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 About the Author

Carlo C. DiClemente, PhD, ABPP, is Professor of Psychology at the Uni-

versity of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC), and Director of the
MDQuit tobacco resource center, the Center for Community Collabo-
ration, and the Home Visitor Training Certificate Program at UMBC.
He is codeveloper of the transtheoretical model of behavior change and
author of numerous scientific publications on motivation and behav-
ior change with a variety of health and addictive behaviors. His books
include Substance Abuse Treatment and the Stages of Change, Second
Edition; Group Treatment for Substance Abuse, Second Edition; and
the self-help resource Changing for Good. Dr. DiClemente is a recipient
of awards including the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Addictive
Behaviors Special Interest Group of the Association for Behavioral and
Cognitive Therapies, the John P. McGovern Award from the American
Society of Addiction Medicine, the Innovators Combating Substance
Abuse award from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, and a Presi-
dential Citation from the American Psychological Association.

vii
 Preface

S ince the publication of the first edition of this book, there have
been significant advances in our understanding of addictions and recov-
ery. In this second edition, I have continued to deepen the understand-
ing of the process of initiation and recovery with updated research and
conceptual advances. I have expanded the discussion of the process of
initiation and the journey of recovery to include advances in research
on neuroscience, self-regulation and self-control, the influence of envi-
ronmental forces and policies, mechanisms of change, implicit cogni-
tive processing, behavioral economics, and the role of self-help, mutual
help, and spirituality. In addition, prevention and treatment implications
have been incorporated into the initiation and recovery stage chapters
rather than forming separate chapters, as in the first edition. I have also
included more information and research on how development (adoles-
cence and young adulthood) influences the process of initiation and the
variety of trajectories in the development of addictive behavior engage-
ment patterns. Advances in treatment models for addiction and coverage
of how both brief and more extensive interventions can effectively be
employed in prevention and treatment of substance abuse have also been
added. I have included more references to process addictions, like gam-
bling and sex addiction; eliminated or consolidated information from
treatment and prevention chapters into sections in stage-specific chap-
ters; and added a separate chapter on preparation for initiation and a
final chapter on some current critical areas for understanding addictions
from an addiction and change perspective.
Our societal views on addiction are changing. Perspectives on legal-
ization, harm reduction, prevention, and treatment are in flux, with
views becoming more polarized and many policymakers and others
showing great ambivalence about how to understand and handle addic-
tions. Nevertheless, there continue to be serious shortcomings in current
ix
x Preface

perspectives and the efforts at interdiction, prevention, criminalization,

and treatment that they support. Interdiction and elimination of the sup-
ply of substances feeding addictive behaviors appear impossible as long
as the demand from current and new consumers remains high. New
addictive products like e-cigarettes, synthetic marijuana, and prescrip-
tion medicines, as well as new pharmacological and screening interven-
tions, create new challenges and opportunities.
This second edition continues to offer an alternative, integrative
perspective for understanding addiction and recovery. My research and
review of the literature over the past 15 years have supported my con-
viction that addiction and recovery should be viewed as a process of
behavior change. Addictions are not static states turned off and on with
a switch. Rather they are multidetermined and take hold over time. They
may begin with experimentation, then progress to casual use, and then
on to abuse and dependence. Recovery is also a journey that takes time
and effort and is still achieveable, despite being filled with false starts
and failed attempts, as evidenced by the numerous diverse individuals
who have successfully recovered from addiction. Although the factors
that lead a particular individual into and out of addiction are unique to
that individual, the processes of becoming addicted and of recovery fol-
low a common path. This path is also common across individuals and
across addictive behaviors. In this edition, I illuminate that common
path and illustrate how multiple factors and experiences can influence
an individual’s progress along this path. More specifically, this book
isolates important dimensions of the process of change involved in start-
ing and stopping an addictive behavior. It highlights similarities in the
process across addictions, and it shows both addiction and recovery in a
larger life context. When viewed as a process of behavior change, addic-
tions can be managed more effectively.
This book views addiction through the dimensions of the Trans-
theoretical Model (TTM) of intentional behavior change that James Pro-
chaska and I developed and that I have further refined in research and
writings over the past 35 years. The TTM emerged from our seminal
research examining how smokers were able to free themselves from their
nicotine addiction. Soon after we published it, the model began being
applied to other addictive behaviors and lifestyle behaviors, as well as
in treating physical and mental health conditions. Although the model
described here is similar to descriptions in prior works, this book rep-
resents the first time I offer a complete, detailed, and precise version
of the model that is updated to accommodate my continually develop-
ing perspective on its use and usefulness. This book also represents the
first full application of the model to the process of becoming addicted.
 Preface xi

Other specific adaptations and changes to the model presented in this

book include a detailed explanation of the tasks for each stage of change
and illustrations of how the stages and processes of change interact to
produce movement through the stages of addiction and the stages of
recovery. I have incorporated an extensive consideration of the context
of change and how issues in multiple areas of life functioning interact
with addiction and recovery to both help and hinder change. I continue
to hope the views offered in this book will empower communities and
enrich programs and policies to prevent addiction and promote recovery.

PART I. UNDERSTANDING ADDICTIONS IN TERMS OF CHANGE

This book is organized into four parts. Part I introduces addiction and
recovery as a process of change. It begins in Chapter 1 with a brief review
of perspectives that have been used to understand addictions over the
past 100 years, highlighting their insights and blind spots. These differ-
ent models point to biological, psychological, and social influences and
attempt to understand how risk and protective factors create addiction
or promote recovery. Whereas some models are unsatisfactorily one-
dimensional, many are multidimensional but fail to explain how diverse
dimensions interact over time to produce addiction or recovery. Most,
however, are rather static in how they see addictions start or stop and
offer a limited view of the path into and out of addictions.
Chapter 2 describes our current understanding of the process of
behavior change as embodied in the TTM. This dynamic, develop-
mental, and multidimensional change perspective offers an integrative
framework for understanding change and the problems of addiction and
recovery. The stages of change highlight the specific tasks of Contempla-
tion, Preparation, Action, and Maintenance that mark the individual’s
progress toward addiction and the addicted person’s pathway to recov-
ery. Ten processes of change derived from different behavior change the-
ories describe key mechanisms that move individuals through the stages.
Five areas of functioning make up the context of change that contains
the risk and protective factors, resources, and barriers that influence
process activity and movement through the stages. Finally, critical mark-
ers of change track an individual’s decisional balance and self-efficacy/
temptation as he or she moves through the stages of change. The multi-
dimensional, integrative TTM offers a panoramic view of addiction and
recovery. Chapter 3 concludes with a description of the fully developed,
established addiction that represents the final stage in the path to addic-
tion and, at the same time, the starting point of the stages of recovery.
xii Preface

PART II. THE ROAD TO ADDICTION:

THE JOURNEY THROUGH THE STAGES OF ADDICTION

Part II, comprising Chapters 4, 5, and 6, goes back to the beginning,

describing the road to addiction and offering examples of stage transi-
tions. I propose that a similar process and the same TTM dimensions
mark the path to addiction as those that mark the path to recovery.
Stages in the process of becoming addicted include moving out of Pre-
contemplation to engaging in an addictive behavior and into serious con-
sideration and experimentation with that behavior (Chapter 4), then to
preparing to engage regularly (Chapter 5), and finally to developing a
regular, problematic pattern of engagement (Chapter 6). Stage transi-
tions that lead to addiction also involve shifts in the processes and mark-
ers of change as well as in contextual risk and protective factors. The
end point of these stages of addiction is the well-maintained addiction
described in Chapter 3.

PART III. QUITTING AN ADDICTION:

THE JOURNEY THROUGH THE STAGES OF RECOVERY

Part III describes each of the stages of recovery from an addiction in

detail. Clearly, once one has achieved a “well-maintained addiction,”
the challenge lies in how to free oneself from this state. Chapters 7–11
describe the Precontemplation (7), Contemplation and decision making
(8), Preparation (9), Action (10), and Maintenance (11) stages of recov-
ery; discuss critical goals and tasks of each stage; and outline how the
change dimensions of the TTM interact in the transition from one stage
to the next. Case examples help to illustrate the challenges of each stage.
Stable maintained recovery, the opposite of the well-maintained addic-
tion, represents the end point of recovery and the end of this part.

PART IV. RESEARCH AND INTERVENTIONS

AND A COMPREHENSIVE UNDERSTANDING
OF ADDICTIONS

Linking these stages of addiction to the stages of recovery allows

researcher and clinician to examine the entire journey of addicted indi-
viduals, from their first steps toward the addiction, through their strug-
gle to free themselves, and on to the path to successful recovery. This
panoramic view of the process of change offers a detailed, dynamic,
integrative framework to enhance our research and clinical perspectives.
 Preface xiii

In Part IV, Chapters 12 and 13 examine the implications of a change

process perspective for research on preventing addiction and promot-
ing recovery. Chapter 12 brings together the problem of addiction with
the process of change to create a synergy that enhances research and
enlightens evaluation to help show how individuals become enslaved by
addictions and how they can find their way to recovery. Chapter 13
(the final chapter) offers my vision of how this perspective on addiction
and change connects with the future of addiction science and practice,
addressing such topics as defining addiction and recovery, integrated
care, personalized medicine, and the important role of self-regulation. I
conclude with lessons I have learned that can contribute to a more com-
prehensive approach to understanding and addressing addiction.

It is my hope that this book will be useful to all who struggle with
addictions and those who try to help these individuals, especially treat-
ment providers, prevention specialists, researchers, and policymakers.
Examples and descriptions offer insights into a variety of addictive
behaviors, including smoking and nicotine addiction, alcohol abuse and
dependence, legal and illegal drug abuse, sex addiction, gambling, and
eating disorders. Prevention and treatment specialists from many dif-
ferent disciplines that deal with addictions will find information and
insights to enrich their work. Researchers in these areas will discover
a wealth of new ideas and concepts to examine and a more detailed
view of the process of addiction and recovery. Policymakers, service pro-
vision organizations, and funding agencies and foundations will find
views that challenge current practices and argue for a more complex and
extensive view of addiction. Understanding the challenges and goals of
each stage will enable them to offer assistance and develop policies and
programs that mirror the process of change. The ultimate goal of this
book is to assist professionals to help individuals to move out of the path
leading to addiction, as well as to help those already addicted along the
road to recovery.
Note that descriptions of all the case examples in this book rep-
resent fictional individuals except when referring to publicly available
information. Although my experiences are represented in many of these
examples, they do not represent any one individual, and in all cases sig-
nificant descriptors have been altered so as to avoid any connections to
any of my patients.
 Acknowledgments

T he ideas and dimensions described in this book are the result of

years of collaborative thinking and research that have involved hundreds
of colleagues, research assistants, and graduate students, and thousands
of clients, patients, and research volunteers. Although it is impossible to
name them all, I want to thank each of them for their contribution to this
book and to my understanding of addiction and the process of change.
My views of the process of change initially were developed and
refined in a wonderful, collaborative synergy with my colleague and
friend James Prochaska. Jim’s intellect, energy, and enthusiasm made our
collaboration rich and productive from our initial work together at the
University of Rhode Island through the 10 or so years of coordinated,
multisite research. Our discussions about the research and the model,
which have taken place by ocean and pool and in conference and fam-
ily rooms, have truly been peak experiences in my life. Our thoughts
and contributions blended to create the Transtheoretical Model (TTM).
I acknowledge his contribution to the concepts and thoughts in this book
and am proud to have our names linked as developers of the model.
However, I take responsibility for the description of the TTM of change
in this work and for any limitations or problems in presenting these
ideas.
The research and writings that examined and refined the TTM have
been accomplished with the collaboration and contribution of many col-
leagues. Wayne Velicer, John Norcross, Joe Rossi, Ellie McConnaughy,
Joe Fava, and a great group of investigators and graduate students at the
University of Rhode Island have been involved in much of the seminal
work. During internship and initial stages of my career, I was fortunate
to have colleagues at the Texas Research Institute of Mental Sciences
who also supported me, including Sam Solway, Kevin Roberts, Carol
Brady, and Jack Fletcher.
xv
xvi Acknowledgments

I want to thank Jack Gordon, who helped me open the first alco-
holism treatment clinic that used the TTM as its guiding framework,
and the many individuals who accompanied us on that journey. I also
want to thank colleagues at the University of Texas School of Public
Health and M. D. Anderson Hospital, who collaborated in a variety of
research projects examining various dimensions of change with addic-
tive behaviors, especially Patricia Dolan-Mullen, Michael Erickson,
and Sally Vernon. I continued my good fortune in finding creative col-
laborators in Maryland and around the country who have joined with
me to examine the process of change, including Alan Bellack, Melanie
Bennett, Maureen Black, Melanie Gold, Steve Havas, Bankole Johnson,
Carl Soderstrom, Chris Welsh, Jan Groff, Angela Stotts, Lee McCabe,
Chad Werch, and Ray Daugherty, who worked with me on redefining
addiction.
The experience of being an investigator on Project MATCH also
contributed greatly to refining ideas and providing data that were instru-
mental in gaining a better understanding of the change process in recov-
ery from alcoholism. Colleagues in this project were a very special group
of professionals who created the most productive and fun scientific
collaboration ever. Several of them worked closely with me exploring
motivation and the dimensions of the TTM and deserve special thanks,
including Gerard Connors, Dennis Donovan, Bill Miller, Phil Wirtz,
Dick Longabaugh, and Alan Zweben. Gerard, Dennis, Mary Velas-
quez, and I recently completed the second edition of Substance Abuse
Treatment and the Stages of Change, describing how to use the stages in
planning substance abuse treatment. Bill Miller deserves a special note
of thanks for creating an international audience for the TTM. Motiva-
tional interviewing and the TTM grew up together, and Bill and Steve
Rollnick were instrumental in creating a style and strategy to engage
individuals in the early stages of recovery and beyond. Finally, I want to
thank my many colleagues and friends at the Texas Research Institute
of Mental Sciences (TRIMS), the University of Texas Medical School,
the University of Houston, and the University of Maryland, Baltimore
County (UMBC), for their support.
I met Mary Velasquez in my days at TRIMS on one of my first
research projects. She is a wonderful friend and collaborator who
coordinated much of the Houston research on the model. Now a col-
league, she continues to develop innovative research and promote the
use of the model with addictions and other health problems. Her most
recent contribution is the second edition of the Group Treatment for
Substance Abuse: A Stages-of-Change Therapy Manual, based on the
stages and processes of change that we completed with Cathy Crouch
and Nanette Stephens. I am grateful for her dedication, support, and
long-standing friendship.
 Acknowledgments xvii

When I moved to the University of Houston, I was very fortunate

to have Joe Carbonari join with me to develop the alcohol-focused mea-
sures and to provide the statistical sophistication to evaluate many com-
plex questions about the process of change. Together with many stu-
dents and staff at the Change Assessment Research Program, we worked
on Project MATCH and many other research endeavors. He has con-
tributed valuable insights and analyses in the search for understanding
addiction and change.
From the very beginning of my research on the TTM to today, I
have been blessed with graduate and undergraduate research assistants
who have contributed much hard work, as well as insights, challenges,
and significant support. Although they are too numerous to name, I
want to thank them for their help. In theses and dissertations, graduate
students at the University of Houston and UMBC have explored many
questions about the process of change and addiction. I want to mention
those who have been involved most directly in research that examined
aspects of addiction and change in the Change Assessment Research
Program at the University of Houston: Scott Fairhurst, Amy Grossman,
Sheryl Hughes, Elizabeth O’Connor, Nancy Piotrowski, Alaina Suris,
Angie Stotts, Catherine Perz, Tom Irwin, Teresa King, Jennifer Roth-
fleisch, Ken Sewell, David Pena, Rosario Montgomery, Kelly Wright,
and Kirk von Sternberg. At UMBC in the HABITS laboratory, I have
a wonderful group of graduate students who have contributed to the
research project exploring addiction and change, including Rebecca
Lee, Jill Daniels Walker, Deborah King, Lori Bellino, Hildi Hagedorn,
Nancy Haug, Angela Marinilli, Manu Singh, Shannon Whyte, Amanda
Keevican, Janine Delahanty, Melissa Nidecker, Jennifer Malson, Leigh
Gemell, and Deb Schlundt. Many other graduate students contributed
to the second edition, including Sonia Arteaga, Tara Neavins, Shannon
Whyte, Miranda Kofeldt, Kris Schumann, Brian Kiluk, Onna Brewer,
Meredith Shaw, Daniel Rounsaville, Amber Norwood, Michael Earley,
Angela Petersen, Michele Crisafulli, Taylor Crouch, Shayla Thrash, Pres-
ton Greene, Katie Wright, Meagan Graydon, Catherine Corno, Daniel
Knoblach, and Alicia Wiprovnick. There is a saying that good graduate
students are worth their weight in gold. If that is the case, I am a very
rich man.
The research that I have done to develop my understanding of
addictions and the process of change could not have been accomplished
without three key ingredients: wonderful staff, sufficient funds, and
participants. I have had a great group of co-investigators and staff
and I want to thank in particular my support staff and graduate assis-
tants who have helped develop and run the centers at UMBC, includ-
ing Janine Delahanty, Francoise Jean-Louis, Terri Harold, Krystle
Pierce, June Sutherland, Henry Gregory, Tatiana MacDougall, Tisha
xviii Acknowledgments

Travaglini, Jade Charles, Lindsay Emery, Rebecca Schacht, and a host

of undergraduate research assistants at the University of Houston and
UMBC. I want to thank the National Cancer Institute, the National
Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, the National Institute on
Drug Abuse, and the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, as well
as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Centers for Sub-
stance Abuse Treatment and Prevention, the Health Services Research
Administration, the Robert Wood Johnson, Lippitz, and Pfizer Medical
Education Foundations, and the many state agencies who have provided
the funding for research and dissemination projects related to the TTM.
I also want to thank the many research participants who took the time
and made the effort to participate in the research while on their jour-
neys to and from addiction. I am constantly intrigued by their paths
into addiction and inspired by their stories of recovery.
I am grateful to my colleagues in Italy, Giovanni Forza and Nicola
Gentile; in Germany, Ulrich John and his colleagues; in England, Nick
Heather; and in Brazil, Margareth da Silva Oliveira and her graduate
students. They have used the TTM in their research and clinical prac-
tice and have shared their ideas and findings with me personally and in
their professional publications. I also want to thank the many name-
less reviewers of grant applications and publications. The questions they
asked and the problems they pointed out have clarified and enriched my
thinking and writing about the model.
Finally, at The Guilford Press, I would like to thank Senior Editor
Jim Nageotte, and Barbara Watkins, my editor for the first edition. Bar-
bara took the time to understand the ideas I was trying to communicate,
which made her insights, edits, and comments tremendously helpful. Jim
has provided the encouragement and support to see me through this
second edition. His counsel and feedback have been invaluable. I also
thank Jane Keislar, Senior Assistant Editor, for all her help in getting
the manuscript finalized, as well as the entire production team. This is a
great publishing group to work with. Special thanks as well to Michele
Crisafulli, Oluwadamilola “Dami” Ojo, and Meagan Graydon for their
help with literature searching, editing, and references.
Throughout my life journey and my work on this book, I have had
wonderful support and encouragement from my parents, family, and
friends. I want to thank all of them, particularly my father, mother,
brothers, and sisters for their caring and closeness. My wife, Lyn, and
my two daughters, Cara and Anna, have had to tolerate my time away
from the family during the many years of preparing and writing the first
and second editions. I am grateful to them for their love and support,
their understanding, and their patience.
 Contents

PART I. UNDERSTANDING ADDICTIONS

IN TERMS OF CHANGE
Chapter 1 Models of Addiction and Change 3

Chapter 2 The Process of Human Intentional Behavior Change 23

Chapter 3 The Well-Maintained Addiction: An Ending 46

and a Beginning

PART II. THE ROAD TO ADDICTION: THE JOURNEY

THROUGH THE STAGES OF ADDICTION
Chapter 4 Exploring the Precontemplation and Contemplation 71
Stages of Becoming Addicted and Interventions
to Prevent Initiation

Chapter 5 Preparation: The Critical Transition Stage 100

from Contemplation through Experimentation
to Regular Use

Chapter 6 Repeated and Regular Use: Moving into Action 117

on the Road to Addiction
xix
xx Contents

PART III. QUITTING AN ADDICTION:

THE JOURNEY THROUGH THE STAGES OF RECOVERY
Chapter 7 Precontemplation for Recovery: Cultivating Seeds 147
for Change

Chapter 8 The Decision to Change: Moving from the 174

Contemplation Stage to the Preparation Stage
of Recovery

Chapter 9 Preparing for Action: Creating Commitment and a Plan 194

Chapter 10 Taking Action to Change an Addiction 212

Chapter 11 The Long Haul: Well-Maintained Recovery 237

PART IV. RESEARCH AND INTERVENTIONS

AND A COMPREHENSIVE UNDERSTANDING OF ADDICTIONS

Chapter 12 Designing Interventions: Research Informed by the 259

Process of Initiation and Recovery

Chapter 13 Creating a Comprehensive Approach 290

to Understanding Addiction

References 311

Index 353
 PART I

UNDERSTANDING ADDICTIONS
IN TERMS OF CHANGE
 CHAPTER 1
■ ■ ■

Models of Addiction
and Change

A theoretical perspective provides a useful heuristic

to advance our knowledge of any phenomenon and
our ability to influence its existence, development,
and growth.

A ddictions have plagued society throughout history, as is evi-

dent from the Greco-Roman philosophers’ call for moderation and con-
demnation of bacchanalian excesses to our 21st-century preoccupation
with alcohol, drugs, food, sex, and gambling. Explanations for addiction
often have consisted of blaming individuals for their excessive engage-
ment in these behaviors. Scientific theories and models for explaining
and understanding addictions have existed only for the past 100 years.
Although our explanations have become more sophisticated and recent
advances in neuroscience have enabled us to link addictions and brain
activity, our understanding of addiction is far from complete.

WHAT IS AN ADDICTION?

Traditionally, the term addiction has been used to identify self-destructive

behaviors that include a pharmacological component. The most stringent
application would limit the term addiction and the companion label of
addict to individuals with a physiological dependence on one or more
illegal drugs. This definition usually includes a strong physiological
craving, withdrawal symptoms, and the need for more of the drug to
3
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
a quick oven. Ice while hot and set back in the oven for a moment to
dry.

Dutch Almond Cake

1 lb. sweet almonds
¹⁄₂ oz. bitter almonds
1 lb. powdered sugar
12 eggs
5 table-spoons pounded biscuit or flour
Rose water
Blanch and pound the almonds, adding to them a little rose water.
Beat up the yolks. Add them to the sugar and beat thoroughly
together. Then add the whites, whisked to a stiff froth, and the
pounded almonds. Add the finely crushed biscuits or flour. Bake in a
moderate oven in a German tin lined with greased paper.

Eversley Cake
5 ozs. butter
6 ozs. best flour
3 eggs
5 ozs. castor sugar
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon baking powder
¹⁄₄ lb. mixed peel
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar, then the flour, and well-
beaten eggs, the sliced peel and lastly the baking powder. Beat
altogether for twenty minutes and bake in a good oven for an hour.

Lady Cake
1 cup butter
2 cups powdered sugar
 3 cups flour
¹⁄₂ cup milk
Whites of 8 eggs
2 tea-spoons cream of tartar
1 tea-spoon carbonate of soda
1 tea-spoon extract of almonds
Beat the butter to a cream. Stir in the sugar gradually, beating hard
all the time. Mix the cream of tartar with the flour, and the soda with
the milk. Add flour and milk alternately in small quantities, beating
continually. Add the flavouring, and then stir in the stiffly-beaten
whites lightly. Bake in a moderate oven in a tin lined with greased
paper.

*Potato Flour Cake

1 lb. butter
11 eggs
1 lb. sugar
1 lb. potato flour
1 wine-glass rum
Soften the butter. Then beat it until very light and creamy. Add to it
alternately one whole egg, one table-spoon flour, one table-spoon
sugar, beating well between each addition. When about half the
materials are used add the rum. Add the rest of the ingredients
alternately as before. From first to last the cake should be beaten for
an hour. Bake in a buttered tin for one hour and a half to two hours.

*Pound Cake—I
1 lb. butter
1 lb. powdered sugar
10 eggs
1 lb. flour
 ¹⁄₂ wine-glass sherry
¹⁄₂ wine-glass brandy
Cream the butter. Add the sugar and well beaten yolks. Beat
thoroughly. Add the flour and wine, beating all the time. Stir in the
whites, which should be whisked to a stiff froth. Bake in three or four
small well greased tins in a moderate oven, as this cake is always
lighter if baked in small tins. Crystallised cherries halved are an
excellent addition to a pound cake. They should be thoroughly mixed
in the cake before the whites are added.

Pound Cake—II
1 lb. flour
1 lb. eggs
1 lb. sugar
³⁄₄ lb. butter
1 glass brandy
Beat the butter and half of the flour until light and creamy. Add the
brandy. Beat the yolks thoroughly and add them alternately with the
stiffly beaten whites and the rest of the flour. Beat all together for
half-an-hour. Bake in two tins in a moderate oven for about an hour.

*Rice Cake—I
6 yolks
3 whites
Grated peel of one lemon
4 ozs. flour
¹⁄₂ lb. ground rice
¹⁄₂ lb. powdered sugar
Beat the yolks and whites separately. Add the grated rind to the
yolks. Beat again and add the whites. Mix well. Mix the flour, rice and
sugar together. Add the eggs gradually, beating continually for about
an hour. Bake in a tin lined with greased paper in a slow oven for
about an hour.

Rice Cake—II
1 cup butter
2 cups sugar
2¹⁄₄ cups rice flour
6 eggs
Juice and grated rind of a lemon
Beat the butter and sugar to a cream. Add the well beaten yolks
and the flour. Beat thoroughly for five minutes. Add the lemon juice
and rind and the stiffly beaten whites.
Bake in shallow square tins in which the depth of the mixture when
poured in is less than two inches.
Bake thirty-five to forty-five minutes in a moderate oven.

Rice Cake—III
4 ozs. butter
2 eggs
4 ozs. powdered sugar
4 ozs. ground rice
6 ozs. flour
1 tea-spoon baking powder
Beat the butter to a cream and add the sugar. Beat the eggs till
creamy and light, and add them with the flour (in which the baking
powder should be mixed) and ground rice. Add a little milk and a few
drops of essence of lemon or vanilla. Bake in a moderate oven for
three quarters of an hour.

*Snow Cake
 1 lb. arrowroot
¹⁄₂ lb. powdered sugar
¹⁄₂ lb. butter
Whites of six eggs
Vanilla or lemon flavouring
Beat the butter to a cream. Stir in the sugar and beat well again.
Add the arrowroot, beating all the time vigorously. Whisk the whites
to a stiff froth. Add them to the mixture. Beat all together for twenty
minutes. Add a little vanilla or the juice or rind of a lemon. Bake in a
buttered mould in a moderate oven for from one hour to one hour
and a half.

*White Cake—I
1 cup butter
3 cups powdered sugar
1 cup milk
5 cups sifted flour
1 tea-spoon carbonate of soda
2 tea-spoons cream of tartar
Whites of twelve eggs
1 tea-spoon vanilla
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar. Beat well. Add the soda
to the milk and the cream of tartar to the flour. Add flour and milk to
the mixture, beating hard all the time. Beat the eggs to a stiff froth.
Add them and the vanilla. Bake in two tins lined with greased paper.
The oven should be slow at first, then moderate.

White Cake—II
3 cups sugar
¹⁄₂ cup butter
1 cup sweet milk
2 tea-spoons cream of tartar
 1 tea-spoon carbonate of soda
3 cups flour
Whites of four eggs
Mix as for the first receipt.

*White Cake—III
3 cups powdered sugar
1 cup butter
1 cup milk
3 cups flour
1 cup corn starch
12 whites of eggs
2 tea-spoons cream of tartar
1 tea-spoon carbonate of soda
Mix the cream of tartar thoroughly with the flour and dissolve the
soda in half of the milk. Stir the cornflour in the rest of the milk until
perfectly smooth.
Beat the butter and yolks together until creamy. Add the corn
starch paste. Stir it well in. Add the milk and soda and the flour. Beat
the whites to a stiff froth and stir in lightly. Bake in two papered tins in
a moderate oven.
 Layer Cakes and Fillings
PAGE
Layer Cake—I. 29
” ” II. 29
” ” III. 30
” ” IV. 30
Fillings for Layer Cakes—
Almond Cream 31
Chocolate—I. 31
” II. 32
Cocoanut—I. 32
” II. 32
Cream—I. 33
” II. 33
Fig 33
Fruit 34
Orange and Cocoanut Cream 34
Strawberry Cream 34
Californian Fig Cake 35
Coffee Cake 36
Fruit Layer Cake 37
Jam Sandwich—I. 37
” ” II. 38
Lemon Layer Cake 38
 Ribbon Cake 39
Swiss Roll 40

General Directions
The tins for these cakes should be about 8 inches in diameter with
a very shallow rim. They should be kept perfectly clean, and before
being used should be slightly warmed and well greased with butter,
lard or good sweet oil.
Three layers are sufficient for a cake. They should not be thick.
Cool each layer when baked on a perfectly flat surface and spread
with the filling when cold.

Layer Cake—I
3 eggs
1 cup white sugar
Butter size of an egg
1 cup flour
1 even tea-spoon baking powder
Beat the butter and sugar to a cream. Add the well beaten yolks
and then the flour, in which the baking powder has been thoroughly
mixed. Beat the whites till stiff.
Bake in three round shallow buttered tins in a moderate oven.
When cold, place one round on a large plate and spread it with jelly,
jam or other filling. Cover it with another round and spread this. Ice
the top. If jam is used it should be beaten or warmed a little in order
that it may spread more easily.

Layer Cake—II

¹⁄₂ lb. butter

5 eggs
 6 ozs. flour
2 ozs. cornflour
¹⁄₂ lb. powdered sugar
1 tea-spoon vanilla
2 table-spoons sherry
Beat butter to a cream. Add sugar gradually, beating all the time.
Then add the yolks, the flour and corn starch. Beat the whites to a
stiff froth. Add them and the flavourings to the mixture. Bake in three
tins for fifteen minutes, in a moderately quick oven.

Layer Cake—III
8 ozs. sugar
5 eggs
¹⁄₄ lb. butter
1 tea-cup milk
12 ozs. flour
1 tea-spoon baking powder
Beat the sugar with the eggs for fifteen minutes. Melt the butter
and add it. Beat again very thoroughly. Add the baking powder to the
flour and sift it. Add it and the milk to the mixture, beating continually.

Layer Cake—IV
6 eggs
2 cups flour
2 cups sugar
2 heaped table-spoons butter
¹⁄₃ cup milk
2 tea-spoons cream of tartar
1 scant tea-spoon carbonate of soda
Beat the yolks and whites separately. Add the sugar to the yolks.
Beat thoroughly. Add the butter, which should be softened but not
melted. Dissolve the soda in a tea-spoon of boiling water. Add it to
the milk. Sift the cream of tartar with the flour. Add the flour and milk
to the mixture and then the whites. Bake in a moderate oven in
shallow round tins.

Almond Cream Filling

1 lb. sweet almonds
1 small cup cream
2 table-spoons corn starch
Powdered sugar to taste
Cook the corn starch for ten minutes in as small a quantity of milk
as is possible. Blanch the almonds and pound them to a paste. Beat
the cream. Mix the almonds, cream and corn starch together and
beat thoroughly. Add the powdered sugar.

Chocolate Filling—I
3 whites of eggs
1 cup sugar
1 cup grated chocolate
Vanilla
Beat the white of eggs slightly. Mix all well together.

Chocolate Filling—II
5 table-spoons grated chocolate
¹⁄₂ cup cream
1 cupful sugar
1 egg
1 tea-spoon vanilla
Beat the egg well. Add it to the chocolate and cream. Stir over the
fire till thoroughly mixed. Flavour with vanilla.
 Cocoanut Filling—I

¹⁄₂ cup cream

¹⁄₂ cup grated cocoanut
¹⁄₂ cup powdered sugar
1. Beat the cream slightly. Add the sugar and cocoanut.
2. Add a small cup of finely grated cocoanut to some plain icing
(see p. 65).

Cocoanut Filling—II

¹⁄₂ cocoanut
Whites of three eggs
1 cup powdered sugar
Grate the cocoanut. Add it with the sugar to the whites beaten to a
stiff froth.

Cream Filling—I
1 pint milk
2 eggs
3 table-spoons sifted flour
1 cup powdered sugar
Cook the flour, mixed smooth, in a little milk for ten minutes. Add it
to the milk in which the eggs (or yolks only) have been beaten up.
Put all in an enamel saucepan. Add the sugar. Stir continually but
take off before it boils. Add flavouring.

Cream Filling—II
 ¹⁄₂ cup cream
2 table-spoons powdered sugar
Flavouring
Whip the cream. Add the sugar and a very little flavouring.

Fig Filling
1 lb. figs
1 tea-cup water
¹⁄₂ tea-cup sugar
Chop the figs finely. Cook them with the water and sugar until soft
and smooth.

Fruit Filling
4 table-spoons citron
4 ” raisins
¹⁄₂ cupful chopped almonds
¹⁄₄ lb. chopped figs
3 whites of eggs
¹⁄₂ cup sugar
Chop the citron and stoned raisins very fine. Chop the almonds
and figs. Beat the whites to a stiff froth. Add the sugar. Mix together
thoroughly. Add the other ingredients.

Orange and Cocoanut Cream Filling

1 egg
1 cup whipped cream
¹⁄₂ cup powdered sugar
1 cup grated cocoanut
 Juice of one orange
Grated rind of half an orange
Mix all together.

Strawberry Cream Filling

¹⁄₂ pint cream

¹⁄₂ cup powdered sugar
¹⁄₄ oz. gelatine
1 cup mashed strawberries
Whip the cream. Set it on ice. Add the sugar to the strawberries.
Mash them. Mix them with the cream. Dissolve the gelatine. Add it
carefully to the cream and strawberries. Stir over the ice until the
cream begins to set. Leave the mixture on the ice until the cake is
ready to serve. Spread it thickly between each layer.

Californian Fig Cake

1 cup sugar
¹⁄₂ cup butter
1 cup flour
¹⁄₂ cup cornflour
¹⁄₂ cup sweet milk
Whites of three eggs

Filling

¹⁄₂ lb. almonds

6 ozs. figs
¹⁄₂ cup seeded raisins
2 ozs. citron
 1 egg
1 glass white wine
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar and beat again. Sift the
flours together. Add them and the milk. Beat very well and add the
whites beaten to a stiff froth. Bake in two shallow tins in a quick
oven.
For the filling. Chop all the ingredients very finely together. Mix
them with the egg and wine. Spread in a thick layer between the two
cakes.

*Coffee Cake
7 ozs. flour, sifted and dried
¹⁄₂ lb. powdered sugar
7 ozs. butter
1 table-spoon potato flour
7 eggs
2 table-spoons brandy
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar and beat well again.
Beat up the yolks, add them and the flour, in which the potato flour
should be mixed, to the butter and sugar. Stir in the brandy. Mix all
well together. Beat the whites to a stiff froth and stir in lightly. Bake in
a mould with a tube in centre.

Cream

Whites of four eggs

¹⁄₂ lb. powdered sugar
¹⁄₂ wine-glass extract of coffee
¹⁄₂ lb. butter
Beat the whites to a stiff froth. Sift in the sugar. Add the coffee
extract. Beat the butter to a cream. Add the mixture to it and mix well
with a wooden spoon.
 Cut the cake across, when cold, into several sections, spread the
cream between each layer. Put together neatly. Fill the hollow in the
centre with the cream, and spread it all over the cake.

Fruit Layer Cake

1 cup sugar
¹⁄₂ cup butter
1¹⁄₂ cups flour
¹⁄₂ cup wine
1 cup stoned and chopped raisins
2 eggs
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon soda
Cream the butter. Add the sugar. Beat well. Add the flour, the well
beaten yolks, and the wine gradually, beating all the time. Dissolve
the soda in a very little hot water. Add it to the mixture, and the
raisins chopped and floured. Stir in the wine and the whites beaten
to a stiff froth. Bake in a moderate oven in three shallow round tins.
Put plain icing between each layer.

*Jam Sandwich—I
2 eggs
Their weight in flour and powdered sugar
A little less than their weight in butter
1 small tea-spoon baking powder
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the eggs well beaten, then the
sugar and flour and, lastly, the baking powder. It is an improvement if
the sugar includes four or five lumps of sugar which have been well
rubbed on a lemon and then crushed. Bake in two shallow buttered
tins (about 8¹⁄₂ inches) in a moderate oven, about fifteen minutes.
When cold spread one round with jam. Place the second round on it.
Press it lightly down and sift powdered sugar over it.
 Jam Sandwich—II
1 egg
Its weight in butter, sugar, flour and ground rice
1 tea-spoon milk
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon baking powder
Beat the butter and sugar together. Add the unbeaten egg, then
the flour, ground rice, milk and, lastly, the baking powder. Bake in
two shallow well-buttered round tins (8 inch) for ten to fifteen
minutes. Proceed as above.

Lemon Layer Cake

10 eggs
1 lb. sugar
¹⁄₂ lb. flour
2 lemons
1 orange
1¹⁄₄ lb. icing sugar
Beat the yolks well together. Add seven whites beaten until stiff,
the sugar, the rind of two lemons and the juice of one. Bake in
separate layers in a moderate oven.
Beat the remaining whites (3) and add to them gradually the icing
sugar. Set aside sufficient to ice the outside of the cake. To the rest
add the juice of the orange and half of the rind grated. Wait until the
cake is nearly cold and then spread the layers with the mixture.
Add a little lemon juice to the icing for the top and sides and
spread it on as thickly as possible.

Ribbon Cake
1 cup butter
2 cups sugar
 4 eggs
3 cups flour
1 table-spoon baking powder
1 cup milk
1 tea-spoon vanilla
1 tea-spoon mixed mace and cinnamon
1 cup stoned and floured chopped raisins and currants
1 table-spoon molasses or treacle
1 dessert-spoon brandy
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar. Add the well beaten
yolks and beat all together thoroughly. Add the flour (with which the
baking powder has been thoroughly mixed) and the milk. Beat the
whites to a stiff froth. Stir them lightly into the mixture. Add the
vanilla.
Divide the mixture into three parts. To one part add the spice,
raisins, currants, molasses and brandy. Mix thoroughly.
Bake the three parts on separate shallow, round or oblong tins for
half-an-hour in a moderate oven. When cold spread a layer of light
cake with plain icing or red-currant jelly. Put the layer of dark cake
over it. Ice this layer or spread jelly on it and cover with the second
layer of light cake. Press lightly together and trim.

Swiss Roll
2 eggs
Their weight in powdered sugar
3 ozs. flour
1 small tea-spoon baking powder
Break the eggs on to the sugar. Beat until light and creamy. Add
the flour gradually, beating continually. Stir in the baking powder.
Bake in a large flat tin which should be thoroughly greased. Spread
the mixture over it and bake quickly for seven to ten minutes. Turn
out at once on to a board on which sugar has been sifted. Spread
with jam and roll.
 Various Cakes
PAGE
Buttercup Cake 42
Chocolate Cake—I. 42
” ” II. 43
” ” III. 44
Gold Cake 44
Marbled Cake 45
Nut Cake 46
Shortbread—I. 46
” II. 47
Walnut Cake 47

Buttercup Cake

³⁄₄ cup butter

1¹⁄₂ cups sugar
Yolks of eight eggs
1 whole egg
¹⁄₂ cup milk
2 cups flour
¹⁄₂ tea-spoon carbonate of soda
1¹⁄₂ tea-spoons cream of tartar
Juice and grated rind of half a lemon
Cream the butter. Add the sugar. Beat thoroughly. Beat the eggs
till light and frothy. Add to the butter. Dissolve the soda in the milk.
Mix the cream of tartar with the flour. Add milk and flour to the
mixture, beating well continually. Add the lemon juice and rind. Bake
in two greased tins in a moderate oven until the cake shrinks from
the sides.

*Chocolate Cake—I
9 ozs. butter
7 ozs. chocolate powder
9 ozs. sugar
5 eggs
6 ozs. flour
Mix the chocolate powder (which should be of the finest quality)
with the butter. Beat for a quarter of an hour. Add the sugar and beat
again. Beat the yolks and whites separately. Add the yolks, then the
flour, beating well all the time. Add the stiffly beaten whites. Bake in
a tin lined with greased paper in a moderate oven for an hour.

*Chocolate Cake—II
4 ozs. powdered chocolate
4 ozs. castor sugar
4 ozs. butter
3 eggs
2¹⁄₂ ozs. flour
1 small tea-spoon baking powder
Put the chocolate into the oven to warm. Cream the butter and
sugar. Beat the eggs until light and creamy. Add them to the butter
and sugar. Then stir in the warmed chocolate and mix thoroughly.
Sift the flour and baking powder together and add gradually, beating
hard all the time. Beat for ten minutes. Bake in a tin lined with
greased paper in a quick oven for an hour.

*Chocolate Cake—III
 ¹⁄₂ lb. butter
12 eggs
¹⁄₂ lb. powdered sugar
¹⁄₂ lb. pounded almonds
4 ozs. powdered chocolate
1 salt-spoon crushed cloves and mace
Beat the butter to a cream. Add the yolks gradually, beating
continually. Add the pounded almonds, sugar, chocolate and spices.
Beat altogether for twenty minutes. Add the whites whisked to a stiff
froth. Bake in a German tin (see p. 1) lined with greased paper, in a
very moderate oven for an hour and a quarter. Ice when cold.

Gold Cake
1 lb. sugar
¹⁄₂ lb. butter
1 lb. flour
Yolks of ten eggs
Grated rind of one orange
Juice of two lemons
1 tea-spoon carbonate of soda
Cream the butter and sugar. Add the yolks. Beat hard for five or
six minutes. Add the flour. Dissolve the soda in a very little hot water.
Stir it thoroughly into the mixture. Add the lemon and orange
flavouring. This flavouring should be prepared beforehand by putting
the grated orange peel to soak for half-an-hour in the lemon juice,
which should then be strained off through fine muslin. Bake in
greased tins. Ice with orange icing (see p. 68).

Marbled Cake
1 cup butter
2 cups powdered sugar
3 cups flour