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Chapter 11: Riches in Rock: Energy and Mineral Resources
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
11A. analyze the concept of a resource, and relate resources you use to their sources in the
Earth.
11B. describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish conventional from
11C. explain how coal forms and is mined, and discuss challenges associated with coal usage.
11D. discuss where nuclear fuel comes from, how a nuclear power plant operates, and what
11E. compare alternative energy sources, including hydroelectric, geothermal, and wind
energy.
11F. describe where the metals that we use come from and the challenges society faces in
11G. connect nonmetallic resources (stone, gravel, evaporites) with their sources and uses.
11H. recognize the challenge of sustainability as it applies to use of energy and mineral
resources.
MULTIPLE CHOICE
OBJ: 11A. Analyze the concept of a resource, and relate resources you use to their
2. A buried body of rock that is induced by heat to exude oil is termed a ____________ rock.
a. reservoir c. source
b. seal d. trap
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
MSC: Remembering
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
MSC: Understanding
4. Which organic substance is produced by black organic shale at temperatures below (cooler
b. coal d. keratin
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
MSC: Understanding
5. If oil shale is buried deep enough to attain a temperature of 200°C, what is formed?
a. gas c. graphite
b. oil d. kerogen
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
MSC: Applying
6. If the average geothermal gradient in an area is 15°C/km, oil shale must be buried at depths
of greater than ____________ but no more than ____________ to be transformed into oil.
a. 10 km; 15 km
b. 3 km; 6 km
c. 6 km; 15 km
d. 6 km; 10 km
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
MSC: Applying
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
8. What creates an easy route for oil to follow from the rock to a well?
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
MSC: Remembering
9. A reservoir rock contains ____________ porosity and permeability, whereas a seal rock
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
MSC: Remembering
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
MSC: Understanding
11. A ____________ rock would make the best reservoir rock in a conventional hydrocarbon
system.
a. high-porosity, high-permeability
b. low-porosity, low-permeability
c. high-porosity, low-permeability
d. low-porosity, high-permeability
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
MSC: Understanding
12. A black, organic-rich shale could likely serve as either of which two necessary types of
b. reservoir rock or seal rock d. reservoir rock but not source rock
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
MSC: Applying
13. Salt and fine-grained limestone are good candidates to serve as ____________ within an oil
field.
a. a reservoir rock
b. a seal rock
c. a source rock
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
14. Which of the following would make the best reservoir rock in a conventional hydrocarbon
system?
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
MSC: Analyzing
15. Coal is formed when heat and pressure alter deposits of ancient
b. plankton. d. tar.
OBJ: 11C. Explain how coal forms and is mined, and discuss challenges associated
MSC: Remembering
16. A large portion of the coal reserves in the world formed during the ____________ period.
a. Jurassic c. Carboniferous
b. Silurian d. Permian
OBJ: 11C. Explain how coal forms and is mined, and discuss challenges associated
MSC: Remembering
17. Which sequence shows an increase in coal rank from lowest to highest?
OBJ: 11C. Explain how coal forms and is mined, and discuss challenges associated
MSC: Understanding
18. The classification of coal is based on the concentration of carbon in the rock. Which of the
carbon
OBJ: 11C. Explain how coal forms and is mined, and discuss challenges associated
MSC: Understanding
19. In which of these geologic settings are you most likely to find anthracite coal forming?
OBJ: 11C. Explain how coal forms and is mined, and discuss challenges associated
MSC: Remembering
20. A landowner is looking to develop a coal mine on their property. She determines that a
surface mine is the best option, as the coal seam she is targeting is close to the surface. The
cost to start the mine is $20 million and the annual cost to operate is $16 million. She
estimates that they can remove 450,000 tons of coal a year and sell the coal for $38.50 per
ton. How long will it take before she is able to pay off her investment and start to make a
profit?
OBJ: 11C. Explain how coal forms and is mined, and discuss challenges associated
MSC: Applying
21. Fission occurs when a neutron strikes a radioactive parent atom, causing it to split into
a. protons. c. energy.
b. anions. d. electrons.
OBJ: 11D. Discuss where nuclear fuel comes from, how a nuclear power plant operates,
MSC: Remembering
22. In a nuclear reactor, failure of control rods may cause the system to become too hot and
melt down because the control rods absorb ____________ and thus decrease the number of
MSC: Remembering
23. Which of the following occurs when a neutron strikes a radioactive parent atom?
a. fusion c. enrichment
OBJ: 11D. Discuss where nuclear fuel comes from, how a nuclear power plant operates,
MSC: Understanding
24. U-235, the isotope of uranium commonly used in nuclear power plants, is
OBJ: 11D. Discuss where nuclear fuel comes from, how a nuclear power plant operates,
MSC: Understanding
25. Nuclear fission produces a large yield of energy; however, this energy is not in the form of
a. mechanical c. chemical
b. thermal d. gravitational
OBJ: 11D. Discuss where nuclear fuel comes from, how a nuclear power plant operates,
and what happens to spent nuclear fuel.
MSC: Applying
OBJ: 11D. Discuss where nuclear fuel comes from, how a nuclear power plant operates,
MSC: Analyzing
a. wind c. hydroelectric
b. geothermal d. nuclear
MSC: Remembering
28. Geothermal energy is used extensively in Iceland and New Zealand because both countries
host multiple
a. rivers. c. volcanoes.
b. mountains. d. coastlines.
29. Solar energy uses sunlight to induce a flow of ____________ between two wafers in a
photovoltaic cell.
a. water c. light
b. oxygen d. electrons
MSC: Understanding
30. An array of panels situated in sunlight that can produce electricity are called
b. solar turbines.
c. photovoltaic cells.
d. sunlight collectors.
MSC: Remembering
31. The image below is of the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station in Southern California,
which was shut down in 2012 because of safety concerns. Which of the following
alternative energy resources could be used in this environment to replace the energy
MSC: Applying
32. What type of energy would NOT be as useful in the Pacific Northwest as it would be in
Texas?
a. wind c. nuclear
b. solar d. geothermal
MSC: Analyzing
33. A mineral that consists of only metal atoms is known as a(n) ____________ metal.
a. native c. industrial
b. ore d. rare earth
OBJ: 11F. Describe where the metals that we use come from and the challenges society
MSC: Remembering
34. The industrial process that separates metals from ore material is known as
a. quarrying. c. smelting.
OBJ: 11F. Describe where the metals that we use come from and the challenges society
MSC: Remembering
35. Which of the following is NOT a likely environmental issue associated with mining
OBJ: 11C. Explain how coal forms and is mined, and discuss challenges associated
MSC: Understanding
36. Consult the figure below. In what kind of terrain would you expect to find a placer deposit?
a. a dry lake bed c. the ocean floor
OBJ: 11F. Describe where the metals that we use come from and the challenges society
MSC: Applying
37. The stereotypical gold rush prospector panning for gold in a streambed is an example of
b. placer d. sedimentary
OBJ: 11F. Describe where the metals that we use come from and the challenges society
MSC: Applying
OBJ: 11F. Describe where the metals that we use come from and the challenges society
MSC: Analyzing
b. gemstone. d. lodestone
OBJ: 11G. Connect nonmetallic resources (stone, gravel, evaporites) with their sources
and uses.
MSC: Remembering
40. Which of the following is a nonmetal mineral formed by evaporation and used to make
drywall?
a. sulfur c. zinc
b. gypsum d. marble
OBJ: 11G. Connect nonmetallic resources (stone, gravel, evaporites) with their sources
and uses.
MSC: Remembering
a. salt c. limestone
b. granite d. gypsum
OBJ: 11G. Connect nonmetallic resources (stone, gravel, evaporites) with their sources
and uses.
MSC: Understanding
42. Stone used for buildings, chemicals in fertilizers, and sand used to make glass are all
a. tailings. c. clinker.
OBJ: 11G. Connect nonmetallic resources (stone, gravel, evaporites) with their sources
and uses.
MSC: Understanding
43. The image below is of a limestone quarry in Illinois. On the wall at the very back of the
quarry you can see geologic strata that appear to curve upward. What type of depositional
OBJ: 11G. Connect nonmetallic resources (stone, gravel, evaporites) with their sources
and uses.
MSC: Applying
44. Limestone is often used as dimension stone and also as crushed stone. If a mining company
wishes to establish a new limestone quarry, what type of depositional environment should
OBJ: 11G. Connect nonmetallic resources (stone, gravel, evaporites) with their sources
and uses.
MSC: Applying
45. Most energy for human consumption in the industrial world comes from
b. wind. d. water.
OBJ: 11A. Analyze the concept of a resource, and relate resources you use to their
MSC: Remembering
46. In 1900, the most commonly used source of energy in the United States was
a. coal. c. natural gas.
b. oil. d. hydrothermal.
OBJ: 11A. Analyze the concept of a resource, and relate resources you use to their
MSC: Understanding
b. nature can replace it within a short time span relative to human life.
OBJ: 11A. Analyze the concept of a resource, and relate resources you use to their
MSC: Understanding
48. Which of the following lists contains only fossil fuels?
OBJ: 11H. Recognize the challenge of sustainability as it applies to use of energy and
mineral resources.
MSC: Applying
b. renewable because we use them at slower rates than they are formed.
c. nonrenewable because they are formed at slower rates than we use them.
OBJ: 11H. Recognize the challenge of sustainability as it applies to use of energy and
mineral resources.
MSC: Applying
50. Most mineral resources are considered to be and may present a strategic challenge
globally because.
OBJ: 11H. Recognize the challenge of sustainability as it applies to use of energy and
mineral resources.
MSC: Analyzing
SHORT ANSWER
1. Explain how coal forms and how this process is different from the ones that yield oil and
gas.
ANS:
Coal forms primarily from organic matter that is buried in swampy terrestrial environments
and compressed as it undergoes further burial. With increased compaction and heating,
water and volatile compounds such as ammonia and methane are removed, thus increasing
the proportion of carbon and also the coal rank. Oil and gas form primarily from plankton
layers and subjected to greater heat and pressure in what is known as the oil window. At
lower temperatures, kerogen (a mass of waxy molecules) is formed and then transformed in
the oil window (90°C to 160°C) into oil and gas molecules; above 160°C natural gas
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
conventional from unconventional fossil fuel reserves. | 11C. Explain how coal forms and is
MSC: Understanding
2. Describe how oil is formed. Make sure to address what organisms must accumulate, in what
environment they must be deposited, and how the oil window effects the formation.
ANS:
Oil is formed when microscopic plankton die and accumulate in an anoxic environment on
the ocean floor. As more and more layers of sediment are deposited on top of the plankton-
rich layer, the temperature increases and chemical reactions begin to turn the organic
material into kerogen. If the kerogen-rich layer is heated to between 90°C and 160°C, the
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
MSC: Understanding
3. Gold is often found at the bottom of streambeds in placer deposits. Describe the process that
ANS:
When rocks containing native metals such as gold are weathered and eroded, streams carry
away lighter materials and leave behind the heavier components such as gold. Over time
gold flakes and nuggets become concentrated in stream gravels close to the source. This is
OBJ: 11F. Describe where the metals that we use come from and the challenges society
MSC: Understanding
4. Explain how sources of energy for society have changed over time.
ANS:
Initially, the primary source of energy for society was biomass (wood or dung). Over
dramatic shift in which fossil fuels became the dominant energy resource. With time, other
sources including nuclear power and more renewable energy sources (such as solar,
hydropower, wind, etc.) have become part of the energy picture for humanity.
MSC: Understanding
5. Nonrenewable energy resources have adverse environmental impacts and will eventually
run out. Analyze why they are still used so prevalently in our society.
ANS:
Nonrenewable energy resources (specifically fossil fuels) are still used in abundance
because they are cheap and society is already set up to use them in a complex way that
precludes a fast shift to renewable energy resources. Essentially, they are easy. Issues with
nuclear power and the slow progression of technology associated with renewable energy
resources has made society reluctant to make a significant change. Despite the looming
decline in the availability of fossil fuels and the environmental cost of using them they
OBJ: 11H. Recognize the challenge of sustainability as it applies to use of energy and
mineral resources.
MSC: Analyzing
6. Categorize the differences between a renewable and nonrenewable resource. What are some
examples of each?
ANS:
By definition, renewable resources can be replaced by nature within months to decades (less
than a human lifespan). A nonrenewable resource can take centuries to millions of years to
replenish. Examples of nonrenewable resources are fossil fuels and many metallic minerals,
such as gold and copper. Renewable resources include (but are not limited to) timber,
OBJ: 11H. Recognize the challenge of sustainability as it applies to use of energy and
mineral resources.
MSC: Analyzing
7. Explain Hubbert’s Peak. What implications does it have for the future of human
civilization?
ANS:
In the 1960s, geologist M. King Hubbert predicted that U.S. oil production would begin to
decrease annually. In doing so he correctly predicted the “peak” of U.S. oil production,
appears likely that global production soon will peak (or may already have) and conventional
oil supplies will last for another 100 years or so. The primary implication of Hubbert’s Peak
is that society is likely witnessing the end of the oil age and we will need to find other
OBJ: 11H. Recognize the challenge of sustainability as it applies to use of energy and
mineral resources.
MSC: Understanding
ANS:
Biofuels are biomasses that have been transformed through lab or industrial chemical
processes into a fuel that can be used similar to a fossil fuel. Examples include ethanol (a
type of alcohol), algae, and biodiesel (produced through chemical modification of plant
oils).
MSC: Understanding
9. Distinguish between cement and concrete. Explain how cement is produced. Describe why
ANS:
Cement is a powdered mixture of lime (CaO) and smaller amounts of SiO2, AI2O3, and
Fe2O3. Concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregate (sand or gravel), and water that forms a
slurry, which hardens and is used as a building material. Cement is produced in a kiln by
cooking certain types of limestone at high temperatures to produce lime and mixing in
aggregate and water. Alternately, the lime in cement can be produced by heating a
combination of limestone, sandstone, and shale in just the right proportions to provide the
proper mix of chemicals to make cement (called Portland Cement). Cement and concrete are
OBJ: 11H. Recognize the challenge of sustainability as it applies to use of energy and
mineral resources.
MSC: Analyzing
10. What is a seismic reflection profile? Summarize how they can be used in oil exploration.
ANS:
A seismic reflection profile is a cross section that shows the underground configuration of
geologic strata and geologic structures in a given area. Profiles are used systematically to
find traps, reservoirs, and source rocks containing hydrocarbons. They are derived using
explosives or vehicles that vibrate to send seismic waves into the Earth. These waves reflect
off of structures and boundaries or contacts in the subsurface; seismometers record the
waves and the data are transferred into a two-dimensional profile that visually represents
what lies below the surface. These profiles can then be used to aid in drilling and
exploration.
OBJ: 11B. Describe how oil and gas form and can be extracted, and distinguish
MSC: Evaluating
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best. There are some among the older officials who affirm that
the old ways are best and need no alteration, and that the new
plans are not required. Such babblings are vain and useless.
"The Emperor puts the question before you thus: In the present
condition of Imperial affairs, with an untrained army, with
limited funds, with ignorant 'literati,' and with artisans
untaught because they have no fit teachers, is there any
difficulty in deciding, when China is compared with foreign
nations, who is the strong and who is the weak? It is easy to
distinguish between the rich and the poor. How can a man armed
with a wooden stick smite his foe encased in a coat of mail?
The Emperor sees that the affairs of the Empire are in an
unsettled condition, and that his various Decrees have availed
nothing, Diversity of opinion, each unlike another as fire
differs from water, is responsible for the spread of the
existing evil. It is the same evil as that which existed in
the Sung and Ming dynasties (circa A. D. 1000 and 1500). Our
present system is not of the slightest use. We cannot in these
modern days adhere to the ways of the five Kings(circa B. C.
2500); even they did not continue exactly after the manner of
their respective predecessors. It is like wearing thick
clothes in summer and thin ones in winter. "Now, therefore,
the Emperor orders all officials, metropolitan and provincial,
from prince down to 'literati,' to give their whole minds to a
real endeavour to improvement. With perseverance, like that of
the saints of old, do your utmost to discover which foreign
country has the best system in any branch of learning and
learn that one. Your great fault is the falseness of your
present knowledge. Make a special effort and determine to
learn the best of everything. Do not merely learn the outside
covers of the books of knowledge, and do not make a loud boast
of your own attainments. The Emperor's wish is to change what
is now useless into something useful, so that proficiency may
be attained and handed on to posterity. The Metropolitan
College will be the chief one, and must be instituted at once.
The Emperor orders the Grand Councillors to consult with the
Tsung-li Yamên on the subject, and to come to a decision as
soon as possible, and then to memorialize the Throne. Any of
the compilers and graduates of the Hanlin College, the
secretaries of the Boards, the officers of the Palace Guards,
expectant Intendants, Prefects, district Magistrates, and
subordinate officials, sons and brothers of officials, the
hereditary officials of the Eight Banners, and the sons of the
military officials of the Empire, can enter the College who wish
to do so. By this means knowledge will be handed down from one
generation to another. It will be strictly forbidden to
members of the College to be careless or dilatory in their
studies, or to introduce as students any of their friends
without regard for the latter's capabilities; for such things
would frustrate the benefit of this excellent plan of His
Imperial Majesty."
"Two Decrees, published on the 27th June and 5th July, have
reference to reforms in the Chinese army, but they throw no
light on the nature of them, and merely refer certain
suggestions to various Departments for examination. The last
Decree I shall mention, which appeared on the 5th instant,
contains a very frank admission of the need of reforms. It
states that in foreign countries commerce and industry thrive
and progress, while in China, though there is no lack of
ability, it is fettered in the bonds of ancient custom, and
cannot free itself. As one means of assisting in its
liberation it is ordained that any persons producing 'new
books' (presumably books that show originality of thought), or
being the first to use new methods, or to produce new
instruments or appliances suitable for use, are to receive
rewards from the State in the shape either of official
employment, if they are fitted for it, or of some other
distinction. In the case of inventions a certificate will be
given, and the profits secured to the inventor for a fixed
term of years—in fact patent rights will be granted. Rewards
will also be given to those who, with their own resources,
establish colleges, open up mines, or set up arsenals for the
manufacture of rifles and cannon. In conclusion, the Tsung-li
Yamên are directed to draw up Regulations for effecting the
above objects."
The zeal of the reforming movement was kept alive and its
authors held their ground throughout the summer, and nearly to
the end of September. On the 17th of that month, Sir Claude
MacDonald wrote to Lord Salisbury: "Imperial Decrees intended
to launch China on the path of reform continue to appear,
though there are few signs of any of them taking practical
effect. The Emperor is evidently learning that it is one thing
to issue a reform Edict and another to get it obeyed. Not long
ago a Decree was issued, the object of which was to make the
Throne more accessible to the subordinate portion of the
official world. At the beginning of this month a case was
brought to His Majesty's notice, in which the Board of
Ceremonies disobeyed this Decree by refusing to transmit a
Memorial sent in by a Secretary. He was much enraged, and
forthwith cashiered the six head officials of the Board, that
is to say, the two Presidents and four Vice-Presidents.
The effect was soon known. It was one which brought the
reformers to grief and their reforms to an end.
"It was reported on the 25th that Chang was to be executed the
same evening or early next morning, and I thought it advisable
to make an appeal on his behalf for at least due consideration
of any charge brought against him. The report reached me late
in the afternoon, and it was therefore necessary to take
prompt measures. It was supposed that Li Hung-chang had been
consulted by the Empress Dowager in the matter. I accordingly
addressed a letter to his Excellency pointing out the horror
with which such sudden executions were regarded by all Western
nations, and the bad effect the secret and hasty condemnation
of an official of Chang's rank, who was so well known in
Europe, would produce, and begged his Excellency to use what
influence he possessed to prevent such hurried action. I
concluded my letter by saying that I appealed to him, Li,
because he was the only Statesman now in Peking who was
conversant with European methods, and would, therefore,
thoroughly realize the disastrous impression which such a
summary execution would produce throughout the Western world.
It is well known that Li Hung-chang and Chang Yin-huan are
deadly enemies, and it was generally reported that Chang's
imprisonment was due to Li. The Grand Secretary replied saying
that he highly respected my generous and humane motives, and
he assured me that no summary action would be taken."
Great Britain,
Papers by Command: China,
Number 1, 1899, pages 291-294.
{95}
{96}
CHINA: A. D. 1898-1899.
Rioting in Shanghai consequent on
French desecration of a cemetery.
French demand for extension of settlement ground in Shanghai.
English and American protests.
The outcome.
"On the morning of the 16th, the day appointed for taking
possession of the cemetery, a detachment from the French
cruiser 'Éclaireur' and a strong body of police marched to the
cemetery, and afforded protection to the workmen who were told
off to make a breach in the cemetery wall by way of taking
possession. An angry mob watched these operations, and, as
time went on, the streets filled with crowds of men, who moved
about making hostile demonstrations, but the French showed great
self-restraint, and no serious collision took place on that
day. All night long the crowds filled the streets, and many
lamps were smashed and lamp-posts uprooted.