Inclusion in Action 6th Edition Iva

Strnadová - eBook PDF

Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/inclusion-in-action-ebook-pdf/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

(Original PDF) Inclusion in Action, 5th Australia

Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/original-pdf-inclusion-in-
action-5th-australia-edition/

(eBook PDF) Inclusion in Early Childhood Programs:

Children with Exceptionalities 6th Canadian Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-inclusion-in-early-
childhood-programs-children-with-exceptionalities-6th-canadian-
edition/

(eBook PDF) Inclusion in Early Childhood Programs 7th

Canadian Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-inclusion-in-early-
childhood-programs-7th-canadian-edition/

(eBook PDF) Spring in Action 5th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-spring-in-action-5th-
edition/
Business in Action 8th Edition (eBook PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/business-in-action-8th-edition-
ebook-pdf/

Technology In Action Complete 15th Edition (eBook PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/technology-in-action-
complete-15th-edition-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) Organizational Culture in Action 3rd

Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-organizational-culture-
in-action-3rd-edition/

(eBook PDF) Technology In Action Complete 13th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-technology-in-action-
complete-13th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Technology In Action Complete 14th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-technology-in-action-
complete-14th-edition/
Inclusion in Action © 2022 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
6th Edition
Iva Strnadová Copyright Notice
Michael Arthur-Kelly This Work is copyright. No part of this Work may be reproduced, stored in a
Phil Foreman retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written
permission of the Publisher. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, for
example any fair dealing for the purposes of private study, research, criticism or
Head of content management: Dorothy Chiu review, subject to certain limitations. These limitations include: Restricting the
Senior content manager: Fiona Hammond copying to a maximum of one chapter or 10% of this book, whichever is greater;
Content developer: Eleanor Yeoell providing an appropriate notice and warning with the copies of the Work
Project editor: Raymond Williams disseminated; taking all reasonable steps to limit access to these copies to people
Text designer: Linda Davidson authorised to receive these copies; ensuring you hold the appropriate Licences
Cover design: Regine Abos issued by the Copyright Agency Limited (“CAL”), supply a remuneration notice to
Editor: Greg Alford CAL and pay any required fees. For details of CAL licences and remuneration
Proofreader: James Anderson notices please contact CAL at Level 11, 66 Goulburn Street, Sydney NSW 2000,
Permissions/Photo researcher: Catherine Kerstjens Tel: (02) 9394 7600, Fax: (02) 9394 7601
Indexer: Max McMaster Email: info@copyright.com.au
Cover: Shutterstock.com/Radachynskyi Serhii Website: www.copyright.com.au
Typeset by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd
For product information and technology assistance,
Any URLs contained in this publication were checked for currency during the in Australia call 1300 790 853;
production process. Note, however, that the publisher cannot vouch for the ongoing in New Zealand call 0800 449 725
currency of URLs.
For permission to use material from this text or product, please email
Sixth edition published by Cengage in 2017. aust.permissions@cengage.com

© Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) 2010 to National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
present, unless otherwise indicated. This material was downloaded from the ISBN: 9780170449342
Australian Curriculum website (http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/) and was not A catalogue record for this book is available from the National Library of Australia.
modified. The material is licensed under CC BY 4.0. (https://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.0/). Version updates are tracked on the Curriculum version history Cengage Learning Australia
page of the Australian Curriculum website.ACARA does not endorse any product that Level 7, 80 Dorcas Street
uses the Australian Curriculum or make any representations as to the quality of such South Melbourne, Victoria Australia 3205
products. Any product that uses material published on this website should not be
taken to be affiliated with ACARA or have the sponsorship or approval of ACARA. It is Cengage Learning New Zealand
up to each person to make their own assessment of the product, taking into account Unit 4B Rosedale Office Park
matters including, but not limited to, the version number and the degree to which the 331 Rosedale Road, Albany, North Shore 0632, NZ
materials align with the content descriptions (where relevant). Where there is a claim
of alignment, it is important to check that the materials align with the content For learning solutions, visit cengage.com.au
descriptions (endorsed by all education Ministers), not the elaborations (examples
provided by ACARA). Printed in China by 1010 Printing International Limited.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 25 24 23 22 21

ACARA Copyright Notice

All material identified by is material subject to copyright under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth)
and is owned by the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority 2022.

For all Australian Curriculum material except elaborations: This is an extract from the Australian
Curriculum.

Elaborations: This may be a modified extract from the Australian Curriculum and may include the
work of other authors.

Disclaimer: ACARA neither endorses nor verifies the accuracy of the information provided and
accepts no responsibility for incomplete or inaccurate information. In particular, ACARA does not
endorse or verify that:
• The content descriptions are solely for a particular year and subject;
• All the content descriptions for that year and subject have been used; and
• The author’s material aligns with the Australian Curriculum content
descriptions for the relevant year and subject.

You can find the unaltered and most up to date version of this material at
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au. This material is reproduced with the permission of ACARA.
Brief contents
PART A: INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS 1
1 Introducing inclusion in education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Legislation and policies supporting inclusive practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3 Practising inclusion in diverse school communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

PART B: INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES 134

4 Curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

5 Planning effective teaching strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

6 Encouraging positive interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

7 Transitions, self-determination and twenty-first-century skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

PART C: STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT INCLUSIVE TEACHING 317

8 Developing communication skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

9 Understanding and supporting literacy competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

10 Understanding and supporting numeracy competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

PART D: INCLUSION ACROSS THE SCHOOL YEARS 443

11 Inclusion in early childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

12 Inclusion in primary schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

13 Secondary school inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

v
 Contents
Guide to the text................................................x
Guide to the online resources.......................xiv
Preface.............................................................xvi
About the authors........................................xviii
Acknowledgements......................................xxiii
Standards mapping grid..............................xxiv

PART A: INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS 1

1 Introducing inclusion in education 2
Iva Strnadová and Phil Foreman
Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Principles underlying inclusion................................................................................................ 5
1.2 What is a disability?..................................................................................................................13
1.3 Other forms of diversity..........................................................................................................17
1.4 Terminology and concepts related to inclusion...................................................................18
1.5 Language about diversity........................................................................................................23
1.6 Inclusion in schools: models of schooling for students with a disability..........................29
1.7 Overview of approaches to teaching students with additional needs in
regular classes..........................................................................................................................36
1.8 Diversity across the life-span..................................................................................................39
1.9 Myths and facts about disability and diversity.....................................................................41
1.10 The future of inclusion............................................................................................................43

2 Legislation and policies supporting inclusive practice 52

Michael Arthur-Kelly and Phil Foreman
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................52
2.1 Principles, policies and practice...............................................................................................53
2.2 Legislation in Australia and New Zealand...............................................................................54
2.3 Policy in Australia and New Zealand.......................................................................................60
2.4 International legislation and policy.........................................................................................68
2.5 The practice of inclusion...........................................................................................................72

3 Practising inclusion in diverse school communities 88

Michael Arthur-Kelly, Iva Strnadová and Martin Howes
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................88
3.1 Embracing inclusion..................................................................................................................91
3.2 Negotiating inclusion.................................................................................................................93
3.3 Programming for inclusion.....................................................................................................101
3.4 Resourcing inclusion................................................................................................................108
3.5 Building capacity for inclusion...............................................................................................119

vi
 CONTENTS

PART B: INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES 134

4 Curriculum, learning, teaching and assessment adjustments 135
Carl Leonard and Robert Conway
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................135
4.1 Concepts of teaching and the Australian curriculum..........................................................136
4.2 Learning, teaching and curriculum in inclusive education.................................................140
4.3 Needs, expectations and resistance......................................................................................150
4.4 Students with low additional education support needs in the classroom.......................159
4.5 Extensive adjustment for students with profound and/or multiple disabilities
in the classroom......................................................................................................................171
4.6 Assessment...............................................................................................................................177
4.7 Using technology in learning and teaching..........................................................................183
4.8 Staff working cooperatively on adjustments and implementation...................................185
A final reminder...............................................................................................................................189

5 Planning effective teaching strategies 196

Therese M. Cumming and Michael Arthur-Kelly
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................196
5.1 Curriculum issues....................................................................................................................197
5.2 Instructional issues..................................................................................................................199
5.3 Aspects of the learning context..............................................................................................200
5.4 Designing effective teaching interventions..........................................................................205
Final thoughts..................................................................................................................................224

6 Encouraging positive interactions 237

Robert Conway and Judith Foggett
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................237
6.1 Social behaviour in schools....................................................................................................238
6.2 What is social inclusion?..........................................................................................................247
6.3 Integrating behaviour and academic skills...........................................................................249
6.4 Approaches to managing behaviours in regular classes....................................................253
6.5 Developing specific behaviour plans.....................................................................................255
6.6 Student and teacher developed behaviour improvement plans.......................................259
6.7 Social skills and enhancing peer acceptance through classroom activities.....................262
6.8 Preparing teachers and students to support social inclusion............................................273
6.9 Maintaining positive interactions in the wider school context..........................................276

7 Transitions, self-determination and twenty-first-century skills 285

Iva Strnadová and Michael Wehmeyer
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................285
7.1 The context for twenty-first-century transitions..................................................................286
7.2 Diversity of transitions............................................................................................................288
7.3 Promoting self-determination across the life span.............................................................291
7.4 Meaningful participation in individual learning plans/individual transition plans..........298
7.5 Self-advocacy............................................................................................................................306
vii
CONTENTS

PART C: STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT INCLUSIVE TEACHING 317

8 Developing communication skills 318
Dean Sutherland
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................318
8.1 Communication and inclusion...............................................................................................320
8.2 Communication development...............................................................................................323
8.3 Teaching strategies to support communication..................................................................331
8.4 Indigenous Australian and Māori students..........................................................................334
8.5 Supporting communication learning for students with diverse needs............................337

9 Understanding and supporting literacy competence 358

Kerry Dally and Michelle Ralston
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................358
9.1 Underlying processes and influences...................................................................................360
9.2 Components of successful literacy and specific teaching strategies................................364
9.3 Integrating literacy across key learning areas......................................................................391

10 Understanding and supporting numeracy competence 401

Sally Howell and Sarah Hopkins
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................401
10.1 Understanding students’ learning needs...........................................................................402
10.2 Numeracy...............................................................................................................................403
10.3 Big ideas for number sense..................................................................................................407
10.4 Counting and early number.................................................................................................411
10.5 Basic facts...............................................................................................................................417
10.6 Problem-solving.....................................................................................................................421
10.7 Multi-digit arithmetic.............................................................................................................428
10.8 Supporting students with significant numeracy needs....................................................433
10.9 Extending students with advanced mathematical skills...................................................433

PART D: INCLUSION ACROSS THE SCHOOL YEARS 443

11 Inclusion in early childhood 444
Coral Kemp
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................444
11.1 Supporting early childhood intervention in the home and in inclusive
community-based settings...................................................................................................445
11.2 Supporting families and carers to provide intervention within naturally
occurring home and community settings..........................................................................456
11.3 Supporting interventions in inclusive early education settings.......................................462
11.4 Early childhood transitions...................................................................................................469
11.5 Inclusive practices in the early years of school..................................................................474
viii
 CONTENTS

12 Inclusion in primary schools 489

Umesh Sharma and Martin Howes
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................489
Barawun Primary School................................................................................................................491
12.1 Barawun PS: Day 1, term 1, about three years ago …....................................................491
12.2 End of week 1, the first year...............................................................................................495
12.3 End of term 1, the first year...............................................................................................497
12.4 End of term 2, the first year...............................................................................................501
12.5 End of the first year.............................................................................................................504
12.6 Day 1, the second year........................................................................................................508
12.7 End of term 2, the second year..........................................................................................512
12.8 End of the second year.......................................................................................................515
12.9 Day 1, the third year............................................................................................................518
12.10 End of term 2, the third year..............................................................................................520
12.11 End of the third year...........................................................................................................523

13 Secondary school inclusion 533

Michael Davies
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................533
13.1 Issues on inclusion in secondary schools...........................................................................533
13.2 Strategies for inclusion in secondary schools....................................................................540
13.3 Ten strategies for teaching for diversity.............................................................................544
13.4 Inclusion across the secondary curriculum........................................................................554
13.5 Collaborative teaching and teaming in secondary schools..............................................556
13.6 Making secondary education meaningful..........................................................................560
13.7 Transition planning................................................................................................................561
13.8 Work experience and transition from school....................................................................572

Appendix 1: Common abbreviations and shortened forms..............585

Appendix 2: Fact sheets.........................................................................587
Index.........................................................................................................588

ix
 Guide to the text
As you read this text you will find a number of features in every
chapter to enhance your study of Inclusive education and help
you understand how the theory is applied in the real world.
Standards mapping grid
BOOK FEATURES
This book is designed to assist readers to achieve the Australian Professional Standards for Graduate Teachers.
The following grid shows how the content of particular chapters contributes to the Standards.

Professional Knowledge Standards Chapters A Mapping grid shows how the

1. Know students and how they learn
1.1 Physical, social and intellectual development and characteristics of students 4, 6, 7, 8, 9,
content of the chapters relates
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of physical, social and intellectual development and
characteristics of students and how these may affect learning.
10,11
to the Australian Professional
1.2 Understand how students learn 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, Standards for Graduate
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of research into how students learn and the 11, 12
implications for teaching . Teachers.
1.3 Students with diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds 1, 4, 5, 7, 8,
Demonstrate knowledge of teaching strategies that are responsive to the learning strengths and 11, 12, 13
needs of students from diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds.
1.4 Strategies for teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students 8, 9, 12
Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of the impact of culture, cultural identity and
linguistic background on the education of students from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
backgrounds.
1.5 Differentiate teaching to meet the specific learning needs of students across the full 1, 3, 4, 5, 6,
range of abilities 7, 8, 9, 10,
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of strategies for differentiating teaching to meet the 11, 12, 13
specific learning needs of students across the full range of abilities.
1.6 Strategies to support full participation of students with disability 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of legislative requirements and teaching 6, 7, 11, 12,
strategies that support participation and learning of students with disability. 13
2. Know the content and how to teach it
2.1 Content and teaching strategies of the teaching area 4, 6, 8, 9, 10,
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the concepts, substance and structure of the 11,12, 13
content and teaching strategies of the teaching area .
2.2 Content selection and organisation 4, 5, 9, 10,
Organise content into an effective learning and teaching sequence. 12, 13
2.3 Curriculum, assessment and reporting 4, 5, 9, 10,
Use curriculum, assessment and reporting knowledge to design learning sequences and 12, 13
lesson plans.
2.4 Understand and respect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to promote 1, 8, 12
reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians
Demonstrate broad knowledge of, understanding of and respect for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander histories, cultures and languages .
2.5 Literacy and numeracy strategies 4, 8, 9, 10
Know and understand literacy and numeracy teaching strategies and their application in
teaching areas .
2.6 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) 3, 4, 5, 8, 12
CHAPTER OPENING
Implement teaching strategies for usingFEATURES
ICT to expand curriculum learning opportunities
for students.

xxiv

2
CHAPTER

Legislation and policies

BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp00_Prelims.indd 24 20/08/21 2:43 PM

supporting inclusive practice

Michael Arthur-Kelly and Phil Foreman

This chapter aims to:

Identify the key concepts you
2.1 Describe the development of principles and policies related to inclusive education
for students with disability
will engage with through the
2.2 Describe the important features of legislation for students with disability in the
states and territories of Australia and in New Zealand
Learning objectives at the start
2.3 Describe the important aspects of policy in Australia and New Zealand for
students with disability
of each chapter.
2.4 Describe the important features of international legislation and policies for
students with disability
2.5 Discuss the practice of inclusion, and the effect groups can have on educational
policy.

Introduction Refer to the Introduction for a

Including diverse students with disability in the regular classroom requires some specific contextualised summary of the
practices on the part of teachers and their colleagues. Later chapters in this book provide
examples of ways in which teachers can support a diversity of students in the regular chapter.
classroom. For example, to meaningfully include students with additional needs, teachers
must develop an understanding of the strengths and support needs of the students, and
must make relevant adjustments or changes to the learning environment to assist these
students.
At both the private and the professional level, teachers’ day-to-day practice is
a reflection of their beliefs, their obligation to follow the law, and the requirements
associated with organisations such as the workplace and educational institutions. In a
school environment, the behaviour and practice of teachers is influenced by their training
and their personal beliefs, by legislation, and by organisational policy.
x An awareness of the relationships between principles, laws, policies and practices is
important in the context of this book. One of the aims of the book is to provide practical
advice about how to support students with a diversity of additional needs in the regular
classroom. Consequently, the way these students are supported (the practice) will be
influenced by attitudes and beliefs (the principles) and by laws and organisational
guidelines (the legislation and policies). In turn, how well we do at the practice will
 GUIDE TO THE TEXT

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

CHAPTER 9 Understanding and sUpporting literacy competence

Narratives from parents, NARRATIVE

students, teachers and other 9.3
professionals link the theory to Response to intervention: Tier 3, spelling
real-life situations. ‘Matthew’ is currently in Year Three and has moderate bilateral
sensorineural hearing loss. Through observation in classroom
activities, in addition to the Oral and Written Language Scales
assessment, it was noted that Matthew was below same-age peers
in recognition and understanding of suffixes. Matthew tends to
mishear the ends of words and finds understanding and applying
verb tense challenging.
Tier 3 intervention involved Matthew being engaged in one-
on-one follow-up activities to extend and consolidate skills in
understanding basic suffixes. A past and present verb tense focus
incorporated simple errors from Matthew’s writing such as walk,
walked, walking and help, helped, helping. Matthew worked with
the teacher to visually and aurally identify the -ed and -ing suffixes.
Matthew and the teacher worked together using a basic,
custom-designed graphic organiser (see Figure 9.24) to focus
explicitly on the two base word and suffix combinations. This
supported Matthew to hear the base words and morphemes used
in context and also see them visually within written text, leading to
further discussion of related word families to enable Matthew to
recognise common patterns.
Amanda Boelen
Given that writing is a less preferred area of study for Matthew,
the session included online interactive games from Vocabulary
Spelling City (Learning City, n.d.) and self-constructed word lists and associated games were used,
targeting the suffixes in focus. Following this, flip books (Cecil et al., 2017) were createdCHAPTER
for further 6 EncouragIng PosItIvE IntEractIons

(see Buckskin, 2009; Edwards-GrovesSuffixes:

& Murray, 2008).
Present and PastMany
Tensestudents have been shown to have
growing resentment towards schooling (Schwab, 2012) and some disengage from the education
Walking I like walking to school.
system entirely.
A key to the developmentWalk of productive and engaged behaviour is, as for gifted students,

ensuring that the curriculum is engagingWalked

and at the level appropriate to the individual’s
I walked home from school.
current learning capabilities. In some cases, this requires a rethinking of curriculum content Aboriginal and
to incorporate Indigenous values and culture. This can be accomplished through ongoing Torres Strait Islander
students
professional development on Indigenous teaching which develops stronger teacher ‘confidence
PART C STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT INCLUSIVE TEACHING
about classroom management of Indigenous students’ (Craven & Han, 2014). It also means that
schools need to be aware that removal of students from mainstream schools to specialist settings
NEW Evidence-based practice EVIDENCE-BASED
reflects PRACTICE
the ‘persistent failure of Australian9.1
education systems to engage, support and understand
Indigenous students’ (Graham, 2012, p. 173).
boxes contain practical Developing vocabulary through shared book reading
FIGURE 9.24 Suffixes: present and past tense
examples, teaching tips, and Students
1 Drawfrom culturally
attention to wordsdiverse backgrounds
which children may not know and provide child-friendly
source: amanda Boelen

other materials that illustrate Students definitions

from diverse for these words
cultural as the story
backgrounds is being
have read:sets
differing e.g.of
‘a challenges
snore is a loud sound
in mainstream
classroom thatsettings.
some people This or animals
is most make when
common when they
EAL/D
CHAPTER are sleeping’.
4students
CurriCulum,arePoint to illustrations
taught in a monolingual
leArninG, teAChinG And Assessment Adjustments
practical approaches to classroom representing the words if they are available or model actions like snoring and ask
where mainstream teachers have not yet incorporated the learning needs of these
389

teaching and that assist in good children to join in.

professional
students into learning community
their classroom in thepractices
learning school is (Dobinson
seen by Deppeler
& Buchori, (2012) as a In
2016). way
thefor staff
case ofto
2 Have
collaborate
refugees, asconversations
data an inclusive
show with have
school
that many children
rather about
hadthan newteachers
have
seriously words and
disrupted workaskinquestions
educationalisolation. relating
Like so to
experiences the
many
and
inclusive practice. new word, e.g.
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp09.indd 389
strategies that Have you heard someone snoring? 20/08/21 5:02 PM
hence may notexist for increased
be aware involvement
of expectations of students
of schools with disability
and classrooms in the classroom,
in Australian educational
teachers
settings need
3 Re-read
(Strausssupport
books from the
several
& Smedley, school
times
2009). to executive,
provide
Hence, skillslack
multiple
they may to make
basicthe
exposures to
skillsstrategies
such as work,
the new how toand
words and the in a
behave
ability
structuredgradually
to choose buildthey
who
mainstream children’s understanding
work with
classroom. Anrather than
additional ofthis
the being
new words
challenge imposed
is andon
working the story.
them.
with the students’ homes
where English may not be used.
4 Engage children in retelling the story and discussing how the new words and concepts
relate to their own experiences.
For some students there may be a clash between the cultures and values of the home and the
A final reminder
5 Integrate new words from book readings into other activities during the day.
cultures and values of the school. This can add to student frustration and hence disengagement
source: adapted from snell et al. (2015)
with learning and the use of unproductive behaviours in the absence of other appropriate ways to Students for
Aseek
good assistance.
way to summarise what has been presented in this chapter is to recognise that among the whom English is an

many The evidence-based

ways students with practices in can
disability Evidence-based practice in
be active participants 9.2anare for olderclass
inclusive readers and are
is through
additional language
Reflect on this reminders or dialect
adaptedREFLECT
teachers: ON THIS
from the explicit vocabulary instruction steps described by Beach et al. (2015), Swanson
prompt you to critically analyse •et al. (2017) and
modifying Coyne and Koriakin (2017). Readers are also referred to Elleman et al.’s (2019)
expectations
Using AITSL Graduate Standard 4.1 (Support student participation: Identify strategies to
important concepts and reflect recommendations of evidence-based practices for vocabulary instruction and Hougen’s (2014)
• providing supports and adjustments
support inclusive student participation and engagement in classroom activities), reflect
suggestions for teaching vocabulary at the three RTI levels.
on your own experiences and • embedding basic skills
on what activities and individual
in a classroom may education planning (IEP)
increase engagement goals
of the into classroom
diversity routines
of students in
• ensuring that all
the classroom
EVIDENCE-BASED students
and are engaged
those activities
PRACTICE that in meaningful
may
9.2 academiceffect.
have the opposite and social
Comelearning
back to your
beliefs about the processes of experiences
reflections at the end of the chapter and see whether these have changed.
learning and teaching. • Vocabulary
embracing instruction
evidence-based forand
practices older readers
approaches to teaching and learning
• using the principles
1 Select of Universal
words to teach directly:Design
beforefor Learning
teaching (UDL) consider
a lesson, to synthesise the above
the purpose of processes.
the

Meet real teachers in the Home factors

lesson and select target words. Target words should have high academic utility: that is,
A TEACHER REFLECTS
Studentsthey are words
come to school that students
with a set ofare not likely
values to encounter
and attitudes thatindirectly,
cannot bebut leftare essential
at the schooltogate.
A teacher reflects feature, and Familyunderstand
perceptionsthe topic and
of school andconcepts
the valueunder study orplay
of schooling will an
be important
useful acrossrolecontent
both in areas,
a student’s
Cloe,e.g.first year
clarify, secondary social sciences teacher, rural South Australia
investigate.
gain insights into how inclusive attitude to school and its management practices, and in the degree of support that teachers
canI2started
Introduce
expect from words
the
teaching in aand
home inprovide
rural schoolstudent-friendly
promoting thatschool definitions:
management
was fairly isolated, Definitions
practices.
which was While
a shockshould
schoolbebehaviour
for an short
urban
practices inform their day-to- problemsandcannot
dweller easyme!
like toberemember
directly
I found thatand
I hadaccompanied
attributed to family
a number ofby synonyms.
factors, withSynonyms
a number
students of home
disability provide
in issues acan
gistexacerbate
my classes of the
and
day teaching. wasword
school having meaning
problems. difficultyand help with
These meeting
include the
recall, e.g. expand:
typeadditional
all their of additional
getatbigger.
need,
needs single-parent
once. families,
The learning and marital
support
teacherlowatsocioeconomic
3 Provide
discord, the schoolopportunities
multiple offered to and
status assist me in planning
todisturbed
interact with theand
word:
child–parent preparing lessons.
If the target
relationships. wordShe didn’t
is in a
offer to prepare
current text, them for me, the
then explain butword
to work alongside
in the contextme
of to
theprovide adviceintroducing
topic. When and some a
Particularly in the case of students with mental health needs, there is a clear link between
examples.
generalShe even offered
academic to come itinto
word, present in athe room, ifand
sentence I was comfortable
explain with that,
what it means to share
in that
their mental health needs and the home situation. The National Health and Wellbeing Survey
a lesson or two
sentence. where additional
Provide we would team-teach
sentences, andpartstudents
of a topic. She also
discuss howsuggested
the wordsome
is used and
(see Sawyer,
changes
what in
2009) conducted
assessment
it means
across Australia
and reporting
in different contexts.
found that approximately 14 per cent of all
for one student who had high support needs. I learnt
more from being
4 Engage supported
students in wordthan
play:I Ask
would have done
questions thatifrequire
she hadstudents
simply taken over
to make the
decisions
planning
aboutor sent
the a learning
target word’s support
meaning, assistant into the
e.g. If I blow intoroom. I maintained
a balloon responsibility
will it expand and
or contract?
the support sentence
teacher did just that – supported me.with sentence frames where students 243
5 Provide writing opportunities: Start
substitute a target word for a synonym or complete cloze sentences by choosing
appropriate target words. Progress to sentence generation and composing longer texts
using a range of target words in authentic contexts.
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp06.indd 243 20/08/21 4:53 PM
source: adapted from Beach et al. (2015), swanson et al. (2017); coyne and Koriakin (2017)

xi
 Contemporary education environments place an emphasis on collaboration between students to
support their learning. The mechanism which supports this collaboration is talking. Therefore,
communication via oral language is critical for cognitive development and learning (Gillies,
2014). Children also learn about themselves through the ways in which others communicate with
GUIDE TO THE TEXT them. This places considerable responsibility on parents/caregivers and teachers to consider how
they communicate with – and about – children. For teachers, particularly, it is important to reflect
on the language used when talking about children. It is also important to reflect on the words
and style of communication used when speaking with children. The manner in which adults
communicate with each other and children in preschools and classrooms is critical to inclusive
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS
education. Consider the following versions of an exchange between two teachers discussing a
student’s behaviour.

Guided example boxes help

Example 1 you contextualise theory by
Teacher A: ‘Scott had another one of his meltdowns this morning. Then the whole session
went pear-shaped’.
providing immediate examples
Teacher B: ‘Oh no, you poor thing – that is so frustrating. He has got some real behaviour
alongside learning concepts.
issues going on.’

Teacher A: ‘It seems every time I try to get him involved in a group activity, he just loses it.
I’m sure some of it is just to get under my skin!’

Teacher B: Yeah, he’s got to learn how to get on with others.’

Teacher A: I know, and I am going to make sure that he does!’

320 PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES

negative
reinforcement
In behavioural terms, both are negatively reinforced by the teacher reactions. By the student Important Key terms are
displaying the behaviour and the subsequent teacher actions, the teacher is negatively reinforced
This occurs when a
behaviour allows the by having peace in the room and the student out of the room. The student is negatively reinforced marked in bold in the text and
person320to escape
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp08.indd by getting out of the work and the room. Importantly, the student has communicated that the 20/08/21 4:57 PM
from something
that they would work is beyond her ability, and this should be noted by the teacher, particularly if the student defined in the margin when
otherwise find
does not have the skill to communicate frustrations in other ways.
aversive and to
avoid an unwanted
From a social skills perspective, students who display these behaviours are considered to have
they are used for the first time.
consequence.
interfering problem behaviours (Gresham, 2017). Gresham sees these as being in three categories:
• social skills acquisition deficits – they do not have appropriate skills in their repertoire
• social skills performance deficits – they have the behaviour and either choose not to use the
behaviour, or do not realise that they need to use the skill
• social skills fluency deficits – they use the behaviour in the setting in which it is reinforced
but fail to use it in other situations.
ICONS The issues of social skills will be discussed further later in the chapter as they are critical in
ensuring the social inclusion of all students, particularly those with disabilities.

Types of behaviours causing concern

Fact sheet icons in the margins indicate where additional background information is
Teachers want to spend most of their time focusing on student learning rather than student

available on common forms of diversity. When you see this icon, ask your instructor for
behaviour. In order for this to happen, teachers want students to:
• start on time
access to the
• prepare for thefact
lesson sheet that relates to that topic.
• attend to what the teacher says
ACARA (AC)
• comply withicons indicate material from the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and
teacher directions
• strive to finish assigned tasks to the highest possible standard
Reporting Authority,
• collaborate ACARA.
constructively with other students when required, and
• work
PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND without
LEARNINGdisturbing
PRACTICES others when required (Angus et al., 2009, p. 5).

Angus
PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING et al. (2009)
AND LEARNING were studying teachers in Western Australia and their concerns about
PRACTICES
student behaviour and classroom learning at Years 2, 4, 6 and 8 (first year of secondary in
WA), and particularly in lower socioeconomic areas. They found that the behaviour of most
Summary
concern to teachers was inattention, with over 20 per cent of students identified as inattentive.
END-OF-CHAPTER
STUDY Summary
This
FEATURES
chapter has focused on the role of the regular national and jurisdictional curricula that
Unmotivated behaviour was more commonly reported in secondary than primary classes.
heavily influence mainstream classroom teaching. The approach has been to examine ways in
This chapter has the
focused on the rolestudents
of the regular
werenational and jurisdictional curricula that
STUDY
TOOLS Importantly, unmotivated not aggressive in their behaviour;
which the curriculum can be adjusted to meet the requirements of students with disability, rather
heavily influence mainstream classroom teaching. The approach has
they simply
diddeveloping
than not engage in learning.
discrete Aggressive
curricula or teachingbehaviour was
models that may lessbeen
farexacerbate to examine
common ways inproductive
than either
differences rather than
TOOLS which the curriculum can be adjusted to meet the requirements of students with disability, rather
or unmotivated
enhance behaviour
inclusion for all studentsat in
allthe
levels.
class.Angus et al.that
Strategies used thebeen
have terms ‘productive’,
examined include‘disengaged’,
the
At the end ofthan each
adjustment chapter
of individual you will
disruptive’.
materials find
adjustingseveral
Interestingly,
through only
their tools
developing discrete curricula or teaching models that may exacerbate differences rather than
‘uncooperative’, and teaching
‘low-level 40 per cent
readability andofthrough to
students
enhance inclusion for all students in the class. Strategies that have been examined include the
help
thewere seen you to review, practise and extend
asofconsistently
inclusion language andproductive, 20 perthat
reading activities centare
consistently unproductive
appropriate to the students’and the remainder
instructional levels.fluctuated
your knowledge
The difficulties ofusingyear
of the key
to school
text-based learning
year. This
materials
PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES
inclusion of language and reading activities thatwas
objectives.
adjustment of individual teaching materials through adjusting their readability and through the
from school attributed
and the challenges
are appropriate tofinding
of
to thestudents’
the setting and
suitable the typeslevels.
alternatives
instructional and
havecontent of
been acknowledged,
instruction. considering the heavy reliance placed on them, particularly by secondary teachers.
The difficulties of using text-based materials and the challenges of finding suitable alternatives have
The rapid expansion of alternative materials through technological sources, such as the internet, is
been acknowledged, considering the heavy reliance placed on them, particularly by secondary teachers.
expanding options, but these still need adjustments in many cases for students with disability.
Summary
Unproductive behaviours
The rapid expansion of alternative materials through technological sources, such as the internet, is
Review your understanding of
The development
expanding options, ofbut
units of work
these to provide
still need a more selective
adjustments amount
in many cases forof content,
students coupled
with with focused
disability.
STUDY This
vocabularyInchapter
The development
ahas
studybeen ofsuggested
has student
focused on
of unproductive
units
behaviours
asthe role of in
theSouth
an appropriate
of work tobehaviours
provide a more
regularAustralian
approachnational
selective
schools,
and
amount
Sullivan
jurisdictional
for mainstreamed
of content,
et al. (2012,
curricula
classes. While that
such an 2014) also the key chapter topics with the
approach found
heavily that
influence
is time-consuming mainstream
for theclassroom of concern
individualteaching.
teacher, to teachers
Theinvolvement
the approach were
has
of been
groupstocoupled
largely
examine
of
with
low-level
teacherswaysfocused
disengaged
andinwhole
TOOLS vocabulary
which
faculties
approach
than
has
canthe
behaviours,
been
reduce
isdeveloping
suggested
curriculum
the
time-consuming
can be
including
burden
discrete for
as
on
an appropriate
adjusted
being
eachlate to
formeet
teacher
the individual
curricula
approach
andthe
class,
teacher,
or teaching
for
avoiding
increase
mainstreamed
requirements
thedoing
array
the involvement
models that may
of
classes.
ofschoolwork
students
adjustedwith
of groups
exacerbate
and
While suchrather
disability,
disengaging
materials
of teachers
differences
an
for later from
and whole
Summary.
classroom
use. Adjusted activities.
curriculum Other unproductive
presentation has the potentialbehaviours
to increase included
student low-level
involvement andrather
disruptive
reduce than
behaviours
faculties can reduce
enhance the for
inclusion burden
all on eachin
students teacher andStrategies
thelesson,
class. increase the thatarray
have of adjusted materials for later
disruptivesuch as disrupting
behaviour through the flow ofatthe
teaching the student talking out
instructional turnbeen
oflevel. and examined include
making distracting the noises.
use. Adjusted
adjustment curriculum presentation
of individual teachinghas the potential
materials through toadjusting
increase student involvement
their readability and and reduce
through the
Aggressive/antisocial
The more specific
disruptive behaviour adjustmentsteachingbehaviours
and modifications such as verbally
required abusing
for students other students, spreading
with high support needs rumours
inclusion of languagethrough
and reading activities at thethat
student instructional
are appropriate level.
to the students’ instructional levels.
andaexcluding
necessitate greater level peers were very
of support uncommon
for classroom for allThis
teachers. teachers.
is perhapsHence,
bestacross all years
undertaken of schooling
through
The more specific
difficulties of adjustments
using text-based and materials
modifications required
and the for students
challenges of findingwith high support
suitable needs have
alternatives
collaborative planning with specialist teachers to ensure maximum participation in classroom learning
necessitate a greater considering
been acknowledged, level of support for classroom
the heavy relianceteachers.
placed onThis is perhaps
them, best by
particularly undertaken
secondary through
teachers.
and assessment and the possible use of teacher’s assistants to supervise learning activities in the class.
240 collaborative
The rapid expansionplanning ofwith specialist
alternative teachers
materials to ensure
through maximum sources,
technological participation in classroom
such as the internet,learning
is
Finally,
and
expanding it isoptions,
assessment important
andbut
thefor the still
executive
possible
these use and staff assistants
ofadjustments
need teacher’s to support
in manyto acases
coordinated
supervise approach
learning
for students to learning
activities
with and
in the
disability. class.
teaching adjustments. The following chapter will explore further the interrelated areas of social
Finally, it is important
The development for the
of units executive
of work and staff
to provide to support
a more selectivea amount
coordinated approach
of content, to learning
coupled and
with focused
integration and management of the inclusive classroom.
teaching
vocabulary adjustments. The following
has been suggested as an chapter
appropriatewill approach
explore further the interrelated
for mainstreamed areasWhile
classes. of social
such an
integration
approach is 240
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp06.indd and managementfor
time-consuming
Discussion questions
of the individual
inclusive classroom.
teacher, the involvement of groups of teachers and whole
faculties can reduce the burden on each teacher and increase the array of adjusted materials for later
Test your knowledge and
20/08/21 4:53 PM

use. Adjusted curriculum

Discussion questions
1 What
disruptive
topics would you
behaviour
presentation
include in a has the potential
half-day to increasesession
staff development studenton involvement and reduce
adjusting curriculum, consolidate your learning
learning, teachingthrough teachingfor
and assessment at the student
students instructional
with disability inlevel.
your mainstream school?
1 What topics would you include in a half-day staff development session on adjusting curriculum,
The more
2 learning, specific
How can you
necessitate
adjustments
makeand
teaching assessment and
assessment
modifications
tasks
forrelevant
required
studentsfor
for students
all students
with disabilityininthe
with
yourclass?high support
mainstream school?
needs
through the Discussion
3
2 What
How canareayou
greater
the types
make
level of support for
of curriculum,
assessment
classroom
learning
tasks andfor
relevant
teachers.supports
teaching This is perhaps
all students in the required best undertaken through
class? for students with high
collaborative
and assessment
planning with specialist
support needs and how can they be provided?
3 What are theand typestheofpossible
curriculum,
use of
teachers
learning
teacher’s
to
and
ensure maximum
teaching to
assistants supports
participation
superviserequired
in classroom
for activities
learning students with
learning
in thehigh
class.
questions, Individual activities,
support needs and how can they be provided?
Finally, it is important for the executive and staff to support a coordinated approach to learning and
Individual activities
teaching adjustments. The following chapter will explore further the interrelated areas of social
and Group activities.
Individual activities
1 Take a topic
integration and in your teaching
management areainclusive
of the and identify the ‘must know’ content and the vocabulary that
classroom.
should be placed in each of the three categories. Compare your results with those of a colleague.
1 Take a topic in your teaching area and identify the ‘must know’ content and the vocabulary that
2 should
Take anbe existing
placed teaching
in each ofmaterial and adjust it for use byyour
students with anthose
instructional level at
Discussion questions the three categories. Compare results with
least three grades above or below the grade level for which the teaching material was originally
2 Take an existing teaching material and adjust it for use by students with an instructional level at
of a colleague.

1 designed.
What topics would you include in a half-day staff development session on adjusting curriculum,
least three grades above or below the grade level for which the teaching material was originally
learning,
3 designed.
Draw a mapteaching
of yourand assessment
classroom, for students
including seatingwith
plan,disability
position in
ofyour mainstream
resources school?
– especially technology
CHAPTER 4 studY tOOls
2 that
How supports
can you make assessment
the learning tasks relevant
of students for all students
with additional in the
needs, and class?of students with
location
3 Draw a map of your classroom, including seating plan, position of resources – especially technology
3 disability
What are the andtypes
their specific learning
of curriculum, needs. and
learning Track where you
teaching moverequired
supports within theforcourse
studentsof most lessons.
with high
that supports the learning of students with additional needs, and location of students with
How does
support yourand
needs utilisation
how canoftheyspacebehelp to meet diverse student needs? Does your classroom space
provided?
disability and their specific learning needs. Track where you move within the course of most lessons.
Group activities
encourage diverse students to learn together, allow for targeted grouping of students within lesson
How does your utilisation of space help to meet diverse student needs? Does your classroom space
structures, etc.?
Individual activities
1 As aencourage
small group, diverse
take students
a curriculumto learn
topictogether,
and workallow for targeted
through grouping
the process of students
of identifying thewithin
criticallesson
1 structures,
curriculum
Take a topic etc.?
content, adjusting
in your teachingthearea
vocabulary
and identifyand then developing
the ‘must know’acontent
series ofandsample teaching materials
the vocabulary that
190 for the topicbethat
should demonstrate
placed in each ofthe
theimportance of adjusting
three categories. Compare curriculum, reduced
your results vocabulary
with those and
of a colleague.
appropriate presentation
2 Take an existing styles.
teaching Also prepare
material an adapted
and adjust assessment
it for use by studentstask foran
with the same topic. Share
instructional level atthe
190
outcomes withgrades
least three other groups in below
above or the same
theor different
grade level curriculum areas.
for which the teaching material was originally
2 Have each member of the group examine a different technological approach to supporting students
designed.
with disability
3 Draw a map ofthe
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd 190in
classroom
your (e.g.
classroom, digital books,
including iPad
seating applications,
plan, position ofRead and Write
resources Gold). Discuss
– especially your
technology
20/08/21 7:00 PM

findings with the group

that supports
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd
and how
the learning
190
they could
of students be used
with in the needs,
additional classroom.
and location of students with 20/08/21 7:00 PM
3 Discuss and identify
disability adjustments
and their required
specific learning for students
needs. withyou
Track where special
moveneeds, those
within the who areofgifted
course most lessons.
andHow
talented
doesand those
your with an
utilisation ofEAL/D background.
space help Share the
to meet diverse outcomes
student andDoes
needs? consider how these space
your classroom
differing needsdiverse
encourage can be students
met in antoinclusive classroom.
learn together, ACARA’s
allow Illustrations
for targeted groupingof of
Practice (https://www.
students within lesson
australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/illustrations-of-practice/)
structures, etc.? include documents
(e.g. unit overviews) showing the teaching adjustments made within the video samples. Use these as

xii 190
a comparison to your own approach. Consider how your future planning might best meet individual
learning needs within a positive, inclusive climate.
4 Examine and critique ACARA’s CASE Content – Abilities – Standards – Evaluation Planning Pathway
(https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/planning-for-student-diversity/
steps-to-personalise-learning-case/)
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd 190 20/08/21 7:00 PM
 appropriate presentation styles. Also prepare an adapted assessment task for the same topic. Share the
outcomes with other groups in the same or different curriculum areas.
2 Have each member of the group examine a different technological approach to supporting students
with disability in the classroom (e.g. digital books, iPad applications, Read and Write Gold). Discuss your
findings with the group and how they could be used in the classroom.
3 Discuss and identify adjustments required for students with special needs, those who are gifted
and talented and those with an EAL/D background. Share the outcomes and consider how these
GUIDE TO THE TEXT
differing needs can be met in an inclusive classroom. ACARA’s Illustrations of Practice (https://www.
australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/illustrations-of-practice/) include documents
(e.g. unit overviews) showing the teaching adjustments made within the video samples. Use these as
a comparison to your own approach. Consider how your future planning might best meet individual

END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES learning needs within a positive, inclusive climate.

4 Examine and critique ACARA’s CASE Content – Abilities – Standards – Evaluation Planning Pathway
(https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/planning-for-student-diversity/
PART B INCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PRACTICES
steps-to-personalise-learning-case/)

Discover high-quality online Weblinks

Paula Kluth - toward inclusive classrooms and communities blog. Rewriting History, and Nine Other Ways to

educational resources to Adapt

support your study in education
with the Weblinks lists.
ACARA Textbooks:
(Australianhttps://www.paulakluth.com/readings/differentiating-instruction/rewriting-history-and-
Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority website – Student Diversity section
nine-other-ways-to-adapt-textbooks
(includes illustrations of practice) https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/
Positive Partnerships
AFIRM (Autism
com.au/
on Autism
Focused Spectrum
Intervention Disorder for
Resources andteachers
Modules)and school leaders http://www.positivepartnerships.
https://afirm.fpg.unc.edu/afirm-modules
AITSL (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership) https://www.aitsl.edu.au/research/
Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority. IEP: Annotated Sample https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/
spotlight/inclusive-education-teaching-students-with-disability
downloads/p_10/qklg_pd_iep_annoted_samp.pdf
ASDAN Education for alternative UK curriculum programs http://www.asdan.org.uk/
Spectronics – for students with learning difficulties who struggle with reading and writing but are interested
Center for Applied Special Technology http://www.cast.org
in technology; it includes an activity exchange for Clicker 4 and Clicker 5, Boardmaker, etc. http://www.
English as an Additional Language or Dialect Teacher Resource. https://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/EALD_
spectronics.com.au/
Resource_-_EALD_Learning_Progression.pdf
TIC Talks is an audio podcast that can be listened to on a variety of devices. It focuses on human rights issues,
IES – What Works Clearing House: https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/
inclusion, and sport https://itunes.apple.com/au/podcast/tic-talks-all-about-sport/id738247927?mt=2
Microsoft alternative pointers add a range of cursor styles, larger icons, the use of inverted colour and left-
VCAA: The Victorian Curriculum http://victoriancurriculum.vcaa.vic.edu.au/
handed mouses, to the Windows system http://www.microsoft.com

Extend your understanding National Assessment Program: Disability Adjustment Scenarios https://www.nap.edu.au/naplan/school-
Recommended reading
support/adjustments-for-students-with-disability/disability-adjustments-scenarios

with the suggested Boyle,

NCCDC., & Topping,Consistent
(Nationally K. (2012). What worksof
Collection
Berkshire: Open University Press.
in Data
inclusion? Kuhl, S.,with
on School Students Pagliano, P., & Boon,
Disability) H. (2015). ‘In the too hard
https://www.nccd.edu.au/
basket’: issues faced by 20 rural Australian teachers
NESA, Collaborative curriculum planning https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/
when students with disabilities are included in their
Recommended reading and Carson, K., & Walker, P. (2015). The Australian Curriculum:
diversity-in-learning/special-education/collaborative-curriculum-planning
Assessment practices for diverse learners. In H. Askell- secondary classes. International Journal of Inclusive
NESA, Life Skills
Williams. https://edvucationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/diversity-in-learning/
Transforming the future of learning with Education, 19, 697–709.
extensive References relevant special-education
educational research (pp. 167–187). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Loreman, T., Deppeler, J., & Harvey, D. (2nd edn). (2010).
NESA,T.,Special
Hehir, Education
& Katzman, – Year
L. I. (2012). 11 – Year
Effective inclusive schools: Inclusive education: supporting diversity in the classroom.
12 https://educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/11-
to each chapter. 12/Diversity-in-learning/stage-6-special-education
designing successful schoolwide programs. Indianapolis, Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin.
IN: Jossey-Bass.

References
Abell, M. M., Bauder, D. K., & Simmons, T. J. (2005).
Access to the general curriculum: a curriculum and
instructional perspective for educators. Intervention in
School and Clinic, 41, 82–86.
ACARA (n.d.) CASE191
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd Planning Pathway. Retrieved from
ACT Department of Education and Training (2013). 191
Every chance to learn: curriculum framework for ACT
schools preschool to year 10. Canberra: Author. https://
portfolio.canberra.edu.au/artefact/file/download.
php?file=176673&view=46411 20/08/21 7:00 PM

https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/ Alchin, G. (2014). Is reasonable adjustment a deficit

student-diversity/planning-for-student-diversity/steps-
to-personalise-learning-case/
ACARA (n.d.). Students with disability – illustrations of
personalised learning. Retrieved from https://www.
australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-
diversity/
ACARA (n.d.). Teaching resources for students from EAL/D
backgrounds https://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/EALD_
Learning_Progression_revised_February_2014.pdf
ACARA (2012). The shape of the Australian Curriculum:
health and physical education. Sydney: Author.
ACARA (2013). Student diversity and the Australian
curriculum: advice for principals, schools and teachers.
Melbourne: Author.
ideology? Special Education Perspectives, 23, 3–6.
Armstrong, F. (2007). Disability, education, and space. In
K. N. Gulson & D. C. Symes (Eds), Spatial theories in
education: policy and geography matters (pp. 96–100).
New York, NY: Routledge.
Arthur-Kelly, M. (2017). Calibrating Professional
Learning Approaches for Teachers in Inclusive
Classrooms in the Context of Implementation.
Science Oxford Research Encyclopaedia of Education.
https://oxfordre.com/education/view/10.1093/
acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-
9780190264093-e-150

END-OF-BOOK FEATURES 192

At the back of the book you will find appendices of common abbreviations and shortened forms,
BK-CLA-STRNADOVA_6E-210116-Chp04.indd 192 20/08/21 7:00 PM

and one comprising a full list of fact sheets.

xiii
 Guide to the online resources
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR

Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources

that will help you to prepare your lectures and assessments,
when you choose this textbook for your course.
Log in or request an account to access instructor resources
at au.cengage.com/instructor/account for Australia or
nz.cengage.com/instructor/account for New Zealand.

MINDTAP
Premium online teaching and learning tools are available on the MindTap platform – the
personalised eLearning solution.
MindTap is a flexible and easy-to-use platform that helps build student confidence and gives you
a clear picture of their progress. We partner with you to ease the transition to digital – we’re with
you every step of the way.
The Cengage Mobile App puts your course directly into students’ hands with course materials
available on their smartphone or tablet. Students can read on the go, complete practice quizzes
or participate in interactive real-time activities.
MindTap for Strnadová’s Inclusion in Action is full of innovative resources to support critical
thinking, and help your students move from memorisation to mastery! Includes:
• Inclusion in Action 6th edition eBook
• Classroom videos
• Revision quizzes
• And more
MindTap is a premium purchasable eLearning
tool. Contact your Cengage learning consultant to
find out how MindTap can transform your course.

INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE
The Instructor’s guide includes:
• Learning objectives
• Key points
• Suggested responses to Narrative discussion questions and Reflect on this activities
• Solutions to end-of-chapter activities
• Chapter video with questions and activities

COGNERO® TEST BANK

A bank of questions has been developed in conjunction with the text for creating quizzes, tests
and exams for your students. Create multiple test versions in an instant and deliver tests from
your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want using Cognero. Cognero test generator is a
flexible online system that allows you to import, edit, and manipulate content from the text’s test
bank or elsewhere, including your own favourite test questions.

xiv
 GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES

POWERPOINT™ PRESENTATIONS
Use the chapter-by-chapter PowerPoint slides to enhance your lecture presentations and
handouts by reinforcing the key principles of your subject.

ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT

Add the digital files of graphs, tables, pictures and flow charts into your learning management
system, use them in student handouts, or copy them into your lecture presentations.

FOR THE STUDENT

MINDTAP
MindTap is the next-level online learning tool that helps you get better grades!
MindTap gives you the resources you need to study – all in one place and available when you
need them. In the MindTap Reader, you can make notes, highlight text and even find a definition
directly from the page.
If your instructor has chosen MindTap for your subject this semester, log in to MindTap to:
• Get better grades
• Save time and get organised
• Connect with your instructor and peers
• Study when and where you want, online and mobile
• Complete assessment tasks as set by your instructor
When your instructor creates a course using
MindTap, they will let you know your course link
so you can access the content. Please purchase
MindTap only when directed by your instructor.
Course length is set by your instructor.

xv
 Preface
The focus of this book is on how schools can become inclusive communities, providing optimal
learning environments for a wide diversity of students. The editors and chapter authors have
a strong view that the basis for inclusive education is good teaching. For this reason, much of
this book is about teaching rather than about differences or disability. If all teachers focus on
the needs of the individual students in their classes, inclusive educational processes will follow.
The concepts presented are about processes such as adapting curriculum to meet individual needs,
planning teaching strategies, using evidence-based practices, applying whole-school approaches,
encouraging positive interactions, ensuring smooth transitions and working collaboratively. These
concepts are as applicable in regular education as they are in ‘special’ education, and they apply
to students with a wide range of abilities (or disabilities). The book therefore focuses on the
diversity of students attending regular schools, and the strategies that can be used to optimise
the educational experiences of all students. As a result, the various chapters in this book include
reference to Indigenous students, students for whom English is an additional language or
dialect (EAL/D students), gifted and talented students, and students with a range of additional
education support needs.
The approach in this book does not generally attempt to link particular teaching strategies to
particular forms of disability or diversity. It is wrong to assume that identification of a disability
or additional need will indicate the type of teaching approach to be taken. For example, knowing
that a student has Down syndrome or cerebral palsy or spina bifida or is gifted and talented
does not tell us much about the teaching approach we need to take for that student. In some
situations, particular approaches have proven useful. For example, there are some specific
suggestions in this book about teaching students who are on the autism spectrum, but even these
should not be seen as a general recipe. As with any other student, we would want to assess an
individual student’s current attainments, skills and strengths, and set some educational goals
based on a broad-based assessment. It is also recognised that there are specialised teaching
approaches for students with significant sensory disabilities (vision or hearing loss), and
these are not covered specifically in this text. Teachers can access information about specific
disabilities when they have a student with that disability in their class, and there are fact sheets
on disability and diversity on the website. Parents are usually experts on their child’s disability or
additional needs. The internet is also a source of the most up-to-date information about particular
aspects of diversity, and website references are provided at the end of each chapter. However, for
most students, the classroom teaching approach is determined by careful assessment of their
individual educational needs.
The book is divided into four parts. The first part sets the scene by providing an overview of
concepts, principles, legislation and policy related to inclusion, with a focus on inclusive practices
in the school. The second part examines effective teaching and learning practices, including
curriculum adaptation, planning for teaching and supporting positive behaviour. The third part
deals with specific difficulties in communication, literacy and numeracy, which occur in many
students with a disability. The final section examines inclusive practice in three common school
divisions: early childhood education, primary schooling and secondary schools transitioning into
post-school options.
The book can be used as the basis for a semester-long course for undergraduate and
postgraduate students. An online instructors’ manual is available which assists lecturers and
tutors with end-of-chapter activities and within-chapter discussion questions. There are also
chapter videos and other instructor resources, and an online course website for students, provided
by the publishers.

xvi
 PREFACE

We wish all readers, whether they be teachers, administrators or prospective teachers,

successful experiences in their contribution to the development of inclusive classrooms and
schools.
Iva Strnadová, Michael Arthur-Kelly, and Phil Foreman, 2021

Note on terminology
We respectfully acknowledge that there are differences in the ways people talk about disability.
Some people with disability prefer person-first language, which emphasises the principle of
people first, disability second (e.g., a student with intellectual disability). Others prefer identity-
first language (e.g., autistic student). In this book we use person-first language, which reflects
the predominant usage in the Australian and international context, and aligns with the editors’
philosophy. However, respectful of the voices of many autistic people who believe that autism
makes them who they are, and is therefore a critical part of their identity, we use the term
‘student on the autism spectrum’, which has been recognised in the latest research (Bury et al.,
2020) as one of the more acceptable terms for this community.

Reference:
Bury, S. M., Jellett, R., Spoor, J. R., & Hedley, D. (2020). ‘It Defines Who I Am’ or ‘It’s Something
I Have’: What Language Do [Autistic] Australian Adults [on the Autism Spectrum] Prefer?
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04425-3

New to this edition

This new edition brings exciting changes. First of all, there is a stronger emphasis on Universal
Design for Learning (UDL), Response to Intervention (RTI), and evidence-based practices (EBPs)
as themes woven throughout the book. Furthermore, we have introduced a new chapter, authored
by Professor Iva Strnadová and Professor Michael Wehmeyer: Chapter 7, ‘Transitions, self-
determination and twenty-first-century skills’. This chapter details critical transitions between
early childhood education, primary and secondary schooling and developing self-determination
and self-advocacy in children.

xvii
 About the authors
Dedication
ROBERT CONWAY died in early 2020 after a short period of illness. The Editors and Contributors
of this edition wish to pay tribute to his huge contribution to the field of special and inclusive
education, and extend their condolences to his family. Bob, as he was affectionately known, was
an Emeritus Professor at Flinders University where he served as Dean of Education from 2007
to 2012. Prior to this role he was a leader in special education at The University of Newcastle,
playing several roles including Director of the Special Education Centre, with a background
as a teacher in both mainstream and special education. His main research centred on the area
of students with behaviour problems in both mainstream and specialist settings. He worked
with education systems to improve the management of students with behaviour problems,
particularly in the ways in which student management, learning and teaching could be addressed
concurrently. He also had a strong interest in the inclusion of students with a range of learning
needs in mainstream education and the ways in which schools and education systems can
become more inclusive by meeting the needs of all students. He was a member of the Australian
Government’s former Schools and Disability Advisory Council. Bob is greatly missed by all those
who knew him, and his legacy in the field is substantial.

Editors
IVA STRNADOVÁ is Professor in Special Education and Disability Studies at the University of
New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. Her research aims to contribute to better understanding
and the improvement of the life experiences of people with disabilities. Combining research with
advocacy is essential in her research program, which builds on supporting the self-determination
(including self-advocacy) of people with intellectual disabilities, and is grounded in an innovative
inclusive research approach, in which people with intellectual disabilities are included in the role
of researcher.
She has a particular research interest in the wellbeing of people with intellectual and
developmental disabilities and their families over the life span, diverse transitions in lives of
people with disabilities (particularly intellectual disabilities and autism); girls and women with
intellectual disabilities; parents with intellectual disabilities; inclusive research; issues relevant
to people with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities; and approaches giving voice to
people with intellectual disabilities (e.g., Photovoice, body mapping).

MICHAEL ARTHUR-KELLY moved into teacher education following a range of teaching

experiences in special and regular schools, working first at Charles Sturt University and then
at The University of Newcastle. He is currently a Conjoint Professor in the School of Education at
The University of Newcastle, and enjoys a balance of teaching and professional contributions to
his field and projects centred on the translation of research to leading practice. Specific areas he
has worked in include instructional design, professional development for teachers in behaviour
and communication support, and the identification of curricular and instructional approaches to
maximise engagement in students with multiple and complex additional needs.

xviii
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

PHIL FOREMAN is Emeritus Professor of Education at The University of Newcastle. He was Chair
of the NSW Institute of Teachers from 2007–2013, and was Professor and Dean of Education at
The University of Newcastle from 2002–2008. Prior to that he was Director of the University’s
Special Education Centre. He was Editor of the Journal of Intellectual and Developmental
Disability from 1992–2002, and remains an Associate Editor. He is also an Associate Editor of the
Australasian Journal of Special and Inclusive Education. He was foundation president of Newcastle
& Hunter Community Access and Disability Advocacy Service Hunter. He is a Member of the
Guardianship and Administrative Divisions of the NSW Civil and Administrative Tribunal. In
2013 he was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) for services to special education
and to people with a disability.

Contributors
THERESE M. CUMMING is a Professor of Special Education in the School of Education and
Academic Lead Education at the UNSW Disability Innovation Institute. Therese is a Scientia
Education Academy Fellow and has had extensive leadership experiences in learning and
teaching. Her teaching and research focus on promoting the use of evidence-based practices to
support the learning and behaviour of students with disabilities and the use of technology to
create inclusive, accessible, and engaging learning environments.

KERRY DALLY is a senior lecturer in the School of Education at the University of Newcastle.
She teaches in the postgraduate program in the areas of early childhood intervention, learning
difficulties, and social-emotional learning and positive behaviour support. She is a past recipient
of the Australian Resource Educators Association award for excellence in research in the field
of learning difficulties and the Australian Early Childhood Doctoral Thesis award. Her current
research interests encompass inclusive education, student self-efficacy and wellbeing, and
whole-school approaches to creating supportive learning environments.

MICHAEL DAVIES (B Econ, Grad Dip Psych, M App Psych, PhD) is Associate Professor and the
Program Leader in Counselling at the Australian Institute of Professional Counsellors and an
Adjunct Associate Professor at Griffith University in Brisbane, where he was an academic for
30 years. Prior to academia he worked for 5 years as a Counselling Psychologist with long-term
unemployed adults, those undertaking rehabilitation, and students regarding their vocational
choice. Seven years working with family members of people with disabilities, and training
residential staff supporting people with severe intellectual disabilities followed before becoming a
lecturer. Over 30 years at Griffith University he taught counselling and interpersonal psychology
among many other subject areas, especially to special education teachers in training. He was
also Program Leader in Special Education at Griffith University. Since February 2017 he has led
the team of academics at AIPC and teaches counselling skills and ethics in undergraduate and
postgraduate courses. His research includes over 70 publications across the interconnecting
themes of social skills, stress and coping, and transitions from school to post-school life and
this work has been presented to many academic and practitioner communities nationally
and internationally.

JUDITH FOGGETT is a lecturer in the School of Education at the University of Newcastle.

She program coordinates and teaches the undergraduate special education programs and is
the Program Convenor for the Master of Special and Inclusive Education for both primary and
secondary special education. Judith’s area of expertise is in the inclusion of students with
learning and behaviour problems in regular and special school settings, emotional disturbance,

xix
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

mental health and whole-school approaches. Judith has had extensive experience teaching
in mainstream and support classes in infants, primary and secondary schools in isolated,
Indigenous, rural and suburban communities. Her area of research explores links and engagement
in learning through behaviour support, the professional learning of teachers and staff
collaboration.

SARAH HOPKINS is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education at Monash University and has
many years of experience in primary and secondary teacher education. Her current research
is focused on understanding and addressing students’ difficulties learning mathematics and
preparing teachers for inclusive classrooms. Sarah leads a collaborative project between Monash
University and Wallara (a community-based organisation) called the Keep on Learning (KoL)
program. The KoL program involves pre-service mainstream teachers working with young adults
with intellectual disability (students) in a literacy and numeracy tutoring program. Along with
her colleagues, she has investigated the benefits of the KoL program for pre-service teachers in
terms of preparing them to teach in inclusive classrooms and the benefits for students in terms of
their learning outcomes and wellbeing.

SALLY HOWELL has been involved in the education of students with special needs both as a
teacher and special education consultant for many years. This has involved working in public,
independent and Catholic schools. Sally has worked as a special education lecturer at Macquarie
University Special Education Centre (MUSEC) in the areas of numeracy instruction, research
methods and behaviour management. Sally is currently the Principal of MUSEC School. Sally has
provided advice to the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA)
and the NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) regarding curriculum and assessment for
students with a disability. She has expertise in assessment and programming for students with
difficulties in learning, particularly in the areas of numeracy and reading. Sally has extensive
experience working collaboratively with parents and schools to support students with special
needs in both inclusive and specialist settings. Sally’s research focus has been on number sense
as a predictor of early mathematics achievement and on schema-based instruction applied to
mathematics’ problem solving.

MARTIN HOWES has been teaching in both primary and high schools over the past eleven
years. After graduating with honours from the University of Newcastle with a Bachelor of
Teaching (Special Education)/Bachelor of Arts degree, he started his teaching career as a
learning support teacher. His varied teaching experiences have included a period of relieving
as an assistant principal of a support unit, a mainstream class teacher and a wellbeing teacher
in primary schools, as well as a special education teacher in a high school support unit setting.
He is currently an assistant principal and learning support coordinator in a primary school.
His interests are in learning support for students with additional educational needs and
technology in education.

CORAL KEMP is an experienced practitioner, consultant, program director, teacher educator, and
researcher in the field of early childhood intervention. Coral’s practical experience has included:
special educator on a transdisciplinary home-based early intervention team, preschool special
education consultant for the NSW Department of Education, and Academic Team Leader of
the Early Years programs at Macquarie University. During her time at Macquarie, Coral won a
federal grant to establish an inclusion support program for children with disabilities in childcare
centres in predominantly disadvantaged areas of Sydney. Coral is a member of the coordinating
committee for the International Society on Early Intervention, Honorary Senior Lecturer

xx
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

at Macquarie University and member of the Board of the STaR Association, which supports
children with disabilities in regular childcare. Coral has published her research on early childhood
inclusion in Australian and international peer-reviewed journals.

CARL LEONARD is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Education and Co-Coordinator of the Master
of Special and Inclusive Education Program at The University of Newcastle, Australia. He has
research interests in holistic, innovative, communication-rich leadership structures aligning a
core focus on wellbeing; teaching and learning structures embedded in implementation science;
and universal design for learning as the springboard for success. Carl worked in schools for
28 years in various teaching, leadership and consultancy positions as an advocate for public
education, inclusivity and diversity
Simultaneous to this, Carl also lectured in the postgraduate programs at The University of
Newcastle, aiming to foster the growth and development of the current and next generation
of teaching professionals. In addition to working full-time in schools up until mid-2019, Carl
has achieved significant scholarly output including one sole-authored book, a range of journal
articles and presentations at national and international conferences.

MICHELLE RALSTON has extensive experience in mainstream and special education, teaching
children from 3 years of age through to 18-year-olds. She has led whole school change in literacy
and inclusion in her roles as learning-support team coordinator, assistant principal, itinerant
communication/language disorders and learning support teacher within mainstream schools.
She lectures at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels in early childhood, primary and
secondary inclusive and special education, collaboration, learning difficulties, communication
disorders, positive behaviour support, social emotional learning, learning difficulties, disability
discrimination legislation and education policy. Her current research interests include the
Disability Standards for Education and related policies, learning and development experiences for
school staff, and the role of school leaders in promoting inclusive practice.

UMESH SHARMA is Professor in the Faculty of Education at Monash University, Australia where
he is the Academic Head of the Educational Psychology and Inclusive Education Community.
Umesh’s research programs in the area of disability and inclusive education span India, Pakistan,
China, Bangladesh, Fiji, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Samoa as well as Australia, Canada,
USA and New Zealand. He is the chief co-editor of the Australasian Journal of Special Education
and the Oxford Encyclopedia of Inclusive and Special Education. He has authored over 150 academic
articles, book chapters and edited books that focus on various aspects of inclusive education.
His co-authored book A Guide to Promoting a Positive Classroom Environment was the recipient
of the International Book Prize Award from the Exceptionality Education International. He was
recently (2019) named the top Special Education Researcher (Field Leader) in Australia based
on the impact of his work locally and internationally by the Australian Chief Scientist https://
specialreports.theaustralian.com.au/1540291/. His main areas of research are: positive behaviour
support, inclusive education for disadvantaged children and policy and practice in special and
inclusive education.

DEAN SUTHERLAND is an Associate Professor in the School of Psychology, Speech and Hearing at
the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. His research focuses on communication,
education and parent/teacher-child interactions, in particular supporting children and young
people (and their families) who experience difficulty developing or retaining communication skills.
This work involves working with diverse populations, including children with autism spectrum
disorder and other developmental and neurological conditions such as cerebral palsy.

xxi
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

MICHAEL L. WEHMEYER, PhD is the Ross and Mariana Beach Distinguished Professor of Special
Education; Chair of the Department of Special Education; and Director and Senior Scientist,
Beach Center on Disability; all at the University of Kansas. His research and scholarly work has
focused on issues pertaining to self-determination, positive psychology and disability, transition
to adulthood, the education and inclusion of students with severe disabilities, conceptualising
intellectual disability, and technology use by people with cognitive disabilities.

xxii
Acknowledgements
The editors, Iva Strnadová, Michael Arthur-Kelly and Phil Foreman, would like to thank the
many parents, students, teachers, principals and other professionals who so generously provided
narratives and case studies to develop and illustrate the concepts presented in each chapter.
They would also like to thank staff at Cengage, together with their fellow contributors, for their
expertise and commitment to this publication.
The authors, editors and publisher would like to thank all those who have contributed
photographs and other material for inclusion in this edition, as well as to those who have
contributed to past editions of Inclusion in Action. The editors and the authors of Chapters 2, 3
and 12 would like to acknowledge the work and contribution of the authors of earlier editions of
these chapters: Dr Ian Dempsey and Dr Gordon Lyons. The editors and authors of Chapter 9 would
also like to extend their thanks and acknowledge the contribution of Amanda Boelen, Visiting
Teacher Service, and Ms Mirna Farah, Learning and Support Teacher.
Cengage, the editors, and the author team would also like to thank the following reviewers for
their incisive and helpful feedback:
• Nadine Ballam – University of Waikato
• Jeanette Berman – University of New England
• Corey Bloomfield – Central Queensland University
• Dr Melissa Cain – Australian Catholic University (QLD)
• Karen Glasby – University of Southern Queensland
• Edwina El Hachem – Deakin University
• Rosemary Horn – University of the Sunshine Coast
• Dr Sofia Mavropoulou – Queensland University of Technology
• Sue O’Neill – University of New South Wales
• Bea Staley – Charles Darwin University
• Marion Sturges – Western Sydney University
We would also like to extend our thanks to the reviewers who provided their feedback on all
previous editions of Inclusion in Action.

xxiii
 Standards mapping grid
This book is designed to assist readers to achieve the Australian Professional Standards for Graduate Teachers.
The following grid shows how the content of particular chapters contributes to the Standards.

Professional Knowledge Standards Chapters

1. Know students and how they learn
1.1 Physical, social and intellectual development and characteristics of students 4, 6, 7, 8, 9,
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of physical, social and intellectual development and 10,11
characteristics of students and how these may affect learning.
1.2 Understand how students learn 4, 5, 6, 7, 9,
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of research into how students learn and the 11, 12
implications for teaching.
1.3 Students with diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds 1, 4, 5, 7, 8,
Demonstrate knowledge of teaching strategies that are responsive to the learning strengths and 11, 12, 13
needs of students from diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds.
1.4 Strategies for teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students 8, 9, 12
Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of the impact of culture, cultural identity and
linguistic background on the education of students from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
backgrounds.
1.5 Differentiate teaching to meet the specific learning needs of students across the full 1, 3, 4, 5, 6,
range of abilities 7, 8, 9, 10,
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of strategies for differentiating teaching to meet the 11, 12, 13
specific learning needs of students across the full range of abilities.
1.6 Strategies to support full participation of students with disability 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
Demonstrate broad knowledge and understanding of legislative requirements and teaching 6, 7, 11, 12,
strategies that support participation and learning of students with disability. 13
2. Know the content and how to teach it
2.1 Content and teaching strategies of the teaching area 4, 6, 8, 9, 10,
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the concepts, substance and structure of the 11,12, 13
content and teaching strategies of the teaching area.
2.2 Content selection and organisation 4, 5, 9, 10,
Organise content into an effective learning and teaching sequence. 12, 13
2.3 Curriculum, assessment and reporting 4, 5, 9, 10,
Use curriculum, assessment and reporting knowledge to design learning sequences and 12, 13
lesson plans.
2.4 Understand and respect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to promote 1, 8, 12
reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians
Demonstrate broad knowledge of, understanding of and respect for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander histories, cultures and languages.
2.5 Literacy and numeracy strategies 4, 8, 9, 10
Know and understand literacy and numeracy teaching strategies and their application in
teaching areas.
2.6 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) 3, 4, 5, 8, 12
Implement teaching strategies for using ICT to expand curriculum learning opportunities
for students.

xxiv
 STANDARDS MAPPING GRID

Professional Knowledge Standards Chapters

3. Plan for and implement effective teaching and learning
3.1 Establish challenging learning goals 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
Set learning goals that provide achievable challenges for students of varying abilities 9, 10, 11, 12,
and characteristics. 13
3.2 Plan, structure and sequence learning programs 4, 5, 6, 8, 9,
Plan lesson sequences using knowledge of student learning, content and effective teaching 10, 12, 13
strategies.
3.3 Use teaching strategies 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
Include a range of teaching strategies. 9, 10, 12, 13
3.4 Select and use resources 3, 4, 6, 8, 9,
Demonstrate knowledge of a range of resources, including ICT, that engage students in 11
their learning.
3.5 Use effective classroom communication 4, 5, 6, 8, 12,
Demonstrate a range of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies to support student 13
engagement.
3.6 Evaluate and improve teaching programs 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
Demonstrate broad knowledge of strategies that can be used to evaluate teaching programs to 9, 10, 11, 12,
improve student learning. 13
3.7 Engage parents/carers in the educative process 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
Describe a broad range of strategies for involving parents/carers in the educative process. 10, 11, 12,
13
4. Create and maintain supportive and safe learning environments
4.1 Support student participation 1, 3, 4, 5, 6,
Identify strategies to support inclusive student participation and engagement in classroom 7, 9, 10, 11,
activities. 12,13
4.2 Manage classroom activities 3, 4, 5, 6, 8,
Demonstrate the capacity to organise classroom activities and provide clear directions. 12, 13
4.3 Manage challenging behaviour 6, 8, 11
Demonstrate knowledge of practical approaches to manage challenging behaviour.
4.4 Maintain student safety 6, 8
Describe strategies that support students’ wellbeing and safety working within school and/or
system, curriculum and legislative requirements.
4.5 Use ICT safely, responsibly and ethically 4, 8
Demonstrate an understanding of the relevant issues and the strategies available to support the
safe, responsible and ethical use of ICT in learning and teaching.
5. Assess, provide feedback and report on student learning
5.1 Assess student learning 3, 4, 5, 8, 9,
Demonstrate understanding of assessment strategies, including informal and formal, diagnostic, 10,12, 13
formative and summative approaches to assess student learning.
5.2 Provide feedback to students on their learning 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
Demonstrate an understanding of the purpose of providing timely and appropriate feedback to 9, 11, 12, 13
students about their learning.
5.3 Make consistent and comparable judgements 4, 5, 10
Demonstrate understanding of assessment moderation and its application to support consistent
and comparable judgements of student learning.

xxv
STANDARDS MAPPING GRID

Professional Knowledge Standards Chapters

5.4 Interpret student data 4, 5, 6, 8, 10,
Demonstrate the capacity to interpret student assessment data to evaluate student learning and 11, 12, 13
modify teaching practice.
5.5 Report on student achievement 4, 5, 6, 11,
Demonstrate understanding of a range of strategies for reporting to students and parents/ 12
carers and the purpose of keeping accurate and reliable records of student achievement.
6. Engage in professional learning
6.1 Identify and plan professional learning needs 4, 6, 12
Demonstrate an understanding of the role of the National Professional Standards for Teachers
in identifying professional learning needs.
6.2 Engage in professional learning and improve practice 3, 4, 6, 8, 12
Understand the relevant and appropriate sources of professional learning for teachers.
6.3 Engage with colleagues and improve practice 3, 4, 6, 12
Seek and apply constructive feedback from supervisors and teachers to improve teaching
practices.
6.4 Apply professional learning and improve student learning 3, 4, 5, 6,
Demonstrate an understanding of the rationale for continued professional learning and the 8,12
implications for improved student learning.
7. Engage professionally with colleagues, parents/carers and the community
7.1 Meet professional ethics and responsibilities 1, 2, 4, 6
Understand and apply the key principles described in codes of ethics and conduct for the
teaching profession.
7.2 Comply with legislative, administrative and organisational requirements 2, 3, 4, 6, 13
Understand the relevant legislative, administrative and organisational policies and processes
required for teachers according to school stage.
7.3 Engage with the parents/carers 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
Understand strategies for working effectively, sensitively and confidentially with parents/carers. 8, 10, 11, 12,
13
7.4 Engage with professional teaching networks and broader communities 3, 4, 6, 7, 8,
Understand the role of external professionals and community representatives in broadening 10, 11, 12,
teachers’ professional knowledge and practice. 13

xxvi
PART A
INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS
1 Introducing inclusion in education

2 Legislation and policies supporting inclusive

practice

3 Practising inclusion in diverse school

communities

1
 1
CHAPTER

Introducing inclusion
in education
Iva Strnadová and Phil Foreman

This chapter aims to:

1.1 Provide an overview of principles that underlie inclusive practices
1.2 Explain the concept of disability
1.3 Identify other forms of diversity
1.4 Explain terminology and concepts related to inclusive practice
1.5 Explain the impact of the use of language about disability and diversity
1.6 Locate inclusion as part of a range of educational responses
1.7 Provide an overview of approaches to teaching students with a disability
in regular classes
1.8 Explore diversity across the lifespan
1.9 Myths and facts about disability and diversity
1.10 Explore the future of inclusion

Introduction
diversity Teachers in the twenty-first century expect to have a diversity of students in their classes.
Reflects the
The term ‘diversity’ may refer to students’ cultural backgrounds, their social and family
wide variation
in educational backgrounds, their ethnic origins, their ability level or their functional level. For classrooms to
needs of students
be optimal learning environments, teachers need to understand the diversity of their students,
in contemporary
classrooms and the and to provide appropriate programs and learning conditions. In the past, many classes in
need to be aware
Australia and New Zealand were not very diverse, often containing students from similar
of factors related
to their ethnic, backgrounds and only rarely having a student with a significant disability. However, teachers
cultural and social
are now likely to have students from many different countries, from varying religious and
backgrounds, their
special abilities and, ethnic backgrounds, and from a variety of family arrangements including nuclear families,
if relevant, their
single parent families, shared parenting families, and same-sex parent families. They are
disabilities.
also likely to, at some stage, teach students with a diagnosed disability. It is the successful
disability
The functional inclusion of a diversity of students, including in particular those who have a disability, that is
consequence of an the primary focus of this book.
impairment. For
example, because Most contemporary classrooms will include one or more students with a diagnosed
of the impairment
of spina bifida, the intellectual, physical, sensory or learning disability. The recent Nationally Consistent
disability may be that Collection of Data on School Students with Disability (NCCD, 2020) in Australia has also
a person is unable
to walk without highlighted areas of focus such as cognitive, sensory and social/emotional domains, and
the assistance of the fact that students may not have a diagnosis and yet have real and important learning
crutches.
needs (NCCD uses the term ‘imputed disability’). This inclusion of students with a range of

2
 CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

needs that happens in regular classrooms reflects the widespread agreement that people with sensory disability
a disability have a right to participate fully in the community. Consequently, many parents of Impairment of vision
or hearing, including
students with a disability choose to send their child to their local school rather than to a special deafness and
school or unit. The prospect of having students with a disability in their classes may cause blindness.

concern for some teachers, but these concerns are often misplaced. Good teaching provides learning disability
(or difficulty)
for the individual needs of all students (see Figure 1.1), and challenges can come from many An impairment
students, including those with or without a disability. in one or more
of the processes
involved in using
spoken or written
language. This may
particularly show
itself in problems
with reading,
writing, spelling,
speaking, listening
and mathematical
calculations. (In
the UK, intellectual
disability is referred
to as ‘learning
disability’, which is a
different concept.)

FIGURE 1.1 Good teaching provides for individual needs

Some teachers will find that a child with a diagnosed disability is less challenging than other
students in the class. The example of Mia, in Narrative 1.1, illustrates this.

NARRATIVE
1.1
Mia’s considerations
Mia is a 12-year-old girl who is paralysed from the waist down as a result of a car accident
when she was 7 years old.
She is about to commence at her local high school in a large country town. She uses an
electric wheelchair. Her academic work is above average. She would like to work on web
design when she leaves school. Students with
Some planning is needed before Mia arrives. Perhaps a learning support team will be physical disability
established, with Mia, her family, the year teacher and a learning support consultant from
the school or region. Among the questions the team will consider are:
• How will Mia deal with the problem of stairs?
• Are there any obstructions to her wheelchair?

3
PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

• Is there a wheelchair-accessible toilet?

• Does Mia need assistance in using the toilet or accessing other school facilities?
• Are there special transport needs?
These considerations will be done with Mia (her active input) and not just about Mia.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What are some other questions that Mia and her learning support team will need to
give consideration to before Mia begins high school?

Most education systems will provide support for the issues raised in Narrative 1.1, and will
have a procedure for assessing each student’s support needs. However, once these questions
have been answered and appropriate supports have been put into place, it is likely that Mia will
cause her teachers fewer problems than many other students in the class, such as those who
resist teacher authority. Yet there was a time when Mia would have spent all of her school career
mixing only with other students with a physical disability, simply because the problems she
has were regarded as insurmountable in a regular school. No-one would suggest that it would be
reasonable for students to be grouped educationally according to their weight, ethnicity or skin
colour, so why would it be reasonable for Mia to be grouped according to one specific aspect of her
humanity (her physical disability)? The same comments apply to Christopher, whose parents’
voice is heard in Narrative 1.2, later in this chapter.
In the last 35–40 years, attitudes to disability have changed considerably. Since the
International Year of Disabled Persons (IYDP) in 1981, it has become more likely that people
with a disability will have the same choices as people without a disability. Until the later part of
the twentieth century, many students with a disability either did not attend school or attended
a separate ‘special’ school. This was part of a general policy of keeping people with a disability
separate from the so-called ‘normal’ community. As a result, most teachers, other than those who
had chosen to be ‘special education’ teachers, were unlikely to have much contact with students
with a disability.
In earlier times, segregation was even more pervasive. It affected all aspects of living. In the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a range of institutions was developed, some of them
very large. This was done with good intent, to protect vulnerable people from possible harm or
abuse in the wider community. This separation was also believed to benefit their families and
society generally by allowing them to ‘get on with their lives’ without having to worry about
the child with a disability. It was common for the institutions to be physically isolated from the
rest of the community, and the treatment of residents was not always kind. Even people who
remained at home with their families were sometimes hidden away, or expected to mix only with
other people with a similar disability.
Although some institutions still operate, despite the de-institutionalisation movement that
focused on closing down all institutions, we now recognise the right of people with a disability to
make choices in the way they live their lives. It is accepted that most people wish to choose where
they live, who they mix with, where they work, and how they spend their leisure time. In the past,
many adults with a disability were separated from the general community in environments that
gave them little opportunity to make any choices in their lives, even in such routine matters as
who they would talk to, what they were going to eat or when they would go to bed.

4
 CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

Changes that have occurred over the last 35–40 years have meant that children and young
people with a disability generally live at home with their parents, or elsewhere in the community,
rather than in a large institution. They may also attend the local school. As a result, classroom
teachers are now likely to have some students with a disability enrolled in their schools and
classes.

1.1 Principles underlying inclusion

A number of principles have formed the basis of policy and practice for the inclusion of students
with a disability and other forms of diversity. School systems have used these principles to
develop system-wide policies; school leaders have used them as a basis for school policy and
practice, and classroom teachers have used them in the preparation and implementation of
programs. Five underlying principles are outlined below.

Principles of social justice and human rights

It is now much less likely than it was in the past that people will have their lives restricted
or determined by their gender, religion, race, ethnicity, sexuality or disability. The changing
attitudes to disability that have produced changes in education have been part of a broader
social justice movement, which has led to changes for several minority or disadvantaged groups, social justice
A belief system that
including women and indigenous peoples. It is now recognised that people with a disability want is based on equity,
to be regarded as people first; they want to make decisions about their own lives, and they do not human rights and
fairness for all.
want these decisions to be solely or primarily based on their disability. Inclusion in education is
often as much a rights issue as it is an issue of what works best in all circumstances.
These changes in social attitudes have been supported, and sometimes instigated, by
legislation such as the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 and its related education standards in
Australia; and the Education Act 1989 and the Human
Rights Act 1994 in New Zealand. In Australia there are
five federal anti-discrimination Acts as well as state-
based legislation. Current legislation is discussed in
more detail in Chapter 2.
Parents, students and policy makers have
all supported the view that attendance at the
neighbourhood school is a valued option that, while
not necessarily mandated, should be available to
all. This means that all teachers can expect their
classes to contain students with diverse abilities,
backgrounds and experiences (see Figure 1.2). As
a result, teachers need to be able to adapt their
classroom organisation, teaching methods and
FIGURE 1.2 All classes contain students with diverse abilities,
approaches to provide for a wide range of individual,
backgrounds and experiences
social and cultural differences in students.

All children can learn

Until about 30 or 40 years ago, it was thought that some children were incapable of learning. As
a result, public school systems in Australia and New Zealand, as elsewhere in the world, provided
programs only for students who were deemed to be ‘able to learn’.

5
PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

Students with an intellectual disability were classified, using deterministic labelling, as

‘educable’, ‘trainable’ or ‘custodial’, depending on their IQ scores (Foreman, 2009). The public
Intellectual disability systems provided programs for those who were ‘educable’ and possibly for those who were judged
to be ‘trainable’. Other students were regarded as medical ‘cases’ and were not usually accepted
in the public education system. Until 1972, principals in some Australian states could refuse to
enrol Indigenous students if there was ‘community objection’ to their enrolment.
Aboriginal and However, since the 1970s there has been widespread acceptance that all children have
Torres Strait Islander capacity to learn, and that all children are entitled to an appropriate publicly funded education
students
program. For students with a disability, these programs were initially provided in separate
schools, especially for students with more severe disabilities. More recently, much education
has occurred in more inclusive settings, including in regular classes, although separate special
schools remain an option in some areas.
This is not to say that the learning that takes place is the same for all students. For some
students with a severe disability, learning to indicate when they are hungry, thirsty or tired, or
to show a preference for one activity over another will have a significant positive effect on the
quality of their lives. It is not typical school learning, but it is still learning, and it can be nurtured
and developed by teachers and other staff in school settings.

Normalisation
normalisation Normalisation has formed the basis of the special education policies of most school systems. It
The concept that all
people, regardless
is a social justice concept based largely on the writings of Bank-Mikkelsen (1969), Wolfensberger
of disability, should (1972, 1980) and Nirje (1970, 1985) and has impacted primarily on the lives of people with a
be able to live a life
that is as normal as
disability. The concept of normalisation embraces the belief that people are entitled to live as
possible for their ‘normal’ as possible a lifestyle in their community. Normal is taken to mean what most other
culture. In education,
the principle of
people in that culture would prefer to do. It can easily be shown that it is not ‘normal’ for most
normalisation people in Western cultures to live in a dormitory and eat in a communal dining room. It is not
suggests that all
children should have
‘normal’ for adults to have little choice about their daily activities or to be prevented from
the opportunity intimate sexual contact. Thus, a residential institution that was influenced by the concept
to attend the local
school.
of normalisation might change its dormitories into one- or two-person bedrooms, provide
opportunities for residents to choose and perhaps cook their own food, select their own clothes
and activities, and interact freely with people of both sexes.
In relation to education, the principle of normalisation suggests that all students should be
able to attend the neighbourhood school, or perhaps attend an independent school, as preferred
by students and their families. Wolfensberger later stated that he considered normalisation
social role theory to have been ‘subsumed by the broader theory of social role valorisation’ (1995, p. 164),
valorisation
A reconceptualisation
which looks at the various ‘social roles’ that people perform; for example, husband, wife, partner,
of normalisation by friend, teacher, colleague, leader. Some social roles are obviously much more highly valued than
Wolf Wolfensberger
that is based on the
others. The way others respond to our social roles affects the way we perceive ourselves.
social role assumed Wolfensberger pointed out that the social roles of people with a disability tend to be poorly
by individuals, and the
value placed on that valued. If people with a disability are to be genuinely included in the community, it is important
role by society. that their social roles are ‘valorised’. This means they need to be given roles and opportunities
that are valued by the rest of the community. For example, street begging is a very poorly
regarded activity in almost every culture, with very low status. As such, it would be contrary
to social role valorisation to have people with a disability raising money for charity by holding
donation boxes in the street.

6
 CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

The least restrictive environment

Another principle underlying the movement into regular schools is that of the least restrictive least restrictive
environment
environment. This is based on the principle that some environments are intrinsically more The opportunity
restrictive than others, and that people’s lives should be restricted to the minimum extent for people with a
disability to live
possible. Probably the most restrictive environment that we can imagine is a jail, yet for many in environments
years, large residential institutions for people with a disability have been even more restrictive that give them the
greatest range of
than some jails. Because of the social changes referred to earlier in this chapter, many people choices; that is, the
with a disability in Western countries who previously lived in an institution now either live fewest restrictions.
with their families, in group homes, other alternative residential situations or independently in
the community. The institutions that continue to operate have generally made a large effort to
provide more choice for their residents, a more normalised lifestyle, and fewer restrictions. Most
people prefer to live in non-restrictive environments.
School systems usually provide a range of classes and schools to cater for students with
additional needs resulting from a disability; and in the past some of these have provided very
restrictive environments. School systems have moved towards improved levels of personal
participation and control for students, and fewer restrictions. Whereas 30 years ago students
with a disability were likely to have been placed in one of the first three settings listed below,
they are now more likely to be in one of the other four settings (Dempsey, 2011). Residential
special schools are now rare, and fewer new separate day schools are being built. The main
growth area for separate special schools is for students with emotional or behavioural disorders
(Dempsey, 2007).
The range of educational settings provided by school systems, from most restrictive (1) to
least restrictive (7) is as follows:
1 residential school for students with a disability residential school
A school that
2 separate special day school includes living or
3 separate special school on regular campus boarding facilities.

4 special unit located in regular school special unit

A group of two or
5 single special class in regular school more special classes
within a regular
6 single special class in regular school, with part-time regular placement school.
7 regular class.
There are many variations in the way students use these settings. Some students attend a
regular class with minimal adjustments by the school, while others need to be provided with
extensive support including building alterations, equipment, full-time or part-time teacher teacher assistant
assistants, or specialist advisory services. Other students enrol part-time in a special class and Person employed
to assist a teacher
part-time in a regular class. The process of deciding the best educational placement for a student in the classroom.
is often complex. Most schools and school systems see this is ultimately as a parental decision, This position is also
known as a teacher’s
based on advice from educational and health-care professionals. Some parents prefer their child aide, school learning
to be in a specialised unit which focuses on their special abilities or disability. They believe that support assistant/
officer, or education
the child will receive more individual attention in a specialised unit, and that the child’s social assistant, but in this
acceptance will be easier in a separate setting. This is a perfectly legitimate view and, as will be book the position is
generally referred to
shown later in this chapter, there is mixed evidence on what is ‘best’ for the student. However, as ‘teacher assistant’.
many parents have a very clear view that they want their child to be in the neighbourhood school
with siblings and other children from the community. Many factors impact on parental choice
(Byrne, 2013) (see Narrative 1.2, below).
A regular class may not always be less restrictive than a special class. For example, if Mia
(see Narrative 1.1, above) was in a school that had very limited wheelchair access, she would

7
PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

be in a more restrictive environment than if she attended a school designed to accommodate

wheelchairs. However, this does not mean that the ideal solution is for Mia to attend a school for
students with physical disabilities, which would be fully wheelchair-accessible. This solution
would impose other restrictions. A better solution is that all schools, like other parts of the
community, should be wheelchair-accessible.
Making a school accessible can be an expensive process. Most school systems design new
buildings to be as accessible as possible, and older school buildings are then adapted for access
according to a timetable, or as the need arises. Often, minor adjustments are all that is needed.
A change in room timetable can mean that a class need not go upstairs or across the playground
after each lesson period. Most students who use wheelchairs are willing to accept some
inconvenience while they wait for ramps to be built or for equipment to be purchased. What
matters most is that there is a welcoming and inclusive atmosphere, and an effort to make things
work for them. They realise that it takes time for ramps to be installed, or for a piece of chair-
lifting equipment to be ordered or transferred from another school. Narrative 1.2 gives a clear
picture of the joys and difficulties of educating a child with disability, even when all are well-
meaning and cooperative.

NARRATIVE
1.2
Christopher’s educational journey
Our son Christopher was born in 1987, the youngest of three
boys. He has Down syndrome, his main difficulty being very
poor speech. He has a lot to say though, and talks confidently
to a large range of people, including on the phone to friends
and family. He loves to speak at public events like weddings
or birthdays. Chris moves in a lot of social and work spheres
and even with limited language skills he knows people by
name, has friendly conversations with them, and is a popular
member of any group. It is not that hard to keep up with the
many topics of his conversation, using a mix of guesswork,
context and knowledge of his life. We have also seen a
society-wide shift in people’s willingness and openness to
engage with communicators like Chris. Communication at all
levels in his life has been a keystone to good outcomes.
We knew when he was born that we would try to give
FIGURE 1.3 Christopher at high school him a life and an education as much like his brothers’
as possible. Now that he is 29, we can look back on the
milestones and bumps along the road. Chris was well
catered for by school and post-school training and education programs because segregated
and isolationist practices were being phased out, and he had mostly happy and socially
inclusive experiences during his education. We were, however, motivated to join advocacy
groups and political campaigns in the ‘90s because change in educational practices and
funding was slow. It was immensely satisfying to see Australia introduce the National Disability
Insurance Scheme (NDIS) in 2012. Chris is now part of this, with his own planner and the means
for us and him to negotiate his future.

8
 CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

Chris’ education and pathway through life can be seen in the context
of his family, school, and societal context, because it is the people
around him who worked together effectively, who helped him achieve
what he has. We can highlight many excellent strategies, initiatives and
programs that have led to his present good adjustment and happy life.
There are clear guidelines here for good educational practice, but some
cautionary tales as well.

Long day care

The staff here modelled good play, cooperation and age-appropriate
expectations for Chris – attitudes that we reminded ourselves and
others about, as it would have been easy to ‘do too much’ for him and
delay his learning. At this stage, the staff made adjustments for him
as needed, and were able to use his desire to join in and belong as a
motivator. They also actively helped other children to understand and
accommodate Chris’ unusual speech and behaviours. We found early FIGURE 1.4 Christopher as an adult
childhood educators, in general, to be open to an inclusive approach,
and we appreciated the staff’s perseverance in working to achieve a
cohesive atmosphere. They always took time to tell us something about
his day that had gone well, so we could talk to him on the way home. We needed to share all we
knew about his learning for our mutual benefit. Chris was very happy at long day care.

Regular preschool
Before he started school, Chris attended a local preschool two days a week, with funding
assistance provided for some of those hours. The staff focused on ready-for-school skills,
particularly writing and drawing and small group work. They used sequenced learning and task
analysis to work with Chris. Belonging to a group of peers without a disability was great modelling
for him, and he looked forward to going each day. Staff here also believed in the benefits of
inclusion. We talked with staff about his progress, and believed he had the basis for fitting into an
inclusive school setting.

Starting school
Based on the psychometric tests that were part of the enrolment procedure in 1992, we were
psychometric
offered a special school for Chris, but asked for, and were allocated, a special class in a regular tests
school in another suburb. We were disappointed all the same, because we hoped for – and Chris Assessments
that measure
and our middle son expected – that he could attend our local school. Communication between mental
preschool, school and placement personnel was nil. states and
processes.
Transition-to-school guidelines were not formalised until 1997 in New South Wales, and Examples are
they are still in development. A NSW Government Standing Committee on Transition in 2012 intelligence
recognised the importance of good planning and practices for all times of change in the lives of and
personality
people with a disability. Yet, there is still no legislation in Australia which would clarify transitions- tests.
related responsibilities of all relevant stakeholders, including development of individual transition
plans (ITPs).
We can vouch for the very different journey that parents embark on when they have a
child with a disability. Starting school is one of the early major hurdles to get through, and the
experience can be traumatic. Having older children may only serve to highlight what a different
world you have entered.
Funding and practice at the time Chris started school was not to the liking of many parents, and
in 1996 we campaigned for change in an election year under the banner ‘Kids Belong Together’.

9
PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

Special class, regular primary school

This was a happy experience for Chris, as the four special classes in the primary school enjoyed
across-the-board acceptance within the school community, and inclusive values were modelled
from the top down. We were invited to school concerts and presentations and saw Chris in
many active roles with children from across the school. Interestingly, when given a choice, Chris
wanted more of the part-time integration at his local school than we managed to have funding
for in Years 1–3. He could not articulate it, but it must have felt right to be at his brother’s
school. His first day in a school uniform had ended in tears when he did not go to the same
school as his brother.

Part-time integration, local primary school

For two mornings a week Chris was able to go to his brother’s school with a funded integration
assistant. He knew enough about maths and calendars to be really excited on those days, and to
ask us hopefully: ‘Three days? Four?’
Teachers at the school had mixed feelings about inclusion, and certainly the funding and
support was in its early days. Chris loved the class format that ran in Years 1 and 2: large-
and small-group instruction, diversity of materials and presentation, and the opportunity to
practise at different levels. He raised his personal goals and persevered to do things such as
copy from the board and read from books like the other children. The mainstream teachers
who taught Chris did so willingly, but made it clear they were trying their best to do something
they weren’t sure about. They talked to us about our expectations, and shared their concerns
as they arose. We appreciated their openness and their breaking of new ground personally and
professionally.
After a couple of years, Chris moved to a very traditional room based on chalk and talk, with
seats to the side for Chris and his teacher assistant. The teacher left the choice of activities to the
assistant, as the gap between Chris’ ability and his peers was widening. There was no sense that
Chris was joining in with the class and he quickly lost his enthusiasm. We realised there were few
opportunities for Chris to feel good about himself, and that he wasn’t part of a cohort who actively
welcomed him and modelled good learning strategies. In the end, he didn’t want to go any more.
Integration at that time was very teacher-dependent, and not seen as a whole-school approach.
Our communication with teachers during these years varied greatly, and was a barometer to Chris’
successful inclusion.

Out of school hours care (OOSH)

Chris was able to go with his brother to the OOSH, until picked up by either parent. This was a
casual and relaxed way for him to play and do directed activities and games with neighbourhood
children. The staff actively taught all children to get along with each other, and taught Chris social
skills without preferential treatment. He went there happily into early high school years, but it
came to a natural conclusion as size and age-appropriateness came into play. Staff attitudes
played a significant part in making this a success. They always let us know of any highlights to
make us smile, or incidents to show that more social learning was necessary. Chris would try
denial as a first defence, but our three-way conversations were productive and timely, and issues
were resolved on the same day.

Special class, regular high school

Chris’ high school was made up of staff who had voted to accept special education classes into the
school. This process is telling, as the implementation of integration has been very dependent on
teacher goodwill more often than practical support.

10
 CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

Staff learned from each other about catering for learning needs that were different to their
usual classes, and they sought advice from special education teachers. Some regular teachers, and
a few kind but gullible canteen helpers, were shown more appropriate ways to work with students
who liked to gain special treatment. Chris was not the only one who scammed food at the canteen
when he had no money, or who was allowed cute but cheeky behaviour.
Students had access to regular classes according to individual education plans, as well as to
TAFE, and were totally integrated in the playground and for sports activities. Mainstream students
also received a great benefit in mixing with students with disabilities and they very quickly
accepted Chris and his peers as part of the school community. The coffee shop run by the special
education classes was a big hit in the school community. Regular students who were disparaging
or thought little of the students with disabilities were counselled, and spent time in the classes as
helpers.
Chris’ program was a mix of individual and group work, with input from us as parents to focus
on things we felt were important for him. He took away many practical skills that he still uses
today, and he can read timetables, calendars, television guides and community signs to a level that
suits him.
Chris’ years in high school were very happy, as acceptance and belonging were part of a
whole-school inclusive philosophy. Staff and student morale was high, and achievements were
celebrated at all levels.

After school
We talked regularly with Chris’ teachers about his transition from school, helped just a little by his
father being on the staff! Chris built up a useful repertoire of social, work and life skills that have
stood him in good stead since. He was ready to leave in Year 12, had a great time at his formal,
and hasn’t looked back.
Chris had a successful transition from school to a program that continued his education and
training. The focus of post-school programs is progress to independence and self-reliance and
Chris embraces that. Using funding from the NDIS he has learned to catch a bus to the program
and back independently, which was a great step. He also progressed from work experience
to paid work in a supported environment – three days per week – so he is a taxpayer in Hi-Vis
gear. It has been very important to Chris and us as his parents to see progress through the
milestones of life, and to become adult and responsible to the best of his ability. Many people
have contributed to that, making Chris a real beneficiary of all the best things about family, our
school system and Australian social programs. Because of NDIS funding, we were able to find just
the accommodation provider we were looking for and transition Chris out of home to full-time
living with three well-suited mates who are house-sharing just like other young men their age. As
parents we are extremely proud of Chris and thrilled to watch him live life as an adult.
SOURCE: Judy and Alex Neilands, parents

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What are Chris’ parents’ hopes for their son at various points in his education? Consider
the extent to which their hopes for their son reflect socially valued roles and experiences.
What examples do they give to suggest that Christopher’s inclusion has been successful?
2. Christopher’s experiences in the ‘traditional room’ in primary school were not very
positive. What went wrong? What could have been done to improve the situation?

11
PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

Age-appropriate behaviour
It is important that all school students have roles that are valued by the school community.
All students need to be able to participate in the school’s day-to-day activities and, wherever
possible, perform roles that are seen by their peers and themselves to be positive and valuable.
The principles of normalisation and social role valorisation suggest that students’ activities
age-appropriate should be appropriate for their age. For example, age-appropriate behaviour means that teenage
behaviour
A behaviour or activity
girls with an intellectual disability should not be given dolls to play with, and teenage boys
that is consistent with should not be doing preschool puzzles or playing with childish toys. These activities are seen as
the behaviours and
activities normally
low status by others, and probably by the students themselves. It is usually possible to substitute
undertaken by same an age-appropriate activity or teaching material for an age-inappropriate activity. As an example,
aged peers. For
example, a young
it is preferable for older students to be given counting practice using age-appropriate objects such
woman playing with as coins rather than using childish objects such as blocks or counters.
a toy doll would
not be displaying The issue of age-appropriateness is relevant to the debate about the optimal way of providing
age-appropriate for the needs of gifted and talented students. Some argue for acceleration; that is, moving
behaviour.
students to a grade where the curriculum is appropriate to their developmental level (e.g. Willis,
2012), while others argue that, for example, to send a 10-year-old student to high school is not
age-appropriate and places the student’s social development at risk. They might argue that it
is better to provide enrichment for students within their regular grade level. Such placement
decisions are complex and depend on many factors related to the students, their families and
their schools.

REFLECT ON THIS

Age-appropriateness says that teenage girls with a disability should not be given dolls to
play with. There is also a contrary argument that people with disabilities should be able to
choose preferred activities, regardless of what others think of them. Which do you think is
the stronger argument?

Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

Universal Design for It is important that the education of all students is grounded in the Universal Design for
Learning (UDL) Learning (UDL) framework, which was developed based on neuroscience and effective teaching
Framework that
highlights three key practice (Woodcock et al., 2013). Universal Design for Learning (UDL) aims to provide a barrier-
education principles: free educational environment, and thus access to learning for all students. Developed by the
(i) engagement
and interaction; Centre for Applied Special Technology (CAST), UDL highlights three key education principles: (i)
(ii) representation; engagement and interaction; (ii) representation; and (iii) action and expression.
and (iii) action and
expression. Its aim is
to provide a barrier-
free educational Multiple means of engagement
environment,
accessible to all
Multiple means of engagement represents the ‘why’ of learning. UDL acknowledges that students
students. vary greatly when it comes to the ways in which they can be motivated to learn. Thus, three
guidelines highlighted under this principle include (i) providing options to support students’ self-
regulation; (ii) providing options for sustained attention and effort; and (iii) understanding and
stimulating students’ interests (Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020).

Multiple means of representation

Multiple means of representation is the ‘what’ of learning. This principle is an acknowledgement
of diversity among students in terms of how they understand the information provided to them.
Some students might prefer or need (e.g., students with visual impairments) auditory means
of learning. Therefore, it is important, that educators provide information in multiple diverse

12
 CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

formats. For example, information can be provided in a format of a textbook chapter, a video,
or a podcast about the topic. This principle also includes providing students with options for
comprehension. This may include activating students’ previous knowledge or demonstrating
how two pieces of information belong together (Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020). Last but not the
least, it is essential to provide students with options for perception. Students with intellectual
disabilities or with a visual impairment might need enlarged text. Students who are blind might
need voiced descriptions of visuals (Mitchell & Sutherland, 2020).

Multiple means of action and expression

Multiple means of action and expression represents the ‘how’ of learning. According to this
principle, students differ greatly in ways which they express what they know. This might be a
question of preference, or a necessity. It is thus essential that teachers provide students with
choice when it comes to the expression of their knowledge and communication. For example,
students can express what they learnt by writing an essay, by making a short YouTube clip,
or a podcast about the topic. It is also important that teachers support the development of
executive functions of their students by, for example, supporting their students in setting goals
and self-monitoring their progress. Allowing students to use technology (assistive technology,
mobile technology, etc.) should be a good practice in twenty-first century classrooms (Mitchell
& Sutherland, 2020). Throughout this book, you will learn how you can incorporate the UDL
principles into your teaching.

1.2 What is a disability?

This text is about well-planned teaching that caters to the individual needs of all students, rather
than about specific disabilities. However, it is useful for teachers to have some knowledge of the
range and level of disabilities they are likely to see in their students. For those who wish to know
more about particular disabilities, more detailed fact sheets on diversity can be found on the
companion website that accompanies this book.
The usual way in which disabilities are classified is as intellectual, physical, or sensory
disabilities, behavioural problems and learning difficulties.
Students with
intellectual disability
Intellectual disability
The term intellectual disability refers to significant difficulties with reasoning, thinking and intellectual disability
problem-solving. The diagnostic term according to the DSM-V (2013) is intellectual developmental Limitation in
intelligence, usually
disorder. Former terms for intellectual disability, no longer used in Australia and New Zealand associated with an
that have also become obsolete elsewhere, are mental retardation, mental deficiency, and intelligence quotient
(IQ) below 70 and
subnormality. For example, after much debate, the American Association on Mental Retardation significant problems
changed its name in 2006 to the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental in adaptive behaviour,
noticeable before the
Disabilities. It is also important to note that there are international differences in terminology. age of 18 years.
While Australia, Canada, USA, and many European countries use the term intellectual disability
(or intellectual disabilities), in the UK the term ‘learning disabilities’ is used.
Identification of intellectual disability is usually based on scores on an individual test of
cognitive ability together with a measure of ‘adaptive behaviour’. Adaptive behaviour is the cognitive ability
child’s everyday functioning compared with other children of the same age (e.g. Can they dress Thinking and
reasoning ability:
themselves? Can they use a mobile phone?). Adaptive functioning is assessed in the following intelligence.
areas: (i) conceptual (e.g., literacy, reasoning, memory), (ii) social (e.g. social relationships,
interpersonal communication), and (iii) practical (money management, self-management)
(DSM-V, 2013). For school-aged children, the individual intelligence tests used most frequently

13
PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

are the Stanford Binet Intelligence Test (5th edition, 2003) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale
for Children (5th edition; WISC-V, 2014). Adaptive behaviour is usually assessed by tests such as
the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales or the Diagnostic Adaptive Behavior Scale.
The average intelligence quotient or IQ score is 100, with a score below 70 indicating a degree
of intellectual disability if it is associated with similar limitations in adaptive behaviour. The
level of intellectual disability is often classified in the following way:
• 55 to 70 IQ: mild intellectual disability
• 30 to 54 IQ: moderate intellectual disability
• below 30 IQ: severe intellectual disability.
For scores below 30 IQ, some people use the term ‘profound’ intellectual disability. However,
this term has become less used in recent years because of the difficulty of assessing IQ levels
below a score of 30, and because of the negative implications of the term. Therefore, the terms
‘multiple severe disabilities’, ‘profound and multiple learning disabilities’, ‘profound intellectual
and multiple disabilities’, or ‘high support needs’ are sometimes used to refer to people who have
a combination of severe physical, intellectual and/or sensory disabilities.
Unfortunately, referring to levels of intellectual disability often translates to language used
in practice, where teachers refer to their students in terms of categories, rather than individual
students. For example, in New South Wales, numerous mainstream schools have special
units (classrooms), which are named after the type and level of disability, such as IM classes
(i.e. classes for students with mild intellectual disability), or for example IO classes (i.e., classes
for students with moderate intellectual disability). School personnel often refer to students
attending these classes as ‘IM student’ or ‘IO students’, which makes the students become part of
‘a category’ rather than a human being (Graham et al., 2020).
The term ‘developmental disabilities’ refers to significant problems in development
occurring during childhood, which may or may not include an intellectual disability. The term
‘developmental delay’ is sometimes used with young children when aspects of their development
are seen to be slow, compared with the development of other children their age. The term is
relatively non-specific, so may be used to include young children who are delayed in physical
development, cognitive development, communication development, social or emotional
development, or adaptive development. The term is useful as it describes the current situation
without making predictions about the future. However, use of the term ‘developmental delay’ is
potentially misleading, as it gives the impression that the child’s disability is temporary, which is
not usually the case. The term is best used only with very young children, usually below the age
of six, before they have been fully diagnosed.

IQ tests
It is important to note that the use of IQ measures to establish ‘abilities’ of people with
intellectual disability has been long contested. As highlighted by Colmar et al. (published in
2006 – yet still true!), ‘despite contrary thinking and evidence, intellectual disability continues
to be measured largely in terms of an IQ-based classification system, as is evident in most
administrative systems’ (p. 180). Some of the issues regarding IQ measures include a variation
between IQ tests (resulting in a situation where 70 on one test would not equate to 70 on another
test), and the fact that most IQ tests were designed for a population of people without disabilities
(Colmar et al., 2006). Colmar et al. conclude that ‘the use of IQ tests as the main means of
assessing intellectual disability is a flawed process, with little in the way of positive outcomes
for the child and family, or for the assessing psychologist’ (p. 185). In other words, it needs to
be remembered that IQ tests (or adaptive skills tests) are simply a measure of performance on a
particular test at a particular time. For example, it would obviously be silly to define someone’s

14
 CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

‘artistic ability’ for life on the basis of their performance in a drawing aptitude test when they
were six or eight years old, but this sort of determinism sometimes happens with intellectual
ability. The results of IQ and adaptive skills tests should never limit teachers’ expectations of
students with intellectual disability.

Physical disability
The term physical disability usually refers to a difficulty in mobility or movement, walking physical disability
Disability in
in particular, but may also refer to a difficulty in the use of the hands or arms. Most physical movement, usually
disabilities are congenital (present at birth). These may include disabilities such as spina bifida, of the lower or upper
limbs.
which is usually obvious at the time of birth and can be detected prenatally, and cerebral palsy,
which is often detected when the young child’s physical skill development starts to appear to be
slow or different. Physical disability can also have a later onset, such as from a car accident or
other injury either directly to the limbs or indirectly to the brain. There are also some physical
Physical disability
disabilities, such as muscular dystrophy which, while present in the genetic structure, are not
apparent in the early years of life.
Some people wrongly assume that a severe physical disability is always associated with
a severe intellectual disability. This happens particularly when the physical disability affects
the person’s speech. We typically judge a person’s intelligence from their speech and language,
and some very intelligent people with cerebral palsy are treated as if they have an intellectual
disability because their speech is slow or indistinct. They may be ignored, or spoken to like a
child. The best policy on meeting a person with a physical disability is to assume that the person
can be spoken to like any other person, until there is good reason to believe otherwise.
Although students with physical disabilities have typically been educated in separate special
schools, they are often the easiest to include in regular classes, from the perspective of teaching
and curriculum. For example, if the student does not have an intellectual disability, the teaching curriculum
program may be exactly the same as that for every other child in the class, once their physical A general term used
to describe a course
needs have been catered for (see the earlier example of Mia in Narrative 1.1). of study that has
been planned with
expected learning
Sensory disability outcomes and which
has a structure of
‘Sensory disability’ is an impairment in vision or hearing. In its most severe form this is blindness learning activities and
evaluation procedures
or deafness. Students with mild vision problems have almost always been catered for in regular (e.g., the K–6 English
classes, sometimes with minor adjustments by teachers, sometimes without any adjustments. curriculum).

Nowadays, students who have very low vision, and even those who are blind, usually attend
regular classes.
Students with very low vision may need specialised lighting and equipment, and the help
of a teacher assistant or a specialist itinerant teacher. Most school systems have procedures for
providing materials in large print or Braille, and computers have hugely increased the access Vision impairment
to a range of resources of students who are blind. Some people who meet the legal definition of
blindness may still have perception of light and colour, and may even have quite good vision
within a very restricted field (e.g. ‘tunnel’ vision).
Hearing impairments cover the range from a mild impairment that is not noticed by others
to profound deafness that affects the quality of speech, or may stop the person from learning
to speak at all. There has been debate about whether students who are deaf should be taught Hearing impairment
through oral methods, or through the use of sign language, or through a combination of methods.
Sometimes students who are taught using sign language will be in a special class because of the
need to have teachers who are expert in sign. Students who speak are more likely to be in regular
classes, particularly as they move into the higher grades. However, in country areas there is often
little choice other than mainstreaming, as sending students to a residential special school is no

15
PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

cochlear implant longer an option. Some regular classes will enrol students who have had a cochlear implant
Electronic device
which allows for (bionic ear). There will almost certainly be expert advice available to help the teacher provide the
receiving sounds from best possible learning environment for a student with a cochlear implant.
a microphone typically
attached to a student’s Profound deafness is rare, so the chance of having a student who uses sign language in a
ear and delivering the regular class is small. If a student who signs is enrolled, the system will usually provide an
sounds electronically
directly to the interpreter, often in the form of a teacher assistant. Some regular teachers have been very
student’s cochlea. innovative and have learned to sign and have taught signing to the rest of the class as a second
language. This greatly enhances communication between students who are deaf and their
classmates, and could provide hearing students with a skill that would be useful if they met other
people who sign. This would be a very good example of inclusion in action!

Behavioural and emotional problems

There is debate about the point at which children’s behaviour and responses to others can be
described as a ‘behavioural problem’ or an ‘emotional problem’, and about whether defiant or
Emotional/ disruptive behaviour is a ‘disability’ or ‘disorder’. All children misbehave at some time. Often
behavioural disorders this is situation-specific. That is, the child behaves well in some situations and poorly in others.
Students who are non-compliant or defiant at school often stand out, because schools require
a large amount of conformity and compliance, and there have always been students in classes
whose behaviour is difficult for teachers. The provision of separate classes or schools for students
with behavioural or emotional difficulties has become an area of growth in some school systems
(Graham, 2009). Ideally, students should learn to interact appropriately and productively in
regular classes, although some students require specialised approaches to behavioural or
Autism
emotional disorders.
These may arise from conditions such as autism or attention deficit disorder, for unknown
reasons, or from abuse and neglect.
Chapter 6 provides information on how to promote positive interactions in the classroom.

Attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder
Learning difficulty
Some children find it very difficult to learn the basic skills of literacy and numeracy. They may
have a general intellectual disability, which affects all areas of their learning; however, some
students who function well in most areas of learning will have difficulties in one area, often
reading. Even students who are identified as gifted and talented can have a learning difficulty.
This is sometimes referred to as a specific learning difficulty.
The term learning difficulty is seen by many as preferable to learning disability, as it is usually
Learning difficulties
assumed that a difficulty can be overcome with assistance, whereas a disability appears to be
less amenable to change. For example, if a person had some problems with learning to drive, he
would probably prefer to be told that he had a ‘driving difficulty’ rather than a ‘driving disability’.
Chapters 9 and 10 contain information about developing literacy and numeracy skills, which are
the main areas of learning difficulty.

REFLECT ON THIS

What conclusions would we come to about the intelligence of persons such as Professor
Stephen Hawking if they had not been provided with a communication system? Imagine
what it would be like to be an intelligent person with a physical disability that prevented
speech.

16
 CHAPTER 1 Introducing inclusion in education

1.3 Other forms of diversity

Apart from students with a disability, most classrooms will have a diversity of students who
require some additional planning or assistance.

Gifted and talented students

Gifted and talented students are not a homogeneous group. Some students are fortunate
enough to be gifted in most areas, including academic, social and sporting. Others have talents
in particular areas and difficulties in other areas, as mentioned above. Some may even have a
diagnosed disability, with such students referred to as ‘twice exceptional’. Depending on their
individual needs, gifted and talented students are likely to benefit from curriculum differentiation
and enrichment programs and/or accelerated learning programs. Some may need counselling or
social support to assist them to participate fully in school programs.
The special class/regular class debate that has taken place about gifted and talented students
is somewhat different from the special/regular debate about students with a disability. In the
case of students with a disability, separate special schools and classes have, for many, been the
only available option. In the case of gifted and talented students, special ‘opportunity’ classes
have been, for some, a desirable and much sought-after alternative. Every year, students actively
seek entry into special classes for students who are gifted, and these classes are perceived as
high-status and prestigious. Gifted and talented students who do not wish to be in a special class,
or do not have the opportunity to attend one, have never been under threat of exclusion from
regular schools because of their giftedness.
An inclusive approach argues that the needs of all students should be catered for, regardless
of their level of ability or disability, or other difference. For that reason, concepts related to
Universal Design for Learning (UDL), curriculum differentiation, individualisation of instruction,
and catering for student needs apply across the range of students, including those who are
gifted and talented. The statement that all students should feel welcomed, valued and included
applies to gifted and talented students, students with a disability, and all other students. Some
students are teased, bullied or isolated because of their giftedness, and some gifted and talented
students are bored in school and uninterested in the standard curriculum. In those cases, teachers
should be trying to make their classrooms more inclusive, both socially and academically, for all
students.

Indigenous students
In both Australia and New Zealand, numerous studies have shown that Indigenous students
achieve below the level of non-Indigenous students in academic areas, particularly literacy
and numeracy and school completion. It has also been shown that, given the right educational Aboriginal and
opportunities, learning outcomes for Indigenous students can be the same as for all other Torres Strait Islander
students
students. Education systems now have well-developed policies and processes for supporting
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and Māori students, and teachers who have such students
in their classes should ensure they seek any specialist support that is available. They should also
use the processes suggested in later chapters of this book to optimise the learning environments
of all students.

Students whose first language is not English Students for

whom English is an
Every class will have in it some students for whom English is an additional language or dialect
additional language
(EAL/D students). Their experiences will range from students who were born overseas and or dialect

17
PART A INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENTS

heard no English until they enrolled in an English-speaking school, to students who were born
in Australia, whose parents are bilingual but have a first language other than English. Some
Indigenous students also have English as an additional language.
In some cases, students will be highly proficient in two or more languages and their EAL/D
background will be an advantage in their education. Other students will require considerable
support. For example, students arriving in Australia or New Zealand from overseas are usually
placed in an age-appropriate grade. This can mean, for example, that a newly-arrived 13-year-
old student is likely to be placed in a secondary school setting even though she may have very
limited English skills and, perhaps, limited prior schooling. Most systems provide intensive
English classes before placing the student in a regular class, but at some stage that student will
become the responsibility of a regular class teacher.
Even those EAL/D students who were born in Australia or New Zealand can have educational
difficulties if English is not the first language in their home. Apart from obvious difficulties in
language, there may be subtler differences related to the way in which their life and cultural
experiences have differed from those of other students in their class.

Students from diverse cultural and social backgrounds

Teachers need to be aware of the diverse cultural and social backgrounds represented in most
twenty-first century classrooms. While some classrooms will be relatively homogeneous, many
Students with diverse will contain students with a huge diversity of life experiences. For example, some students will
cultural, religious start school having been read to since they were a baby; others will come from homes that have
and socioeconomic
no books. Some will be computer-literate in preschool, while others will not have touched a
backgrounds
computer. Some will come from conventional nuclear families while others will have been raised
by a single mother, a single father, two mothers, two fathers, grandparents, or foster parents. All
such variations have potential to impact on classroom learning, and teachers need to be aware
that they are not teaching a ‘class’, but rather a group of individuals with varying needs, abilities,
resources and life experiences. The various chapters in this book are designed to assist teachers to
ensure that learning outcomes are optimal for all students.

1.4 Terminology and concepts related

to inclusion
The words ‘integration’, ‘mainstreaming’ and ‘inclusion’ are sometimes substituted for each
other, as if they all had the same meaning. When applied to education and schooling, all the
terms imply that students with additional educational needs will use similar educational
facilities to those used by most other students. However, there are subtle but important
differences between the meanings of the words, as explained below.

Integration
integration
The term integration Integration is a broad term used to refer to attendance at, or participation in, activities at a
refers to a child’s regular school, or the process of transferring a student to a less-specialised setting. A student
attendance at a
regular school. A who attends a regular school, but is in a separate special unit or class, such as an EAL/D class
student who attends or a class for students with an intellectual disability, is still often said to be ‘integrated’ (e.g.
a regular school,
but is in a separate Chris’ secondary schooling in Narrative 1.2). Although the student is in a special class, the
special unit or class, opportunities to interact with other members of the regular school community are greater than
can still be said to
be integrated. if the student is in a special school. There is also a greater chance that the student will have

18
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
avec soin parce que les breuvages de rêve qu’ils nous offrent sont à
base de morphine.
Autre sentimental, aussi énervé qu’énervant, voici Michelet.
Maurras le définit fort bien :
« Cette brillante intelligence ne se posséda point elle-même. Il
fallait toujours qu’elle pliât sous quelque joug, obéît à quelque
aiguillon. Un esprit pur et libre se décide par des raisons et en
d’autres mots par lui-même ; le sien cédait pour l’ordinaire, à ce
ramassis d’impressions et d’imaginations qui se forment sous
l’influence des nerfs, du sang, du foie et des autres glandes. Ces
humeurs naturelles le menaient comme un alcool. Son procédé le
plus familier consiste à élever jusqu’à la dignité de Dieu chaque
rudiment d’idée générale qui passe à sa portée… Ces divinités
temporaires se succèdent au gré de sa mobilité ; c’est, tour à tour, la
Vie, l’Homme, l’Amour, le Droit, la Justice, le Peuple, la Révolution.
Quelquefois ces abstractions variées se fondent les unes dans les
autres, car Michelet manquait à un rare degré de l’art de distinguer. »
Toutes ces entités, filles d’une métaphysique humanitaire dont on
ne compte plus les méfaits, Maurras remarque qu’elles constituent le
Panthéon de la Démocratie. C’est pour cela que l’État laïque
préconise Michelet comme un éducateur sans pareil. « Partout où il
le peut, sans se mettre dans l’embarras ni causer de plaintes
publiques, l’État introduit Michelet. Voyez, notamment, dans les
écoles primaires, les traités d’histoire de France, les manuels
d’instruction civique et morale, ces petits livres ne respirent que les
« idées » de Michelet… L’État part de cette conjecture ingénue que
l’auteur de la Bible de l’Humanité « émancipe », introduit les jeunes
esprits à la liberté de penser. Michelet s’en vante beaucoup. Mais au
son que rendent chez lui ces vanteries, je crois entendre un vieil
esclave halluciné prendre ses lourdes chaînes pour le myrte
d’Harmodius. »
Ce que Maurras aurait pu ajouter c’est qu’une des raisons qui
font choisir Michelet pour former les intelligences juvéniles, c’est sa
haine invariable de l’Église et de la Royauté.
 Comment ce choix s’accommode-t-il avec la prétendue neutralité
de l’école laïque ? Je crois qu’on embarrasserait quelque peu nos
maîtres provisoires, si on les pressait sur ce point.
En tout cas, l’action de Michelet sur les cervelles sans défense
qu’on lui livre ne peut être que désastreuse. Aussi approuve-t-on
Maurras quand il conclut comme suit :
« Tout ce bouillonnant Michelet, déversé dans des milliers
d’écoles, sur des millions d’écoliers, portera son fruit naturel : il
multiplie, il accumule sur nos têtes les chances de prochain
obscurcissement, les menaces d’orage, de discorde et de confusion.
Si nos fils réussissent à paraître plus sots que nous, plus grossiers,
plus proches voisins de la bête, la dégénérescence trouvera son
excuse dans les leçons qu’on leur fit apprendre de Michelet. »
Cela fut publié en 1898. Constatons, une fois de plus, que
Maurras s’est montré bon prophète.
Maurras écrit, aux premières lignes de son étude sur Sainte-
Beuve, que celui-ci, « sur ses derniers jours, tenait à peu près la
vérité ».
Au point de vue strictement catholique, c’est le contraire qui est
exact. Car Sainte-Beuve ne montra de velléités religieuses qu’à
l’orée de son âge mûr. Mais dès la publication des derniers volumes
de son Port Royal, on s’aperçut qu’il inclinait de plus en plus vers le
matérialisme. Cette disposition alla toujours s’accentuant, et aboutit
à un sensualisme grossier de sorte que son existence terrestre se
conclut par un enterrement civil.
Cette réserve faite, et en souscrivant au dire de Maurras qu’il
« ne brille point par le caractère » et qu’il « laisse assez vite entrevoir
les basses parties de son âme », en ajoutant qu’il fut un ami déloyal,
un détestable poète et un romancier médiocre, on doit reconnaître
que Sainte-Beuve fut, par contre, un critique hors-ligne.
Analyste perspicace, intuitif et grandement doué pour noter les
nuances, il portait sa curiosité sur les intelligences les plus diverses ;
en toutes il savait démêler les traits caractéristiques. Comme le dit
fort bien Maurras : « Qu’il s’agisse de la correspondance d’un préfet,
des écrits de Napoléon ou des recherches sur Le Play (ce Le Play
qu’il appelle un Bonald rajeuni, progressif et scientifique), une
diligente induction permet à Sainte-Beuve d’entrevoir et de dessiner,
entre deux purs constats de fait, la figure d’une vérité générale.
Cette vérité contredit souvent les idées reçues de son temps. »
C’est ainsi qu’il a souvent jugé, avec une clairvoyance totale, la
Révolution et ses apologistes. Et c’est pourquoi je l’ai cité deux fois
au cours du présent volume.
L’homme, cependant, restait révolutionnaire au tréfonds, mais,
relève Nietzsche, « contenu par la crainte ». Ce Germain latinisé a
raison de signaler, en outre, que « ses instincts inférieurs sont
plébéiens, qu’il erre çà et là, raffiné, curieux, aux écoutes » et qu’en
somme, c’est un être de complexion presque féminine.
Cela est vrai, répond Maurras, « mais à cette sensibilité
anarchique s’alliait l’esprit le plus sain et le plus organique. C’était un
esprit, c’était une raison… La révolution est toujours un soulèvement
de l’humeur. Toutes les fois qu’intervint son intelligence, Sainte-
Beuve étouffa ce soulèvement : si bien que c’est peut-être dans la
suite de ses études que se rencontreraient les premiers indices de la
résistance aux idées de 1789. »
Maurras, en conclusion, tire de ses observations sur Sainte-
Beuve une théorie de l’empirisme organisateur qui appelle, à mon
avis, autant d’objections que d’approbations partielles. Mais ce n’est
point le lieu de développer les unes ni les autres.
Disons simplement, et en résumé, que, dans ses Trois idées
politiques, Maurras a lucidement démontré que Chateaubriand fut un
anarchiste par orgueil, Michelet un anarchiste par détraquement
nerveux, Sainte-Beuve, un être mi-parti dont l’anarchisme foncier fut
contrebalancé par une raison classique. Les deux premiers sont à
écarter d’un plan de reconstruction sociale. Chez le troisième, on
découvre quelques matériaux utilisables.
 Un des plus grands services que Maurras ait rendu à notre pays,
c’est l’institution de cette Enquête sur la Monarchie (1900-1909),
dont je vais maintenant dire quelques mots.
Présenter, sous son vrai jour, la Monarchie légitime, niveler la
montagne de préjugés et d’ignorances qui en séparaient, depuis
plus d’un siècle, nombre d’esprits plus ou moins formés à l’école de
la Révolution, c’était une besogne ardue. Maurras n’hésita pas à
l’entreprendre. Et, tant par la qualité des témoignages qu’il réunit
que par les commentaires vivants, pressants, dont il les
accompagna, il produisit un effet de lumière dont il faut lui savoir un
gré extrême.
Ce n’est point ici un de ces recueils où s’entassent les
investigations réunies, avec négligence, par un journaliste hâtif.
Cette enquête, une en sa conception, réfléchie et mûrie à loisir,
intéresse autant que le ferait une œuvre d’imagination bien
ordonnée.
Sans l’analyser dans le détail, — ce qui demanderait un volume
— j’en veux extraire quelques-uns des arguments les plus décisifs ;
je les choisirai aussi bien chez les correspondants de Maurras que
chez lui-même. Et, de préférence, je citerai ceux qui impliquent de la
façon la plus décisive la critique du régime actuel.
Parlant de la centralisation excessive, œuvre des Jacobins,
aggravée par Napoléon et qui étouffa la vie des provinces au
bénéfice de la capitale, si bien que Taine a pu comparer le système
actuel à un hydrocéphale dont la tête énorme pèse sur un corps
atrophié, le comte de Lur-Saluces dit :
« Tantôt sous prétexte de sauvegarder la liberté, tantôt sous celui
de rendre au pays l’ordre et la sécurité, on n’a jamais cherché qu’à
compliquer, d’une façon plus ou moins habile, les rouages du
pouvoir central, soit qu’on voulût gêner son action, soit, au contraire,
qu’on cherchât à la rendre plus puissante. C’est ainsi que, dans un
état de perpétuelle instabilité, on n’a pas cessé d’osciller entre
l’anarchie et la tyrannie. On n’a pas compris qu’il s’agissait moins de
déployer les talents du subtil horloger dans la confection du
mécanisme de ce pouvoir central que de le décharger du poids
formidable des responsabilités qu’il restait seul à porter et sous
lesquelles il finissait toujours par succomber.
« On n’a pas vu qu’il fallait lui laisser la part qui devait lui revenir
et répartir le reste sur d’autres épaules. Il faut bien le remarquer : la
durée de l’ancien régime était due à la décentralisation : la féodalité,
les communes ensuite, puis les corporations religieuses, ouvrières et
autres, les universités, les parlements étaient autant d’organismes
qui s’interposaient entre le pouvoir central et l’individu et prenaient
leur part de responsabilité et de liberté. On dira, peut-être, que je
demande à revenir à cet ordre de choses aujourd’hui disparu. Il faut
aller au-devant des objections les plus saugrenues. Sans doute les
anciennes institutions ont eu jadis leur raison d’être ; elles ont jadis
joué un rôle utile parce qu’elles correspondaient aux conditions
d’existence sociale, aux idées et aux besoins de leur temps. Mais
parce qu’une chose a bien fonctionné jadis, ce n’est pas une raison
pour vouloir la rétablir. » Il faut donc « à la place des anciens
organismes qui permettaient la décentralisation, en laisser se former
d’autres appropriés aux besoins actuels et qui la permettront à leur
tour ». Ce sera la tâche de la Monarchie qui, seule, peut la mener à
bien.
Voici maintenant une constatation profonde de M. Paul Bourget.
Je prie qu’on la médite, car elle est des plus essentielles à retenir
pour ceux qui, las de l’aberration démocratique, cherchent à se
former une conviction d’après des données positives :
« Votre enquête, c’est une démonstration après tant d’autres de
cette vérité : la solution monarchique est la seule qui soit conforme
aux enseignements les plus récents de la science. Il est bien
remarquable, en effet, que toutes les hypothèses sur lesquelles s’est
faite la Révolution se trouvent absolument contraires aux conditions
que notre philosophie de la nature, appuyée sur l’expérience, nous
indique aujourd’hui comme les lois les plus probables de la santé
politique. Pour ne citer que quelques exemples de première
évidence : la science nous donne, comme une des lois les plus
constamment vérifiées, que tous les développements de la vie se
font par continuité. Appliquant ce principe au corps social, on
trouvera qu’il est exactement l’inverse de cette loi du nombre, de
cette souveraineté du peuple qui place l’origine du pouvoir dans la
majorité actuelle et, par suite, interdit au pays toute activité
prolongée. Que dit encore la science ? Qu’une autre loi du
développement de la vie est la sélection, c’est-à-dire l’hérédité fixée.
Quoi de plus contraire à ce principe, dans l’ordre social, que
l’égalité ? Que dit encore la science ? Qu’un des facteurs les plus
puissants de la personnalité humaine est la Race, cette énergie
accumulée par nos ancêtres… Rien de plus contraire à ce principe
que cette formule des Droits de l’Homme qui pose, comme donnée
première du problème gouvernemental, l’homme en soi, c’est-à-dire
la plus vide, la plus irréelle des abstractions. On continuerait
aisément cette revue et l’on démontrerait sans peine que l’Idéal
démocratique n’est, dans son ensemble et dans son détail, qu’un
résumé d’erreurs tout aussi grossières. Que l’on essaie la même
critique sur la formule monarchique. Que trouve-t-on ? Pour nous en
tenir aux trois points indiqués tout à l’heure, qu’est-ce que la
permanence de l’autorité royale dans une même famille sinon la
continuité assurée. Qu’est-ce que la noblesse ouverte — elle le fut
toujours — l’aristocratie recrutée, sinon la sélection organisée.
Qu’est-ce que l’appel à la tradition, sinon l’appel à la Race. Et ainsi
du reste…
« Nous voyons grandir autour de nous une génération instruite
par l’histoire et qui va chercher la vitalité nationale où elle est : dans
la plus profonde France. Cette génération doit nécessairement
aboutir à ce que vous avez appelé d’un terme si juste, le
Nationalisme intégral, c’est-à-dire à la Monarchie. »
Commentant, avec approbation, cette lettre si substantielle,
Maurras conclut :
« M. Paul Bourget, dans son roman, le Luxe des autres, s’est fort
curieusement occupé de compter les nombreux étages que
comporte un petit groupe de la bourgeoisie parisienne. Il sait mieux
que personne que la démocratie n’est qu’un mot vénéneux
représenté par un système politique contre-nature. Ce système
politique, voilà l’ennemi. Assurément la République en est la plus
visible conséquence. Mais, si l’on respectait la démocratie, on
laisserait subsister les ruines du sentiment républicain. La
République ne tarderait pas à reparaître et la force française à fléchir
et à s’épuiser. La démocratie, c’est le mal. La démocratie, c’est la
mort. Il appartenait à un maître de la science politique de nous
prémunir contre toute complaisance de ce côté… » [22]
[22] En développement de la lettre de M. Bourget, on
lira, avec fruit, ses Pages et Nouvelles pages de critique
et de doctrine, 4 vol., chez Plon.

La plus profondément réfléchie, la plus nourrie de faits de toutes

les lettres que Maurras reçut en réponse à son Enquête, je crois
bien que c’est celle d’Amouretti. Elle rappelle, d’abord, sous une
forme concentrée, les caractères principaux de la Monarchie jusqu’à
la Révolution. Elle examine ensuite la décadence du personnel
gouvernemental sous la démocratie. Enfin elle oppose, en réaction
contre les faux principes sur lesquels celle-ci se base, la famille à
l’individu. Et pour la sauvegarde de la famille, cellule sociale, elle
préconise la Monarchie.
Voici quelques passages particulièrement suggestifs de cette
lettre.
Après avoir souligné qu’en République « les honnêtes et les
intelligents sont paralysés par les institutions », Amouretti continue :
« Mais beaucoup d’entre nos gouvernants actuels sont d’une
médiocrité trop basse ; cela est dû à l’introduction continue et
croissante, pendant un siècle, des procédés démocratiques pour le
choix des politiciens et des administrateurs. De l’Empire à la
Restauration, puis au gouvernement de Juillet, puis au second
Empire, puis à notre République, la dégression constante est
marquée. Cela tient uniquement au mode de recrutement des
autorités chargées de conduire la Nation.
« Il faut donc changer ce mode et se dire que le système qui
consiste à procéder brusquement par une élection ou un concours à
une sélection purement individuelle des capacités est absolument
insuffisante et qu’il faut y substituer une sélection familiale et
héréditaire. Des individus puissants, sortis de souches paysannes
ou ouvrières, sont trop souvent arrêtés dans leur expansion par des
politiciens bavards ou des lauréats de concours. Pour qu’un homme
mérite de passer dans une classe supérieure, il faut qu’il soit de taille
à y entraîner, avec lui, toute sa famille. S’il monte seul, c’est une
bulle gonflée. Je ne redoute rien pour le bien de l’État, de ces
ascensions familiales ; elles sont utiles, elles sont nécessaires ; elles
donnent du lest et de la stabilité… C’est sur un de ces hommes, dont
je parlais plus haut (ceux sortis de souches paysannes ou ouvrières)
qu’il faut compter pour rétablir en France cette Monarchie très forte,
mais tempérée, qui a fait la force de notre pays. Depuis que la
France l’a perdue, malgré des accès passagers de relèvement et de
gloire, elle est tombée en décadence. C’est ce que commencent à
comprendre ces jeunes gens de haute intelligence qui s’aperçoivent
enfin qu’on les a trompés, qu’on leur a présenté des mots vides de
sens et non des principes solides, sous le nom pompeux de
Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen. Je me rappellerai
toujours l’expressive mimique de M. Paul Bourget à la première
maxime de cette déclaration : « Les hommes naissent libres. » A
l’âge d’une minute ils sont libres ; c’est à cette conclusion absurde
qu’on arrive !
« Pendant tout ce siècle, des hommes qui vont de Joseph de
Maistre à Taine, en passant par Le Play et Fustel de Coulanges ont
maintenu les droits de l’autorité associés à ceux de la tradition
historique. Leurs doctrines puissantes et précises ont lentement et
profondément pénétré dans l’âme et le cœur des jeunes générations
intelligentes. Parvenus au sang généreux, jeunes lettrés affinés et
fermes, ce sont eux qui reconstitueront la monarchie tempérée,
historique en l’adaptant aux conditions nouvelles…
« Seule, en effet, la monarchie tempérée peut donner à la France
la sécurité par l’armée, la réputation par la diplomatie, la prospérité
par la paix économique et la reprise de la conscience nationale par
la mise en valeur de toutes les énergies locales. »
 Pour terminer, Amouretti, en un raccourci émouvant, expose les
conditions dans lesquelles se pose le problème de la Renaissance
française :
« Je dis à la nation :
« Citoyens, on nous a raconté que nos rois étaient des monstres.
Il y eut parmi eux, il est vrai, des hommes faibles, peu intelligents,
plusieurs médiocres, et peut-être deux ou trois méchants. Il y en a
peu qui fussent des hommes remarquables. La plupart furent des
hommes d’intelligence moyenne et consciencieux. Regardez leur
œuvre : c’est la France.
« Et je dis au Roi :
« Roi, mon maître, parmi la série de vos ancêtres, ne regardez ni
Saint-Louis, ni Henri IV, ni Louis XIV. Regardez le bon roi Louis VI. Il
abattit les barons brigands, il transforma les bons barons en prévôts
qui protégeaient sérieusement le petit peuple de France, paysans et
artisans, et il donna aux bourgeois des libertés sérieuses et
étendues mais précises et réglées. Ce fut la besogne indispensable ;
elle rendit possible les gloires séculaires. »
Naturellement, parmi toutes les personnalités interrogées par
Maurras, il y en eut qui firent des objections à la Monarchie telle qu’il
la leur proposait. Mais, chose qu’il importe de signaler, chez la
plupart, ces difficultés portaient plutôt sur le mode d’application au
temps présent du principe que sur le principe lui-même. Ainsi firent
Henri Vaugeois, Lionel des Rieux, Léon de Montesquiou. Ces deux
derniers sont morts sur le champ de bataille pendant la grande
guerre.
Montesquiou disait à Maurras que plus de cent ans de
démocratie avaient formé dans un grand nombre d’esprits un
sentiment politique inconscient qui repousse la Monarchie, « la
pressentant incompatible avec tous ces principes dont il est pétri et
formé, principes de liberté, d’égalité, etc. »
Il ajoutait : « Vous nous démontrez que ce sentiment est faux et
absurde, car ces principes, entendus d’une manière absolue, sont
des principes de mort ou entendus relativement, sont plus
sauvegardés par la Monarchie que par nul autre gouvernement.
Votre démonstration va jusqu’à notre cerveau, mais s’arrête là. »
Insistant fort sur cette sensibilité républicaine, la déplorant
d’ailleurs mais la tenant pour très solide, il concluait : « En résumé,
je crois qu’il n’y a plus dans le pays de foi monarchique, et je crois
que pour faire revivre cette foi, il faudrait un long temps et que, sans
elle, pourtant, la Monarchie n’est pas possible. Or, c’est d’une façon
immédiate qu’il nous faut agir, car le danger (que la République fait
courir aux destinées de la Patrie) est pressant. Et pour agir
immédiatement, nous n’avons qu’une seule chose : la foi que
j’appellerai républicaine, quoique le mot soit impropre, puisque cette
foi nous fait incliner aussi bien vers le césarisme que vers la
République. »
A quoi Maurras lui répondit en substance : « Est-ce à
l’inconscient de conduire le conscient ? Au membre aveugle de régir
l’organe voyant ? A l’instinct de dicter les décisions de l’intelligence ?
On prête, je le sais, à ceux qui posent ainsi la question, une sorte
d’insensibilité contre nature et la méconnaissance des forces de
l’instinct, de l’humeur et de l’animalité dans l’homme. La vérité est
qu’ils ne méconnaissent rien du tout. Ils savent que toute force est
inconsciente, mais ils n’ignorent pas que, dans l’ordre humain, la
direction de ces forces appartient à la pensée et à la raison et que,
faute de direction, elles se gaspillent par leur propre calamité. »
Il faisait ensuite remarquer qu’il y avait, d’après l’aveu même de
Montesquiou, un danger pressant dans la prolongation de la
démocratie parlementaire. Dès lors il était illogique de chercher les
éléments du salut de la France dans une acceptation, même
provisoire, des faux principes qui la mènent à sa perte.
Il terminait par une image très juste : « On a vu des enfants faire
des pâtés dans le sable : ils veulent arrêter la mer. On leur dit qu’il
faudrait une digue pour cela. Ils en conviennent et poursuivent
l’édifice de leurs pâtés. »
Lionel des Rieux imaginait un dialogue entre un « jeune
nationaliste » et lui. Il ressortait de cette conversation que son
interlocuteur, en reconnaissant la solidité des arguments apportés
par Maurras à l’appui de la solution monarchique, hésitait à prendre
son parti. Au fond, il reconnaissait formellement la nécessité de
« faire quelque chose » pour guérir la France de la démocratie, mais
le choix du médecin lui importait moins. On lui disait que le médecin
c’est le Roi, mais ce pourrait être aussi un Bonaparte ou même un
dictateur attaché au régime républicain.
« — Un malade, disait-il, ignore le plus souvent quel médecin,
dans un judicieux traité, a, pour la première fois, décrit ses maux et
le remède. Son exclusive reconnaissance va à celui qui, instruit de
ces théories salutaires, sait en faire une prompte, une pertinente
application et le sauve ainsi de la mort.
« — Soit, dis-je. Mais si vous aimez la France, votre devoir est
d’amener ce sauveur à son chevet. Et où irez-vous frapper d’abord ?
Chez un docteur quelconque qui, peut-être, ignorera ce traitement
que vous tenez pour le seul salutaire, ou bien irez-vous chez celui
qui ne saurait l’ignorer, chez son auteur ? (C’est-à-dire chez le Roi.)
« — J’irai d’abord chez celui-ci ; mais s’il tardait trop à se rendre
à mon appel, je m’adresserais à tout autre. »
Des Rieux ajoutait : « Voilà, mon cher ami, la conclusion de ce
nationaliste. Il admet maintenant, avec nous, qu’une République,
dans la hiérarchie des gouvernements, est au même degré que
l’embranchement des protozoaires dans la série animale. Il
reconnaît qu’il faut à la France une volonté souveraine et héréditaire,
c’est-à-dire une Monarchie. Mais il s’intéresse aux bienfaits de ce
régime plutôt qu’à la personne de qui il les tiendrait. »
Maurras répondit que le bien de la France exigeait une
décentralisation et qu’un dictateur républicain ne pouvait la réaliser ;
aucun pouvoir issu de la République n’en était capable, « car, émané
de l’élection, il a besoin de tous les moyens de la centralisation pour
se conserver, autrement dit pour se faire réélire. »
Quant à l’Empire, « à la rigueur un Bonaparte pourrait vouloir ce
que veut le duc d’Orléans… Mais comme il y a une tradition royaliste
s’imposant et gouvernant toutes volontés, il y a une tradition
impérialiste. Elle est directement opposée à notre tradition
décentralisatrice : tous les bonapartistes sérieux en tombent
d’accord… Elle exprime une série d’actes d’autorité et de coups
d’État destinés à réagir contre les effets mais nullement contre les
causes de l’anarchie. Ces causes, l’Empire les maintient et les flatte.
Il s’en prévaut et en tire une force précaire. »
Pour le duc d’Orléans, « par le tour de ses lettres et la direction
de toute sa politique, il s’annonce aussi peu parlementaire qu’Henri
IV. De même que son père, il voit dans le parlementarisme un
régime où les questions de personnes viennent entraver les
meilleures mesures, paralyser la politique la plus utile au pays et
sacrifier l’intérêt général à des considérations particulières ».
Maurras donnait ensuite cet avertissement : « A force de se
déclarer indifférent (sur la forme du gouvernement), on finit par se
croire tel et le devenir. A force de dire qu’on n’a pas de préférences,
on laissera aux ennemis de tout ordre politique comme aux ennemis
de tout avenir français le privilège de l’activité et du succès. »
Puis il concluait : « Vous n’avez point le choix des
gouvernements bienfaisants et réparateurs. Les circonstances
parlent, il n’y en a qu’un seul.
« Puisque vous rêvez d’aller chez le Prince, allez-y donc tout
droit. Si vous voulez qu’il vous réponde, commencez par le
commencement : Appelez ! »
Vaugeois donnait toutes les raisons possibles contre le maintien
de la République ou l’adoption du Césarisme. Mais il craignait que
les esprits droits qui s’orientaient vers la Monarchie ne fussent
réduits à l’impuissance par la ploutocratie financière et les politiciens
d’aventure qui bénéficient du régime démocratique — ceux-ci, du
reste, se plaçant fort souvent au service de ceux-là.
Voici l’un des passages les plus caractéristiques de sa lettre :
« Hommes d’action, hommes de pensée ! Les voyez-vous tous ?
— Des premiers ne parlons point. Ils cuisinent leurs élections et
n’ont de passion, d’élan que contre les curés. Mais les penseurs ?
Vous savez bien que la multiplication absurde des livres et faiseurs
de livres a créé des mœurs telles que les esprits entiers et probes,
les non-boiteux qui, probablement, naissent aussi nombreux de nos
jours qu’il y a cent ans, ont toutes chances d’être noyés. Il en est
résulté que, au XIXe siècle, sauf de rares bonnes rencontres, la
notoriété est allée à peu près toujours à des talents mais non à des
êtres nés pour conduire et éclairer les autres. A qui donc aujourd’hui,
précisément, pouvons-nous demander de réveiller, d’attaquer et de
dompter l’opinion française ?
« Je ne vous parlerai pas enfin de la force matérielle du monde
présent : l’Argent, qui est aux internationalistes et qui, circulant,
détruit de plus en plus les frontières, les patries, les civilisations
locales naturelles, délicates, vivantes — qui tue l’art au profit du
confortable le plus morne et remplace les palais par des hôtels. Je
ne vous parlerai pas non plus de l’autre force immatérielle :
l’imagination qui dévie, se traîne dans le même sens vers le
collectivisme et son horreur. Je vous rappellerai simplement que les
Français les plus passionnés pour la politique aujourd’hui, c’est-à-
dire les démocrates, sont les adorateurs d’une sorte de révélation
nouvelle, et qu’ils la défendront contre nous avec une frénésie
aveugle ; la lutte devra peut-être devenir sanglante contre ces fous…
Que faire ? »
Certes, à l’époque où Vaugeois écrivait ces lignes découragées,
le tableau ne manquait pas d’exactitude. Il montre surtout les
obstacles que Maurras rencontra au début de sa propagande. Mais
sa raison, appuyée sur l’expérience, disposait d’une volonté trop
forte pour se rebuter facilement.
Que faire ? répondit-il à Vaugeois. Prouver que le mouvement
existe en marchant. « On refait la France comme on peut. Je suis
seulement convaincu que toute tentative dans l’ordre politique sera
consécutive à l’organisation d’un pouvoir spirituel monarchique.
Constituer cette très haute autorité scientifique, en rassembler les
éléments, les proposer à tous les Français réfléchis, voilà quelle est
ma tâche et voilà quelle devrait être la vôtre. »
 Sur l’influence du véritable « chef » qu’est Maurras, Vaugeois ne
tarda pas à comprendre que là, en effet, se trouvait sa tâche. Infusé
d’énergie nouvelle, il se mit à l’œuvre à côté de Maurras. Dès 1901,
il menait le bon combat à l’Action française revue. Puis il devint
rédacteur en chef de l’Action française-Journal. Et c’est à ce poste
d’honneur et de risque qu’il est mort il y a trois ans.
A l’appel de Maurras, Montesquiou répondit bientôt également.
L’enquête avait paru en 1900. Dès le mois d’août 1901, il publia un
livre : Le Salut public, résumant trois années de tâtonnement et où il
ne donnait pas encore de conclusions, mais il les fournit, peu après,
en ces termes, dans une lettre adressée à Maurras : « La volonté de
conserver la patrie française une fois posée comme postulat, tout se
déduit d’un mouvement irrésistible. La fantaisie, le choix lui-même
n’y ont aucune part. Si vous avez résolu d’être patriote, vous serez
obligatoirement royaliste. Il manque à mes articles une conclusion.
C’est que j’étais dans l’impuissance de leur en donner une, me
refusant à me soumettre aux lois de la raison. A présent, je m’y
soumets en reconnaissant que dès lors que j’avais en vue le salut
public et rien que le salut public, je ne pouvais conclure autrement
que par la monarchie. »
De même encore, Lionel des Rieux ; après avoir beaucoup
réfléchi, hésité aussi, vaincu par la logique irrésistible de Maurras, il
lui écrivait en 1908 : « Je n’avais plus, pour être tout à fait de votre
opinion, qu’un pas à faire. Il est fait. »
Telle est l’attirance de la sagesse politique si bien représentée
par Maurras que, depuis, nombre de patriotes ont répondu à son
appel ; et c’est pourquoi l’on peut dire, sans exagérations, que
l’Action française réunit aujourd’hui une grande partie de l’élite des
intelligences dans notre pays.
Une intelligence pourtant, et des plus accomplies, celle de M.
Maurice Barrès, continue de se tenir à l’écart. Il avait répondu à
l’Enquête de façon à bien poser qu’il s’en tenait au régime électoral.
Ce n’est pas qu’il méconnaissait la nécessité d’un chef. Mais, pour
lui, ce devait être un dictateur désigné par le suffrage universel.
 « Je comprends bien, disait-il, qu’une intelligence, jugeant in
abstracto, adopte le système monarchique qui a constitué le
territoire français et que justifient encore, tout près de nous, les
Bonald, les Balzac, les Leplay, les Bourget. De telles adhésions sont
d’un grand poids dans le cabinet du théoricien ; mais dans l’ordre
des faits, pour que la monarchie vaille, il faudrait qu’il se trouvât en
France une famille ralliant, sur son nom, la majorité (sinon la totalité)
des électeurs. »
Et plus loin : « Je ne date pas d’un siècle l’histoire de France,
mais je ne puis non plus méconnaître ses périodes les plus
récentes. Elles ont disposé nos concitoyens de telle sorte qu’ils
réservent pour le principe républicain ces puissances de sentiment
que d’autres nations accordent au principe d’hérédité et sans
lesquelles un gouvernement ne peut subsister. »
Et il formulait ainsi son programme : « Au sommet de l’État
l’autorité, sur le sol ou dans les groupes, la décentralisation, voilà
des réformes que permet le système républicain et qui assureraient
le développement des forces françaises aujourd’hui gravement
anémiées. »
Maurras lui répondit fort judicieusement : « M. Barrès admet donc
les libertés locales et professionnelles et, dans l’État, une autorité
forte. Ces deux sentiments sont précieux. Le second correspond à
un sentiment général ; s’il est vrai que la centralisation n’est sentie
dans la masse qu’à la façon d’un malaise indéfini, cette même
masse du peuple sent avec netteté et réclame avec passion
l’autorité et la responsabilité du pouvoir. Elle veut être gouvernée, la
faiblesse de la nation étant une suite, non seulement directe, mais
tout à fait évidente de l’anarchie politique.
« Barrès et avec lui toute la masse du peuple français vont plus
loin encore. Ils constatent que dans le péril, tout au moins, le
gouvernement le plus fort est celui d’un seul. Ce gouvernement d’un
seul est alors de droit, concluent-ils. Cette autorité d’un seul et qui
seule peut faire le salut public, il l’appelait « la dictature ». Ils
pourraient l’appeler également la Monarchie. »
 Maurras démontrait ensuite ce qu’aurait de précaire une dictature
dépendant toujours des caprices de la majorité. « Il n’y a pas, disait-
il, dans l’histoire, d’exemple d’une initiative heureuse (j’entends
positive et créatrice non destructive ni purement défensive) qui ait
été prise par des majorités. Le procédé normal de tous les progrès
est bien le contraire. La volonté, la décision, l’entreprise sortent du
petit nombre, l’acceptation, l’assentiment de la majorité. C’est aux
minorités qu’appartiennent la vertu, l’audace, la puissance et la
conception. Habituellement inerte, indifférente et torpide, la majorité
est sujette, il est vrai, à des paniques dont les effets immédiats sont
parfois bienfaisants, mais d’une bienfaisance invariablement stérile
si elle n’est accompagnée d’une impulsion de l’élite. »
Ce passage de la réponse de Maurras me semble capital. Il
suffit, en effet, d’avoir vécu et observé pour constater que la majorité
va presque toujours à la force, ou à ce qui lui paraît tel, par une sorte
d’instinct conservateur. C’est pourquoi, en temps de suffrage
universel, il faut qu’un gouvernement soit bien maladroit pour ne pas
tirer d’elle des élections conformes à ses désirs. Parfois, la majorité
regimbera un peu, mais elle ne tardera pas à obéir à l’impulsion de
la minorité qui détient le pouvoir. C’est ce qui explique que l’équipe
républicaine ait réussi pendant des années à perpétuer sa
malfaisance — non qu’elle constituât une élite, il s’en faut, mais
parce que ses intrigues lui assuraient le pouvoir.
« Nous n’avons donc pas, ajoutait Maurras, à nous soucier de
rallier les majorités. De toutes façons, elles se rallieront d’elles-
mêmes. Deux cas me paraissent possibles. Ou les fléaux naturels
qui sont menaçants vont disposer automatiquement, comme en
1849 et en 1871, la majorité nationale à former le souhait d’une
Restauration ; ou notre propagande devançant les malheurs publics,
une élite s’étant déclarée pour la monarchie, une sage et savante
minorité faisant sentir dans les hauts lieux son influence directrice,
quelque coup d’État militaire renversera la République et refera la
Monarchie.
« Dans ce premier cas, le ralliement de la majorité se trouve
accompli par définition.
 « Dans le second cas, ce ralliement s’impose au moyen de la
force appuyée par la persuasion : le pouvoir spirituel de l’élite
devenue royaliste, l’autorité des personnes qui la composent,
l’influence intrinsèque d’une conception vraie viendront justifier,
après l’avoir provoqué, le déploiement du bras séculier en faveur de
la royauté. »
Conclusion de Maurras à laquelle on souscrit de grand cœur :
« Les majorités sont toujours en faveur du gouvernement établi dès
qu’il assure l’ordre et se fait respecter. Ce dernier point sera l’affaire
de Monsieur le duc d’Orléans.
« — Sur quoi s’appuiera-t-il ? demande M. Barrès.
« Il s’appuiera nécessairement sur l’armée et cela suffit bien. »
Maurras, en s’exprimant de la sorte, suivait la raison. Mais M.
Barrès se réclamait trop de ces puissances de sentiment dont il
parle dans sa lettre pour se rendre. C’est le sentiment, en effet, qui
le détermine avant tout, comme il est facile de s’en apercevoir quand
on relit son œuvre entière. Ah ! qu’il a dit vrai celui qui le définissait
« le dernier romantique ! »
Et n’est-ce pas le sentiment qui lui fit commettre l’étrange
méprise de choisir pour la reconstitution de la France « dissociée et
décérébrée » ce fantassin troubadouresque fourvoyé dans la
politique : Boulanger ?
N’est-ce pas l’abus du sentiment, le désir d’en multiplier en lui les
excitations qui auparavant lui fit instaurer ce « culte du Moi » par où
tant d’âmes, trop dociles à ses leçons, s’énervèrent d’une façon
irrémédiable ?
C’est à coup sûr le sentiment qui lui fit jadis emprunter les
méthodes d’oraison d’un Saint et ce qu’il y a de plus vénérable dans
les rites du catholicisme pour les appliquer sacrilègement aux
effusions solitaires du Narcisse de décadence qu’il était alors.
Et c’est encore le sentiment aggravé de sensualité trouble et de
religiosité malsaine qui lui fit écrire ce Jardin sur l’Oronte, qu’il
s’étonne de voir réprouvé par les plus vigilants d’entre les
catholiques.
 En contraste, M. Barrès, quand il raisonne, produit de beaux
livres, comme les Déracinés l’Appel au soldat, leurs Figures.
Critiques superbes du régime, dont pourtant il adopte certaines
erreurs, ils serviront toujours de références à ceux qui s’appliquent à
le détruire. Mais ils manquent de conclusion logique. Cette
conclusion, M. Barrès ne sut pas la saisir. Et c’est pourquoi il n’est
pas venu à la Monarchie.

L’Enquête de Maurras constitue la plus substantielle des

introductions à la doctrine monarchiste. Les principes qu’il posait ont
été sanctionnés par l’expérience de ces dernières années. Aussi a-t-
il le droit de dire dans sa conclusion :
« Dès 1899, sachant bien ce que nous voulions et où nous
allions, notre objectif était fixé. Nous lui avons été fidèles. Et par une
juste réciprocité, les confirmations de l’événement ne nous ont pas
manqué. Elles se sont produites telles qu’on les avait prévues et
nommées, comme si elles avaient été à notre service. Elles sont au
service de la vérité que nous débrouillons. Le jeu des effets et des
causes a fini par produire une situation tellement inquiétante que
beaucoup de Français, de toutes conditions, commencent à appeler
le mal par son vrai nom. Ils disent république et démocratie. Mais
pour renoncer aux éléments destructeurs, les désillusionnés veulent
qu’on leur présente un plan de reconstruction. Comme on vient de le
constater, ce plan est inscrit dans la forme même des doléances
nationales, dans la structure même du pays et de la nation. Il suffit
de les analyser de bonne foi. C’est à la royauté que s’adresse le
vœu général. Et la royauté est aussi l’expression des nécessités
élémentaires. En cela, exactement, consiste la réalité profonde de
notre doctrine. »
Méditez maintenant cette formule où se résume toute l’œuvre
politique de Maurras et où les articles, si riches de pensée féconde,
qu’il publie chaque jour puisent leur inspiration :
« Ce que nos ancêtres ont fait par coutume et par sentiment,
nous le poursuivons, nous-mêmes, avec l’assurance et la netteté
scientifique, par raison et par volonté. »
Quand vous l’aurez compris, catholiques de bon vouloir, vous ne
chercherez pas à réagir contre des institutions défectueuses en vous
conformant aux faux principes qui servirent à les édifier, comme le
font les libéraux. Vous aiderez à détruire la bâtisse vermoulue où
Marianne abrite sa progéniture. Vous la remplacerez par ce
monument appuyé sur la tradition, la science et la religion qui a
nom : Monarchie légitime.

Il n’est pas inutile de reproduire maintenant la haute approbation

donnée à l’Enquête de Maurras par « l’héritier des quarante rois qui,
en mille ans, firent la France ».
Aussitôt après la publication en volume, M. le Duc d’Orléans lui
écrivit la lettre suivante :

Mon cher Maurras,

C’est avec le plus grand intérêt que j’ai suivi votre enquête
sur la Monarchie et lu les déclarations que vous ont faites Buffet
et Lur-Saluces.
Tous mes amis peuvent différer sur des nuances d’opinion
ou des prévisions de réformes ; c’est leur droit — mais ce qui
ressortira désormais, c’est l’unité profonde de la conception
royaliste. Elle est réformatrice. — Réformer pour conserver,
c’est tout mon programme.
Je ne me prononcerai pas sur le détail. Un prince qui aurait
la prétention de le régler d’avance serait peu de chose. Un
prince qui ne se déclarerait pas sur les principes ne serait rien.
Je me suis déjà expliqué sur quelques questions essentielles
à la vitalité du pays. J’ai défendu l’armée, honneur et
sauvegarde de la France. J’ai dénoncé le cosmopolitisme juif et
franc-maçon, perte et déshonneur du pays.
Il en est d’autres sur lesquelles les Français ont le droit de
me demander une détermination nette et catégorique.
 De ce nombre est celle qui vous tient le plus au cœur : la
décentralisation.
La décentralisation, c’est l’économie ; c’est la liberté. C’est le
meilleur contrepoids comme la plus solide défense de l’autorité.
C’est donc d’elle que dépend l’avenir, le salut de la France.
… Aucun pouvoir faible ne saurait décentraliser. Appuyé sur
l’Armée nationale, constituant moi-même un pouvoir central
énergique et fort, parce que traditionnel, je suis seul en mesure
de ramener la vie spontanée dans les villes et les campagnes et
d’arracher la France à la compression administrative qui
l’étouffe.
La décentralisation dépend en partie du pouvoir royal et du
sentiment qui l’anime, comme de la direction que le Roi peut
imprimer de lui-même ; mais c’est aussi un problème
d’organisation politique et géographique.
J’y donnerai ma première pensée. La question sera mise
sur-le-champ à l’étude, avec la ferme volonté, non pas
seulement d’aboutir, mais d’aboutir rapidement. — Je tiens à ce
qu’on le sache.
Croyez-moi, mon cher Maurras,
Votre affectionné,

PHILIPPE.