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Full Download PDF of (Ebook PDF) School Finance: A Policy Perspective 5th Edition All Chapter
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To my wife, Eleanor, best friend,
sharpest critic, closest advisor, and
loving supporter.
Allan Odden
ix
x Contents
“Pre-Adequacy” Cases 31
Adequacy Cases 32
Conflicts between the Courts and the Legislature 33
Rulings with More Explicit Remedies 35
Adequacy and Standards 38
Does Adequacy Require Equal Outcomes? 38
The Impact of the Recession 39
5. Summary 40
6. A School Finance Legal Scorecard 40
Glossary 392
References 398
xvii
xviii Preface
both a 20-district sample and universe data sets for several states. The fifth edition has
five major sections:
The book also includes an appendix that provides instructions for using the simula-
tions in Chapters 6 and 7.
a great deal of money on K–12 education and that the amount we spend has grown
considerably over time. Chapter 1 also discusses the manner in which school finance
inequities have changed over the past 30 years. The chapter looks at the “tradi-
tional” school finance inequities in several states, where districts with lower prop-
erty wealth per pupil tend to have lower expenditures per pupil—even with higher
school tax rates—than do districts with higher per-pupil property wealth. These
high-wealth districts tend to have higher per-pupil expenditures even with lower school
tax rates.
The chapter then shows that several states today have what we call the “new”
school finance problem: higher-property-wealth districts with higher expenditures
per pupil but also higher tax rates, and lower-property-wealth-per-pupil districts with
lower expenditures per pupil but also lower school tax rates. The chapter suggests that
remedying these different types of fiscal inequities might require very different school
finance reform strategies. Finally, the chapter discusses how the issue of adequacy has
entered the school finance policy agenda.
Chapter 2 reviews the evolution of school finance court cases, from the initial
Serrano v. Priest decision to the adequacy cases of the late 1990s and 2000s. The chapter
shows how strongly litigation has shifted from equity to adequacy issues. This chapter
has been rewritten to make the ideas and concepts more understandable and to update
all the pertinent legal issues. A chart on the book’s website (www.mhhe.com/odden5e)
contains citations for the various school finance court decisions across the country and
their constitutional bases.
Chapter 3 begins with a short discussion of whether money “matters,” arguing
that this was less of an issue in the 20th century, when attention was primarily focused
on equity. We argue that today, the adequacy issue directly relates to the “does money
matter” question, so it is not an add-on, but a core issue in school finance. The chapter
then develops an equity-and-adequacy framework for analyzing state school finance
systems. It draws from the Berne and Stiefel (1984) equity framework that was used in
the first edition of the text and adds a discussion of such issues as ex ante versus ex post
equity perspectives, the unit of analysis, and various elements of equity including the
group, the object, and different measures of horizontal and vertical equity. The chapter
also adds the concept of adequacy to the overall framework and presents an adequacy
statistic, the Odden-Picus Adequacy Index. The chapter concludes by asserting that
most analyses of the equity and adequacy of state school finance systems use state and
local revenues per pupil and focus on the degree of per-pupil revenue equality (using
the coefficient of variation and the McLoone Index statistics) and the degree of fiscal
neutrality, or the linkage between revenues per pupil and property wealth per pupil.
While the last part of Chapter 4 discusses the rationales and the types of adjust-
ments for three categories of special-needs children (those from a low-income back-
ground, those with physical and mental disabilities, and those with limited English
proficiency), Chapter 6 describes different ways states can adjust funding formulas for
these categories of special pupil needs.
Chapter 7 uses the analytic tools outlined in Chapters 3, 4, and 6 to identify school
finance problems in three states, and then, using district data from the three states
representing different kinds of school finance situations, suggests reforms that would
remedy the identified problems. This chapter uses the simulation program, available on
the McGraw-Hill website (www.mhhe.com/odden5e), adapted for the individual states.
Over time, this website should have data sets for more states. It currently has data for
more recent years for the states discussed in the chapter, so professors could have stu-
dents analyze the nature of the school finance problems with more recent data, as well
as simulate and propose school finance reforms.
The Washington data set discussed in Chapter 7 presents a more “traditional”
school finance problem of unequal distribution of funds due to the unequal distribu-
tion of wealth. The chapter shows how traditional school finance models can be used
to increase horizontal equity, fiscal neutrality, and adequacy, and to make adjustments
for different student needs. The Wisconsin data set presents the “new” finance prob-
lem. In this instance, the wealthiest districts are relatively high spending but also have
relatively high tax rate districts, while the poorest districts tend to be low spending and
exert low tax efforts. The chapter shows how guaranteed tax base (GTB) programs exac-
erbate fiscal equity for such states and identifies alternative school finance mechanisms
to improve inequity and adequacy. The Illinois data present a finance situation that
not only is tricky to resolve but also requires substantial additional resources on both
adequacy and property tax reduction grounds.
The goal of Chapter 7 is to show how various elements of school finance structures
can be used to resolve different types of school finance problems. For each state, the
chapter includes an analysis of both the school finance problem and the effectiveness or
ineffectiveness of different formulas in resolving the problem.
We encourage any reader or professor to send us data sets from their states that
we could convert into a simulation to add to the website. The variables we would need
are described at the end of Chapter 7.
Chapter 8 is an updated chapter on budgeting educational resources. It focuses
more on the nuts and bolts of budgeting and less on research about budgeting processes.
The chapter starts with the traditional triangle that structures budgeting—revenues,
expenditures, and educational programs—and then discusses how these play out as
central issues in school district budgeting. It includes explanations of the general fund
and restricted funds. It also includes descriptions of various ways that districts provide
resources to school sites, from the more traditional staffing formulas to emerging needs-
based, per-pupil funding formulas. In addition, the chapter examines how the recom-
mendations in Chapter 4, which identify adequate resources for prototypical schools,
could be used to budget resources to all schools in a district. It also raises the issue of
how expenditures might be reported by the same budgeting categories in the future. It
includes short summaries of the weighted-pupil approach to budgeting. The goal is to
illuminate the key ways in which districts allocate resources for schools.
xxii Preface
both to the federal Race to the Top program as well as waivers from No Child Left
Behind accountability mechanisms. Finally, the chapter discusses how to design per-
formance bonus programs that would provide either individual teachers or all teachers
(as well as administrators and classified staff) in a school with a salary bonus for meeting
preset targets for improved student performance. More details on these ideas can be
found in Odden and Wallace (2007).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Writing a book of this magnitude is almost always the result of activities far beyond
those of the authors. We are responsible for the text and for any errors and omissions,
but without the insights, assistance, support, and work of others, a book might never see
the light of day. We would like to thank the people who played major roles in helping
us produce the fifth edition of this book.
Professor William Glenn of Virginia Tech University rewrote Chapter 2 on the law
related to school finance, updated the school finance legal chart on the book’s website
and also created the Virginia simulation on the book’s website. We thank Dr. Michael
Goetz, an independent consultant in education finance and policy, for his work over the
years on both the 20-district simulation and the various state simulations. He is a genius
at debugging the glitches that have emerged in the simulations over the years, and in
tailoring new data sets to state simulations. He provided the new, more recent state sim-
ulations for Illinois, Washington, and Wisconsin, and updated all previous simulations
to run on EXCEL 2010. David Knight, a doctoral student at the USC Rossier School of
Education, did the programming for the District Simulation used extensively in Chapter
10. Samantha Bernstein, also a doctoral student at USC, helped with the appendix to
Chapter 4. All helped with proofreading and preparing the new appendix.
Lisa Armstrong, administrative assistant in the University of Wisconsin CPRE
offices was, as usual, the preeminent citation sleuth, tracking down innumerable cita-
tions that either simply needed to be found or needed completion. Without her help,
we would still be at the computer or in the library.
We would also like to extend a special thank you to our reviewers:
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