisions and provide adequate relief. affecting access to
j us tice. Consequently, the widely held belief, inside and outside Japan, is
that the Japanese arc a non-litigious people. Thus, we have a legal structure
a iding in, and in turn supported by. the successful tr11nsn1ission of a mythic
aspect of Japanese legal culture!
t.38 While legal systems can be fruitfully studied by examining formal processes,
much can be gained from a study of informal systems of regulation,
e nforcement and social norms. Such al!ernative structures tend to occur
in places where the legal infrastructure is n<>t well developed. Here, "moral
co1n n1unilics" develop with their parlicularistic networks of insiders (uslmHy
killsmen) and in-built compliance mechnllisms centred on trust. Macaulay's
classical study of the use of non-contractual relations in American business
is an excellent case in point. where infonnal reguhuory mcchanis1ns e ither
lower t.ransaction costs or provide additional informal governance structures
to reduce opportunistic behaviour (S Macaulay, "Non-Contractual Relations
in Business: A Preliminary Study" ( 1963) 28 America11 Sociologirnl Review
55). However. one should not ignore prejudices. cultural preferences. bias
and 1he hnportancc of dosed fa1nily networks tOr bu$iness transactions in
the structuring of these mcchanisn1s. 'Jhcre is a nexus bccwcen formal
and informal controls. The former is likely to supplement, and perhaps
substitute for. the latter when inform;1l controls bec(lme inadequale.
Legal Cultures
1.39 Legal culture refers lo Lhe "historically conditioned. deeply rooted altitudes
about tlie nature of law and about the proper structure and operation of
a legal system that are ;1t large m the society" (J H Merryman, "On the
Convergence (and Divergence) of the Civil Law and the Common Law"
{1981) 17 Sta11ford /011runl of /11tcr1111tio11al Lmv 357, at 381). It is the "iMas,
values, nttitudes, ;md opinions people hold, with regard to hiw and the leg:il
systen1" and forn1s the basis for the creaLion and sustenance of legnl nonns
which either promote inertia or change in the legal S)'>tcm nnd legal actors
(L M Friedman. "ls 'l'hcrc n Modern Legal Culture?" (1994) 7 Ratio Juris
117). 'l ho internal leb'lll cuhur< of lcgnl actors, such as lawyers and judges.
i.mpuct upon the legal system as well. Lnwycr> arc both transmission (Ind
18
 Chapter 1. 8usintS$, So.citty and tht law
tran1form3tion agents and the)' can alfoct how clients the law (the
cxtrrnal legal cuhur<). lltne<, the management of the lcg•I actors' deeply
rooted and firmly held anitudes m many soc1e11e• 1s 11npor1an1 1n belpmg
lo cnlrench 1he norins desired. This is well demonmaltd in Ab<!'s study of
ll1e Japanese judiciary's inttrnal con1rol mechanism in the ;ekction. training
and pro11101ion of legal perso1Ulel resuhing in the of the
judicfary:.. internal legal culture, ensuring a perpetuation and
of norn1s (M Abe, "" lhc Internal Control of a ll11rcaucrn1ic Judiciary: 'Jbc
Case of Jnpnn" (199S) 23 luternntio1wl /011n111/ of 1/1r Sorlology of Low 303).
·n1mugh a careful process of central control, !he legal personnel are
and norn1s arc: 1naintainrd um.I i.ustaincd in an cnvironmenl whrrr
organisational au1onomy is critical amidst antagoni>tic polilu:al forces.
1.40 Ahhough kgal cuhure is malleable, it i• .!ow to change. Traruilion economies
111 the former communist bloc countne> often have 10 dNI wuh the lack
of a cuhure of legality and legal con.mousn«s among the legal s)'S!•m's
actors and users. BccauS(' it is perceivc-d to br an uutrumcnt of thr state.
po>t-Soviel Ru,.ia's legal system lacks legitimacy. fail< to msp1re confidence
and i< not depended upon for organising economic relations (K Hendley,
"L(•gal Devclopmcn1 in Post-Soviet Ru»ia (1997) 13 l'ost So1•.cl Affnfrs
228). Markovils' sensitive treatment or the then lfast Ge1·man legal system
highlights how 1he internal legal cuhurc (nnd >tl'llm1rc) inRucnces 1he
Judlciury's view of their role (l Markovil>. "Ln•I Days" ( 1992) 80 Cnlifomill
L;1w Review 55). They resolved social crhes rather than adjudicated on
individual rights. The courts functioned ns a "$Choolhou<e" to proied
public order, which might seem alien lo another legal tradilion. Contrary
to popular pcrccp11011s. East German courts were not bngaroo courts,
espcci•lly in non-political cases. The outcom« ori<mg from their resolution
of legal disputes may ha•·e differed but they rrRected a different ideological
>)'>lem and it; particularistic systemic ob1ec11ves In >OC13h>t legal S)'Stems.
law 1< ofien u<ed by 1he communist party ., an m<trument of control and
to improve go•·ernance. These 1wo objeclives art not regarded as mu1ually
exclusive: in (act, 1hey are seen as being complcmcnmy.
1.41 Social change impact• upon the legal cuhure, lnllucncins change< in 1he
legal system, For insrnnce, given the pervasive and i11 ilucntial role of the
or
111cdin, Macaulay polgna111ly shows the imtiges law In everyday American
hfc 1hal the education system and the mass media porlroy (S Macaulay,
"lrnagc> of Lnw in Everyday Life: The Lessons or School, h11tertai11me111, and
19
Pnnc1plts ot S1n9;iport Business Law
Speelator Sports" (l 987) 21 L.nw n11d Sodtr)' Rmew 185). These alternative,
particularistic and anecdotal representations of law and th• legal >i·•tem
affect people's understandmg and de.ervc clc>ser scruuny. These pcrcepuons
and assumplions of 1he lrgal sy.tem constilute the external leg•l cuhure
and influence the users' perceptions of the lrgal sys1em's legitinMcy and
relevance. ln turn. thb atlecls how they interact with the legal system and
t·he legal actors.
Legal Tra d itions
1.42 Legal traditions. such as the common law, civil law, socialist. Islamic and
Talmudic. originate from ditrercnl sources and influences. They contribute
to the persistence or di.tmcuve styles or legal though• and practice m •
legal syotem. 111U>, legal sy>ten». including legal traruplonb. from thr ••me
legal tradition exh1b11 common characteristics in the legal processc• >nd
opcranons of 1he legal sy.tem. l.tgal cuhure and legal tradition collecll\1'1)'
constitu1c the ".oftwarc" of a legal >)'>l<m. Jt is this "softw•r<" that helps
explain why countries with >imil3r socio-poli1ical ideal> and legal traditions
lll3f appro;;ich sin1ilar issues such a10 crin1e- and puni.shrncnt, defam:uion
nnd privacy in \'cry different ways (.s« J Q Whitman. "Enforcing
Civility and Respect: 11ircc Societies" (2000) 109 Yale law /01mwl 1270; and
J Q Whilman, l·ltmli Justice: Crimuwl Pwusl1111eut and tlie Widening Divide
between Amerie<1 rmrl H11rop<· (2003)).
1.43 In a similar vein, ahhough Smgapore, the US and the UK share a common
legal tradition, their contra•ling approaches in dealing with defamation of
public figures retlect deeper pohucal values and different legal and lmtoncal
de.-elc>pments leading to a varicgaitd understandmg of freedom of expression,
journalistic freedom and cuhure, and the public interest. Even then. legal
tradition alone has Inadequate explanatory power. Structural d•fference.
and particularistic developmeni• m thr pol11 ico·econon11c and bureaucratlC
sys1ems in different socictie> can provide a nuanced understanding of wh)•
$OC1cties wilh similar legal 1rnd111011> di\'crge rather than con"erge m d1fferei11
racets of societal life.
Legal cultu1·c. structure and 1rudl1io11s are nol <lnly of lhcorcl1cal lnlcresl: lhC)'
enable us to hlwe • holbtk under>1a11ding of how the legal system acluolly
works. Euch conccpl. on il> own, lacks 1he nuanced explanatol'y power for
the dltTcrential evolution and development of legal ;y;1en1>. "lhe mutual
20
 Chapter 1: Busintss, and tht Law
interaetions among culture, m ueture and traditions affeet the development
of Lhe legal system and vice versa. Legal structures develop from legal
cultures and traditions and, iJ1 tllrn, they help mould the evolutio n of legal
culture and tradition. 11ms, notwithstanding the apparent tendency towards
Lhe convergence of legal systems globally, legal pluralism remains a persistent
reality in today's globalised world.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LAW AND ECONOMIC D EVELOPMENT
Law and the Management of Risk
t.45 lhe rule of law and the legal system provide a necessary but insufficient
condition for good governance. Simply put, the rule of law means and requires
that everyone, including the government, is subject ro the law. There is a
vast literature on the relationship between law and economic development.
and this sect ion can only touch on son1e of the key ideas: o n Lhe rolt> of
law in economic development. A distinction should be dr"'"" ber,.•een "risk"
and "uncertainty". 1.-aw and institutions, if properly applied, help t<I manage
risk and reduce uncerLainty. To political econon1ists, "risk" (when q uantified,
measured and priced with a degree of confidence) economic
activity that is conducted by those able and willing to bear the potential
threats nnd insecurities, with Lhe pro1nise of com1nt>nsurate returns fro1n
such risk-bearing acth•ity. With l'isk properly managed, economic actors can
project their time and invest ments over the long term rather than engage in
spernlative economic activity (H L Root, Cnpiln/ n11rl Collusion: Politicnl
Logic of Global Economic Dcvelopmc111 (2006)). ·n1us, a viable legal system
helps ensure thtlt risk.. rat her than uncertainty, prevails in the economic
environ1nent. Where "uncertainly" prevails. the proper allocatio n of risk
and Lhe expectotion of returns on investment become more pro blematic.
No investor or individual is prepared or incent ivised to put their money in
business venturt>s, bat'lk dt>posit.s, in such an econon1ic environ:n1enL
1.46 On the other hand, if uncertainty rather than risk prevails. individuals and
business entities will not be willing to pool their re.sources together (that
h, lo share the rhk) to invest in larger C.(01101nic activity outside of tJ1eir
parochial confines of family and closed commu nities. llut it is this 11ooling
of rescrnrces over a longer time hori7.on t h31 makes economic progress
pO>Sible through Lhe mobilising of the sources of production tO genernlC
economic activity that benefits more people. Besides developing a viable and
21
Principles of Singapore Business law
legitimate legal system, the management of risk also requires
a nd innovations in social and politic.al structures. All these work together to
provide a property rights regime that inspire$ confidence. A property rights
regin1e is, in e.s.,;;ence, o ne that respects ownership rights and the nbility lo
deal with that property (whether real or personal). Such a regime recognises
the individual's right to property and the protection of such a
right.
1.47 This connection of risk to property rights assumes that individllals and
businesses have information for which they can then make appropriate
decisions. In reality, infonn:Hion asym111ctry - where one party to a
transaction knows more than another pariy about it - is common. A stable
business e1wironment, undergirded b)' the rule of law and inMitutions, helps
LO ensure lhat asymnl<.' tric inforn1at.ion is nol widespread or is 1ninimised.
With risk abl)• managed, capital can then be applied productively; otherwise,
capital will be used speculat ively which may benefit individuals and
o rganisations in Lhc short ter111 bul will co111prornisc a society in
the 1011g run.
Box 1.1
Should the right to property be o constitutional right?
The right 10 property has been considered as part or man's natural rights and on
par with the right to life and liberty. Many constitutions, such as the American
and Malaysian, provide for the constitutional righl to property. However, the
SingaJ"Ore Constitution does not provide ror such a conslltutlonal right to property.
The approach has been a communitarian one In which the rigid adherence 10
property rights is seen as being detriment.at to ec.onom1c. developmenl in land-scarce
The larger public good Is to be prelcrred over lhe Individual interest.
This utilitarian approach Is also evident In that, under Singapore's Land
Acquisition Act (Cap 152, 19115 Rev Ed), the state con compulsorily acquire land if
1t is needed lor economic development. This weighti1119 in favour ol public interest
eMblc<l the massive transformation ot Singapore through extensive infrastructure
works such as Industrial estates, land transport and public housing development in
the 19-60s and 1970s.
Consider whether a constitutional right to property would enhance the
management of risk with to real property. Or is such i.1 right a luxury in small
like Singapore?
22
 Chap1'r 1: Busints,s. Sot'itty and 1ht Law Princ1plts of Singapott Busintss law

1.48 In short, a society tho.t wishes to promote economic de1'l'lopment will nttd
lo hav• good lows, a stable legal system. • viable tlhocal framework. and
sust01noble poh11cal and economic 1ns11tu11on< wnh 1ht goal of allocating
capilal dficienlly under 1he rule of law. There obo needs 10 be adequa1e
invcs1menl> in educa1ion and public heahh as economic del'elopmcn1 en1ails
noi Ju>t a legal framework but non-market improvements (IS well. 1liis
thal cco11omlc developmem is occompanicd by equity, fair play and
adequate social .afct)' nets.
Law and Economic Development in Singapore
CONCLUSION
I.SI Laws and the legal sysiem do nol <XJSt in a vacuum. This chapl<r hu
attempted to dcmons1ratc that together the)' constitule a ;ocial S)'>tcm
continually 10 respond 10 1he nttds of society. Much as most bu.111us
people view law a.s a set of rules. appreciating the Jaw· in it.s socio econo1nic,
cuhural and poli1icnl context pl'Ovidcs us wi1h a better undcr>landing of lhc
s lructure of 1he legol >)'Siem ond how it can focilitale or impede economic
activity. Most impor1:rn1 ly, laws, working in tandem wi1h on indivldunl nnd
society's ethical values, play a big J'Olc in ensuring that economic ac1ivi1y cnn
benefit socie1y and 1he people who live, work and play there.

1.49 Singapore'> economic dcvelopmenl highlights 1hc interpla)' of the issues

raised abol'c. Since its modern founding in 1819 by Sir lhomas Stamford
Rallles. Smgapor< has transformed from a colonial seaport to being the
second richrsl Asian counlry. wi1h one of lhe world's most compelilil'e
econom10> But thJS de1'dopmen1 did not come about by chance or good
fortune. 1he developmenl of a sustainable framework for econonuc progress
was mc11culously planned and de1erminedly implcmenled. Bold decisions
hi.,VC been taken and innovative changes inlplen"lcnted $ince
independence in 1965 in the drive 10 develop an n111och1honous legol
S)'>ICrn 1lrn1 responds 10 1hc need$ of 1hc people "'ho live. work and do
business in Singopore. Singapore's economic dcl'elop111en1 drive necessimed
1hc eslAbli>hmcnt of an cflicienl and effec1ivc legal •YSlcm, complemented
by poli1i,al will and economic ingcnui1y, 10 the needs of
commcrcc and trode. Technology, supponed by a facilitall\'C sec of Jaws, is
aho harne»cd 10 good elfecL Undcrgirding all thc>e " the commi11ncn1 to
1he rule of law.

I.SO Toda)'. Sing•porc is corui.centlr one of 1he busine.s friendly places

111 the world. a> measured by the World Bonk's Do111g B11s111css mdicalors.

Her laws and legal sptem provide a robu>I framework for doing business
and is • key huilding block of 1he economy. which i< htavily dcpendtnl on
inlcrnatlonn1 tntde and invest1nents. 111c rconon'l ic co1npe1ition will becon1e
even more huen;c and 1he law. wi1h socic1y. nm<t reipond wilh nimbleness
10 keep lhc economic lifeblood flowing.

23
 Principles of Singapote Business Law

Chapter 2 INTRODUCTION

2.1 The impact of a legal system o n the development of business activity in

a n economy can be significan t. If developed intell igently and judiciously, it
An Overview of Singapore Legal History
can facilitate and enhance econon1ic activity and developn1ent by providing
and Development a predictable and stable cnviron1ncnl for business activities. At the sanlc
time, the legal and regulato ry framework should have a sufficient level of
2.1 - 2.2 Introduction Aexibility to encourage innovation and creativity, which are vital ingredients
for successful businesses in a knowledge-based economy. 'The g rowing role of
Legal and Constitutional De\rt-lopment technologies, such as artificial intelligence and blockchain technology, is
2.3-2.9 Singapore in the Pre-colonial and Early Colo nial Eras dependent on the legal and regulatory environ1n ent acting as a catalyst. Overly
2. 10- 2. 15 The Fledgling Legal System s tringent laws and a rigid approach to implementing laws may unnecessarily
2.1 6 From the British to the Japanese and Back (1942- 1945) stifle the creative development of business activity as well as the economy.
2.1 7-2.22 The Emergency and Path to Self-govern ment ( 1948-1963)
2.23- 2.26 Merger: Singapore in Malaysia ( 1963- 1965) 2.2 This chapter sketches the milestones in Singapore's legal and constitutio nal
2.27-2.32 Independence and Initial Tasks of Nation-building development to give the reader a sense of th e evolution of Singapore's legal
2.33-2.37 Development of an Autochthonous Legal System ( 1989-present) developn1ent within the larger context of Singapore's progress, since its
2.38- 2.42 Constitutiona l Remaking since the 1980s rnodc rn founding in 18 19. Such an o vcrvic\v necessarily rncans that rnuch
detail has been omitted. In a nutshell, it hopes to capture the past and
2.43-2.49 Overview of Alternative Dispute Resolution in Singapor.c present of the Singapore legal system as well as the current developments
o.ncl innovations (whether legal or otherwise) that continue to influence its
2.50 Conclusion future di rection. Given the space constraints of this chapter, the discussion
i,n the Vilrious sections will inevitably have to be concise and succinct
'!he interested reader is therefore encouraged to refer to the more detailed
references provided, especiall)' 1\ Phang, 711e Dcvc/opmwt of Si11gaporc Law:
Hi.llorical anti Socio-1,cgal Perspwivcs (1990); K Y L Tan (ed), 7lie Singapore
Lcgfll System (2nd cd, 1999) and Essays i11 Singapore Legnl J/islory (2005):
a nd CM 1\irnbull, A History of Modem Singapore, 1819-2005 (20-09), for a
m ore thoro ugh discussion of the development of Singapore law, societ)' and
socio-political institutions.

LEGAL ANO CONSTITUTIONAL D EVELOPMENT

Singapore in the Pre-colonial and Early Colonial Eras

2.3 From its modem founding by Sir 'll1omas Stam fo rd Raffles, then Bcncoolen's
Liemenant-Governor, on 29 /ammry 1819, 10 self-government in 19S9 and
i.ts independence in l 965. Singapore's legal develop1nent was intricately
linked with its llritish colo nial master. In the past, English legal traditions,

26
 Chapter 2: An Oveoview of Singapore Legal History and Devtlopment
pFaetices. ease law and legislation were adopted without much rnnsideration
as to whether they s uited local conditions. Indeed, there was " "slavish
adherence to English law" resulti ng in the "impoverishment of the common
low in Singapore" (see A Phang, 111c Dcvelop111e111 of Si11gnpore /,nw; Historicnl
a11d Socio-Legal Pcr'Sf>cclives ( I990)).
2.4 With Singapore's independence, and increa.<ingly from the I990s, there is
a conc:cned rnovc1ne111t towards developing an autochthonous le-gal systc1n
compatible with Singapore's cultural, social and economic requiremeuts. In
this regard, the economic success of Singapore can be auribute.d, among
others, to the wisdom of its politjcal leadership and its use of laws and
the legal system 10 build a new society. To ensure its economic prosperity,
Singapore's legal stri1•es to be attuned to the needs and exp wationi
of the intcrnation:tl bus.inc.s.s cornn1unily.
2.5 Recent archaeologica l evidence in Singapore indicates the ei<istcnce of
an early lhriving e1nporiu111 in Singapore around the 14th century. 1bc
archaeological evidence ,tlso indicates that the settlement was abandoned at
the end of the 14th century. when Malacca was fo11nded and became 1he
leading cn1poriun1 in the !vtalacca Strait. 'l his extension of history,
by abo111 500 years prior 10 the modern fo11nding of Singapore by Raffles,
s11ggests that Singapo re's origins in 1he l4th century was as a port of call
with connect ions to the region and the world. II was a part of the globalised
trt1dc, then d riven b)' the Yuan and Ming dynasties in China. TI1is was
followed by a 200-ycar period of decline when Singapore fell into. oblivion.
Subsequently, in the I 6-00s, Singapore was noted by European powers for its
strategic location and the line nat11ral harbour (sec J Miksic, Si11gaporc nnd
tire Silk Road of the Sea, 1300- 1800 (2013): C G Kwa, Si11gnporc Clrro11iclcs:
Pre-Colonial Si11r,t1porc (2017)). Prior to the arrival in the Mal.acca Straits of
the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British imperialists from the 17th century
in search of spices and trade. Singapore wus primarily under the rule of the
Johor sultanate, then based in upstream Johor before ii moved lo '13njong
Pinang on Binion Island in what is now Indonesia.
2.6 Little is known. however, of Singapore's legal history prior to the founding of
Singapore by Ratlles. W hat is often assumed is that Maia)' ndnl laws (localised
traditional law and custom in Indonesia and Malaysia) (ormed the basis o( a
rudhnent:u·y legal systctn for :i co1nn1unily of fi.shen ncn nu1n bering no n1ore
th,1n 200.
27
Principles of Singapore Business law
2.7 Against 1he baekdrop of Anglo-Duteh econom ic rivalr)' in maritime Southeast
Asia, Rames presciently determined that Singapore was a suitable port given
its strategic geopolitical location and deep, natural harbou r. It would enable
the British to ensure a good n1easure of control over the entrance to the
Straits of Malacca as well as the mllin shipping route betwccn South Asia
and Northeast Asia.
2.8 Raftles acted without delay and, on 30 January 18 19, concluded a preliminary
treaty with lcmcnggong Ab<lu'r Rahman, the Johor Sultan's representative
in Singapore, to set up a trading factory in Singapore. On 6 February
18 19, a formal treaty was concluded wit h Sultan Hussein of Johor and 1he
"Jt-1ncnggong to fo nnalisc the earlier agrccrnent. Singapore was plttccd under
jurisdictioll, which ill rurn was ad111illistmd by the Governor-
General in Calcutta, India. In 1824, Singapore was confirmed a British
possession through the Anglo-Dutch Treat)'. and the Treaty of Cession with
the Sultan trnd Temenggong.
2.9 Raftles sought to put in place a basic but functional legal system with
a uniform la1• that was '1pplicabie to all inhabitants. promulgated the
Regulations" in I823. De facto English law prevailed between
18 19 and 1826. Singapore rapidly evolved into a key trading port.
The Fledgling Legal System
2.10 IUp lo this stage, Jbtlies and his successor Residents had no legal authority to
establish :my system for the ndminis11·ation of jus1ice. Whatever regulations
a nd srstem of justice established by Raffles and Resident John Crawford
were 11/trn vires (Lhat is. beyond their power oo· authorlt)'). Tiiis unsatisfactory
s late of affairs was resolved with 1he Second Charter of Justice ("the Second
C harter"), granted by the British Parliament on 27 November 1826, on the
petition of the East India Company (see further A Phang. From Formdatio11
to Legacy: 7lre Second Clral'ter /11,<ticc (2006)).
2.11 1 he Second Charter provided for the establish ment of the Courl of Judicature
o f Prince of Wales' Island (Penang), Singapore and Malacca with civil and
c rilnlnaJ jurisdictio n o n par with s-ilniJar cnurls in England. Alt hough it
did not explicitly slate that English law was 10 be applied in Singapore, the
Second Charter ht1d been assumed to provide lhe legal basis for the
reception of English law in Singapore. Local case law, following the landmark
28
 Chapter 2: An Ovtrvitw or Singaport ltgal History •nd Otvtlopmtnt
r3Se of R v \\7/Ja11s ( 1858) in Penang, had adopied the leg3l position that
English law (both common law and equity a> it stood tn 1826 a> wdl as
prc-1826 English lcg1sbtion) was introduced to Singapore \1a the Se<:ood
Chorttr.
2.12 Singapore and the Rrilish senle111ents of Malacca and Penang collectivdy
became the Straits Sell lements in 1826, under the direct control of British
India. 111 1833. thc Governor-General of India was empowered 10 legislate for
the Str11its Scnlcment&. During this period, the leg.11systc111 was characterised
by "legal cht1os of epic proportions" (see K Y L Tan (ed), 7lie Si1tgnpore l.tgnl
System (2nd ed. 1999) at p 33).
2. 13 'lhc local bmineM community unhlppy with tht inadtquatc judicial
framework which meted out jw.tice infrt'Cjuently and poorly. Although the
Third Charter of Jumcc "'35 granted m 1855 to help case the increasing
legal workload, it did not improve the statc of affair". With the abolition of
the Ea>t India Company in 1858, the Strait> Settlement> was tron>fcrred 10
the Indian Govcrnmcnt. There were pockets of unh3p111ness with the Straits
Settlement> being administered out of India as it tended 10 re•ult in their
int<rcM> being rclcgntcd, if not neglected. In 1867, the Straits Scttlemcnls
became a Crown Colony under the direct jurisdicuon of the Colo"ial Office
in London.
l. 14 In LK68, the Supreme Court of the Stntib Settlcmc111s was established
following lhc abolition of the Court of Judicature. In I873, there w:1s further
rcorgani>ation with I he Supreme Court given the jurisdKtion to sit as •
Court of Appeal. Pr1-0r to tlus, appeals were to the Krng-1n-CounCtl {the
lx>dy of royal advisers in England, also known as the Privy Council). In
1878, the local courts wcre restructured accordingly to mirror thosc of the
Engluh I ligh Court.
2.15 'Ihe popularity of the stean»hip for trade in Ille 1111d I8(>0> coupled mlh the
opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 resulted 111 Slnga1>orc's transformation
from being a pori of call for regional trade to one for International trade
and, with It, the movement of people, ideas Dnd finance. S1ngnpore became•
major port of Cllll for ships plying between fa1rope lll\J i!nst Asia. Witl1 the
growth o( the rubber indust ry and Malaya bc111g • major rubber exporler.
Sing.1pore became the main sorting and export ce11tre in the world for rubber.
Between 1873 and 1913, S111gapore experienced unprccede111cd prosperity
29
Pnnc1plts ot S1n9;iport Business Law
and trade expanded eightfold. 1 his m turn 3lt1'3fted more immigrants from
Sou1hcas1 A>ia, Chma and India and farther awai'.
From the British to the Japanese and Back (1942- 1945)
2.16 During Lhe fapanese Occupation of Singapore between February 1942
a nd September 1945, Si11gnpore was renamed Syo1tnn-10 (Light of the
South) by the fapnncsc military 'J11e end of the Second
World War resulted in the 1cmron1ry rule of Singapore by the Rritbh
Military Admin istrot1on, With the disbanding of the Straits Se1tle111e11U in
1946, Penang and Malaccn became part of the Malayan Union proposal,
nnd later the Federation of Malaya m 19.fS. However, given its strategic
and economic importance, Singapore was not destined on the path o(
independence at the same pace as Malaya. Jnstcad, it was made • Crown
Colony with its own Cons111u11on. I 1ke many other Bnhsh colonies. th< real
power 10 govern and l<gulatc wa• \'CSted in the hands of thc Go\'ernor and
colonial officials, with • modicum of local participation and representation
through limited elected >cats 011 the Legislative Council. The first such
elections were conductcd in 19·18.
The Emergency and Path to Self-government (1948-1 963)
2.17 With the declared goal of taking over Mai•)'• a nd Singapore th rough violence.
the upsurge In communist united front activity led by 1hc Communi>I Party
of Malaya (CPM) resulted in 1he Malayan colonial authoritics damping
down on the CPM during a period known as the Emergency (1948-1960).
Oraconi3n laws were enacted. including de1cm1on ••ithout trial. m the fighl
ag3inst comn1unism.
2.18 The Progressive Party wa; then the leading pohucal party 111 Singapore.
having won the Lq;1<la1ive Council elections in 1948 and 1951. lnttrc't
in Singapore's pohtical hfc nascent •nd tended to be drawn along
t he p;trtosan line. of non-communist l1gains1 pro-comrmu11st. In 1953. a
Constitutional Comnmslon. headed by Sir George Rendel ("the Rendel
Commission"), was forn1c.l to review the Colony's con;titution llnd to enlarge
public part icipat ion in sclf-11ovcrnoncc. 1l1e Government acccptc<I 111o;t of
the Rendel rtconunenda1lons including the transfor1n,,tion o(
the Legislative Council Into a chamber comprising mainly of directly elected
members. However, reJI power con1111ued 10 be ves1cd m the Governor and
30
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
julisti kuningas Limbilin maailman suurimmaksi kuninkaaksi, parhaan
armeijan päälliköksi ja mahtavan kuningaskunnan valtiaaksi.

Sanottakoon, että Jitingin hallitsijalla oli virheissäänkin

oikeamielisyyttä, sillä tyytyen alueittensa laajuuteen suuri kuningas
teki julmuutensa, epäoikeutetut tekonsa ja kävi pikku sotansa oman
valtakuntansa rajojen sisäpuolella. Hän haki siitä huvitusta.

Eräänä päivänä, kun maailma oli viileä ja ilma oli täynnä Afrikan
kevään hienoa tuoksua, Sanders oli matkalla pienten maakuntien
halki. Ne ovat niitä maita, jotka ovat kaukana suurilta joilta. Maita,
jotka ovat kansainvälisten rajojen halkomia tai ulottuvat jonnekin
erämaihin ja joihin kartoittaja on merkinnyt: »Englannin suojeluksen
alla».

Se oli aina hupaisa matka — Sanders teki sen kerran vuodessa —

sillä tie kulki outoja jokia myöten harvinaisten maisemien halki ohi
kylien, joissa ei koskaan ollut nähty muita valkoisia miehiä kuin
Sanders. Kuukauden matkattuaan komissaari tuli Ikeliin, joka on
suuren kuninkaan valtion vieressä, ja vanhimmat ja päälliköt ottivat
hänet kohteliaasti vastaan.

— Herra, olet tullut hyvään aikaan, sanoi päällikkö, — tänä iltana

Daihili tanssii.

— Ja kuka on Daihili? kysyi Sanders.

He kertoivat hänelle; myöhemmin he toivat hänet komissaarin

nähtäväksi, itsetietoisen tytön, hävyttömän nenäkkään, hän ajatteli,
alkuasukkaaksi.
 Hento tyttö, tavallisia naisia hieman pitempi, muodoltaan
säännöllinen, eivätkä hänen kasvonsa olleet eurooppalaiseltakaan
kannalta epämiellyttävät, ja hän oli käytökseltään hieno, jokaiselta
liikkeeltään sopusuhtainen. Sikariaan imeskelevä Sanders heitti
häneen yhden silmäyksen.

— Tyttö, sinun kerrotaan tanssivan, sanoi hän.

— Niin, sanoi tyttö, — olen maailman suurin tanssija.

— Sitä en luule, sanoi varovainen komissaari, — mutta

epäilemättä sinun tanssisi on hyvin ihmeellistä.

— Herra, sanoi tyttö ylpeähkösti, — kun minä tanssin, miehet

tulevat hulluiksi ja menettävät järkensä. Tänä iltana, kun kuu on
korkealla, näytän sinulle kolmen rakastajan tanssin.

— Tänä iltana, sanoi Sanders lyhyesti, — minä olen vuoteessa ja

luullakseni — nukun.

Tyttö rypisti otsaansa hieman, otti hieman nenäänsä, sillä hän oli
viidentoista ikäinen nainen eikä millään muotoa toisenlainen kuin
maailman muut naiset. Tätä Sanders ei tietänyt, ja vaikka olisi
tietänytkin, tokkopa se olisi häntä paljoa auttanut.

Maatessaan sinä iltana vuoteessaan hän kuuli tomtomin äänen ja

käsien tahdikkaan taputuksen ja nukahti ajatellen, mikä olisi
sellaisen tytön loppu, joka tanssi niin, että miehet tulevat hulluiksi.

Hän oli päällikön tytär, ja lähtiessään Sanders sanoi muutaman

sanan hänestä.
 — Tämä sinun tyttäresi on viidentoista vanha, ja olisi parempi, että
hän olisi naimisissa.

— Herra, hänellä on monta rakastajaa, mutta kukaan ei ole

tarpeeksi rikas voidakseen ostaa hänet, sanoi ylpeä isä, — sillä hän
on suuri tanssija. Kaukaiset päämiehet ja päälliköt tulevat katsomaan
häntä. — Hän alensi ääntään ja katsoi ympärilleen. — Sanotaan,
kuiskasi hän, että Suuri on puhunut hänestä. Ehkä hän lähettää
noutamaan tyttöä ja lahjoittaa sitä ja tätä. Siinä tapauksessa, lisäsi
päällikkö toiveikkaasti, — minä tingin ja kaupitsen, pidän häntä
jännityksessä, ja joka päivä hinta nousee…

— Jos Suuri tarvitsee häntä, niin anna hänen mennä, sanoi

Sanders, — sillä rahalahjan sijasta hän voi lähettää armeijan. En
tahdo sotia enkä naisjupakkaa, joka on pahempi kuin sota, maassani
— huomaa se päällikkö.

— Herra, sinun sanasi on minun tahtoni, sanoi päällikkö

alistuvasti.

Sanders palasi oman väkensä luo hiljoilleen. Hän viipyi yli viikon
Isisissä selvittelemässä erästä poppajuttua; Belembissä (Isisin
maassa) hän pysähtyi kolmeksi päiväksi selvittämään erästä
puujumalan tekemää murhaa. Hän jakoi oikeutta ja Abibu,
poliisikersantti, valikoi ja käytteli kankeimpia ruokojaan tuomitun
pieksämiseen, kun Ikelin päällikkö tuli paeten jokea myötävirtaa
kolmella kanootilla, ja Sanders, joka paikaltaan näki loputtoman joen,
arvasi, että oli sattunut selkkaus, ja tiesi, millainen selkkaus se oli.

Oikeutta, vaati päällikkö, kasvot vihasta ja pelosta väristen, —

oikeutta Suurta vastaan, tyttöjen varasta, kaupunkien hävittäjää —
tulkoon kuolema hänelle, Iwa!
 Vielä samana päivänä, jona Sanders oli lähtenyt, oli suuren
kuninkaan sanantuoja tullut mukanaan sata sotilasta, vaatimaan
tanssivaa tyttöä. Suunnitelmansa mukaan päällikkö oli alkanut tinkiä
ehtoja. Tarjotut lahjat olivat aivan liian pienet. Tyttö oli
sadantuhannen putken — ei, tuhannen suolasäkin arvoinen.

— Olit hullu, sanoi Sanders kylmästi. — Ei mikään nainen ole

tuhannen suolasäkin arvoinen.

— No, voi niin olla, myönsi vihastunut isä, — mutta olisihan ollut
hullua sanoa ensin liian pieni hinta.

Tinkimistä oli jatkunut koko yön ja seuraavan päivän, ja lopuksi

suuren kuninkaan lähetystö oli käynyt kärsimättömäksi.

— Lähettäkää hakemaan naista, sanoi lähetti, ja kutsuttuna saapui

Daihili, kylläkin kainona, mutta luoden tunteettomaan lähettiin
rohkaisevia silmäyksiä ja pannen liikkeelle koko hurmausvoimansa.

— Nainen, sanoi lähetti, — Suuri kuningas haluaa sinua, tahdotko

tulla?

— Herra, sanoi tyttö, — en halua mitään mieluummin.

Minkä jälkeen neuvottelussa läsnä olleet aseistetut sotilaat

saarsivat tytön.

— Ja niin, sanoi Sanders, — sinä et saanut mitään.

— Herra, niinkuin sanot, huokasi isä.

— On selvää, sanoi Sanders, — että on tehty vääryyttä, sillä ei

kukaan mies saa naista maksamatta siitä. Ajattelen, lisäsi hän
harrastaen eräänlaatuista huumoria, joka joskus sai hänet valtaansa,
— että miehen tulee maksaa kahdesti, kerran naisen isälle ja sitten
koko ikänsä vaimolleen — mutta olkoon sen laita miten tahansa.

Kuusi viikkoa myöhemmin, miettimisen jälkeen, Sanders lähetti

sananviejän Suuren kuninkaan luo vaatimaan naisen hintaa.

Mitä sanantuojalle tapahtui, jätän mieluummin kertomatta. Mies

tapettiin, on ainakin sanottava. Juuri ennen kuolemaansa, kun
kuoleman tuntu jo oli hänen kasvoillaan ja hänen kurja ruumiinsa oli
laskeutumassa ikuiseen lepoon, hänet vietiin erääseen paikkaan
kuninkaan majan eteen, ja Daihili tanssi henkien tanssin. Tämä
tiedetään.

Sanders ei tehnyt mitään; eikä Britannian hallitus tehnyt mitään,

mutta kiireellisiä nootteja vaihdettiin lähettiläiden ja ministerien
kesken Pariisissa, ja siihen loppui koko juttu.

Kaksi Ikelin vakoojaa meni suuren kuninkaan maahan. Toinen tuli

takaisin kertoen, että tanssiva tyttö oli kuninkaan mielivaimo ja että
hänen oikkunsa hallitsivat kansojen kohtaloita. Hän ilmoitti myös,
että tämän solakan tanssivan tytön vuoksi monet miehet,
neuvonantajat ja sodanpäämiehet olivat kuolleet kuoleman.

Toinen vakooja ei palannut.

Nähtävästi hänen kiinnisaamisensa aiheutti sen, että tyttö lähetti

sotajoukon Ikeliin, sillä hän ehkä luuli oman kansansa vakoilevan
häntä.

Eräänä päivänä suuren kuninkaan soturit saartoivat Ikelin kylän,

eikä yksikään mies, nainen eikä lapsi välttänyt kohtaloaan.
 Tihutyöstä ei Sanders kuullut pitkiin aikoihin mitään. Syy oli
yksinkertainen: ei ollut ketään, joka olisi tuonut tiedon, sillä Ikeli on
syrjäinen. Eräänä päivänä kuitenkin, kun isisiläinen metsästysjoukko
oli norsuja hakemassa, se tuli paikalle, jossa oli palaneen haju ja
paljon luurankoja — ja siten Sanders sai tietää…

— Emme voi, kirjoitti monsieur Léon Marchassa,

siirtomaaministeri, — ottaa vastuullemme Jitingin kuninkaan tekoja,
ja hallitukseni suhtautuu mitä suurimmalla myötätunnolla jokaiseen
yritykseen, jonka Hänen Majesteettinsa hallitus tekee maan
rauhoittamiseksi.

Mutta Britannian hallitus ei tehnyt mitään, sillä sota on kallista

lystiä, ja Sanders päivitteli ja kiroili isäntiään sydämensä pohjasta.

Hän meni henkensä uhalla Jitingin rajalle mukanaan

kaksikymmentä poliisimiestä ja lähetti sananviejän — jitingiläisen
sananviejän — kuninkaan luo. Häikäilemättömyydellä, joka ei ollut
hänen pienimpiä avujaan, hän vaati kuningasta neuvotteluun.

Tämä seikkailu näytti alun pitäen menestyksettömältä, sillä juuri

kun »Zaire» höyrysi rajan yli, Sanders odottamatta tuli erään
rosvojoukkueen jäljille. Joukkueen merkeistä ei voitu erehtyä.

— Mieleni tekee palata takaisin ja rangaista tuota kirottua

Bosamboa, Ochorin päällikköä, sanoi hän kersantti Abibulle, — sillä
vannottuaan lukuisten jumalien ja paholaisten kautta pitävänsä
rauhan, kas — hän käy ryöstämässä vieraissa valtakunnissa.

— Hän ei pääse mihinkään, sanoi Abibu. — Sitä paitsi hän on

lähellä, sillä hänen tulensa ovat vielä lämpimät.
 Niin Sanders jatkoi matkaansa ja lähetti viestinsä kuninkaalle.

Hän piti höyryä pikku laivassaan — hän oli valinnut ainoan paikan,
jossa joki koski Jitingin rajaa — ja odotti valmiina tekemään
häpeällisen, vaikka laillisen leikkauksen.

Hänen ällistyksekseen hänen vakoojansa toivat sanan, että

kuningas oli tulossa. Hän arveli tämän olevan tanssivan tytön
ansiota, sillä tällä, niinkuin naisilla ainakin, oli hyvä muisti, ja hänellä
oli jonkin verran selvittämättömiä asioita komissaari Sandersin
kanssa.

Suuri kuningas saapui, ja jokea ympäröivien ketojen poikki

Sanders katseli kulkuetta sekavin tuntein. Kuningas pysähtyi sadan
metrin päähän joesta, ja hänen suuri punainen sateenvarjonsa oli
keskellä sotilasriviä, joka ulottui kolmesataa metriä kummallekin
kädelle.

Sitten yksi ryhmä erkani joukosta ja tuli joen rannalla olevan puun
luo, johon oli kiinnitetty Englannin lippu.

— Täällä, sanoi Sanders, — minä kerran kuljen kuolleena.

— Suuri kuningas odottaa sinua, valkea mies, ja tarjoaa sinulle

varjonsa suojaa, sanoi kuninkaan lähetti, ja Sanders nyökkäsi. Hän
käveli hitaasti joukkoa kohti ja tuli vanhan miehen eteen, joka istui
taljakasalla kuin apina päivänpaisteessa.

— Herra kuningas, elä ikuisesti, sanoi Sanders kohottaessaan

kätensä tervehdykseen ja huomasi samalla tytön tarkastelevan
häntä kulmat rypyssä.
 — Mikä on halusi, valkea mies? kysyi vanha kuningas. — Mitä
suuria lahjoja sinä tuot, kun kutsut minua kulkemaan monen päivän
matkan.

— Herra, en tuo lahjoja, sanoi Sanders kopeasti, vaan viestin

kuninkaalta, joka on sinua suurempi, jonka sotilaat ovat lukuisammat
rannan hiekkaa ja jonka maat ulottuvat etelästä pohjoiseen, lännestä
itään.

— Ei ole sellaista kuningasta, kärisi vanha mies. Sinä valehtelet,

valkea mies, ja minä leikkaan sinun kielesi viipaleiksi.

— Anna hänen sanoa viestinsä, sanoi tyttö.

— Tämä on viestini, sanoi Sanders. Hän seisoi vapaana, käsi

valkean virkapukunsa taskussa, ja kuningas oli lähempänä
kuolemaa kuin aavistikaan. — Minun herrani sanoo: Koska tämä
jitingin suuri kuningas on syönyt Ikelin kansan, koska hän on mennyt
rajain yli ja tehnyt vahinkoa minun kansalleni, minun mieleni on
paha. Kuitenkin, jos suuri kuningas tahtoo maksaa sakkoa karjaa
tuhat päätä ja sallia alueelleen vapaan pääsyn sotilailleni ja
komissaareilleni, tahdon elää rauhassa hänen kanssaan.

Vanha mies nauroi kaakottaen.

— O, ko! hän nikotteli. — Suuri kuningas!

Tyttö astui esiin.

— Sandi, sanoi hän, — kerran sinä tuotit minulle häpeän, sillä kun
minä tanssin sinulle, sinä nukuit.
 — Sinulle, Daihili, sanoi Sanders yksikantaan, — minä en puhu
mitään; en keskustele naisten kanssa, sillä se ei ole tapa. Vielä
vähemmän minä puhun tanssivien tyttöjen kanssa. Minulla on asiaa
kuningas Limbilille.

Kuningas puhui nopeasti kätensä takaa eräälle hänen puoleensa

kumartuneelle miehelle, ja Sanders, jonka käsi yhä oli taskussa,
päästi coltpistoolinsa varmistimen.

Tytön puhuessa Sanders katseli koko ajan syrjäsilmin kuninkaan

kanssa puhuvaa miestä. Hän näki miehen katoavan sotilaiden
joukkoon ja valmistautui pahimpaan.

— Koska minä en saa tanssia sinulle, puhui tyttö, minun herrani

kuningas tahtoo, että sinä tanssit minulle.

— Se on hupaista, sanoi Sanders; sitten hän näki sotilasrivin

kummankin pään vyöryvän eteenpäin ja veti esiin pistoolinsa.

— Pam! Pam!

Kuninkaaseen tähdätty laukaus meni hänen ohitseen ja mursi

takana olevalta sotilaalta jalan.

Juttu oli alusta pitäen ollut toivoton. Sanders totesi sen jotenkin
filosofisesti, kun hän makasi pitkänään paljaalla maalla, sidottuna
kuin varis ja tuntien olonsa epämukavaksi. Kohta ensimmäisen
laukauksen pamahdettua Abibu oli saamiensa ohjeitten mukaan
kääntänyt laivan keulan myötävirtaan; tämä oli ainoa vähäinen
lohdutus, joka hänellä oli tässä tilanteessa.

Koko pitkän päivän hän makasi aseistetun sotajoukon keskellä

paahtavan auringon alla odottaen kuolemaa, joka tulisi yhdessä tai
toisessa julmassa muodossa.

Hän ei tuntenut pettymystä, sillä tämä oli seikkailun ajateltavin

loppu. Iltapuolella he antoivat hänelle vettä, joka oli mitä
tervetulleinta. Vartijain leikinlaskusta hän sai selville, että ilta oli
valittu hänen kuolemansa ajaksi, mutta tapaa hän ei voinut arvata.

Makuulta hän saattoi päätään kääntämällä nähdä kuninkaan

teltan, ja koko iltapäivän miehet olivat touhussa kooten laakakiviä
teltan eteen. Ne olivat kaikki samanmuotoisia, ja niitä näyttiin
hakattavan ja muodosteltavan johonkin tarkoitukseen. Hän kysyi
vartijalta.

— Ne ovat tanssikivet, valkea mies, sanoi sotilas, ne ovat

kaupungin läheiseltä vuorelta.

Pimeän tullen sytytettiin suuri tuli; sitä katsellessaan hän kuuli

»Zairen» paosta ja oli mielissään.

Hän torkkui, kun hänet nostettiin seisomaan, hänen siteensä

irrotettiin ja hänet vietiin kuninkaan eteen. Sitten hän näki, miten
häntä aiottiin kiduttaa.

Laakakivet otettiin tulesta puuseipäillä ja asetettiin kömpelön lavan

muotoon teltan eteen.

— Valkea mies, sanoi kuningas, kun raa'at kädet kiskoivat kengät

komissaarin jalasta, — nainen Daihili haluaa nähdä sinun tanssivan.

— Ole varma siitä, kuningas, sanoi Sanders hampaittensa välistä,

— että jonakin päivänä sinä saat tanssia helvetissä vähemmän
miellyttävässä seurassa tanssittuasi sitä ennen nuoran päässä.
 — Jos sinä elät tanssin läpi, sanoi kuningas, — niin sinä tulet
surulliseksi.

Lavaa ympäröivät sotilaat, joiden keihäät olivat ojennetut

keskustaan päin, ja teltan edessä olevat olivat kyykistyneet, jotteivät
estäisi Suuren näköalaa.

— Tanssi! sanoi kuningas, ja Sanders työnnettiin eteenpäin.

Ensimmäinen kivi, jolle hän astui, oli vain hieman lämmin, ja hän
seisoi sillä, kunnes hänet keihäällä työnnettiin eteenpäin. Seuraava
oli tulisen kuuma, ja hän hypähti karjaisten; hän putosi toiselle, joka
oli vielä kuumempi, ja hyppäsi jälleen…

— Heittäkää vettä hänen päällensä, sanoi huvittunut kuningas,

kun he vetivät kiviltä raukean miehen, jonka vaatteet savusivat
hänen maatessaan muodottomassa asennossa.

— Tanssi jälleen, sanoi kuningas uudestaan — kuu metsässä

välähti keltainen tulisuihku.

»Ha-ha-ha-ha-a-aa!»

Abibun konekivääri toimi viidenkymmenen metrin päässä, ja

hänen mukanaan oli viisisataa Ochorin miestä tuon päällikköjen
päällikön, Bosambon, johtamina.

Hetken Jitingi vastusteli, mutta sitten, kun ochorilaiset hyökkäsivät

päästäen karjunnan, josta kolmasosa oli pelon aiheuttama,
kuninkaan soturit hajaantuivat ja pakenivat.

Sanders kannettiin höyrylaivalle nopeasti, sillä jitingiläiset

kokoontuivat, ja he olivat erinomaisia yötaistelijoita. Sanders istui
laivan kannella ja hoiteli palaneita jalkojaan kiroillen ahkerasti, kuuli
ochorilaisten tölmäävän kanootteihinsa ja hausain äänekkäästi
haalaavan konekivääriä laivaan, ja sitten hän jälleen pyörtyi.

— Herra, sanoi Bosambo seuraavana aamuna, monta kuukautta

sitten sinä syytit ochorilaisia sanoen, että he eivät osaa tapella. Se
oli totta, mutta noina kaukaisina aikoina ei ollut Bosambo
päällikkönä. Nyt kun minä olen opettanut heitä ja pannut tulta heidän
vatsaansa, he ovat voittaneet Suuren kuninkaan sotilaat.

Hän oli mahtava, sillä hänen hartioillaan oli kultalangoista kudottu

ja sinisellä kirjailtu mantteli, joka edellisenä iltana ei vielä ollut hänen.

— Bosambo, sanoi Sanders, — vaikka minulla on sinun kanssasi

paljon selviteltäviä asioita siksi, että olet rikkonut lakia lähtemällä
sotajalalle, olen kiitollinen, että toisen omaisuuden himoaminen toi
sinut näille maille. Mistä sait tuon viitan? tiukkasi hän.

— Varastin sen, sanoi Bosambo peittelemättä, — Suuren

kuninkaan teltasta; otin myös mukaani yhden niistä kivistä, joilla
minun herrani ei tahtonut seisoa. Toin sen ajatellen, että se olisi
todistuskappale.

Sanders nyökkäsi ja pureskeli irvistellen sikariaan. »Jolla minun

herrani ei tahtonut seisoa», oli sattuvasti sanottu.

— Näytä se minulle, sanoi hän, ja Bosambo kantoi itse sen hänen

eteensä.

Se oli kestänyt kuumuuden kylläkin hyvin, mutta luja käsittely oli

murtanut yhden kulman; ja Sanders katsoi tätä murtunutta kulmaa
vakavasti ja pitkään.
 — Tässä, sanoi hän, — on sellainen todistuskappale, jota
yksikään oikea brittiläinen hallitus ei voi sivuuttaa — minä näen
Limbilin lopun.

*****

Sadeaika ja kevät olivat tulleet, ennen kuin Sanders jälleen seisoi

suuren kuninkaan edessä. Kaikkialla hänen ympärillään oli hävitystä
ja kuolemaa. Kenttä oli täynnä kuolleitten ruumiita, ja suuri kaupunki
oli savuavina raunioina. Vasemmalla oli leirissä kolme
hausarykmenttiä, oikealla kaksi afrikkalaista kivääripataljoonaa, ja
heidän leikinlaskunsa kuului läpi ilman.

— Olen vanha mies, mutisi kuningas, mutta tyttö, joka seisoi

hänen sivullaan, ei puhunut mitään. Hänen silmänsä eivät vain
siirtyneet Sandersin tiilenpunaisilta kasvoilta pois.

— Vanha sinä olet, sanoi tämä, — mutta et kuitenkaan liian vanha

kuolemaan.

— Olen suuri kuningas, sanoi toinen, — eikä ole kohtuullista, että

suuri kuningas hirtetään.

— Mutta jos sinä jäät elämään, sanoi Sanders, — niin toiset suuret
kuninkaat sanovat: Saamme tehdä näitä julmuuksia, ja
suuruutemme tähden me saamme elää.

— Entä miten minun käy? sanoi tyttö hiljaa.

— Sinun! sanoi Sanders ja katsoi häneen. — Ho, hi, sanoi hän,

kuin olisi vasta huomannut hänet. — Sinä olet tanssiva tyttö? Sinulle
emme tee mitään, Daihili, koska sinä et ole mitään.
 Hän näki tytön värähtävän kuin ruoskaniskusta.

Työn päätyttyä hausaeversti ja Sanders keskustelivat.

— Minä en voi ymmärtää, sanoi eversti, — miksi meidät niin äkkiä

määrättiin tänne. Se on vuosia ollut tarpeen — mutta miksi tämä
nopea toiminta?

Sanders irvisti salaperäisesti.

— Ihmeellistä kansaa, ne englantilaiset, sanoi hän myhäillen. —

Vanhus Limbili varastaa Britannian alamaisia, ja minä ilmoitan siitä.
'Hyvin paha', sanoo Englanti. Hän hävittää kokonaisen kansan.
'Valitettavaa', sanoo Englanti. Hän panee minut tanssimaan oikeilla
Haadeksen kivillä. 'Pitäkää sitä pilana', sanoo Englanti, mutta kun
minä sanon, että nämä kivet sisältävät puhdasta kultaa ja että
olemme tavanneet Keski-Afrikan rikkaimman alueen, niin täällä on
armeija puolessa vuodessa!

Itse puolestani luulen, että Sanders ei ollut aivan oikeassa näin

sanoessaan. Joka tapauksessa sodat maksavat rahaa, ja kostosodat
ovat tunnetusti hyödyttömiä.
KAUNIIDEN UNIEN METSÄ

Sanders oli pysähtynyt ottamaan puita ollessaan matkalla

kokoamaan veroja ja jakamaan oikeutta sen kansan keskuudessa,
joka asuu Isisin alajuoksun varrella.

Hänen laivansa oli kiinnitetty joen rantaan. Tässä oli pieni lahti, ja
joen nopeat pyörteet olivat tässä muuttuneet tasaiseksi virraksi; siitä
huolimatta hän tarkasti köysien rannalla olevat kiinnikkeet, ennen
kuin astui »Zairen» kannelle johtavalle kapealle lankulle. Kannelle oli
pinottu puita valmiiksi huomenna alkavaa matkaa varten. Joka,
koneenkäyttäjä, oli asettanut uuden vesimittarin, niinkuin hän oli
käskenyt, ja koneet olivat puhdistetut. Sanders nyökkäsi
hyväksyvästi. Hän astui parin tai kolmen nukkuvan yli ja tuli rannalle.
— Taitaapa olla aika mennä sisään, mutisi hän ja katsoi kelloa. Se oli
yhdeksän. Hän seisoi hetken jyrkän rinteen harjalla ja katsoi joen yli.
Yö oli synkkä, mutta hän näki toisella rannalla olevan metsän
piirteet. Hän näki tähdikkään taivaan ja tähtien kalpean heijastuksen
vedessä. Sitten hän meni telttaansa ja pukeutui hiljalleen
yöpukuunsa. Hän nieli kaksi pilleriä, joi lasin vettä ja pisti päänsä
ulos teltan ovesta. — Ho, Sokani, hän sanoi puhuen murretta, —
anna lokalin soida!
 Hän kävi nukkumaan.

Hän kuuli liikkuvien miesten äänet, naurunpurskahdukset, kun

hänen leikinlaskuaan kerrottiin, sillä kambulilaiset ovat pilantekoa
ymmärtävää väkeä, ja sitten keppien terävän rätinän
alkuasukasrummun — onton puunrungon — kylkeen. Se löi tulisesti
— kiihkeästi, elottomasti, silloin tällöin matalammin, kun rumpali,
käyttäen koko taitonsa, lähetti unenviestiä leiriin.

Muutamassa kiihkeässä paikassa lokali vaikeni, ja Sanders

kääntyi huoaten tyytyväisenä ja sulki silmänsä äkkiä hän nousi
istualleen. Hän oli torkkunut, mutta nyt hän oli aivan valveilla.

Hän kuunteli, sitten hän nousi vuoteesta, ja veti jalkaan

hyttyssaappaansa. Hän astui yön pimeyteen ja tapasi N'keman,
koneenkäyttäjän, odottamasta.

— Kuulitko, herra? kysyi alkuasukas.

— Kuulin, sanoi Sanders hämmästynyt ilme kasvoillaan, — mutta

emmehän ole minkään kylän lähettyvillä.

Hän kuunteli.

Yöstä kuului sata kuisketta, mutta niiden yli kuului selvästi

vastaavan rummun heikko pärinä. Valkea mies rypisti otsaansa
kärsimättömästi. — Ei yhtään kylää lähempänä kuin Bongindanga,
sanoi hän, — ei edes kalakyliä, metsät ovat autiot.

Alkuasukas kohotti sormeaan varoittavasti ja kumarsi päätään,

kuulostellen. Hän luki rummun lähettämää viestiä. Sanders odotti;
hän tiesi tämän alkuasukkaiden sähkölennättimen kantavan viestiä
poluttomilla mailla.
 — Täällä on yksi valkea mies, luki alkuasukas, hän on sairas.

— Valkea mies!

Pimeässä Sandersin kulmat kohosivat ihmettelevästi.

— Hän on hullu, luki N'kema, — hän istuu Onnellisten ajatusten

metsässä eikä tahdo liikkua.

Sanders maiskautti huuliaan kärsimättömästi. — Ei yksikään

valkea mies istu Onnellisten ajatusten metsässä, sanoi hän puoliksi
itsekseen, — ellei hän ole hullu.

Mutta kaukainen rumpu kertasi yksitoikkoisesti uutistaan. Täällä

on todellakin, Afrikan ihanimmassa osassa, leiriytyneenä keskelle
Vihreää kuoleman tietä, valkea mies — Onnellisten ajatusten
metsässä — sairas valkea mies.

Niin rumpu jatkoi ja jatkoi, kunnes Sanders kutsui oman lokali-

miehensä ja lähetti vastauksen joen poikki; sitten hän alkoi kiireesti
pukeutua.

Metsässä makasi hyvin sairas mies. Hän oli itse valinnut

leiripaikkansa. Se oli aukealla, lähellä särkkää, joka pistäytyi korkean
norsunheinän välistä rantaan. Mainward valitsi sen juuri ennen kuin
sairaus tuli, koska se oli kaunis. Tämä ei ollut mikään pätevä syy;
mutta Mainward oli haaveellinen luonne, ja hänen elämänsä oli ollut
kauniiden leiripaikkojen valintaa ja vaaran halveksumista. — Hän oli,
sanoi eräs sanomalehti kertoessaan siitä tapauksesta, joka oli
pakottanut hänet pakenemaan lain kouraa Afrikan villeihin maihin,
mielikuvituksen uhri. Mainward luotti liiaksi paljon itseensä; se oli
yksi syy, miksi hän valitsi tämän kuoleman alueen Iturissa, jota
alkuasukkaat sanovat »Maaksi, jossa kaikki pahat ajatukset tulevat
hyviksi ajatuksiksi» ja jonka kauppiaat ja matkailijat ovat runollisesti
nimittäneet »Kauniiden unien metsäksi». Liiallinen itseluottamus oli
pääasiallisesti syynä Mainwardin kohtaloon — liiallinen luottamus
omien hevostensa hyvyyteen ja voittamattomuuteen, liiallinen
luottamus omaan kykyynsä hankkia rahaa tappioittensa
peittämiseksi — hän oli ollut erään pankin johtaja — liiallinen
luottamus omaan voimaan hankkia itselleen erään naisen rakkaus,
naisen, joka miehen kukistuessa katsoi häneen kylmästi ja pyysi
anteeksi, mutta hän ei ollut uskonut Mainwardilla todella olleen
sellaisia tunteita häntä kohtaan.

Nyt Mainward kohotti pakottavaa päätänsä ja kirosi ääneen.

— Miksi sinä pidät sellaista kirotunmoista elämää, hä? tiuskaisi

hän. —
Olet hyvin hullu mies, Abibu.

— Si, señor, myönsi Abibu, kanolaispoika, tyynesti.

— Lakkaa, kuulitko? raivosi raskaspäinen mies. Tuo ääni tekee

minut hulluksi! Sano heille, että lopettavat rummuttamisen.

Lokali lakkasi muutenkin, sillä kuuntelijat sairaan miehen leirissä

olivat kuulleet Sandersin kaukaisen vastauksen.

— Tule tänne, Abibu — tahdon hieman maitoa; avaa uusi tölkki ja

käske kokin laittaa minulle hieman lientä.

Palvelija jätti hänet mutisemaan ja kierittelemään kyljeltä toiselle

vaapperalla leirivuoteella. Mainwardilla oli ajateltavana monta
omituista asiaa. Kummallista, miten kaikki melusivat äänekkäästi;
kummallista, miten kaikki työnsivät syrjään toinen toisiaan huutaen
omia asioitaan. Olihan siinä tosin vararikko ja pankissa tehty huomio
— siitä tarkastajasta oli vaikea selvitä — ja Ethel ja hevoset ja —
ja…

Kauniiden unien laakso! Siitä olisi tullut kaunis kirja, jos Mainward
olisi osannut kirjoittaa, mutta onnettomuudeksi hän ei osannut. Hän
saattoi allekirjoittaa papereita, hän saattoi kirjoittaa nimensä:
»Kolmen kuukauden kuluttua tästä päivästä maksakaa -». Hän osasi
myös kirjoittaa toisten nimiä; hän kirosi ja päivitteli sitä ajatellessaan.

Mutta tämä oli metsä, jossa pahat ajatukset tulivat hyviksi

ajatuksiksi, ja, Jumala tietää, hänen päänsä oli täynnä. Hän halusi
rauhaa ja unta ja onnea — hän ikävöi onnea suuresti. Otaksutaan,
että ori olisi voittanut suuren kilpa-ajon? Se ei ollut voittanut (hän
kirosi pahaa muistoa), mutta otaksutaan? Otaksutaan, että hän olisi
tavannut ystävän, joka olisi lainannut hänelle kuusitoistatuhatta
puntaa, tai vaikkapa vain Ethel..

— Herra, sanoi Abibun ääni, — puk-a-puk, hän tulee.

— Äh, mitä se on?

Mainward kääntyi melkein raivoisana mieheen.

— Puk-a-puk — kuulethan.

Mutta sairas mies ei kuullut »Zairen» perärattaan loisketta, kun

pieni laiva halkoi virtaa — häntä ihmetytti, että aamu koitti, ja
vastenmielisesti hän tunnusti itselleen, että hän oli nukkunut. Hän
sulki silmänsä jälleen ja näki ihmeellistä unta. Tuli lyhyt, ruskettunut
mies, jolla oli sileäksi ajellut kasvot ja valkea aurinkokypärä ja
keltainen päällystakki yöpuvun päällä.

— Miltä teistä tuntuu? kysyi vieras.

— Roskaiselta, sanoo Mainward, — erittäinkin Ethelin vuoksi;

luuletteko hänen tehneen kauniisti, kun johti minut siihen luuloon,
että pitää minusta hirveästi, ja sitten viime hetkellä puijasi minua?

— Kauheaa, sanoo vieras valkea mies vakavasti, mutta heittäkää

hänet mielestänne nyt; hän ei ole ajattelemisen arvoinen. Mitä
sanotte tästä?

Hän näytti pientä, vihertävää pilleriä, joka oli hänen etusormensa

ja peukalonsa välissä, ja Mainward nauroi heikosti.

— Roskaa, sanoi hän. — Olette Kauniiden unien metsän tonttuja.

Mikä se on? Rakkauspilleri?

Hän nauroi hysteerisesti sukkeluudelleen.

Sanders nyökkäsi.

— Rakkaus tai elämä, sanoi hän vakavasti, — se on sama.

Nielkää!

Mainward tirskui ja totteli.

— Ja nyt, sanoi vieras (tämä tapahtui kuusi tuntia myöhemmin), —

on parasta, että poikani sijoittavat teidät laivaan ja vievät rannikolle.

Mainward pudisti päätään. Hän oli herännyt ärtyisänä ja surkean

heikkona.