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 vii

Contents

Foreword by John H. Seinfeld page xv

Preface xvii

1 Basics and Discovery of Atmospheric Chemicals 1

1.1. Basic Definitions 1
1.1.1. Atoms, Elements, Molecules, and Compounds 1
1.1.2. Gases and Particles 2
1.2. History of Discovery of Elements and Compounds of Atmospheric Importance 3
1.2.1. Solids and Liquids, Ancient World–1690 3
1.2.2. Studies of Gases in the Air, 1450–1790 12
1.2.3. Discoveries after 1790 20
1.3. Chemical Structure and Reactivity 22
1.4. Chemical Reactions and Photoprocesses 25
1.5. Chemical Lifetimes 26
1.6. Chemical Units 27
1.7. Summary 27
1.8. Problems 27

2 The Sun, the Earth, and the Evolution of the Earth’s Atmosphere 29
2.1. The Sun and Its Origin 29
2.2. Spectra of the Radiation of the Sun and the Earth 31
2.3. Primordial Evolution of the Earth and Its Atmosphere 33
2.3.1. Solid Earth Formation 35
2.3.2. Prebiotic Atmosphere 36
2.3.3. Biotic Atmosphere before Oxygen 36
2.3.4. The Oxygen Age 39
2.3.5. Aerobic Respiration and the Oxygen Cycle 41
2.3.6. The Nitrogen Cycle 41
2.3.7. Summary of Atmospheric Evolution 42
2.4. Summary 43
2.5. Problems 43
viii

3 Structure and Composition of the Present-Day Atmosphere 45

3.1. Air Pressure and Density Structure 45
3.2. Processes Affecting Temperature 46
3.2.1. Conduction 47
3.2.2. Convection 48
3.2.3. Advection 48
3.2.4. Radiation 48
3.3. Temperature Structure of the Atmosphere 49
3.3.1. Troposphere 49
3.3.2. Stratosphere 51
3.3.3. Mesosphere 51
3.3.4. Thermosphere 52
3.4. Equation of State 52
3.5. Composition of the Present-Day Atmosphere 55
3.5.1. Well-Mixed Gases 55
3.5.2. Spatially and Temporally Varying Gases 56
3.6. Characteristics of Selected Gases and Aerosol Particle Components 56
3.6.1. Water Vapor 56
3.6.2. Carbon Dioxide 58
3.6.3. Carbon Monoxide 63
3.6.4. Methane 64
3.6.5. Ozone 65
3.6.6. Sulfur Dioxide 66
3.6.7. Nitric Oxide 66
3.6.8. Nitrogen Dioxide 67
3.6.9. Lead 68
3.6.10. Hazardous Organic Compounds 70
3.7. Summary 71
3.8. Problems 71

4 Urban Air Pollution 73

4.1. History and Early Regulation of Outdoor Urban Air Pollution 73
4.1.1. Before 1200: Metal Smelting and Wood Burning 73
4.1.2. 1200–1700: Quicklime Production and Coal Burning 74
4.1.3. 1700–1840: The Steam Engine 74
4.1.4. Regulation in the United Kingdom: 1840–1930 77
4.1.5. Regulation in the United States: 1869–1940 77
4.1.6. London-Type Smog 77
4.1.7. Photochemical Smog 80
4.2. Gas-Phase Chemistry of the Background Troposphere 85
4.2.1. Photostationary-State Ozone Concentration 85
4.2.2. Daytime Removal of Nitrogen Oxides 85
4.2.3. Nighttime Nitrogen Chemistry 86
4.2.4. Ozone Production from Carbon Monoxide 86
4.2.5. Ozone Production from Methane 86
4.2.6. Ozone Production from Formaldehyde 87
4.2.7. Ozone Production from Ethane 87
4.2.8. Ozone and Peroxyacetyl Nitrate Production from Acetaldehyde 88
4.3. Chemistry of Photochemical Smog 88
4.3.1. Emissions of Photochemical Smog Precursors 89
4.3.2. Reactive Organic Gas Breakdown Processes 91
 ix

4.3.3. Ozone Production from Alkanes 92

4.3.4. Ozone Production from Alkenes 92
4.3.5. Ozone Production from Aromatics 93
4.3.6. Ozone Production from Terpenes 94
4.3.7. Ozone Production from Alcohols 95
4.3.8. Ethanol versus Gasoline Effects on Air Pollution and Health 97
4.4. Pollutant Removal 98
4.5. Summary 98
4.6. Problems 99

5 Aerosol Particles in the Polluted and Global Atmosphere 101

5.1. Size Distributions 101
5.2. Sources and Compositions of New Particles 103
5.2.1. Emissions 103
5.2.2. Homogeneous Nucleation 111
5.3. Processes Affecting Particle Size 112
5.3.1. Coagulation 112
5.3.2. Growth Processes 113
5.3.3. Removal Processes 119
5.4. Summary of the Composition of Aerosol Particles 120
5.5. Aerosol Particle Morphology and Shape 120
5.6. Health Effects of Aerosol Particles 122
5.7. Quantifying the Health Effects of Particles or Gases 123
5.8. Summary 124
5.9. Problems 124

6 Effects of Meteorology on Air Pollution 127

6.1. Forces 127
6.1.1. Pressure Gradient Force 127
6.1.2. Apparent Coriolis Force 127
6.1.3. Friction Force 128
6.1.4. Apparent Centrifugal Force 128
6.2. Winds 128
6.2.1. Geostrophic Wind 128
6.2.2. Surface Winds along Straight Isobars 129
6.2.3. Gradient Wind 129
6.2.4. Surface Winds along Curved Isobars 130
6.3. Global Circulation of the Atmosphere 131
6.3.1. Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt 132
6.3.2. Winds Aloft in the Hadley Cells 132
6.3.3. Subtropical High-Pressure Belts 132
6.3.4. Trade Winds 133
6.3.5. Subpolar Low-Pressure Belts 133
6.3.6. Westerly Winds Aloft at Midlatitudes 133
6.3.7. Polar Easterlies 134
6.4. Semipermanent Pressure Systems 134
6.5. Thermal Pressure Systems 135
6.6. Effects of Large-Scale Pressure Systems on Air Pollution 135
6.6.1. Vertical Pollutant Transport 136
6.6.2. Horizontal Pollutant Transport 142
6.6.3. Cloud Cover 144
x

6.7. Effects of Local Meteorology on Air Pollution 144

6.7.1. Ground Temperatures 144
6.7.2. Soil Liquid Water Content 145
6.7.3. Urban Heat Island Effect 145
6.7.4. Local Winds 145
6.7.5. Plume Dispersion 150
6.8. Summary 150
6.9. Problems 151

7 Effects of Pollution on Visibility, Ultraviolet Radiation, and Colors in the Sky 153
7.1. Processes Affecting Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere 153
7.1.1. Gas Absorption 154
7.1.2. Gas Scattering 156
7.1.3. Aerosol and Hydrometeor Particle Absorption 158
7.1.4. Aerosol and Hydrometeor Particle Scattering 162
7.1.5. Particle Scattering and Absorption Extinction Coefficients 165
7.2. Visibility 166
7.3. Colors in the Atmosphere 170
7.3.1. White Hazes and Clouds 170
7.3.2. Reddish and Brown Colors in Smog 170
7.3.3. Black Colors in Smog 172
7.3.4. Red Skies and Brilliant Horizons in Smog 172
7.3.5. Purple Glow in the Stratosphere 172
7.4. Summary 172
7.5. Problems 173
7.6. Visibility Project 174

8 International Regulation of Urban Smog Since the 1940s 175

8.1. Regulation in the United States 175
8.1.1. Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 175
8.1.2. California Vehicle Emission Regulations 176
8.1.3. Clean Air Act of 1963 176
8.1.4. Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act of 1965 176
8.1.5. Air Quality Act of 1967 178
8.1.6. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 178
8.1.7. Catalytic Converters 180
8.1.8. Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards 181
8.1.9. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 181
8.1.10. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 182
8.1.11. Clean Air Act Revision of 1997 183
8.1.12. California Waiver 183
8.1.13. Regulation of U.S. Interstate and Transboundary Air Pollution 184
8.1.14. Smog Alerts 185
8.1.15. U.S. Air Quality Trends from the 1970s to Present 186
8.1.16. Visibility Regulations and Trends 188
8.2. Pollution Trends and Regulations outside the United States 189
8.2.1. European Union 190
8.2.2. United Kingdom 191
8.2.3. France 192
8.2.4. Germany 192
8.2.5. Russia 193
 xi

8.2.6. Israel 195

8.2.7. Egypt 196
8.2.8. Iran 196
8.2.9. India 196
8.2.10. China 197
8.2.11. Japan 199
8.2.12. Canada 200
8.2.13. Mexico 201
8.2.14. Brazil 202
8.2.15. Chile 202
8.2.16. South Africa 203
8.2.17. Australia 204
8.3. Summary 205
8.4. Problems 205

9 Indoor Air Pollution 207

9.1. Pollutants in Indoor Air and Their Sources 207
9.1.1. Carbon Dioxide 207
9.1.2. Carbon Monoxide 208
9.1.3. Nitrogen Dioxide 208
9.1.4. Ozone 208
9.1.5. Sulfur Dioxide 209
9.1.6. Formaldehyde 209
9.1.7. Radon 209
9.1.8. Volatile Organic Compounds 211
9.1.9. Allergens 211
9.1.10. Coal Dust 212
9.1.11. Asbestos 212
9.1.12. Fungal Spores, Bacteria, Viruses, and Pollen 214
9.1.13. Environmental Tobacco Smoke 214
9.1.14. Indoor Solid Biofuel and Coal Burning 217
9.2. Sick Building Syndrome 217
9.3. Personal Clouds 218
9.4. Regulation of Indoor Air Pollution 218
9.5. Summary 219
9.6. Problems 219

10 Acid Deposition 221

10.1. Historical Aspects of Acid Deposition 221
10.2. Causes of Acidity 224
10.2.1. Carbonic Acid 225
10.2.2. Sulfuric Acid 225
10.2.3. Nitric Acid 226
10.2.4. Hydrochloric Acid 226
10.2.5. Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of Acids 226
10.2.6. Acidity of Rainwater and Fog Water 226
10.3. Sulfuric Acid Deposition 226
10.3.1. Gas-Phase Oxidation of S(IV) 227
10.3.2. Aqueous-Phase Oxidation of S(IV) 227
10.4. Nitric Acid Deposition 228
xii

10.5. Effects of Acid Deposition 228

10.5.1. Effects on Lakes and Streams 228
10.5.2. Effects on Biomass 228
10.5.3. Effects on Buildings and Sculptures 231
10.6. Natural and Artificial Neutralization of Lakes and Soils 231
10.6.1. Ammonium Hydroxide 231
10.6.2. Sodium and Calcium Hydroxide 231
10.6.3. Calcium Carbonate 232
10.6.4. Sodium Chloride 233
10.6.5. Ammonia 233
10.7. Recent Regulatory Control of Acid Deposition 234
10.7.1. Methods of Controlling Emissions 234
10.7.2. Effects of Regulation 235
10.8. Summary 235
10.9. Problems 236

11 Global Stratospheric Ozone Reduction 237

11.1. Structure of the Present-Day Ozone Layer 237
11.2. Relationship between the Ozone Layer and Ultraviolet Radiation 239
11.3. Chemistry of the Natural Ozone Layer 240
11.3.1. The Chapman Cycle 240
11.3.2. Effects of Nitrogen on the Natural Ozone Layer 242
11.3.3. Effects of Hydrogen on the Natural Ozone Layer 243
11.3.4. Effects of Carbon on the Natural Ozone Layer 243
11.4. Recent Changes to the Ozone Layer 243
11.4.1. Global Stratospheric Changes 243
11.4.2. Antarctic Stratospheric Changes 244
11.4.3. Arctic Stratospheric Changes 244
11.4.4. Effects of Ozone and Air Pollution Changes on Ultraviolet Radiation 245
11.5. Effects of Chlorine on Global Ozone Reduction 245
11.5.1. Chlorofluorocarbons and Related Compounds 246
11.5.2. Lifetimes and Mixing Ratios of Chlorinated Compounds 249
11.5.3. Catalytic Ozone Destruction by Chlorine 250
11.6. Effects of Bromine on Global Ozone Reduction 251
11.7. Regeneration Rates of Stratospheric Ozone 251
11.8. Antarctic Ozone Hole 252
11.8.1. Polar Stratospheric Cloud Formation 253
11.8.2. Polar Stratospheric Cloud Surface Reactions 254
11.8.3. Springtime Polar Chemistry 255
11.9. Effects of Enhanced UV-B Radiation on Life and Ecosystems 256
11.9.1. Effects on Humans 256
11.9.2. Effects on Microorganisms, Animals, and Plants 258
11.9.3. Effects on the Global Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles 258
11.9.4. Effects on Tropospheric Ozone 258
11.10. Regulation of Chlorofluorocarbons 259
11.11. Summary 261
11.12. Problems 261

12 The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming 263

12.1. Temperature on Earth in the Absence of a Greenhouse Effect 263
12.1.1. Incoming Solar Radiation 264
 xiii

12.1.2. Outgoing Thermal-Infrared Radiation 266

12.1.3. Equilibrium Temperature of the Earth 266
12.1.4. The Goldilocks Hypothesis 268
12.2. The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming 268
12.2.1. Greenhouse Gases and Particles 268
12.2.2. Historical Aspects of Global Warming 270
12.2.3. Leading Causes of Global Warming 270
12.2.4. Trends in Mixing Ratios and Emissions of Gases and Particles 272
12.3. Recent and Historical Temperature Trends 274
12.3.1. Recent Temperature Record 274
12.3.2. Historical Temperature Record 276
12.4. Feedbacks and Other Factors That May Affect Global Temperatures 288
12.4.1. Arguments Mistakenly Used to Explain Global Warming as a Natural
Phenomenon 288
12.4.2. Feedback of Gases to Climate 289
12.4.3. Effects of Aerosol Particles on Climate 290
12.5. Consequences of Global Warming 294
12.5.1. Loss of Ice/Rise in Sea Level 295
12.5.2. Changes in Regional Climate, Severe Weather, and Agriculture 296
12.5.3. Changes in Ocean Acidity and Ecosystems 297
12.5.4. Changes in Heat Stress 297
12.5.5. Changes in Disease 298
12.5.6. Changes in Air Pollution 298
12.5.7. Changes in Stratospheric Ozone 300
12.6. Regulatory Control of Global Warming 301
12.6.1. Indirect Regulations 301
12.6.2. The Kyoto Protocol 302
12.6.3. Renewable Portfolio Standards and the California Waiver 304
12.6.4. Fastest Methods of Slowing Global Warming 304
12.7. Summary 306
12.8. Problems 307
12.9. Essay Questions 307

13 Energy Solutions to Air Pollution and Global Warming 309

13.1. Clean, Low-Risk, Sustainable Energy Systems 309
13.1.1. Why Not Nuclear Energy? 310
13.1.2. Why Not Coal with Carbon Capture? 312
13.1.3. Why Not Natural Gas? 313
13.1.4. Why Not Liquid or Solid Biofuels? 314
13.1.5. Demand-Side Energy Conservation 315
13.2. Characteristics of Electricity-Generating Wind, Water, and Sunlight Technologies 317
13.2.1. Wind 317
13.2.2. Wave 318
13.2.3. Geothermal 318
13.2.4. Hydroelectric 319
13.2.5. Tidal 320
13.2.6. Solar Photovoltaics 320
13.2.7. Concentrated Solar Power 320
13.2.8. Use of Wind, Water, and Sunlight Power for Transportation 321
13.2.9. Use of Wind, Water, and Sunlight Power for Heating and Cooling 322
13.3. Energy Needed to Power the World 323
xiv

13.4. Wind, Water, and Sunlight Resources Available to Power the World 323
13.5. Number, Footprint, and Spacing of Plants and Devices Required 325
13.6. Material Resources Required 329
13.6.1. Materials for Wind Turbines 329
13.6.2. Materials for Solar Photovoltaics 330
13.6.3. Materials for Concentrated Solar Power 330
13.6.4. Materials for Electric Vehicles 330
13.6.5. Materials for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles 331
13.7. Downtime of Wind, Water, and Sunlight versus Conventional Energy Technologies 331
13.8. Reliably Matching Demand with Variable Wind, Water, and Sunlight Resources 332
13.8.1. Interconnecting Geographically Dispersed Generators 332
13.8.2. Using Complementary and Nonvariable Supply to Match Demand 333
13.8.3. Using Demand-Response Management to Adjust Demand to Supply 334
13.8.4. Storing Electric Power at the Site of Generation 334
13.8.5. Oversizing Wind, Water, and Sunlight Generation to Match Demand Better
and Produce H2 (g) 334
13.8.6. Storing Electric Power at Points of End Use and in Electric Vehicle Batteries 334
13.8.7. Using Weather Forecasts to Plan for and Reduce Backup Requirements 335
13.9. Cost of Wind, Water, and Sunlight Electricity Generation and Long-Distance
Transmission 335
13.10. Policy Mechanisms 336
13.11. Summary and Conclusions 337
13.12. Problems 339
13.13. Group or Individual Project 340

Appendix: Conversions and Constants 341

References 343
Index 359

Foreword
Atmospheric chemistry, as a modern discipline, can be
considered to have originated in 1931, when Sydney
Chapman, distinguished British physicist, formulated a
chemical mechanism for the formation of stratospheric
ozone. The foundations of understanding tropospheric
chemistry were laid in the early 1950s by Arie Haagen-
Smit, a bioorganic chemist at the California Institute
of Technology, who described ozone formation in the
Los Angeles Basin as resulting from reactions involv-
ing volatile organic compounds and oxides of nitrogen.
The essential reactive species in tropospheric chem-
istry remained unknown until the early 1970s, when
the central role of the hydroxyl radical as the tropo-
sphere’s “detergent” was revealed. The existence of
particles in the air (aerosols) had long been recognized,
but it was not until the past 50 years that instrumen-
tation was developed that is capable of determining
the size distribution and composition of atmospheric
aerosols.
Threats to stratospheric ozone made headlines in
the early 1970s, when Harold Johnston at the Univer-
sity of California, Berkeley, published calculations of
the effect on stratospheric ozone of a proposed fleet
of supersonic aircraft. Johnston’s work was followed
shortly thereafter by the revelation of the stratospheric
chemical impact of chlorofluorocarbons, widely used
as refrigerants and in consumer products, by F. Sher-
wood Rowland and Mario Molina of the University of
California, Irvine. For their penetrating insights into
atmospheric chemistry, Rowland, Molina, and Paul
Crutzen of the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry
in Mainz, Germany, received the 1995 Nobel Prize in
Chemistry.
xv
Mathematical models that describe the three-
dimensional transport and chemistry in the atmosphere
were first developed in the early 1970s. Such com-
puter models have played a key role in representing our
understanding of atmospheric processes and in planning
emission controls to achieve desired levels of air qual-
ity. Three-dimensional numerical atmospheric chemi-
cal transport models are mandated in the U.S. Clean
Air Act as the tool that must be used to design emission
control strategies to attain national ambient air qual-
ity standards in urban and regional areas. Virtually all
aspects of atmospheric chemistry and physics are now
embodied in these models.
Humans have been concerned with weather and cli-
mate for millennia. Over geologic time, the Earth’s cli-
mate variations have been a result of changes in the
Earth’s orbit, in the sun’s output, or of volcanic erup-
tions that inject large amounts of material into the atmo-
sphere. Although warming of the Earth by an increase
of atmospheric CO2 was calculated in 1896 by Svante
Arrhenius, it was not until 1958 that David Keeling of
the Scripps Institute of Oceanography began making
precise measurements of atmospheric CO2 at the top of
Hawaii’s Mauna Loa Volcano. The continuous record
of CO2 measurements on Mauna Loa, now overseen
by the U.S. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), constitutes the most profound
environmental dataset in existence. That CO2 record,
when reconciled with estimates of CO2 emissions from
fossil fuel burning, establishes the unequivocal effect of
humans on Earth’s climate over the past 60 years.
Atmospheric science now involves thousands of sci-
entists, in academic disciplines ranging over physics,
chemistry, engineering, and health sciences. Writing
an introductory text that spans the important compo-
nents of atmospheric science, air pollution, climate,
and effects is a daunting task indeed. Professor Mark
Z. Jacobson has produced a text of remarkable breadth,
one that can be appreciated by first-year college students
and professionals alike. The book is alive with histori-
cal vignettes, photos, and figures. The reader gains an
appreciation of the elegance of the science of the atmo-
sphere, as well as of the role of humans in perturbing
the atmosphere’s composition and the effects of those
perturbations. It is a pleasure to recommend this book to
those with an interest in understanding Earth’s precious
atmosphere.
John H. Seinfeld
Louis E. Nohl Professor
California Institute of Technology

Preface
Natural air pollution problems on the Earth are as old as
the planet itself. Volcanos, fumaroles, natural fires, and
desert dust have all contributed to natural air pollution.
Humans first emitted air pollutants when they burned
wood and cleared land (increasing wind-blown dust).
More recently, the burning of coal, chemicals, oil, gaso-
line, kerosene, diesel, jet and alcohol fuel, natural gas,
biomass, and waste, as well as the release of chemicals
into the environment, have contributed to several major
air pollution problems on a range of spatial scales. These
problems include outdoor urban smog, indoor air pol-
lution, acid deposition, the Antarctic ozone hole, global
stratospheric ozone reduction, and global warming.
Urban smog is characterized by the outdoor buildup
of gases and particles that are either emitted from vehi-
cles, homes, industrial facilities, power plants, incinera-
tors, or land-clearing and natural fires or formed chem-
ically in the air from emitted pollutants. Smog affects
human and animal health, structures, and vegetation.
Urban smog occurs over scales of meters to hundreds
of kilometers.
Indoor air pollution results from the emission of
pollutant gases and particles in enclosed buildings and
the transport of pollutants from outdoors to indoors.
Worldwide, indoor air pollution is responsible for about
1.6 million premature deaths per year, mostly from the
burning of wood, animal and agricultural waste, and
coal for home heating and cooking in developing coun-
tries. Indoor air pollution occurs over scales of meters
to tens of meters.
Acid deposition occurs when sulfuric, nitric, or
hydrochloric acids in the air deposit to the ground as
a gas or dissolve in rainwater, fog water, or particles.
xvii
Acids harm soils, lakes, forests, and structures. In high
concentrations, they can also harm humans. Acid depo-
sition occurs over scales of tens to thousands of kilo-
meters.
The Antarctic ozone hole and global stratospheric
ozone reduction are caused, to a large extent, by
human-produced chlorine and bromine compounds that
are emitted into the air and break down only after
they have traveled to the upper atmosphere (the strato-
sphere). Ozone reduction increases the intensity of
ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun reaching the
ground. Intense UV radiation destroys microorganisms
on the surface of the Earth and causes skin cancer in
humans and animals. The Antarctic ozone hole occurs
over a region the size of North America. Global strato-
spheric ozone reduction occurs globally.
Global warming is the increase in lower atmo-
spheric (tropospheric) global temperatures and the
resulting increase in ice melt, sea level, coastal flood-
ing, heat stress, air pollution, malaria, influenza, severe
storminess, and starvation due to shifts in agricul-
ture caused by human emission of both greenhouse
gases and particles. Greenhouse gases include car-
bon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and chloro-
fluorocarbons. Major particle constituents contributing
to global warming include black and brown carbon.
Global warming is a global problem with regional
impact.
Air is not owned privately; instead, it is common
property (accessible to all individuals). As a result,
air has historically been polluted without limit. This is
the classic tragedy of the commons. The only known
mechanism of limiting air pollution, aside from vol-
unteerism and the fortuitous development of inexpen-
sive, clean technologies, is government intervention.
Intervention can take the form of setting up economic
markets for the rights to emit pollution, providing sub-
sidies for the development and implementation of clean
technologies, limiting emissions from specific sources,
requiring certain emission control technologies, or set-
ting limits on pollutant concentrations and allowing the
use of any emission reduction method to meet those
limits.
Because government action usually requires consen-
sus that a problem exists, the problem is severe enough
to warrant action, and action taken will not have its
own set of adverse consequences (usually economic),
national governments did not act aggressively to control
global air pollution problems until the 1970s and 1980s.
For the most part, action was not taken earlier because
lawmakers were not always convinced of the severity
xviii
of air pollution problems. Even when problems were
recognized, action was often delayed because indus-
tries used their political strength to oppose government
intervention. Even today, government intervention is
opposed by many industries and politicians out of often
misplaced concern that intervention will cause adverse
economic consequences. In many developing countries,
intervention is sometimes opposed because of the con-
cern that developed countries are trying to inhibit eco-
nomic expansion of the less developed countries. In
other cases, pollution is not regulated strictly due to
the perceived cost of emission control technologies and
enforcement.
Despite the opposition to government intervention,
such intervention has proven effective in mitigating
various major air pollution problems facing human-
ity in some countries or on a global scale. For exam-
ple, outdoor and indoor air pollution and acid depo-
sition in many industrialized countries, including the
United States, Japan, and most European countries,
have decreased since the 1970s due to the development
and use of emission control technologies and more effi-
cient devices. However, such problems have increased
in most of the rest of the world due to rapidly ris-
ing populations, higher energy demand, and low trans-
fer rates of emission control technologies. Indoor air
pollution, in particular, has become more severe in
developing countries as populations have expanded and
indoor burning of fuel for heating and cooking has
continued.
The main cause of the Antarctic ozone hole and
stratospheric ozone reduction, the emissions of classes
of chemical compounds called chlorofluorocarbons and
bromocarbons, has been substantially addressed. How-
ever, stratospheric ozone levels continue to stay low, in
part due to the long lifetime of existing chlorofluorocar-
bons and partly due to global warming, which warms
the lower atmosphere (the troposphere) but cools the
stratosphere. Stratospheric cooling exacerbates damage
to the ozone layer caused by chlorofluorocarbons and
bromocarbons.
Addressing the problem of global warming is a pro-
cess in its infancy. Despite modest efforts, emissions
and global temperatures continue to rise rapidly. The
consequences of higher temperatures are readily visi-
ble. The solution to global warming, although clear-cut
in concept, is the challenge for the current and future
generations.
This book discusses the history and science of major
air pollution problems, the consequences of these prob-
lems, and efforts to control the problems through gov-
ernment intervention and existing clean technologies.
The book then presents a proposed solution to global
warming and air pollution, namely, the conversion of
the world’s energy infrastructure to a large-scale, clean,
renewable one. Because air pollution and global warm-
ing, in particular, are so severe, a rapid and large-scale
conversion is needed. The main barriers to conversion
are not technical, resource based, or even economic.
Instead, they are social and political.
The book synthesizes knowledge in the fields of
chemistry, meteorology, radiation science, aerosol sci-
ences, cloud physics, soil science, microbiology, epi-
demiology, energy, materials science, economics, pol-
icy, and law. The study of air pollution and climate is
truly interdisciplinary.
This book is directed at students in environmental,
Earth, atmospheric, and energy sciences; engineering;
and policy. It was designed to be general enough for
the interested layperson, yet detailed enough to be used
as a reference text. The text uses chemical symbols
and chemical equations, but all chemistry required is
introduced in Chapter 1. No previous knowledge of
chemistry is needed. The text also describes a handful
of physical laws. No calculus, geometry, or higher math
is needed.
Acknowledgments
I want to thank several colleagues who reviewed differ-
ent sections of this text. In particular, I am indebted to
(in alphabetical order) Cristina Archer, Mary Cameron,
Joe Cassmassi, Andrew Chang, Mark Delucchi, Frank
Freedman, Ann Fridlind, Elaine Hart, Lynn Hildemann,
Gerard Ketefian, Jinyou Liang, Nesrin Ozalp, Ana San-
doval, Roberto San Jose, Alfred Spormann, Amy Stuart,
Azadeh Tabazadeh, John ten Hoeve, Daniel Whitt, and
Yang Zhang, all of whom provided comments, sugges-
tions, and/or corrections relating to the text. I also want
to show my gratitude to Jill Nomura, Daniel and Dionna
Jacobson, William Jacobson, and Yvonne Jacobson for
helping with graphics and/or editing, as well as to the
students who have used this text and then provided sug-
gestions and corrections. Finally, I want to thank several
anonymous reviewers, in particular one who provided
many inspirational comments.
Air Pollution and Global Warming
 Chapter 1
Basics and Discovery of Atmospheric
Chemicals
The study of air pollution begins with the study of chem-
icals that comprise the air. These chemicals include
molecules in the gas, liquid, or solid phases. Because
the air contains so many different types of molecules,
it is helpful to become familiar with the more impor-
tant ones through the history of their discovery. Such a
history also gives insight into characteristics of atmo-
spheric chemicals and an understanding of how much
our knowledge of air pollution today relies on the scien-
tific achievements of alchemists, chemists, natural sci-
entists, and physicists of the past. This chapter begins
with some basic definitions, and then examines histori-
cal discoveries of chemicals of atmospheric importance.
Finally, types of chemical reactions that occur in the
atmosphere are identified, and chemical lifetimes are
defined.
1.1. Basic Definitions
Air is a mixture of gases and particles, both of
which are made of atoms. In this section, atoms, ele-
ments, molecules, compounds, gases, and particles are
defined.
1.1.1. Atoms, Elements, Molecules,
and Compounds
In 1913, Niels Bohr (1885–1962), a Danish physi-
cist, proposed that an atom consists of one or more
negatively charged electrons in discrete circular orbits
around a positively charged nucleus. Each electron
carries a charge of –1 and a tiny mass.1 The nucleus
of an atom consists of 1 to 118 protons and 0 to 165
neutrons. Protons have a net charge of +1 and a mass
1,836 times that of an electron. Neutrons have zero net
charge and a mass 1,839 times that of an electron. For
the net charge of an atom to be zero, the number of
electrons must equal the number of protons. Positively
charged atoms have fewer electrons than protons. Nega-
tively charged atoms have more electrons than protons.
Positively or negatively charged atoms are called ions.
The average mass of protons plus neutrons in a
nucleus is called the atomic mass. Electrons are not
included in the atomic mass calculation because the
summed mass of electrons in an atom is small in com-
parison with the summed masses of protons and neu-
trons. The number of protons in an atomic nucleus is
the atomic number.
An element is a single atom or a substance composed
of several atoms, each with the same atomic number
(the same number of protons in its nucleus). Whereas
all atoms of an element have a fixed number of protons,
not all atoms of the element have the same number of
neutrons. Atoms of an element with the same number of
protons but a different number of neutrons are isotopes
of the element. Isotopes of an element have different
atomic masses but similar chemical characteristics.
1 Mass is an absolute property of a material. Mass, multiplied by
gravity, equals weight, which is a force. Because gravity varies with
location and altitude, weight is a relative property of a material. A
person who is nearly “weightless” in space, where gravity is small,
has the same mass, whether in space or on the surface of the Earth.
2

Table 1.1. Characteristics of the first ten elements in the periodic table

Number of
protons Number of
(atomic neutrons in Atomic mass Number of
Element Symbol number) main isotope (g mol−1 ) electrons

Hydrogen H 1 0 1.00794 1
Helium He 2 2 4.00206 2
Lithium Li 3 4 6.941 3
Beryllium Be 4 5 9.01218 4
Boron B 5 6 10.811 5
Carbon C 6 6 12.011 6
Nitrogen N 7 7 14.0067 7
Oxygen O 8 8 15.9994 8
Fluorine F 9 10 18.9984 9
Neon Ne 10 10 20.1797 10

The periodic table of the elements, developed in
1869 by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–
1907), lists elements in order of increasing atomic num-
ber. Table 1.1 identifies the first ten elements of the peri-
odic table and some of their characteristics. The atomic
mass of an element in the periodic table is the sum, over
all isotopes of the element, of the percentage occurrence
in nature of the isotope multiplied by the atomic mass
of the isotope.
The simplest element in the periodic table is hydro-
gen (H), which contains one proton, no neutrons, and
one electron. Hydrogen occurs in three natural isotopic
forms. The most common is protium (one proton and
one electron), shown in Figure 1.1. The other two are
deuterium, which contains one proton, one neutron,
and one electron, and tritium, which contains one pro-
ton, two neutrons, and one electron. Helium (He), also
shown in Figure 1.1, is the second simplest element and
contains two protons, two neutrons, and two electrons.
(a) Hydrogen (b) Helium
Figure 1.1. Simplified configuration of protons,
neutrons, and electrons in (a) protium, an isotope of
the hydrogen atom, and (b) a helium atom.
When one atom bonds to another atom of either the
same or different atomic number, it forms a molecule.
A molecule is a group of atoms of like or different
elements held together by chemical forces. When a
molecule consists of different elements, it is a com-
pound. A compound is a substance consisting of atoms
of two or more elements in definite proportions that
cannot be separated by physical means.
1.1.2. Gases and Particles
Gases are distinguished from particles in two ways.
First, a gas consists of individual atoms or molecules
that are separated, whereas a particle consists of an
aggregate of atoms or molecules bonded together. Thus,
a particle is larger than a single gas atom or molecule.
Second, whereas particles contain liquids or solids,
gases are in their own phase state. Particles may be
further segregated into aerosol particles and hydro-
meteor particles.
An aerosol is an ensemble of solid, liquid, or mixed-
phase particles suspended in air. An aerosol particle is
a single liquid, solid, or mixed-phase particle among an
ensemble of suspended particles. The term aerosol was
coined by British physicochemist Frederick George
Donnan (1870–1956) near the end of World War I
(Green and Lane, 1969).
A hydrometeor is an ensemble of liquid, solid, or
mixed-phase water particles suspended in or falling
through the air. A hydrometeor particle is a single
such particle. Examples of hydrometeor particles are
 3

cloud drops, ice crystals, raindrops, snowflakes, and were aware of these metals. Of note were the Chaldeans
hailstones. The main difference between an aerosol par- (612–539 BC), who connected them with planets, iden-
ticle and a hydrometeor particle is that the latter contains tifying gold as the sun, silver as the moon, lead as
much more water than the former. Saturn, mercury as Mercury, iron as Mars, copper as
Liquids in aerosol particles and hydrometeor parti- Venus, and tin as Jupiter. Of these seven metals, lead,
cles may be pure or may consist of a solution. A solu- mercury, and iron are the most relevant to air pollution
tion is a homogeneous mixture of substances that can today.
be separated into individual components on a change of
state (e.g., freezing). A solution consists of a solvent,
1.2.1.1. Lead
such as water, and one or more solutes dissolved in the
Lead (plumbum in Latin) is a dense bluish-white metal
solvent. Solids may be mixed throughout a solution but
element. It was discovered before 6400 BC in modern-
are not part of the solution. In this text, pure water and
day Turkey, probably during the heating of lead ore
solutes dissolved in water are denoted with “(aq)” for
(lead bound with sulfur, copper, zinc, or silver) in a
aqueous (dissolved in water). Gases are denoted with
campfire. Lead melts at a temperature of 327◦ C. In
“(g)”, and solids are denoted with “(s)”.
a fire, lead liquefies, separating from its ore. Because
Gases and aerosol particles may be emitted into the
it is so dense (11.3 times the density of water), pure
air naturally or anthropogenically or formed chemi-
lead would flow to the bottom of a campfire. Because
cally in the air. Anthropogenic emissions are human-
resolidified lead is malleable (Figure 1.2), early users
produced emissions, such as from fossil fuel com-
of lead molded it in into cookware and jewelry. The
bustion or industrial burning. Hydrometeor particles
Romans molded it into pipes.
generally form from physical processes in the air. Air
Lead was referred to in the Books of Job and Num-
pollution occurs when gases or aerosol particles, emit-
bers as biblicalx. The Roman Pliny the Elder (23–79
ted anthropogenically, build up in concentration suf-
AD) called it plumbum nigrum, and the English word
ficiently high to cause direct or indirect damage to
plumber describes a person who installs or fixes lead
humans, plants, animals, other life forms, ecosystems,
structures, or works of art.

1.2. History of Discovery of Elements and

Compounds of Atmospheric Importance
Reactive elements that comprise most gases in the air
are hydrogen (H), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen
(O), fluorine (F), sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl), and bromine
(Br). Unreactive elements in the air include helium
(He), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), neon (Ne), and xenon
(Xe). Two radioactive elements of importance are polo-
nium (Po) and radon (Rn). Aerosol particles contain the
elements present in gases and often sodium (Na), mag-
nesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), potassium
(K), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), and/or phos-
phorus (P). Tables 1.2 and 1.3 summarize the dates of
discovery of elements and compounds, respectively, of
atmospheric importance.

1.2.1. Solids and Liquids,

Ancient World–1690
The first elements in the periodic table to be identified
were the metals gold (Au), silver (Ag), lead (Pb), mer-
cury (Hg), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and tin (Sn). Many Figure 1.2. Melted and shaped lead.

C Shootzpics/

cultures, including the Egyptians and the Chaldeans, Dreamstime.com.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 “In those days we didn’t have much ‘store’ candy, and we looked
forward for weeks to the Christmas treat we got at school. You
wouldn’t think much of it today—six sticks of red and white striped
candy apiece, wintergreen and sassafras and clove and maybe one
of horehound. My, but it tasted good to us! We didn’t eat it all up at
once, either. No, indeed!
“But one year we didn’t know whether to look for a treat or not.
The teacher, a Mr. Hazen, was from Clayville, and he had been
heard to say that he did not believe in ‘barring out’ or in being forced
to treat his pupils. Nevertheless we all came early to school one
morning and locked him out.
“While we all cried ‘Treat! Treat!’ at the tops of our voices, William
Orbison opened the window a tiny bit and thrust out the paper they
had prepared for the teacher to sign, but he refused to touch it.
“This was not alarming, as most all of the teachers stayed out for
an hour or two just for fun. We played games and had a good time.
But by time for morning intermission the older pupils had begun to
get anxious. Could it be possible that the teacher really did not mean
to treat? At noon he was still out, walking up and down the
playground, clapping his hands together, stamping his feet, and
rubbing his ears to keep warm. We were anxious in earnest now.
The wood box was empty and the fire was getting low. There was no
water in the water bucket, and some of the younger children were
coaxing for drinks.
“No teacher in our recollection had ever refused to treat. There
was an old rule that if the teacher persisted in refusing to treat he
was to be ducked in the nearest stream of water. We had heard of
instances when this had been done, but no one wanted to try it. The
older pupils stood around in frightened little groups, and some of the
smaller children were crying openly, when the teacher knocked
loudly on the door and asked that the paper be handed out to him.
“But the paper had disappeared! We searched all over the room,
but it was nowhere to be found. Again the teacher knocked and
asked rather impatiently for the paper.
 “Then William Orbison sat down at his desk and hurriedly
prepared another paper and handed it out the window to the teacher.
He looked at it in a puzzled way for a little bit, smiled a queer smile,
and without a word signed the paper and handed it back to William.
Then he was admitted and took up books, but all afternoon he kept
smiling to himself as if he knew a joke on some one. We felt uneasy,
though we didn’t know why.
“After school that evening my brother Truman asked William
Orbison to let him see the paper the teacher had signed. When he
read it, he gave a long whistle of astonishment. And what do you
think William had done? In the fuss and excitement of writing out the
second paper he had omitted the word ‘treat.’ The teacher had
promised nothing! That explained his smiles. We were a
disappointed lot of children, I can tell you.

The teacher looked at the paper in a puzzled way

“We shouldn’t have any Christmas treat, for after the way the
teacher had talked about treating, no one thought he would treat if
he could help it, and here was a way out for him. The next day we
were perfectly sure he did not intend to treat, for when William
Orbison left out a word in his reading lesson the teacher said, ‘Watch
yourself, William. Leaving out words is getting to be quite a habit with
you.’
“Other years we could hardly wait till the day before Christmas.
We wore our best clothes, and right after dinner we would speak
pieces, have spelling and ciphering matches, sing songs, have our
treat, and play games the rest of the afternoon. Lots of the older
brothers and sisters would come to visit, and they would play with us
and the teacher would play, too, and we would have lots of fun.
“But this year I should rather have stayed at home and watched
the Christmas preparations at our house, for there wouldn’t be much
fun at school without any treat.
“It was a cold, windy morning, and Father took us to school in the
sled. We had lessons in the morning as usual, and in the afternoon
recitations and songs and a little play that the teacher had helped us
get up. Truman gave ‘Hamlet’s Soliloquy,’ and did it very well, too.
And Charlie had a piece, but he forgot all but the first verse. We
were so interested that we didn’t think about the treat, and you can
imagine how surprised we were when the teacher, instead of
dismissing us, said that we would now have an unexpected but very
welcome visitor. The door opened, and in came old Santa Claus with
a white beard and a red coat and on his back the biggest bag! You
should have seen our eyes pop! Of course it wasn’t the really, truly
Santa Claus who comes in the night and fills the stockings. Oh, no,
this was just a pretend Santa.
“He put his bag down on the teacher’s platform, and after he had
made a little speech he opened it up.
“And what do you suppose was in that bag? Candy! Cream candy
and chocolate drops and clear candy, red and yellow, shaped like
animals and horns and baskets, such candy as we had never seen
before. A sack for each pupil.
“As we went up, one by one, the smallest first, to get our treat,
Santa asked each one of us to recite something for him. The smaller
children knew verses out of their readers, and some of us recited the
pieces we had said earlier in the afternoon. But how we all laughed
when Longford Henlen, who was the tallest boy in school, couldn’t
think of anything to say but,

“I had a little dog, his name was Jack,

Put him in the barn, he jumped through a crack.

“And now to bed, to bed, and go right to sleep. I’ve heard that if
Santa Claus comes and finds children awake he goes away and
comes back later. That is, he means to come back later, but he has
been known to get so busy he forgot to come back at all. So say
your prayers and go to sleep.”
 A VOCABULARY
(This vocabulary contains only words of unusual difficulty in
spelling, pronunciation, and meaning.)

Transcriber’s Note: To make the most of this pronunciation guide, you’ll need a font
that supports the characters used to indicate the different sounds. U+1DF5 COMBINING
UP TACK ABOVE (᷵) is probably the least commonly supported character: if you can’t
see this, find and install a font that can display it, and you should be covered for
everything else as well.

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
ā as in āle
a᷵ as in senʹa᷵te
ă as in ăm
ă as in fiʹnăl
ȧ as in ȧsk
ä as in ärm
â as in câre
ē as in ēve
e᷵ as in e᷵vent
ĕ as in ĕnd
ẽ as in hẽr
ī as in īce
ĭ as in ĭll
ō as in ōld
 o᷵ as in o᷵bey
ô as in ôrb
ŏ as in ŏdd
ŏ as in cŏn-nectʹ
o͞ o as in fo͞ od
o͝ o as in fo͝ ot
ū as in ūse
ŭ as in ŭp
u᷵ as in u᷵nite
û as in ûrn

alpaca (ăl păkʹȧ). A kind of cloth made from the hair of the alpaca, an
animal of the sheep family.
arbutus (ärʹbū tŭs). A plant having small, sweet-smelling pink and
white blossoms; known also as the Mayflower, and ground
laurel.
ascension (ă sĕnʹshŭn). Rising in the air, as a balloon.
auction (ôkʹshŭn). A public sale, where each article is sold to the one
offering the most money for it.
barricaded (bărʹĭ kādʹĕd). Filled with materials making it difficult for
one to pass.
beaux (bōz). Men paying special attention to certain young women.
Bethlehem (bĕthʹle᷵ hĕm). The village where Christ was born.
brooch (brōch). An ornamental clasp; a breastpin.
calico (kălʹĭ kō). A kind of cotton cloth.
cameo (kămʹe᷵ ō). A gem containing a carving, usually in the shape
of a head.
Canterbury (kănʹtẽr bĕr ĭ) bell. A plant having lovely bell-shaped
blossoms.
carcasses (kärʹkȧs ĕz). Dear bodies.
cardinal (kārʹdĭ năl). A small red bird.
cashmere (kăshʹmēr). A cloth made of fine woolen material.
chiffonier (shĭfʹo᷵ nērʹ). A high chest of drawers, with mirror.
ciphering (sīʹfẽr ĭng). Doing arithmetic examples.
circuit (sûrʹkĭt). When a minister was pastor of several churches at
the same time, the circuit was his regular journeying around the
whole number.
code (kōd). A system of rules governing one’s own conduct.
colony (kŏlʹo᷵ nĭ). A company of people going to a new place to
make their home.
conference (kŏnʹfẽr ĕns). A meeting for the purpose of deciding
some question.
conspicuous (kŏn spĭkʹū ŭs). In plain sight.
Copenhagen (kōʹpĕn hāʹgĕn). A children’s game.
cravat (krȧ vătʹ). A man’s necktie.
cretonne (kre᷵ tŏnʹ). A strong cotton cloth, prettily colored.
crocheted (kro᷵ shādʹ). Made out of thread woven together by
means of a hook.
dahlia (dälʹyȧ). A plant with showy blossoms.
delaine (de᷵ lānʹ). A kind of light woolen cloth.
Delaware (dĕlʹȧ wâr). Name of an early tribe of Indians; name of a
state of the United States.
dolman (dŏlʹmăn). A woman’s cloak with cape-like pieces instead of
sleeves.
Dominique (dŏmʹĭ nēkʹ). A variety of fowl something like the
Plymouth Rock.
Egypt (ēʹjĭpt). A country in Africa.
election (e᷵ lĕkʹshŭn). The choosing of one to hold some public
office.
embarrassed (ĕm bărʹrăst). Ashamed; mortified.
epidemic (ĕpʹĭ dĕmʹĭk). Spreading to many people in a community, as
a disease.
fluting (flo͞ otʹĭng). Ruffles so made as to have a wavy appearance.
furlough (fûrʹlō). A soldier’s vacation from the army.
gnarled (närld). Twisted or rugged.
gnawed (nôd). Bitten apart, little by little with effort.
gospel (gŏsʹpĕl). The story of the life of Christ.
husking (hŭskʹĭng). Taking the husks from ears of corn.
immersion (ĭ mûrʹshŭn). Baptism by dipping the person into the water
all over.
infare (ĭnʹfâr). A party given by the husband’s family as a welcome to
the new wife.
institute (ĭnʹstĭ tūt). A meeting of school teachers.
Israel (ĭzʹra᷵ ĕl). Ancient kingdom of Palestine, the scene of the
stories of the Bible.
larvae (lärʹvē). The tiny worms hatched from insect eggs.
leghorn (lĕgʹhôrn). A variety of fowl that gets its name from Leghorn,
a city in Italy.
loam (lōm). Clayey earth or soil.
lozenge (lŏzʹĕnj). A kind of candy.
mahogany (mȧ hŏgʹȧ nĭ). A tree having a reddish brown wood.
mature (mȧ tūrʹ). To become ripe.
mincemeat (mĭnsʹmētʹ). A mixture of meat, apples, raisins, etc., to be
used as a pie filling.
mistletoe (mĭsʹ ʹl tō). A vine having waxy white berries.
muskrat (mŭskʹrătʹ). A small fur-bearing animal living in holes in the
banks of streams or lakes.
myriads (mĭrʹĭ ădz). Large numbers.
parsonage (pär ʹs’na᷵j). The house occupied by the minister of a
church.
persimmon (pẽr sĭmʹŭn). A plum-like fruit.
Pharaoh (fāʹrō). The name of the kings of Egypt in the long-ago time.
pioneer (pīʹo᷵ nērʹ). One who goes first to make a home in an
unsettled country.
pippin (pĭpʹĭn). A general name for apple. Here means “something
extra good.”
pithy (pĭthʹĭ). Soft and spongy.
plagues (plāgz). Great troubles.
plaid (plăd). Woven in the form of squares.
Plymouth (plĭmʹŭth). The town settled by the Pilgrims.
portico (pōrʹtĭ kō). A porch or piazza.
preserve (pre᷵ zûrvʹ). To make to last.
proclamation (prŏkʹlȧ māʹshŭn). A public announcement.
Psalm (säm). One of the verses from the Book of Psalms in the
Bible.
quilting (kwĭltʹĭng). A meeting of women for the purpose of making a
bedquilt.
recollection (rĕkʹŏ lĕkʹshŭn). That which is called to mind; a memory.
recommendation (rĕkʹŏ mĕn dāʹshŭn). Expression in favor of
something.
recruiting (re᷵ kro͞ otʹĭng). Persuading new men to join the army or
navy.
recruits (re᷵ kro͞ otzʹ). Men who had recently joined the army or navy.
reveille (re᷵ vālʹya᷵). The bugle call awakening the soldiers in the
morning.
Reverend (rĕvʹẽr ĕnd). A clergyman’s title; one who is to be honored.
ruching (ro͞ oshʹĭng). A plaited strip of lace or net.
sassafras (săsʹȧ frăs). A kind of tree, from the root bark of which a
flavoring extract is made.
Savior (sāvʹyẽr). Christ.
scarred (skārd). Having the marks of old cuts.
serenade (sĕrʹe᷵ nādʹ). Singing or playing outside a house as a
greeting to one or more within the house.
shirred (shûrd). Sewed in such a way as to make the material hang
full and loose.
soliloquy (so᷵ lĭlʹo᷵ kwĭ). A talking to oneself.
sorghum (sôrʹgŭm). A sirup made from a variety of corn plant.
stealth (stĕlth). In secret.
suet (sūʹĕt). A hard fat.
superstitious (sūʹpẽr stĭshŭs). Having fear of what is unknown;
believing in signs.
symbol (sĭmʹbŏl). A sign.
telescope (tĕlʹe᷵ skōp). A kind of traveling bag.
Timotheus (tĭ mōʹthe᷵ ŭs). A man spoken of in the Bible.
tithes (tīthz). Tenths. What one gives toward the support of a church.
unsurveyed (ŭnʹsŭr vādʹ). Not measured.
vouchers (vouchʹẽrz). Papers showing money is due one.
wagered (wāʹjẽrd). Bet.
waistcoat (wāstʹkōt). A man’s garment worn under the coat; a vest.
whinny (hwĭnʹĭ). The sound made by a horse; a neighing.
worsted (wo͝ osʹtĕd). A cloth made of soft woolen yarn.
wrenched (rĕncht). Twisted or pulled off by force.
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