Schneider Electric's Energy

University Program, 2024

Author: Youssef Khaled Gomaa

University: Ain Shams
LinkedIn: Youssef Khaled
1-Electrical concept
• MBTU is equal to 1,000 BTU of energy. 1,000,000 BTU is expressed
as MMBTU – a thousand times a thousand
• 1 BTU is equivalent 1055 joules----1000ft=3048m
• Ccf means 100 ft³, Mcf is 1000 ft³, cf is cubic feet.
• 1 Barrel=42 gallons=159 liters calorie is 4.184 joules
• a metric tonne is 1000 kg, 1Kg=0.5 Ib
• 1 Therm=100,000 BTU(Energy)=100 ft³(Volume)
• Higher heating value (HHV) is found by burning a small sample of
fuel in an oxygen environment and recording the heat released
• Lower heating value subtracts the heat associated with the water
changing state
• Load factor is the ratio of the actual consumption of a building or
factory to its consumption if peak demand had been constant
through the period.
• What would be the load factor of a building that consumed
780,000kWh during September, with peak demand of 1,900 kW
(1900*30*24)/780,000=0.57
• Days where the mean daily temperature is below the base
temperature are said to have heating degree days (HDD). That
means it was colder than the base, and heating was needed.
• Days where the mean daily temperature is above the base
temperature are said to have cooling degree days (CDD)
• HDD and CDD values are always
expressed as positive values (or zero)
• Consider a 100 HP air compressor that runs
continuously 24 hours per day. This machine is 90%
efficient and is loaded at 70%. Assume that the facility
is paying $80 per kW per year and $0.05 per kWh.
2-Power Factor and Harmonics
• The multiplying factor is called "harmonic order
• Reactive power is normally supplied by generators, capacitors and
synchronous motors.
• A facility has a demand of 3500 kW and a power factor of 0.78. What size of
capacitor would be required to improve the power factor to 0.9?
Qc = 3500 * (0.80 - 0.48) = 1120 kvar
• Global compensation: Capacitor bank
connected at installation's supply end (Ideal for stable and continuous loads)
• Sectoral compensation: Capacitor bank connected at sector's supply end
(Ideal for extended installations with varying load systems, like workshops)
• Individual compensation or local: Capacitor bank directly connected to
machine terminals (typically motors) (Best technical solution as reactive
energy is supplied directly where needed)
• Fixed, by connection of a fixed-value capacitor bank
• Automatic, by connection of different number of steps, allowing the
adjustment of the reactive energy to the requested value,
• Dynamic, for compensation of highly fluctuating loads
• - Fixed Compensation: Uses capacitors for constant compensation, manually
or semi-automatically controlled, suitable for stable loads.
• - Automatic Compensation: Automatically adjusts reactive power to
maintain targeted power factor, recommended for installations with large
power variations.
• - Dynamic Compensation: Combines fixed capacitors with electronic var
compensator for fast and continuous compensation, ideal for fluctuating
loads needing stable voltage.
• Active filters are systems employing power electronics, to provide the
harmonic currents required by nonlinear loads and thereby avoiding
distortion on the power system
• Hybrid filters are systems including a passive filter and an active filter in a
single unit.
• Passive filters are implemented when power factor correction is requested
with a high level of existing harmonic distortion.
3-Fuels 1&2
• Consumption will rise particularly in countries such as India and
China.
• Countries and regions such as the US, EU, China, Japan and
India import much of their energy needs.
• The largest reserves of oil are found in the Middle East, with
the largest reserves of gas in Russia, and coal in the United
States.
• Those coal reserves mean the United States has the largest
total energy reserve in the world.
• Due to its large coal reserves, combined with gas and oil, the
US has the largest overall energy resources in the world.
• The main advantage(s) of biomass is Usually home grown and
may be considered carbon neutral
• New technologies such as hydraulic fracturing have made oil
resources available that were previously uneconomical to
develop such as Natural gas
• the energy value of a pound of farmed tree wood is 2.6 kWh
per lb
 5-Electrical Vehicles
• Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV): HEVs have a small electric
battery alongside an internal combustion engine, boosting fuel
efficiency by around 25%. They minimize idling, enhance start
and launch assist, and operate both on electric power and the
gasoline engine.
• Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV): PHEVs, like HEVs, have
electric motors and combustion engines but can charge from an
outlet, allowing more electric use. They typically run on
electricity at low speeds and can commute solely on electric
power, recharging via the engine, regenerative braking, and
overnight charging.
• Extended-Range Electric Vehicle (EREV): EREVs use an internal
combustion engine solely to charge the battery, which powers
the electric motor driving the wheels. Examples like the
Chevrolet Volt rely on the engine to extend electric range, with
the option to plug into the grid for recharging.
• Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV): BEVs solely rely on electric
power, with no internal combustion engine. They need to plug
into the electric grid, offering ranges of over 130 km per charge.
They require larger batteries and faster charging methods.
Examples include the Nissan Leaf, Renault Fluence, and Ford
Focus Electric.
6-A Comparison of AC and DC Power
Distribution in the Data Center
• According to the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory report,
“High Performance Buildings: Data Centers – Server Power
Supplies,” the efficiency of server PSUs in past generations, was
approximately 75% at 50% load.
• in a high-density installation, ASHRAE and various other
organizations have demonstrated the need for uninterruptible
operations of air conditioner fans. This means that during a
power failure the air conditioner fans cannot wait for a generator
to start and must be supplied with uninterrupted power. For an AC
system, this is a simple wiring option. However, for a DC system
this means that air conditioner fans compatible with external DC
power must be used. Such devices are currently not available and
are expected to be costly.
• maximum theoretical efficiency advantage for DC power supplies
is only 6%
• Exclusive of cooling systems, many data centers operate at 30% or
less efficiency.
• The cost of a DC UPS system is typically lower than an AC UPS
system by 10% to 20%. However, the additional engineering,
specialized breakers, and wiring distribution costs associated with
DC offset this savings.
• The elimination of power distribution unit (PDU) transformers is
one of the reasons DC power distribution has been proposed.
7-Building Controls I
• In an open control loop, the output
has no effect on the controlling
variable. This is sometimes referred
to as a no-feedback control loop.
• In a closed control loop, the controlling variable is
affected by the actions of the controlled device
upon the controlled variable. This is sometimes
referred to as feedback
• Cascade control loops are sometimes referred to as
reset control loops. With a cascade loop there
are two inputs. Typically, one of the inputs is
closed loop and the second is open loop. The
open loop input is typically used to modify the
performance of the closed control loop.
• pneumatic controllers: not flexible-high
maintenance-combined a variety of physical components to create
a control loop-could not be remotely monitored.
• Electrical controllers: Reliable and accurate-Relatively low
maintenance-low cost-don’t interface directly to the computer
control systems-inflexibility
• Direct digital controller (DDC)
• Red-wire: It simply turns another controller
on or off. One controller will determine
when another controller is able to perform
its function.
• Input device provide data: sensor
interprets input: controller
change or maintain environmental conditions: controlled device
8-Building Controls II
• Temperature Sensors:
o Thermistors and temperature transmitters are the primary types.
o Thermistors change resistance with temperature and are cheaper but less accurate.
o Temperature transmitters convert temperature readings into voltage or current and are more
accurate but expensive and require source of power.
o Used for measuring outside air temperature, occupied space temperature, and various
temperatures within mechanical systems.
o Placement and design are crucial to ensure accurate readings.
• Room/Zone Temperature Sensors:
o Different from thermostats; send electrical signals to controllers for equipment control.
o Controllers process sensor data and adjust outputs accordingly.
• Equipment Temperature Sensors:
o Include strap-on or bulb-type sensors, immersion sensors, and duct
sensors. North- North
o Used to measure temperatures of pipes and ducts for heating and
ventilation systems.
• Humidity Sensors:
o Measure relative humidity, critical for energy analysis and control in environments like libraries and
labs.
o Maintenance is essential for accuracy.
• Pressure Sensors:
o Measure static or differential pressure.
o Used for various purposes including airflow control and smoke management.
o Proper sensor selection and placement are crucial for accurate readings.
• Flow Meters:
o Used to measure volume or mass of air or liquids in pipes.
o Two ways of determining flow: volumetric (velocity multiplied by cross-sectional area) and mass
flow (requires density).
o Four main types: Differential Pressure, Positive Displacement, Velocity, and Mass Flow.
o Used for various applications including HVAC systems and water supply.
• Electrical Sensors:
o Measure electrical current, voltage, power, or energy consumption.
o Current sensing relays monitor current levels and trigger actions based on thresholds.
o Current transducers provide linear signals proportional to current flow.
o More sophisticated transducers measure voltage and power, aiding in energy management.
• Gas Sensors:
o Detect presence or levels of gases like carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and
refrigerants.
o Critical for safety in environments with combustion processes.
o Non-dispersive infrared sensors (NDIR) commonly used for measuring CO and CO2.
• Switches:
o Automatic switches detect substances and control circuits based on presence or absence.
o Used for safety and process control.
o Types include smoke switches, high/low limit switches, flow switches, pressure switches, and
occupancy sensors.
• Occupancy Sensors:
o Detect presence of people in areas for lighting, conditioning, or security.
o Technologies include infrared (IR) and ultrasonic sensors.
o IR sensors detect thermal differences, while ultrasonic sensors emit and detect sound waves.
9-Building Controls III &IV
• two-position response: produces a digital response where the end device
is either in an “on” state or “off” state.
• floating response: Floating control is an
analog control process. It may be used to
control either a tri-state device or an analog
device-the chief benefit of floating control is
the Great stability in a system
• A proportional response (P)
• Proportional plus integral (PI)
• Proportional plus integral plus derivative (PID)
• The actual value of a controlling variable is called the control point
• Error or offset(drift, deviation or control-point shift) is
the distance that actual value is away from the set-
point
• differential is the difference between the setting at
which the controller operates at one position, and the
setting at which it changes to the other position.
• The throttling range is the amount of change in the
controlling variable required to run the actuator of the
controlled device from one end of its stroke to the
other end.
• Neutral zone or deadband defines a range that is
acceptable for control purposes- the output
of the controller remains constant as the
input
11-Building Controls V & VI & VII & VIII
• Proportional control involves giving a response proportional to the stimulus
• The integral, when included, addresses how long the variable has been
away from the setpoint.
• The derivative component, when
included, addresses how fast the variable
is approaching its setpoint.
• In general, P relates to the present offset,
I relates to the accumulation of past offsets, and D predicts future offsets
based on the current rate of change.
• The derivative term changes the total response if the actual value is falling
or rising quickly. This makes the change more gradual and helps avoid
overshooting the setpoint.
• Imagine that it is the summer, and the heating system for the building is
completely turned off. You enter a room that has been too hot for quite a
while. Someone turns the control system on. The proportional and integral
terms will drive a lot of cold air to the zone.If the zone becomes overcooled
due to overshooting the setpoint, you will need to wait for it to heat back
up passively. You will not be able to force the temperature variable upward.
• two ways of handling setpoint adjustments without incurring large swings in
the control response are Include a derivative term in the control response,
or make the setpoint adjustment gradually
• Although PID control can be expensive, it is the best overall control strategy
for any building control situation False
• What is the advantage of reduced gain?
The proportional response will be smaller, allowing for finer adjustments.
This makes it easier for the system to achieve stability
• PID control is the best control strategy to minimize/eliminate
"overshooting" a setpoint.
• Building control systems often reach stability at an offset or error from the
setpoint. What or who determines if that offset is acceptable? Customer
• What is the effect of changing the gain of a system? Changes the response
to an offset You should have checked this.
• Proportional control is a form of Linear response.
• A dimmer is an example of a modulating device, something which controls
the intensity of the output.
• Systematic controller is NOT a type of controller.
• A variable air volume or VAV box controller is an example of an application-
specific controller
• A point collection module is used to expand the number of inputs and
outputs of a primary controller
• A network controller can be used to translate and allow communications
between devices with different communications protocols on the same
system
• open or closed two-position enabling and disabling mechanical devices relays and contactors
Without Variable speed drive a pump or fan would only be able to run at one speed
• a normally open relay: then it would not be a "made" or completed circuit
until power was applied to the electromagnet
15-Energy Rate Structures I & II
• Demand is how fast you are using energy at any point in time. Consumption
is the total energy that you use over time.
• Electrical demand is usually measured in kilowatts. Electrical consumption is
measured in kilowatt-hours

• Energy pricing: The simplest is the Flat Rate where a customer pays a single
price per unit for all energy consumed during the month-Another common
form of energy pricing is block rates, also known as tiered or step rates.
Under block rate schedules, the price per unit changes at different levels of
consumption or demand.
• The demand charge is The portion of the bill where utility companies
charge for having the capacity and infrastructure available to meet the peak
utilization during the billing period
• The energy charge is The portion of the bill based on total energy (kWh)
consumed during the billing month and calculated under the applicable rate
schedule
• Real-time pricing response is when a customer Uses a generator to produce
its own power for high price periods
• The demand ratchet is A charge based on previous peak demand to cover
the cost of having capacity and infrastructure available at any time
• Multiplying the energy consumption by the price per kWh will give you the
Energy cost
• The fuel cost is A surcharge for the cost of fossil fuels
• The customer service charge is A fixed monthly charge based on the costs
associated with connecting a customer to the company's distribution
system
17-Motors: Loads, Losses and Operating Costs-
US Version& SI version
• electric motors account for roughly 60% of electricity consumption; in the
process industries, electric motors can account for more than 70% of
electricity use. The cost of running a motor can be as much as ten times to
the purchasing cost of a motor.
• The rotor of synchronous motors turns at the same
speed as the magnetic field.
• Asynchronous motors – the rotor is not synchronized
with the rotating magnetic field. The rotor is, then, said
to slip in speed behind the synchronous speed.
• Power Losses: They are sometimes called copper losses-These losses are caused when
heat is generated from the current flowing in the windings and other electrical fittings of
the motor-Rotor losses are related to the slip of the motor. Higher efficiency motors
have rotors with increased conductivity and more mass.
• Magnetic Core Losses: Magnetic core losses are sometimes called ―iron losses‖.
They occur in steel laminations and include hysteresis effects, magnetic saturation and
eddy currents.
• Friction and Windage Losses: Friction losses occur in moving parts such as the
motor bearings and cooling fan. Windage loss is the friction acting on the rotor due to
air resistance. These are sometimes called mechanical losses
• Stray Load Losses: Stray load losses can relate to a variety of effects, including harmonic
energy generated when the motor is under load, losses due to stray fluxes in the
windings and conductor bars, as well as leakage in the laminate core of the rotor.
• a 480 volt three-phase AC induction motor is rated at 35 kW or 47 HP power output. The
motor draws 52.6 amps at full load. A current measurement indicates that the motor is
actually drawing 39.7 amps. What is the approximate loading of the motor?
Motor loading = 39.7 A / 52.6 A = 75% load
• squirrel cage motors are normally more efficient than slip-ring motors
• The main disadvantage of overheated motors is Premature failure of insulation, by as much as
50% of life
• Insulation resistance should be checked at moderate voltage to ensure that insulation is not wet
before energizing an idle motor, to prevent catastrophic failure. Subsequently the test should be
done at high voltage to look for dielectric weaknesses that may cause failure when the motor is
operating For an idle motor both these tests are advisable
• Motors are most efficient: At 75% load and when operated in the range 60-80% load
• Lubricant analysis, infrared scanning and vibration analysis are all examples of: Predictive
maintenance / condition monitoring
• A three-phase motor operates under the following conditions: voltage 480V, current 33A, power
factor 88%, rated efficiency 92%. How much power does this motor draw?
root(3)*480*33*0.88=24.1kw
• Why is "slip" a significant factor in motor performance?
Slip refers to the percentage difference in the synchronous speed of the rotating field and the
base speed achieved by the rotor. At higher loads slip increases and impacts energy
consumption.
• Motor A is larger than motor B. Motor A operates at higher speed than motor B. Which do you
expect to be more efficient? A
19-Active Energy Efficiency Using Speed
Control
• Pressure is proportional to the shaft speed or flow, squared. So with half the shaft speed,
you get a quarter of the pressure.
• Direct on line starting connects the motor stator windings directly to the mains supply-
This starting method is suitable for stable supplies, mechanically stiff and well-designed
shaft systems-The disadvantage of a direct-on-line starter is the high inrush current that
occurs when the motor starts
• Star/delta provides a softer start than direct-on-line but acceleration is still not
controlled. Star/delta is always used for motors above 10kW to preserve and optimize
the electric installation and mechanical parts-starting current of about one third the
current associated with direct-on-line starting-it’s used at levels over 10 kW
• soft starters are used instead of star/delta for levels over 10 kW. Soft starters increase
voltage gradually to generate a smooth, steady acceleration, and are perfectly
compatible with direct-on-line and star/delta motors. Although a soft starter does
smoothly and gently start a motor, and bring it up to full speed in a controlled manner, it
does not provide substantial energy savings or variable speed control-does nothing to
master speed or torque
• The variable speed drive is also known as a frequency converter and is known for having
very accurate speed and torque regulation. It has a rectifier bridge followed by an
inverter. Both allow voltage amplitude and frequency to be varied.

• Using variable speed drives, the highest potential energy savings

can be found on Pumps, fans and compressors
• Chokes, passive filters and C-less drives are used in conjunction with variable speed
drives to reduce the effects of what? Harmonics
• Which of the following is the most common motor starting method available on the
market under 10kW (15Hp)? Direct-on-line
• What is the main alternative to variable speed control in fan and pump applications?
Using a valve or damper to adjust the flow
20-Alternative Power Generation Technologies
• Five-nines availability means that a network will be available 99.999% of the time

• examples of a traditional data center and network room power generation mode?
Standby mode-Continuous mode-Utility interactive mode
• In utility-interactive mode, the local generator operates in parallel with the utility.
• In continuous mode, local power generation is the primary source of power for data
centers and network rooms.
• A fuel cell is: An electrochemical cell A micro-turbine is: A small high-speed power plant
• Some discussions of fuel cells and micro-turbines suggest that this technology could
eliminate the use of AC power in the data center or network room.
• using standby engine-driven power generation has an economic advantage over fuel
cells and micro-turbines.
• In the event that utility power is unavailable, accommodations for standby power is
traditionally supplied by either diesel, natural gas, or gas-fired generator.
21-Lighting I&II&III&IV&V
• The SI unit of illuminance is lux, and is equal to one lumen spread
evenly over one square meter. The US customary unit for
illuminance is the footcandle, or fc, and is equal to one lumen spread
evenly over one square foot. Illuminance is a measure of light density.
• Color temperature in Kelvin (K) indicates the “warmth” or “coolness”
of a light source
• The four principles for efficient lighting are: Determine how much light
is needed, use efficient luminaires, use lighting controls, properly
commission lighting systems
• Color temperature is a measure of the hue of a light source, from
whiter colors to yellower colors.
• Color rendering index is a measure of how faithfully a source
illuminates colors when compared to an incandescent source
• Incandescent, low-pressure discharge, high intensity discharge, LEDs
are the basic light source families
• Efficacy is the rate of lumens per watt-not a unit of measure.

• Daylight harvesting detects levels of natural light and dims artificial light
sources that are not needed.
• A dimmer is a device used to vary the level of lighting from one level of
output to another.
• A higher color temperature means hotter and bluer; a lower Kelvin means
cooler and yellower.
• Luminous flux is the flow rate of light and measured in lumens.
• Candelas are the units that we use to measure light’s intensity.
• Luminance is the directional intensity of light exiting a surface, per unit area.
Unlike reflectance, which states the percentage of light that leaves a surface.
• Glare might also be defined as excessive contrast between an object, often
the luminaire, and its surroundings. This excessive contrast might be caused
by direct sunlight, exposed lamps, improper luminaire selection, poor
luminaire location, or poor viewing angle
• What is the impact of a light source with higher color temperature?
The light is blue-white and more suitable for fine task work
• A vendor proposes an energy-efficient lighting solution for an artist’s
workspace. Which of the following would be the most appropriate combination
of qualities? High CRI, high efficacy, high initial price
• Brightness is a human sensation generated from the brain’s response to
luminance. Like all sensations, it is subjective, and there is no measurement
for it.
• What other forms of energy may accompany light and should be taken into
account in lighting designs?
Ultraviolet light and infrared light (heat)
• The lamp life trend is 50% of the lamps will fail before the published life

• Lamps which are turned off when not in use have a longer life measured
in burning hours. False
• Incandescent lamps are easy to dim, which increases lamp life, turn on
instantly and can be used in cold or warm environments. But they are not
practical for commercial use due to their short life and high energy costs,
and some countries are prohibiting these lamps.
• Halogen lamps are a significant improvement over the regular
incandescent lamps False
• A ballast starts the lamp and regulates the current.‫بس كده‬
• Fluorescent lamps are sensitive to temperature – so the temperature of
the space to be lit should be checked to be sure it is suitable. Also T5
lamps may not be the same length as the T12 lamps. New fixtures may be
required. Not all the above
• Lumen depreciation is the percentage of light lost from a lamp at mid-life
• Lumen maintenance is the percentage of light produced by a lamp at mid-
life
• Lumen depreciation + lumen maintenance = 100% of initial lumens
• Produced lumens per lamps = ballast factor * rated lumens per lamp
• total wattage= wattage per lamp * number of lamps * ballast factor +
ballast consumption
• Mercury vapor lamp has poor color rendering, a greenish tone, high lumen
depreciation and high energy costs
• High pressure sodium lamp has distinctly yellow light but very high
efficacy, long life and very good lumen maintenance
• Metal halide lamp has high efficacy, is available with high CRI and is not
temperature sensitive
• Electronic start starting method for metal halide lamps has the highest
lumen maintenance, least frequent maintenance, and lowest electricity
consumption
• Red, Amber, Green, Blue are the colors which LED dies available in
• LEDs have long life and fail predictably, usually by gradually becoming
dimmer over time It occurs at 70% lumen depreciation and can be 50,000
hours
• Life is not affected by heat is NOT an advantage of LEDs
• High cost per lumen is a disadvantage of LEDs.
• The energy savings use a rate based on the total energy bill for the site
divided by the total kWh consumed at the site. Is the proposal reliable?
False
• Dimming improves the aesthetics of a space and save energy
• How can the efficiency of the fixture be improved?
Using a reflector made of highly reflective material and with an appropriate
shape
• How many light level readings should be taken in a room?
Several across the area and the results should be combined into an
average
• You are taking light level readings in an office. You plan to take the
readings at: At task level, typically 100cm or 36in above floor level
• E = I / d2 is an expression of The fundamental law of illumination, also
known as the inverse square law of lighting
• Lumen method is determine the lighting levels in a room is also known as
zonal capacity method.

64*4*15*52(week per year)*0.07

26-Energy Audits Instrumentation I&II &
Energy Audit
• A dual bimetal thermometer provides readings in both Celsius and Fahrenheit. It
is the type of thermometer you are probably most familiar with, in that it is used in
Measuring room temperature and monitoring the presence of a pilot light
• Thermocouples are very simple and durable temperature sensors. They are
comprised of two different materials joined at one end and separated at the
other. The separated ends are considered the output, and they generate voltage
which is proportional to the heat they are measuring or monitoring.
• RTD sensors measure temperature by measuring the change in electrical resistance
across the metal wire. The resistance value is then measured and interpreted by a RTD
thermometer, and displayed for a user to view.
• Infrared thermometers offer some distinct advantages over contact thermometers, since
they can measure temperature without physically touching the object.
• The recording thermometer tracks temperature changes at regular intervals to provide a
complete and accurate record of temperature changes for an entire week.
• A psychrometer is an instrument commonly used in laboratories to measure relative
humidity. It is also referred to as a wet- and dry-bulb thermometer.
• hygrometer the sensing element is usually an organic material which expands and
contracts with the changes in the moisture in the surrounding air or gas.
• The hair hygrometer uses hair under tension to measure humidity. When the relative
humidity increases, the hair becomes longer, and when it drops, the hair becomes
shorter

•
Cooled mirror dew point hygrometer provides the most precise readings of
relative humidity
• Surface pyrometer is an infrared thermometer senses emitted, reflected, and
transmitted energy from an object and translate this information into a
temperature reading
• A manometer is a device to measure pressure-designed to only work at a
particular angle and orientation
• These digital manometers provide readings that are far more accurate than
analog gauges, and are easier to use.
• The Bourdon gauge uses a coiled tube, which—as it expands due to pressure
increases—cause a rotation of an arm connected to the tube.
• Anemometer: measures wind speed using propeller blades or a heated wire
• Velometer: portable instrument for measuring air velocity and static pressure
• The probe inserts directly into a flue gas duct to measure the oxygen in the
combustion process
• used to identify air flow imbalances between different building spaces; to
estimate total air handler flow and supply/return imbalances; as well as to assess
duct air leakage Flow Hood/Belometer/Capture Hood
• Checking stack temperature is one of the simplest and least expensive methods
to use to verify whether the boiler/burner unit is operating efficiently and within its
rated capacity
• Ultrasonic detector is used to effectively detect compressed air leaks.
• When the flow increases, more pressure drop is created
• The measurement of grille velocities on heating, cooling, and ventilating
installations is the primary application for a vane-oriented anemometer
• Pitot tubes are double-walled tubes typically fabricated from stainless steel at
Stagnation point
• Kick-off; On-site inspection; Data analysis; Results restitution are the four
steps of an audit
• Current energy consumption; potential to save energy; help with prioritizing
actions are the three things an energy audit will tell you
• Detailed: Comprehensive
• Planning the audit activities to include participation of the necessary
people from the facility and commonly required data are the two areas to
focus on when preparing for an energy audit
• the facility operating profile help the auditor to Show the days and times that
the plant is operating to help the auditor understand usage patterns and
analyze rate options
• Executive Summary; Energy Cost Analysis; Energy Management
Recommendations; Energy Action Plan should be included in an audit report
• Validate the energy action plan and the implementation schedule; Define the
energy saving goals; Implement the action plan; Establish indicators for
measuring the fulfillment of the goals; Set a baseline and compare the
performance over time; Seek additional opportunities for continuous
improvement is follow-up actions to an audit
• Understanding the site and gathering the data;
Measuring/Monitoring/Testing; Assessing the situation, and Proposing an
action plan are the four activities the auditor performs
29-Energy Procurement I&II&III
• In a deregulated market, the marketer sells the power or gas to a consumer,
however there are multiple marketers to choose from, so a consumer can shop
around.
• speak of deregulated markets, effectively, there are two markets for energy,
wholesale and retail. The wholesale market is where producers sell their energy
commodity. The buyers may be speculators,very large energy consumers, or
suppliers who buy energy for resale in the retail market.The retail market is
where most consumers buy their energy.
• Decisions on projected load growth, the type of generation, fuel selections, cost
of labor and taxes as well as the regulatory climate are reasons that make the
price of energy volatile
• In a deregulated wholesale market, the transmission system operators must allow equal
access to the transmission lines for all electric generators, not just the generation
produced by their affiliated generating
• Production, Transmission, Distribution and Supply are the four major
components of the energy supply chain
• the supplier options in a deregulated market

• Regulated market structure is the service provider typically in a monopoly

position
• the role of tariffs in a regulated market is Help to manage the utility risk; drive
customer behavior; and optimize utility profitability
• the role of a regulator in a regulated market is seeking to discourage the volatility
of prices, oversee the regulated suppliers' rate of return and costs allowed into
the rate base
• Short-term disasters that cause severe financial stress are better avoided with
spot purchasing False
• A fixed price contract is more popular in rising markets. Buyers think they will
avoid future price increases by locking in a fixed price.
• A fixed price contract means if the spot price changes, you can't change your
mind and switch over to buy on the spot market. You are committed to the
purchase and must take the gas or pay a penalty regardless of what's happening
in the spot market at that time.
• Within a budget period, hedging gives you have predictable energy costs
• Gas and power marketers in general, have much better information about the
market, than the average energy manager. It is not a level playing field—and
they are not there to help you manage your risk. They benefit from locking you in
to the highest price possible—for the longest period.
• By employing a hedging strategy you will achieve the lowest possible price for
your energy. False
• Full requirements-fixed price is an example of 100% hedging
 • A purchasing strategy based on riverbanks would include Trigger points for
purchasing energy following natural disasters such as floods
• A hedge ratio is the ratio of hedged to unhedged purchases.
• Commodity exchanges provide a physical or electronic space where trading
takes place and the exchange guarantees the performance of all market
participants. Exchange employees record the details of the trades that take place
and ensure that accounts are updated and prices are published at the end of
each trading day.
• The basis differential is the difference between the commodity price of the energy
at the recognized benchmark location, and the local price. taking into account
location and distribution issues.

32-Fundamentals Of Health Care Facility Electrical Power Systems

• NFPA 101 covers life safety in both new and existing structures
• NFPA 111 covers performance requirements for stored electrical energy systems
providing an alternate source of electrical power in buildings and facilities in the
event that the normal electrical power source fails.
• NFPA 110 covers performance requirements for emergency and standby power
systems providing an alternate source of electrical power in buildings and facilities in
the event that the normal electrical power source fails
• NFPA 70E requirements for safe work practices to protect personnel by reducing
exposure to major electrical hazards. Originally developed at OSHA's request
• The Facility Guidelines Institute (FGI) is a nonprofit organization that was
established in 1998 to provide leadership and continuity to the development and
publication of the Guidelines for Design and Construction of Hospitals
• A hospital’s electrical system consists of the normal system and the essential electrical
system. The power source for all of the loads in the building is normally the electric
utility. If that utility fails, power is provided to the Essential Electrical System (EES) from
an alternate power source.
Essential electrical system for hospitals consists of an alternate source of power that is
distributed to essential loads through three distinct branches of distribution
• Loads that are served by this healthcare electrical distribution system branch include
items required to safely egress the building and includes egress lighting, exit signs,
powered doors in the path of egress, and the fire alarm system. Life Safety Branch
• In the U.S., hospitals are required to test their EPS systems at least 12 times a year.
• If a health care organization wishes to receive funding through Medicare or Medicaid to
provide care for patients, the organization must be in compliance with the Centers for
Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS)Conditions of Participation.
33-Energy Efficiency with Building
Automation Systems I&II
• Cooling tower works with the chiller as a method of heat rejection for the condenser
water leaving the condenser tank of the chiller
• a boiler is used to heat water up into steam
• The Air Handling Unit, or AHU, conditions the air that will go to the building occupants.
Conditioning air can have a variety of meanings, but the three things that are almost
always done in the conditioning process are cooling, heating, filtering and contains
structures for cooling air supplied to the building
• a flow controller or flow station will be fitted in the ductwork. This will include a sensor in
the ductwork to detect the velocity and volume of air, and a connection to the
temperature sensor in the room.
• The World Business Council for Sustainable Development believes that by the year
2050, buildings can cut their energy use by 60%
• Systems were not energy efficient due to parallel heating and cooling is a disadvantage
of dual duct systems using hot and cold decks
• Supply Air is defined as the Conditioned air that is being provided to the space
• Variable air volume supplies air at constant temperature to cool a space
• Exhaust Air is defined as the Air ventilated from the building to the outside
• a chiller may be used to provide cooling. Working through processes of heat rejection,
the chiller system functionally removes heat from the building and rejects it to the
atmosphere
• The human comfort range is typically 72°-75° F/22°-24° C. However, the building has a
much broader operational range, typically from 55°-85° F/13°-29° C.
• Outside air reduction reduces the amount of outside air being introduced into the
building while simultaneously ensuring that outside air requirements are being met
• A VAV system is designed to save energy by reducing the overall amount of air as the
cooling need decreases.
• Economizer control is the use of cool outside air to augment or replace mechanical
cooling.
• The purpose of the Supply Air Reset ECM is to raise the supply air temperature set-point
as the need for cooling decreases.
• Demand control ventilation, or Outside Air Reduction, reduces the amount of outside air
being introduced into the building while simultaneously ensuring that outside air
requirements are being met.
• In high density areas, the level of CO2 in the air can be used as an indicator of the
ventilation demand.
• Duty cycling turns off equipment for short periods during normal operating hours.
• Zone by Zone is used to schedule start/stop for a building automation system.
• The purpose of the Condenser water reset is to adjust fan speed when the space
requires less cooling.
• Night Ventilation Purge (NVP) is primarily used in dry climates with a high nighttime
temperature drop. Night Ventilation Purge involves purging, or flushing, of the building
with cool outside air in the early hours before occupancy.
• Static pressure reset functions here in a similar way. As the individual VAV room
controllers throttle back the air flow to their respective spaces in response to the reduced
cooling needs, the fan speeds need to be reduced.
35-Digital Grid Unleashed: An Introduction
and A Value Chain Facing Disruption
• Massive efficiency potential could ensure up to 25% savings in the industry sector, 20%
savings in the buildings sector, and up to 31% savings in the transportation sector
• By the year 2040, annual global electricity consumption will be 70% higher than
in 2015, according to International Energy Association (IEA) estimates.
• According to Bloomberg New Energy Finance, global electricity generation is on
a path to hit a fossil-fuel peak sometime between 2025 and 2030
• By 2040, around 5 of the world’s electricity will be generated by small-scale
photovoltaics (PV) but that numerical average masks an extraordinary range.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, for
example, are pegged at 8% of generation, Europe at 9% and the United States at
about 15%.
• Electricity demand is set to soar in developing nations over the next 2 decades,
while developed markets will experience little, or even negative growth.
• The planet will be home to 8.5 billion people by 2030, up from 7 billion in 2010.
• As of 2016, 1.2 billion of the world’s population lacked any access to electricity
and burned kerosene and firewood for light and heat, a figure that should fall to
780 million by 2030.
• In Australia, distributed solar is anticipated to soar to close to half of total
installed capacity and a quarter of total generation.
• ENEL used an ADMS from Schneider Electric to optimize its Milan operations to
better address real operating conditions, and as a result, reduced energy losses
by 4% in the process.
• today’s most common DERs: Disparate, small-scale rooftop PV panels and
microturbines. Electric vehicles that consume and charge back energy on the
move. The growing realm of energy storage, demand response and controllable
loads.
• Grid-connected facility microgrids Connected to the main grid, these microgrid are
created for improved reliability in places where main grid reliability is not adequate, or
when the utility is providing attractive price incentives for load shedding.
• Grid-connected community microgrids These microgrids serve multiple consumers and
producers, are connected to the main grid, or managed as dispatchable units – or, with
optimized power exchanges, with the utility’s main grid
• off-grid facility microgrids are the most common type of microgrids today globally,
used in public utilities, and private entities call for tenders from private
independent power producers (IPPs). The IPP is an entity that is not a public
utility, but which owns facilities to generate electric power for sale to utilities
• Off-grid community microgrids These microgrids serve multiple consumers and
producers, and are also found where the main grid is out of reach — for example
on islands or in remote villages and communities
• three-I” approach: Individualized – Meaningful, relevant communication to the customer
that addresses each as an individual. Instant – Power made available when it matters.
Interconnected – Power that is delivered through the most convenient channel for the
customer in a seamless manner.
37-Demand Response and the Smart Grid
• In general, you can expect the total curtailment hours in a year to be from 20
hours to 100 hours depending on the chosen demand response product.
• Automatic control for performing demand response is more reliable than manual
control.
• demand response avoid investment in peak capacity by reducing the need to
maintain peaking power plant all year that is only used briefly at peak times
• notification of curtailment, curtailment decision, control action, participation
response are four steps in the process
• The demand response aggregators are paid by the wholesale market and utility
• turn off all non-essential equipment when not in use shifting loads to different
times of day on-site generator are options for curtailing energy usage
• Demand response is power reduction rather than power generation
• Because wind and solar energy can fluctuate, demand response is a way to
temporarily fill gaps
• The potential earnings from a demand response program vary based on: speed
and location
• Program participants can expect to earn back 5-25% of their annual energy
costs.
38-Strategic Energy Planning
• the Energy Committee members should represent all the sectors of the plant or
site, for example, production, maintenance, purchasing, and human resources.
• Know your energy resources and providers, understand billing, evaluate the
quality of data, involve employees is the best summary of the fundamentals of
effective energy resource utilization

• The Energy Manager should have a thorough understanding of the requirements

of the operation, and a fundamental grasp of energy issues. The Energy
Manager does not have to be an engineer. This position requires a reasonable
understanding of technical issues and, above all, an interest in energy.
• It is not necessary for senior management to attend Energy Committee meetings
in person, provided that their support is visibly demonstrated.
• Define employee policies relating to energy efficiency is not a primary function of
a Strategic Energy Plan
• Set modest goals for % annual savings to ensure results are achieved and
establish credibility is the best approach at the beginning of an energy program
39-Distributed Generation
• Combustion turbines have relatively low emissions, low installation costs, and infrequent
maintenance requirements. However, their low efficiency has limited turbines to serving peaking
unit and combined heat and power (CHP) applications
• PV systems require no fuel supply, are completely silent, require little maintenance, have a long
shelf life, and are excellent for load balancing. However, they have a high initial cost and the
system components are expensive to replace. PV systems require a skilled labor force to create,
and may require the use of toxic materials such as Cadmium. PV systems are intermittent and
only produce electricity when the sun is shining, so storage batteries or a secondary power
source is needed.
• Conventional steam power plant has the longest start-up time from a cold start
• Place these distributed generation technologies in order of overall efficiency - from highest to
lowest.
Combustion gas turbine, Microturbine, Stirling engine, Photovoltaics
• Engine generator sets, microturbines, combustion gas turbines, steam turbines, wind turbines,
and photovoltaics are the primary categories of technology used to generate small-scale
electricity
• Fuel cells and Stirling engines are the emerging technologies for distributed generation
• A recuperated unit will increase the fuel efficiency, but leaves less heat available for recovery for
other uses
• Recent electricity market deregulation, greater emphasis on environmental quality, and on-going
concerns related to the high cost of electricity is resulting in a renewed interest for distributed
generation throughout the world.
• Dispersed Power is the use of small-scale power generation technologies located close to the
load being served. In most cases, dispersed power with energy recovery provides multiple
streams of energy - cleanly and efficiently. ---- Distributed generation decreases energy losses

40-Types of Electrical Meters in Data Centers

• A data center’s electrical meters enable data center managers to: Benchmark the data center’s
energy use--Identify improvement opportunities, and--Measure results from energy improvement
projects
• If the data center is a purpose-built dedicated facility, and the objective is PUE measurement,
metering is necessary at the Building Level, and at the End Use Level.
• Power quality meter is a meter that can monitor electrical parameters such as harmonics, voltage
sags/swells, and voltage transients in addition to power metering parameters such as energy,
power, voltage, current, power factor, and frequency.
• Digital relay is a stand-alone protective device that analyzes the electrical distribution network
and looks for electrical anomalies that require operator notification and, if required, automated
circuit interruption. Many have metering functionality available.
• Electronic trip unit is a programmable protective device which measures and times current flowing
through a circuit breaker and initiates a trip signal when appropriate and typically has metering
functionality available, including power quality metering in some higher end units.
• Rack PDU embedded meters allow for active metering of individual outlets feeding IT loads within
racks, which enables energy optimization and detailed capacity planning.
• The common applications for Power meters include power circuit loading and balancing, energy
management to track use, cost allocation / billing, maintenance activity support (i.e. provides
historical data for troubleshooting), and critical incident alarming.
• The approximate cost to fully meter the upstream electrical distribution of a dedicated data center
will a range from US$50 to $230 per kW of IT load, depending on how thoroughly the medium
voltage and low voltage distribution systems are metered.
• Relying on embedded meters, like those in PDUs, UPSs, and RPPs, offer a cost advantage over
stand-alone meters; and because it is an integrated design, it is easier to manage. On the flip
side, a disadvantage of this tactic is an incomplete picture of reporting functionality because non-
IT load would incorrectly be counted as IT load in PUE calculations.
41-Efficient Motor Control with Power Drives Systems
• Gears have three purposes: Transmission of power, reducing speed, and
increasing torque
• Rewinding motors generally costs about 60% of the cost to replace them
• Switching from V-belts to cogged belts is easy and can yield an efficiency gain of
up to 2 - 3%.
• Switching from cogged V-belts to a synchronous belt can gain an additional 2%
of efficiency. However they are not a good choice for machinery that can easily
become clogged
• Investments in efficient components such as variable speed drives and high-
efficiency motors can yield rapid payback. On average, 97% of the life cycle cost
of purchasing and operating a motor is energy-related
• Some common gear trains are pulley, planetary and axial. Each is configured
differently and has a different purpose. In a pulley configuration, a motor spins
one gear, which has a pulley belt wrapped around it. The belt is also wrapped
around another gear known as the pulley wheel; The pulley gear train is
commonly used in fan driven applications
• Another common gear train is called “planetary” for its resemblance to the
planets in our solar system. This gear train is best used for applications where a
gear ratio must be achieved along with the output gear travelling in the same
direction as the input gear.
• The new IEC standard defines classes of low-voltage three-phase asynchronous
motors in the power range from 0.75 kW to 375 kW. They are: IE1, IE2, and IE3
• To increase the torque by a factor of 3, which of the following gear sets would
you select output gear = X inches—input gear = Y inches X/Y=3
42-The Future of Medium Voltage Switchgear
• The first technology used for breaking in CBs was air.
• You may connect old technology 5A CTs to most modern
protection relays, but the opposite — connecting an LPCT to
an old electromechanical relay — is not possible.
• Protection components: Sensors-Protection relays-Circuit
breakers
• Shielded Solid Insulated System (SSIS) Switchgear: The
busbars and all MV components including CBs and connections, are
encapsulated in epoxy or some other resin.
The whole main circuit is solid insulated and covered by a metallic layer. The
conductive surface is continuously earthed, providing a shielded system without
dielectric aging.
• SF6 GIS Switchgear: All MV components, busbars, and connections are fitted in
one or several hermetically sealed tanks filled with SF6.
• Smart grids will use more CBs than in the past
43-Thermal Energy Storage
• load leveling or peak shaving, also known as partial storage.
In this case, the system is set up to operate at a constant
load level. At night, the system will work harder than the
initial scenario, and the surplus cooling will be stored. During
the day, the system will work at the same rate as the night.
• load shifting, also known as full storage. In this case, the
system is set up to move all of the peak-period load to the
storage system. The chillers in the air conditioning system
will not work at all during peak hours.
• The primary driver in favor of thermal storage is High
charges for peak demand or time-of-use consumption
• An ice harvester supplies water to refrigerated plates or
tubes that are suspended over a storage tank. As ice forms
on the plates or tubes, it is periodically emptied into the tank
• An open ice on coil system is a type of static system. Ice
forms on refrigerant or brine-filled pipe coils that are
submerged in a water tank.
• eutectic salt tanks are larger than ice tanks
• the chiller can function at its normal working temperature
and the phase change of the salt happens at a higher
temperature than that of ice.
• Eutectic salt tanks are larger than ice tanks, but smaller than
chilled water
• Stratified tanks and Multiple tanks help to ensure that cold
water is continually drawn from the coldest part of the tank
• In order to deter customers from using energy at peak times,
a utility typically charges Seasonal or time-of-use rates and
Peak demand charges
• storage mediums: Water-Ice-Coolant-Eutectic salt
• Ice is a more complex storage medium than water - requiring
more complex tanks and auxiliary equipment.
• Thermal energy storage is most commonly used for cooling
systems
44-Emergency Power Generators for Healthcare Facilities
• Diesel motor generator sets, which consist of both diesel fuel
powered and natural gas/diesel blend fuel powered. These are mainly
used in the hospital environment.
• Spark ignited, which can be either propane fuel fired or natural gas
fuel fired. An example of the application for these is a dialysis center,
or an outpatient center
• turbines are useful when disconnecting from the grid, in times of load
shedding for example, but is not usually used for emergency power
source because of the start-up time
• Prime power. Prime power refers to the option of hospital operators to
self-generate power to maintain uptime, improve reliability or
augment utility power as needed.
• Peak shaving or rate curtailment. Peak shaving is a process through
which hospitals can participate in an arrangement with local power
utilities to self-generate power during the utility’s peak demand
periods and avoid incurring peak utility rates
• Single generator with a dedicated load or multiple generators, each
with a dedicated load: These can be found in smaller outpatient
facilities, small hospitals and larger hospitals where one large
generator is the emergency source for all three branches of the
essential electrical systems or where there is more than one
generator, but there is no redundant capability. If utility power is lost
and a generator fails, the load served by that generator is without
power.
• Multiple generators, each with a dedicated load with the capability of
moving loads to another generator manually: Switching scheme that
allows moving a load from one generator to another manually
• Paralleled operation: Multiple generators; run synchronized together;
Usually provides redundant capability; Utility paralleling and
automatic transfer switch monitoring and control to provide
appropriate essential electrical system function and load shed
capabilities.
• The continuous rating is typically the output rating of the engine generator set on
a continuous basis with a non-varying load. The prime power rating is typically
the continuous output rating with varying load. The standby rating is typically the
output rating for a limited period of time with varying load
45-Battery Safety and Environmental Concerns
• in a VRLA battery solution, about 3% of the electrolyte is in liquid form.
• “Pro-active” compliance: reporting the hazardous materials present in the
batteries at your site
“Re-active” compliance: reporting accidents (i.e., spills or releases)
• Flooded batteries contain the highest levels of electrolyte/sulfuric acid and lead.
• The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is considered to be the main driver
in setting the standards and regulations for battery safety
• EPCRA requires owners to inform local authorities when their facilities have large
volumes (actually reported in weight) of hazardous materials such as sulfuric acid
(present in lead-acid battery electrolyte)
• Under OSHA Regulation 29 CFR 1926.441, for flooded batteries, ventilation,
worker protection, acid flushing and neutralization are required
• Large systems utilizing flooded, lead acid batteries: Continuously vent hydrogen-
Are usually located in rooms separate from the equipment they support--Contain
electrolyte in liquid form
• The electrolyte in a VRLA battery: Is immobilized
• The International Code Council (ICC) writes The International Fire Code (IFC)
• A locality, town, county, or state can choose which fire code (and which version
of the fire code) to adopt and enforce. Adoption of the codes is always consistent
from place to place.
46-Calculating Total Power Requirements
• Air conditioning loads, require high starting currents and can impose harmonic
currents on a generator that may impact its ability to supply the power needed.
• data center managers often over size their power requirements by as much as
70%.
• A simple formula for average lighting consumption is 2 watts per square foot or
21.5 watts per square meter
• IT “refreshes” will, at a minimum, have a 3-year cycle where new, more powerful
and efficient devices will be installed.
• The critical load includes all of the IT hardware components that make up the IT
business architecture: servers, routers, computers, storage devices,
telecommunications equipment, etc., as well as the security systems, fire and
monitoring systems that protect them.
• the nameplate rating of most IT devices is well in excess of the actual running
load by a factor of at least 33%.
• No matter what the actual NCPI system design configuration is, the core issue
will be to provide sufficient power to the critical load while keeping that critical
load cool enough to operate without experiencing downtime.
• To derive the UPS load you need to know the existing load, future load, and the
inefficiency factor for the UPS & UPS battery charging.
47-Power Redundancy in the Data Center
• Recognize the five UPS System Design Configurations, including Capacity or “N”
System, Isolated Redundant, Parallel Redundant or “N+1” System, Distributed
Redundant, and System plus System Redundant
• A 6 disk RAID with the capacity of 4 disks is an example of what type of
redundancy configuration? N+2 (4+2)
• Transfer switches are often used to enhance single-corded equipment availability
by providing the benefits of redundant utility paths.
• Availability is the estimated percentage of time that electrical power will be online
and functioning properly to support the critical load.
• Standby---Line Interactive--Standby-Ferro--Double Conversion On-Line--- Delta
Conversion On-Line are five different types of UPS's, or designs, available
• The Standby-Ferro UPS was once the dominant form of UPS in the 3-15kVA
range.
• The Double Conversion On-Line UPS is the most common type of UPS above
10kVA.
• System plus System Redundant is the most reliable and expensive redundancy
configuration in the industry.
• The Line Interactive UPS is the most common design used for small business,
Web, and departmental servers.
48-Energy Efficiency Fundamentals
• Passive energy efficiency focuses on design and architectural strategies to
minimize energy use without active technology, while active energy efficiency
relies on technology and mechanical systems to actively optimize energy
consumption.
• When making efficiency improvements, passive and active efficiency
measures should always be followed by Monitoring in order to sustain savings
• Energy Audit is the name for an analysis of a building's energy use where
opportunities for reducing energy consumption are identified and prioritized?
• Up to 30% energy efficiency improvement can be achieved with current
technologies
• Energy efficiency can be defined as: Reducing the amount of energy used
while maintaining outcomes: doing more with less
• Energy demand is forecast to double, while emissions have to be cut by half
to avoid dramatic climate change (energy dilemma)
• 72% of energy consumption is used by industry, residences and tertiary
buildings
• Energy management software helps you overcome this issue regarding
energy
49-Proven Strategies for Saving Energy in a Retail
Environment
• By replacing conventional high intensity discharge sources used for ambient
lighting with T5 high output or T8 fluorescent lamps, facilities can cut their lighting
electrical loads by up to 50 percent.
• The combination of natural skylights and sensor-driven artificial lighting can
increase average daily sales by 40 percent
• Better energy management can, however, carry a sizable payoff. For example,
one study estimates that a 10 percent reduction in energy costs at an average
supermarket can boost profit margins by as much as 7 percent.
• the use of green design and building techniques added no more than two percent
to project costs. According to the report, the small increase in construction costs
resulted in a payback of more than 10 times the initial investment
• Variable air volume system with variable frequency drives is a recommended
strategy for improving control and efficiency of heating, ventilation and air-
conditioning systems (HVAC)
• meters and monitors have an average payback period of less than six months
and an average return on investment of 200 percent.
• The impact of high energy prices is a number one concern of executives, yet only
a minority of companies has made any attempt to improve the efficiency of their
facilities.
50-Going Green with Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design
• based on research performed by three different groups, it is estimated that
energy use could be reduced between 24% and 50%, CO2 Emissions could
be reduced by 33% to 39%, Water use reduced by 40% and Solid waste
reduced by 70%.
• There are 9 LEED Rating Systems currently exist
• GBCI accreditation qualification ensures that building professionals are
knowledgeable in the areas required to certify a green building.
• There are 4 levels of LEED certification and six credit categories
• Energy Efficiency is not one of the credit categories for LEED
• Variable speed drives adjust motor power consumption to system demand.
• Energy monitoring systems can help to make
Switch to alternative sources of power
Shed loads
Sell surplus power back to the utility
51-Combined Heat and Power
• Capacity factor is defined as the average load over a defined time period divided
by the design capacity of the plant. A CHP plant with a capacity factor of 40%
has a capital productivity factor double that of a plant with an average capacity
factor of 80%.
• Prime mover (engine)--Electricity generator--Heat recovery--Control System are
the four basic elements of a cogeneration plant
• Capital utilization / productivity, local electricity rates, efficiency gains versus fuel
prices, steam load versus electric load, reliability requirements, fuel availability
and selection, as well as any staffing and training needed are the various factors
to consider when evaluating the use of a Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plant

• the primary fuels used in its creation which include natural

gas, oil, diesel fuel, propane, coal, wood, wood waste and
bio mass.
• The optimum match from an efficiency consideration is to match electricity
generation with the process steam demand. In this case, the steam turbine is
fully utilized as it produces electricity in an efficient co-generation cycle.
52-HVAC Geothermal Heat Pumps
• Buildings that use geothermal heat pumps for heating can realize efficiency
savings of 50% to 70% in comparison to other types of heating systems. A 20%
to 40% savings in efficiency can be realized when using a geothermal heat pump
system for cooling.
• The underground components in a geothermal system typically have 50 years
warranty.
• Geothermal heat pump systems use the stable temperature of the ground or ground water as a heat source
or heat sink. Surface temperatures vary with climate, and the local ground temperature is different according
to the latitude, but at depths over 6 metres or 20 feet there is no significant seasonal change in temperature.
• Desuperheater is a type of heat exchanger that removes heat from the
compressed refrigerant before it enters the condenser.
• In a closed loop water or glycol circulates through continuous plastic pipes buried
in the earth or submerged in a lake or pond.
• In an open loop system, the pipes discharge into the ground or lake, and the inlet
brings in new water from the source.
• A higher COP indicates a more efficient heat pump.
• Wet, silty or sandy soils with a low thermal resistivity is preferable for a
geothermal heat pump installation
53-Waste Heat Recovery
• There are three basic elements a waste heat recovery system must possess in
order for the system to be developed. These include compatibility, scheduling,
and location
• the benefits (direct and indirect) of recovering waste heat are Reduced energy
consumption and consequent increase in energy efficiency; lower greenhouse
gas emissions; reduction in pollution, equipment size, as well as a reduction in
auxiliary energy consumption; and enhanced equipment life
• Combustion flue gas and high temperature industrial processes (this includes
direct fuel fired processes such as metal refining or heating furnaces, cement
kilns, glass melting, hydrogen plants or solid waste incinerators) and water-
cooled chillers are typical sources of waste heat
• Flue gases usually contain gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide
(CO2), Sulphur dioxide (SO2). These gases can in combination with moisture at
lower temperatures form acids and corrode the metals. Flue gases contain
contaminants which may foul the pipes and other passages. Heat exchangers
and other heat transfer equipment tend to result in a drop in pressure, and may
need to be supplemented by external means. are constraints which must be
considered while using flue gases
• The simplest configuration for a recuperator is the metallic radiation recuperator,
which consists of two concentric lengths of metal tubing.
• The heat pipe is made up of three elements: a sealed container, a capillary wick
structure and the working fluid.
54-Commissioning For Energy Efficiency
• True or false? Commissioning, a type of quality assurance and risk management
applied to construction project management and maintenance, is not always a
one-time-only activity.
• Commissioning of a new building is a process which starts in the pre-design
phase
• According to the studies referenced in the course, how much do commissioning
practices add to the cost of construction Between 1 and 2%
• According to the studies referenced in the course, commissioning projects in
existing buildings have a median payback of: 1.1 years
• Retro-commissioning refers to single-instance commissioning of systems in an
existing building. This may be needed when buildings are adapted, additions are
made and/or considerable time has passed
• New-construction commissioning refers to single-instance commissioning of the
systems in a newly constructed building (or major building addition), applied from
project inception to initial occupancy.
• According to the course, the commissioning process reduces operating costs and
can produce savings of up to 30% (sometimes more!) of total building energy
costs
55-Measurement and Verification Including IPMVP
• Savings = (Baseline Period Use or Demand – Reporting Period Use or Demand)
± Adjustments
• The baseline is what the energy costs would have been if the retro-fit had not
been implemented
• Option C: Whole facility implemented with Multiple interacting energy
conservation measures have been implemented in the building.
• Option A: Retrofit isolation with key parameter measurement implemented with
The values of relevant parameters are well known: the operating hours of the
equipment are available from the operating schedule of the plant. The equipment
concerned was equipped with a submeter both before and after the retrofit
• Continuous measurement is used to measure a variable load
• IPMVP is not intended to prescribe contractual terms between buyers and sellers
of efficiency services. Instead, it provides a standardized framework for
measuring and verifying the performance of energy efficiency and renewable
energy projects.
• To forecast or express the energy savings in financial terms, you will need to
Evaluate of rate structure, tariff options, and price stability to support the project
over the long term
• Routine adjustments are adjustments for changes in parameters that can be
expected to happen throughout the post-retrofit period, and for which, a
relationship with the energy use/demand can be identified.
56-Measuring and Benchmarking Energy Performance
• utilities prefer customers who have high load factors, because their consumption
is steady. Customers who have sudden demands for large amounts of energy
require the utility to keep spare capacity available on
standby to satisfy these sudden demands
• a low load factor can be beneficial in terms of system
flexibility and resource utilization
• Energy use index (EUI) expresses the energy used annually per square foot or
square meter of conditioned space
• External benchmarking: This type of energy benchmarking measures sites
against collected data from sources such as the Environmental Protection
Agency in the US or the Carbon Trust in the UK.
• One of the benefits of energy accounting is that it drives responsible energy
behavior on the part of tenants or managers
• Remote service subscription involves a third party collecting the data while you
provide data analysis
• Analysis service involves a third party collecting the data and providing data
analysis
• Demand charge is a charge on your utility bill based on your peak energy
consumption during any single demand interval
• Energy cost index (ECI) is the total of all energy costs divided by the total square
feet or square meters of conditioned space
• Peak shaving and load shifting are both types of Demand avoidance
57-Boiler Types and Opportunities for Energy
Efficiency
• There are two primary configurations of steam boilers: fire tube and water tube.
Boilers for generating hot
• Advantages of fire-tube boilers are that they are relatively inexpensive, easy to
clean, and compact in size. It is easy to replace their tubes because they run straight
between the end plates. They are well suited for space heating and industrial
process applications
• Large steam output capabilities is an advantage of water tube boilers
• Increased condensate recovery is an advantage of condensing boilers
• both low and high pH levels can cause issues in boilers. Low pH leads to
corrosion of metal surfaces, while high pH can cause scale formation and caustic
embrittlement, both compromising boiler performance and safety.
• water impurities are (Suspended solids--Dissolved solids--Dissolved gases--
Substances that cause foam or scum)
• the purpose of blowdown is eliminating impurities that accumulate in boiler water
with evaporation
• A "bottom blowdown" removes "mud" and sludge from the bottom of the
boiler.
• A Continuous boiler blowdown uses a calibrated valve and a blowdown tap near
the boiler water surface to draw water from the boiler at a predetermined rate
58-Lighting VI: Calculating Required Lamps with the Lumen
Method-SI
• The Lumen Method calculates illuminance on a horizontal surface.
• Luminaire ambient temperature and luminaire surface depreciation are examples
of Non-recoverable light loss factors
• Lumen method uses: Initial lamp lumens
• Reflectance of room surfaces is used in a lumen method analysis
• The coefficient of utilization calculates the lumens at the work plane: Due to
direct light from the luminaire and inter-reflected light from walls, ceiling and floor
• To determine the CU you need to know the RCR value for the space
• Light loss factors can include lamp lumen depreciation, room surface
depreciation, lamp burn out and ballast factor. These factors are combined by
Multiplication
• Recoverable light loss factors can be overcome by: Effective maintenance

fixtures suspended 3.5m from the floor (4-0.5)

cavity height= 3-0.8

(5(constant number) *(3-0.8)*(10+10))/(10*10)

=2.7