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 CHAPTER 9
THERMOCHEMISTRY: CHEMICAL ENERGY

Chapter Learning Goals for Students

Section 9.1 Calculate the kinetic energy of an object in motion.

Convert between common units for energy.

Differentiate between the concepts of heat and temperature.

Section 9.2 Identify state functions.

Identify the sign of heat and work.

Section 9.3 Calculate PV work.

Section 9.4 Calculate the internal energy change (∆E) for a reaction.

Section 9.5
and
Section 9.6 Given a thermochemical equation and the amount of reactant or product, calculate
the amount of heat transferred.

Classify endo- and exothermic reactions.

Section 9.7 Calculate heat capacities, temperature changes, or heat transfer, using the equation
for heat capacity (C), specific heat (c) or molar heat capacity (Cm).

Calculate enthalpy changes in a calorimetry experiment.

Section 9.8 Use Hess’s law to find ∆H for an overall reaction, given reaction steps and their ∆H
values.

Section 9.9 Identify standard states of elements.

Write standard enthalpy of formation reactions (∆H°f) for compounds from their
elements.

Use values of standard heats of formation (∆H°f) for elements and compounds to
calculate ∆H° for a reaction.

Section 9.10 Use bond dissociation energies to estimate ∆H° for a reaction.

Section 9.11 Calculate ∆Hc for various fuels using thermochemical principles such as Hess’s law,
calorimetry and/or bond dissociation enthalpies.

Section 9.12
and
Section 9.13 Predict the sign of the entropy change (∆S) given the chemical equation or a
molecular diagram.

70
 Chapter 9—Thermochemistry: Chemical Energy

Using the relationship between the Gibbs free energy (∆G) and spontaneity, predict
the sign of ∆G, ∆H, ∆S.

Use ∆H and ∆S to determine the temperature at which a reversible system is at

equilibrium.

71
 Chapter 9—Thermochemistry: Chemical Energy

Lecture Outline
9.1. Energy and Its Conservation1
A. Energy
1. Capacity to do work or supply heat
2. Energy = work + heat
B. Kinetic energy
1. Energy of motion
2. EK = 1/2mv2
C. Potential energy – stored energy
D. Joule
1. SI unit for energy
2. 1 J = 1(kg⋅m2)/s2
E. Calorie
1. Amount of energy necessary to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C
2. 1 cal = 4.184 J
F. Law of Conservation of Energy
1. Energy can be neither created nor destroyed
2. It can only be converted from one form into another
G. Many forms of energy
1. Thermal energy
a. Kinetic energy of molecular motion
b. Temperature – measure of the kinetic energy of molecular motion
2. Heat
a. Energy transferred from one object to another
b. Result of a temperature difference between them
3. Chemical energy
a. A type of potential energy
b. Chemical bonds of molecules act as the storage medium
H. First Law of Thermodynamics: The energy of the universe is constant.
9.2. Internal Energy and State Functions2
A. System – everything we focus on in an experiment
B. Surroundings – everything other than the system
C. Internal energy – energy of the system
D. System isolated from the surroundings
1. No energy transfer to surroundings
2. ∆E = 0
3. First Law of Thermodynamics: The total internal energy of an isolated system is constant.
E. System is not isolated from surroundings
1. Energy flows to or from surroundings
2. ∆E = Efinal – Einitial
F. Energy changes measured from the point of view of the system
1. Energy flows out of system to surroundings – negative value
2. Energy flows into system from surroundings – positive value
G. State function – function or property whose value depends only on the present state (condition)
of the system, not on path used to arrive at that condition
1. Reversible
2. Overall change is zero if system returns to its original condition
9.3. Expansion Work3

1
Test Item File Questions: Multiple Choice 1, Algorithmic 1 – 3, Short Answer 1 – 7
2
Test Item File Questions: Multiple Choice 2, Algorithmic 4 – 8, Short Answer 8 – 12
3
Test Item File Questions: Multiple Choice 3 – 6, Algorithmic 9
72
 Chapter 9—Thermochemistry: Chemical Energy

A. Work
1. Force (f) that produces movement of an object times distance moved (d)
2. w = F × d
B. Expansion work (PV work)
1. Work done as result of volume change in the system
2. w = – (P × ∆V)
3. Expansion of the system.
a. System does work on surroundings
b. ∆E is negative
c. w = – P∆V
i. Work is negative
ii. ∆V is positive
4. Contraction of the system
a. Surroundings do work on the system
b. ∆E is positive
c. w = – P∆V
i. Work is positive
ii. ∆V is negative
9.4. Energy and Enthalpy4
A. Total energy change of a system
1. ∆E = q + w (q = heat)
2. ∆E = q + (– P∆V)
B. Amount of heat transferred: q = ∆E + P∆V
C. Reactions carried out with constant volume
1. ∆V = 0
2. No PV work done
3. qv = ∆E
D. Reactions carried out at constant pressure
1. ∆V ≠ 0
2. Energy change due to both heat transfer and PV work
3. qp = ∆E + P∆V
E. Heat of reaction, ∆H
1. Enthalpy change of a system
2. ∆H = ∆E + P∆V
3. State function – value depends only on the current state of the system
4. ∆H = Hproducts – Hreactants
5. Amount of heat released in a specific reaction depends on actual amounts of reactants.
9.5. Thermodynamic Equations and the Thermodynamic Standard State5
A. Value of enthalpy change, ∆H, reported for a reaction represents amount of heat released when
reactants converted to products in molar amounts represented by coefficients of the balanced
equation.
1. Actual amount of heat involved in a reaction depends on actual amounts of reactants.
2. Physical states of reactants and products must be specified.
B. Temperature and pressure also must be reported. Thermodynamic Standard State = 298.15 K
(25°C), 1 atm pressure of each gas, 1 M concentration (for solutions)
1. Allows different reactions to be compared
2. Indicated by addition of a superscript o, ∆H°
C. Standard enthalpy of reaction – enthalpy change measured under standard conditions
1. ∆H° values for a given equation
a. Equation balanced for number of moles of reactants and products

4
Test Item File Questions: Multiple Choice 7 – 15, Algorithmic 10 – 12, Short Answer 13 – 17
5
Test Item File Questions: Multiple Choice 16 – 21, Algorithmic 13 – 15
73
 Chapter 9—Thermochemistry: Chemical Energy

b. All substances are in standard states

c. Physical state of each substance specified
d. Refers to reaction going in direction written
e. Reversing direction of reaction changes sign of ∆H°
9.6. Enthalpies of Physical and Chemical Changes6
A. Enthalpies of chemical change
1. Heats of reaction – enthalpies of chemical change
2. Endothermic reactions
a. Hproducts > Hreactants
b. Heat flows into system from surroundings
c. ∆H is positive
3. Exothermic reactions
a. Hproducts < Hreactants
b. Heat flows to surroundings from system
c. ∆H is negative
B. Enthalpies of physical change
1. Heat of fusion – amount of heat required for melting
2. Heat of vaporization – amount of heat required for evaporation
3. Sublimation
a. Direct conversion of solid to vapor without going through a liquid state
b. Heat of sublimation = Heat of fusion + Heat of vaporization
9.7. Calorimetry and Heat Capacity7
A. Calorimetry – experimental technique that allows energy change associated with a chemical or
physical process to be determined
1. Temperature change observed when system gains or loses energy in the form of heat
2. Performed in a calorimeter
3. For an exothermic reaction: amount of heat released by reaction = amount of heat gained by
calorimeter + amount of heat gained by solution
B. Heat capacity (C)
q
C=
DT
1. Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object or substance a given amount
2. Extensive property
C. Specific heat
1. Amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of exactly 1 g of a substance by exactly
1°C
2. q = (specific heat) × (mass of substance) × (∆T)
D. Molar heat capacity (Cm)
1. Amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 mole of a substance by 1°C
2. qm = (Cm) × (moles of substance) × (∆T)
9.8. Hess’s Law8
A. Hess’s law
1. Overall enthalpy change for a reaction is equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes for
individual steps in the reaction
2. Reactants and products in the individual steps added and subtracted like algebraic
quantities in determining the overall equation
B. Combine individual reactions so that their sums will be the desired reaction – textbook example
9.7

6
Test Item File Questions: Multiple Choice 22 – 33, Algorithmic 16 – 23,
7
Test Item File Questions: Multiple Choice 34 – 41, Algorithmic 24 – 31, Short Answer 18 – 20
8
Test Item File Questions: Multiple Choice 42 – 44, Algorithmic 32 – 34, Short Answer 21
74
 Chapter 9—Thermochemistry: Chemical Energy

9.9. Standard Heats of Formation9

A. Standard heat of formation
1. Enthalpy change ∆Hof for the hypothetical formation of 1 mole of a substance in its standard
state from the most stable forms of its constituent elements in their standard states
2. The most stable forms of all elements in their standard state have ∆Hof = 0.
B. Standard enthalpy change found by subtracting the sum of the heats of formation of reactants
from the sum of the heats of formation of products:
DH o = S DH products
o
- S DH reactants
o

C. Textbook Appendix B
9.10. Bond Dissociation Enthalpies10
A. Bond dissociation enthalpies
1. Enthalpy changes, ∆H°, for corresponding bond-breaking reactions
2. ∆H° = D = bond dissociation energy
3. Always positive
4. Always need energy to break a bond
B. ∆H° = D(bonds broken) – D(bonds formed)
C. Textbook Table 7.2
9.11. Fossil Fuels, Fuel Efficiency, and Heats of Combustion11
A. Heat of combustion (∆Hoc) – amount of energy released on burning a substance
B. Fuel efficiency
1. Calculate ∆Hoc in kJ/g or kJ/mL
2. Can compare efficiency for different fuels
C. Fossil fuels
1. Decayed remains of organisms from previous geological eras
2. Coal, natural gas and petroleum
a. Coal and petroleum – complex mixture of compounds
b. Coal – vegetable origin, compounds structurally similar to graphite
c. Petroleum – viscous liquid mixture of hydrocarbons, primarily marine origin
9.12. An Introduction to Entropy12
A. Spontaneous process
1. Process that proceeds on its own without continuous external influence
2. Need either a release of energy or an increase in disorder of the system
B. Entropy (S)
1. Amount of molecular disorder or randomness in a system
2. Larger the value of S, greater the molecular randomness
3. ∆S = Sfinal – Sinitial
4. Sfinal > Sinitial
a. ∆S is positive
b. System has become more random
5. Sfinal < Sinitial
a. ∆S is negative
b. System has become less random
C. Spontaneous process
1. Favored by decrease in H (negative ∆H)
2. Favored by increase in S (positive ∆S)

9
Test Item File Questions: Multiple Choice 45 – 49, Algorithmic 35 – 37
10
Test Item File Questions: Multiple Choice 50 – 53, Algorithmic 38 – 39
11
Test Item File Questions: Multiple Choice 54 – 56
12
Test Item File Questions: Multiple Choice 57 – 64, Algorithmic 40 – 43, Short Answer 22
75
 Chapter 9—Thermochemistry: Chemical Energy

9.13. An Introduction to Free Energy13

A. Gibbs free-energy change (∆G); ∆G = ∆H – T∆S.
B. Sign of ∆G used as a criterion for determining spontaneity of a process
1. ∆G negative – spontaneous
2. ∆G positive ≠ nonspontaneous
C. Temperature dependence (T∆S) term for ∆G.
1. Spontaneity of some processes depends on temperature
2. Low temperatures – ∆H dominates and controls spontaneity
3. High temperatures – T∆S dominates and controls spontaneity
D. ∆G = 0
1. Process at equilibrium
2. Balanced between spontaneous and nonspontaneous
3. Temperature at which a nonspontaneous reaction becomes spontaneous
DH
T=
DS

Inquiry – How is the Energy Content of New Fuels Determined?

13
Test Item File Questions: Multiple Choice 65 – 75, Algorithmic 44 – 47, Short Answer 23 – 25
76
 Chapter 9—Thermochemistry: Chemical Energy

CHAPTER 9
THERMOCHEMISTRY: CHEMICAL ENERGY

Teaching Tips, Points of Emphasis, and Common Misconceptions

Section 9.2 Students need to relate direction of heat flow with observed temperature change.
Demonstrate that for a chemical reaction (system) performed in a beaker
(surroundings), if heat energy is released by the system, the beaker absorbs the heat
and becomes hotter; if heat energy is absorbed by the system, the beaker contributes
the heat and becomes colder.

Section 9.2 It is important for students to understand that the amount of energy released or gained
in a reaction is proportional to the amounts of reactants and products involved in the
reaction.

Section 9.3 Gases do work when the molecules push against the walls of their container and the
volume of the container increases. If there is no volume change, no work is done.

Section 9.4 Relate energy change to physical work: When a person does work, the person’s
energy diminishes, so when a system does work, w is negative and ∆E is negative.

Section 9.4 If the volume of the system does not change, the heat transferred to or from a system
is the energy change of that system.

Section 9.4 If the pressure of the system does not change, the heat transferred to or from a system
is the enthalpy change of that system.

Section 9.4 When reactions are performed in an open container, such as a coffee-cup calorimeter,
the pressure (= atmospheric pressure) does not change and qP = ∆H; in a closed
container, such as a bomb calorimeter, the volume (= volume of the bomb) does not
change and q qx = ∆E. Even in an open container, unless a gas is involved in the
reaction, volume changes are usually negligible and ∆H ≅ ∆E.

Section 9.5 The states of reactants and products are important in determining an energy change
or enthalpy change for a reaction. The energy change will be different for a reaction
producing a product as a liquid (with lower energy) versus producing the same
product as a gas (with higher energy).

Section 9.5 Standard conditions as defined for thermodynamics (P = 1 atm; T = 298.15 K) are
different from standard conditions as defined for gas laws (P = 1 atm; T = 273.15 K).

Section 9.6 Endothermic means heat flows into a system and ∆H > 0. Exothermic means heat
flows out of a system and ∆H < 0.

Section 9.6 Temperature does not change during a change of state; hence, ∆Hfusion for water refers
to H2O(s, 0oC) → H2O(l, 0oC) and ∆Hvap for water refers to H2O(l, 100oC) → H2O(g,
100oC).

Section 9.7 Just as density provides a link between mass and volume, heat capacity links heat
flow and temperature change, allowing the three variables to be interconverted.

Section 9.7 The amount of heat transferred and, therefore, the temperature change depend on the
amount of substance involved. Specific heat is heat capacity per gram of substance
77
 Chapter 9—Thermochemistry: Chemical Energy

and has units of J/(g⋅oC); molar heat capacity is heat capacity per mole of substance
and has units J/(mol⋅oC).

Section 9.7 Specific heat and molar heat capacity are intensive properties that depend on the state
of the substance.

Section 9.8 Students have already employed Hess’s law when performing Born-Haber cycle
calculations.

Section 9.8 When an equation is reversed, ∆H must be multiplied by –1. When an equation is
multiplied by a coefficient, ∆H must be multiplied by the same coefficient.

Section 9.9 Remind students to multiply the heat of formation of each substance by its coefficient
in the chemical equation and also to multiply the standard heat of formation of each
product by –1.

Section 9.10 Bond dissociation energies are defined for isolated, gaseous-state species. Other
factors must be considered when dealing with condensed-state systems.

Section 9.10 Reactant bonds are broken and product bonds are formed: ∆Ho = D(reactant bonds
broken) – D(product bonds formed). Students should not confuse this equation for
that used for heats of formation: ∆Ho = ∆Hof(products) – ∆Hof(reactants), in which
products and reactants appear on the opposite side of the minus sign.

Section 9.10 Electron-dot structures should be drawn for each reactant and product to see the
number of each type of bond being broken and formed. These numbers must also be
multiplied by the coefficients in the balanced chemical equation.

Section 9.12 Another way to introduce entropy is to use a spontaneous process for which ∆H = 0,
such as the mixing of two ideal gases.

Section 9.13 ∆H has units of kJ, ∆S has much smaller units of J/K. Thus, reaction spontaneity as
measured by ∆G = ∆H –T∆S is usually dominated by ∆H except at high temperatures
or when the reaction results in an increase in the number of moles of gaseous
products.

Lecture/Laboratory Demonstration References

Section 9.6 Bassam Z. Shakhashiri, “Endothermic Reactions of Hydrated Barium Hydroxide and
Ammonium Salts,” Chemical Demonstrations, A Handbook for Teachers of
Chemistry, Vol. 1 (The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1983), pp. 10-12.

Section 9.7 Bassam Z. Shakhashiri, “Boiling Water in a Paper Cup: Heat Capacity of Water,”
Chemical Demonstrations, A Handbook for Teachers of Chemistry, Vol. 3 (The
University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1989), pp. 239-241.

Section 9.7 Lee R. Summerlin, Christie L. Borgford, and Julie B. Ealy, “A Chemical Hand
Warmer,” Chemical Demonstrations, A Sourcebook for Teachers, Vol. 2 (American
Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1988), pp. 101-102.

78
 Chapter 9—Thermochemistry: Chemical Energy

Section 9.7 Bassam Z. Shakhashiri, “Chemical Cold Pack,” Chemical Demonstrations, A

Handbook for Teachers of Chemistry, Vol. 1 (The University of Wisconsin Press,
Madison, 1983), pp. 8-9.

Section 9.7 Bassam Z. Shakhashiri, “Heat of Neutralization,” Chemical Demonstrations, A

Handbook for Teachers of Chemistry, Vol. 1 (The University of Wisconsin Press,
Madison, 1983), pp. 15-16.

Section 9.7 Lee R. Summerlin and James L. Ealy, Jr., “Endothermic Reaction: Ammonium
Nitrate,” Chemical Demonstrations, A Sourcebook for Teachers, Vol. 2 (American
Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1988), p. 65.

Section 9.11 Lee R. Summerlin, Christie L. Borgford, and Julie B. Ealy, “Making Canned Heat,”
Chemical Demonstrations, A Sourcebook for Teachers, Vol. 2 (American Chemical
Society, Washington, DC, 1988), pp. 111-112.

Literature References
Section 9.7 John J. Fortman, “Analogical Demonstrations,” J. Chem. Educ., Vol. 69, 1992, 323-
324.

Section 9.7 Charles M. Wynn, Sr., “Heat Flow vs. Cash Flow: A Banking Analogy,” J. Chem.
Educ., Vol. 74, 1997, 397-398.

Section 9.7 Brother Thomas McCullogh, “A Specific Heat Analogy,” J. Chem. Educ., Vol. 57,
1980, 896.

Section 9.7 Doris R. Kimbrough, “Heat Capacity, Body Temperature and Hypothermia,” J.
Chem. Educ., Vol. 75, 1998, 48-49.

Section 9.11 Donald J. Wink, “The Conversion of Chemical Energy. Part 1. Technological
Examples,” J. Chem. Educ., Vol. 69, 1992, 108-111.

Section 9.11 Gustav P. Dinga, “Hydrogen: The Ultimate Fuel and Energy Carrier,” J. Chem.
Educ., Vol. 65, 1988, 688-691.

Section 9.11 Israel Dostrovsky, “Chemical Fuels from the Sun,” Scientific American., Vol. 265,
1991, pp. 102-107.

Section 9.11 Harold H. Schobert, “The Geochemistry of Coal. Part II: The Components of Coal,”
J. Chem. Educ., Vol. 66, 1989, 290-293.

Section 9.12 John J. Fortman, “Pictorial Analogies III: Heat Flow, Thermodynamics, and
Entropy,” J. Chem. Educ., Vol. 70, 1993, 102-103.

Media References

Section 9.3 Expansion Work activity from the Instructor Resource DVD

Section 9.3 Work of Gas Expansion movie from the Instructor Resource DVD

79
 Chapter 9—Thermochemistry: Chemical Energy

Section 9.4 Signs for q and w activity from the Instructor Resource DVD

Section 9.4 Heat Transfer activity from the Instructor Resource DVD

Section 9.6 Enthalpies of Chemical Change activity from the Instructor Resource DVD

Section 9.6 Thermite movie from the Instructor Resource DVD

Section 9.6 Changes of State movie from the Instructor Resource DVD

Section 9.9 Formation of Aluminum Bromide movie from the Instructor Resource DVD

Section 9.10 Bond Dissociation activity from the Instructor Resource DVD

Section 9.12 Airbags movie from the Instructor Resource DVD

Section 9.12 Spontaneous Process activity from the Instructor Resource DVD

Section 9.13 Formation of Water movie from the Instructor Resource DVD

Section 9.13 Formation of Water activity from the Instructor Resource DVD

80
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 Any boy can easily convert a toy rubber balloon into a real flier by
constructing the simple device shown in the illustration for filling it
with hydrogen. Procure a clay pipe and break off the stem near the
bowl. Bore a hole in a cork, or preferably a rubber stopper, selected
to fit some bottle and insert the smaller end of the pipestem in the
hole. As the stem tapers, if the hole has been made for the smaller
end, a tight fit is assured by simply pressing the stem well into the
cork. Tie the open end of the stem on the balloon tightly over the
larger end of the pipestem, and have ready a thread to tie the stem
of the balloon when it is filled.
Procure from a local drug store 1 oz. of hydrochloric acid. Place
some nails, or better still, a few strips of zinc, in the bottle and cover
them with a little water, then pour a small quantity of the hydrochloric
acid into the bottle and assemble as shown in the illustration. In a
few minutes hydrogen gas will be given off, and if the joints are tight,
the balloon will begin to fill. After it has expanded as much as it will
stand without breaking, tie the end with the thread, and cut off any
parts of the mouthpiece that may weigh it down. If sufficient gas has
been passed into the balloon it will rise to the ceiling. Balloons filled
in this manner have risen to a height of several hundred feet.
Caution: Do not allow the hydrochloric acid to come in contact with
the skin or clothing, as it may cause frightful burns. Do not under any
circumstance fill the balloon near a flame or allow fire to come near
the bottle.—Contributed by Ralph C. Jenkins, Manchester, Vt.
 How to Polish Instrument Bases
There seems to be a feeling among mechanical and electrical
experimenters that there is something mysterious about the process
of wood finishing, and often one may see a really fine piece of
apparatus spoiled by mounting it on a shellacked baseboard. I have
found that it is a very simple matter to produce almost a piano finish
on all woods, even those as soft as poplar, in the following manner.
Quick-drying wood dyes should be avoided. Simply rub down a piece
of ordinary water-color cake into some plain water and apply freely
with a rag, rubbing it in well. Any color may be obtained in this way,
but if this is not convenient, use an oil stain made quite thin with
turpentine. Next apply a thin coat of shellac, which should be
sandpapered when it is dry. A coat of ordinary varnish is then
applied, and when this is thoroughly dried, rub lightly with fine steel
wool. One coat of varnish may be sufficient, although several coats
will produce a richer finish. Rub the last coats down well with an oily
rag dipped in some abrasive material, such as tooth powder or metal
polish, and finish with a simple oil rub. A beautiful, soft, transparent
effect may be obtained in this way on very ordinary woods. Any
open-grained woods, such as oak, must be filled with a paste filler
after staining.—Contributed by John D. Adams, Phoenix, Ariz.
 Locating Droplight in the Dark

The Cord Fastened to the Door Casing is Easily Located and Followed to the
Lamp

A simple device for locating a droplight can be had by putting a

nail or screw eye into the side of the door casing, high enough to
clear persons passing under it, but within easy reach of an uplifted
hand, and running a cord from it to the light. It is not difficult to locate
the cord attached to the casing and to follow it to the light.—
Contributed by H. S. Craig, Rushford, Minnesota.

¶If kerosene oil is used when drilling, reaming, or turning malleable

iron, it will make the work much smoother.
 How to Make an Experimental Lead Screw

A Copper Wire Wrapped around and Soldered to a Straight Rod for a Lead
Screw

Often in experimental work a long, narrow, parallel screw is

desired for regulating, or moving, some part of the apparatus in a
straight line. A simple way of making such a screw is to tin
thoroughly a small straight rod of the required length and diameter.
After wiping off all the surplus solder while it is yet hot, wrap it with a
sufficient length of bright copper wire and fasten the ends. This wire
is then securely soldered in place by running the solder on while
holding the screw over a blue gas flame. To make the solder run
freely, brush frequently during the heating with a small mucilage
brush dipped into the soldering acid. An even pitch can be secured
by winding on two wires side by side at the same time, the second
one being unwound before soldering.
 Self-Setting Rat Trap

The Paper Stretched over the Barrel Top was Cut after Feeding the Rats on It
for Some Time

A suburbanite successfully trapped a bunch of rats by stretching a

piece of stout elastic paper on the top of an open barrel. Spreading
food on this paper he allowed it to remain until the suspicions of the
rats were allayed, then he cut two right-angled slashes in the paper
with a razor. Next morning he found seven of the pests in the barrel.
 Smoker’s Cabinet or Cellarette

The Smoker’s Cabinet Makes an Attractive Addition to the Furniture of a

Den, and should be Made Up and Finished to Match Other Pieces of the
Room

This design, when completed, takes up a wall space 20 in. wide by

31 in. high, and extends out 14 in. The material necessary for it is as
follows:
2 sides, ⁷⁄₈ by 14 by 31 in.
1 back, ³⁄₄ by 14 by 28¹⁄₈ in.
1 bottom, ⁷⁄₈ by 14 by 20 in.
1 top, ⁷⁄₈ by 10¹⁄₄ by 18³⁄₄ in.
1 bottom shelf, ⁷⁄₈ by 10¹⁄₄ by 14 in.
Door:
2 stiles, ³⁄₄ by 2 by 14¹⁄₂ in.
2 rails, ³⁄₄ by 2 by 10 in. (not including tenons, if such are desired).
1
 panel, ³⁄₈ by 10³⁄₄ by 11¹⁄₄ in.
Upper drawer:
1 front, ³⁄₄ by 4 by 14 in.
1 back, ³⁄₈ by 3¹⁄₄ by 13¹⁄₂ in.
2 sides, ¹⁄₂ by 4 by 9⁷⁄₈ in.
1 bottom, ³⁄₈ by 9⁵⁄₈ by 13¹⁄₂ in.
Lower drawer:
1 front, ³⁄₄ by 5 by 14 in.
1 back, ³⁄₈ by 4¹⁄₄ by 13¹⁄₂ in.
2 sides, ¹⁄₂ by 5 by 12⁷⁄₈ in.
1 bottom, ³⁄₈ by 12⁵⁄₈ by 13¹⁄₂ in.
1 piece for keys, ³⁄₄ by 2¹⁄₄ by 6¹⁄₄ in.
1 pair hinges.
2 drawer pulls.
Screws and nails.

In constructing the cabinet, the outer frame should first be made.

The sides can be laid out and cut to the desired design. The top and
bottom crosspieces should then be squared up, and the tenons cut
as shown, the bottom tenons extending farther, to balance the
design. The top is set in ³⁄₄ in. from the back edge. Holes should be
marked and cut for the ³⁄₄-in. keys, after which the four parts may be
assembled, and suitable keys driven in place. The back for the
cabinet is made from ³⁄₄-in. material, squared up to fit between the
sides, and be flush with their top edges while resting on the bottom
crosspiece. It can be fastened in place with nails. The top and
bottom pieces of the cabinet proper can then be made, and secured
in place with round-head screws, after which the door may be made
and fitted. The stiles and rails of the door should be rabbeted for a
³⁄₈-in. square groove, to hold the panel in place. The frame can be
made sufficiently strong, if properly glued and held together with
dowel pins passing through the stiles into the rails. If it is desired to
fasten the frame with tenons, an extra amount must be added to the
length of the rails given in the stock list. The panel should not be
glued in place, as the shrinkage of the wood will cause it to crack.
 In making the drawers, the front should be rabbeted for a groove
to fit the drawer bottom, and sidepieces can be fitted and nailed in
place. These should be rabbeted for grooves, into which the bottom
and end pieces fit.
If the cabinet is finished in mission style, or fumed oak, hammered
copper or brass hinges and drawer pulls will go well with the general
appearance of the design.
 Skis and Ski-running
Running, Jumping and Climbing
By Stillman Taylor

Part II

Before the beginner makes the attempt to ski, he should see that his
complete outfit is perfectly suited to his purpose. The shoes
should be nicely adjusted to fit snugly between the metal toe plates
of the binding, and new holes should be punched in the straps
wherever needed to adjust the harness snugly and comfortably to
the feet. Many of the positions required in executing the various
turns and swings may be practiced at home, that the novice may get
some idea of the correct position of the feet and body assumed by
expert skiers. For the initial practice outside, it is a good plan to
select a frosty day when the snow is old and settled by the wind.
This will introduce the novice to the sport under favorable conditions,
while if the first trials are made shortly after a heavy snowfall, or
upon a mild day when the snow is thawing, only discouragement will
be experienced. Begin with one stick—or two if timid—and pick out
an easy-sloping hill with a gradual run to the level ground. A few
scattered trees and rocks will do no harm, for it is a good plan to
learn how to avoid them from the beginning.

How to Turn on Skis

This and the correct manner of standing on skis are easily

mastered if the beginner will but remember that the weight of the
body should rest largely upon the advanced foot without bending the
body at the ankle too much, or raising the heel from the ski. This is
the correct position to assume when standing for a rest and for
sliding, and this as well as turning should be practiced on the level.
To make the kick turn, simply raise the point of the ski until the heel
rests on the snow, as shown in Fig. 1. Swing the ski around by
turning the point out and back until the two skis are point to heel, as
shown in Fig. 2. When this, the most difficult position of the three, is
assumed, raise the point of the other ski as high as convenient to
avoid tripping, keep the heel down and swing the ski around over the
heel of the other until both are facing in the same direction, as shown
in Fig. 3. A little practice will make it possible for the novice to turn
quickly, and if all turns are made with the advanced foot, when
practicing on the level, no trouble will be experienced later on in
attempting to turn on a steep slope. The stick is really indispensable
for this practice, and while two may be used, the single stick will be
found assistance enough for any active person.
When skiing on level ground the correct movement is rather more
of a slide than the motion used in walking or skating. The body is
thrown forward on one ski and the slide is made with both feet, most
of the body weight being thrown on the advanced ski, while the rear
foot is slid forward without stopping the forward travel, as shown in
Fig. 4. The expert skier moves forward in long gliding steps without
raising the ski, but bending the knees slightly to slide the ski ahead.
The feet should be kept as close together as possible to make a
narrow track and the stick used to lengthen the slide. At the
beginning it is a good plan to endeavor to make a long slide with
each advancement of the foot, rather than strive to take long steps.
The speed of level running depends, of course, upon the condition of
the snow. On hard, well-packed snow, sliding is easiest and greater
speed obtained, while in deep and soft snow less speed is the rule.
When skiing on the hard snow of a road, four miles an hour is the
average speed, and for average level running, the skier will cover
about the same distance as when walking along a good path.
 Fig. 9
Fig. 1 The Skier
Raise the Runs
Point of the Straight
Ski until the Downhill on
Heel Rests One Ski and
on the Uses the
Snow Other as a
Brake
Fig. 2 Fig. 8
Swing the On Hard
Ski Around Snow the
by Turning Edges of
the Point the Skis
Out and may be
Back Used to
 Check the
Speed
Fig. 7
Fig. 3
When
Raise the
Running
Point of the
Downhill
Other Ski as
One Ski
High as
should Be in
Convenient
Advance of
to Avoid
the Other a
Tripping
Few Inches
Fig. 4
The Body is
Thrown
Forward on
One Ski and Fig. 6
the Slide is The
Made with Herringbone
Both Feet is Much
Fig. 5 Used When
The Skier the Skier
Naturally Wishes to
Places His Travel up a
Skis at Short and
Right Steep
Angles Incline
Rather than
Permit the
Slipping
Backward

When traveling uphill, the regular sliding gait will suffice if the
slope is gradual, but when a steep grade is encountered and the ski
slips backward, the skier stands quite erect, raises the point of his
ski about 3 in., and slaps it down smartly, without pulling it backward
or making any attempt to push his body forward with the stick. This
slap of the ski makes the smooth surface of the runner adhere better
than when the runner is slid forward in the usual manner. If the hill is
very steep, the skier will naturally place his skis at right angles rather
than permit the slipping backward. This is known as “side-stepping,”
and is shown in Fig. 5. In doing this, the heel of the ski must be
raised clear of the snow and the upper foot lifted uphill, then the
lower foot brought up to the last step of the upper foot, hence it is
extremely tiring for other than a short distance.
A variation of this movement, which is known to skiers as the “half
side step.” and which is made by advancing the foot with the legs
somewhat wider apart, and the skis placed at not quite so acute an
angle with the hill, is more useful when climbing the ordinary steep
grade and is far less laborious. If the skier knows how to handle his
implements, side-stepping may be done backward when necessary.
The “herringbone” is another step which is much used when the
skier wishes to travel up a short and steep incline. This step is made
by stretching the legs rather wide apart and pointing the toes out, as
shown in Fig. 6, at a decided angle, so that the knees are bent
inward and the inside edges of the skis cut into the snow. A variation
of this is the “half herringbone,” the skis being turned out at a less
acute angle. These special steps for special purposes are all useful
now and then in mountain climbing, but when a long distance is to be
covered, the skier will conserve his energy by mounting the hill in a
zigzag fashion rather than attempting to climb straight up. The track
of the skier will then resemble the course of a boat tacking through a
narrow inlet against a head of wind, and while more ground is
covered than when going straight up the steepest part of the hill,
progress is faster and much hard work is avoided.
When running straight downhill, one ski should be in advance of
the other a few inches, and the skis must be held quite close
together so that they touch, or nearly so, as shown in Fig. 7. To
make a narrow track, most expert skiers hold the knees together with
the back knee slightly bent. However, the body should be perfectly
and easily balanced. This is done, more or less, intuitively, by
beginning the run with the body thrown on the advanced foot, and
when full speed is attained the weight automatically shifts to the rear
foot. The novice will find it difficult at first to keep the skis together,
there being an almost uncontrollable desire to separate them to gain
a better balance. A good track will come with a little practice, but if
the skis are too short, or made without a groove, even an expert
would be compelled to keep his feet a trifle apart and make a double
track in order to keep from falling.
 Fig. 10
The Christiania Swing is Accomplished by Pressing with Both Heels at the
Same Time While the Stick Digs Well into the Snow Above

When making the start preparatory for coasting downhill, the

novice may, if the slope is moderately steep, face in the desired
direction and assume the proper position by supporting himself with
the stick. On most very steep slopes, where the best coasting is to
be had, this is quite out of the question, and the skier must step
around quickly by moving the lower ski first. This will be somewhat
difficult to do until the novice gains more confidence, which will
quickly come after a little practice, and it is a good plan to practice
starting from the slope without the aid of the stick to anchor the body.
Owing to the fact that the skis do not reach much speed at the start
of the coast, even the slow novice will have plenty of time to make
the turn and face in the right direction before much speed is attained.
A comparatively crouching position, secured by bending the knees
and the body at the waist, will much lessen the liability of a fall
forward. This position enables the skier to control the balance of his
body with more certainty, and especially when coasting on a hill
where patches of ice, or crusted snow, and soft spots of unpacked
snow are encountered, a condition usually found wherever skiing is
enjoyed. When coasting, the stick, or sticks, should be firmly
grasped at the upper end with the looped thong, or strap, over the
wrist, and the end dragging behind. Balancing is done entirely at the
waist, and for straightaway running, the weight of the body will rest
largely upon the rear ski. The long running surface of the ski will
carry the skier over many bumps and hollows without disturbing the
balance of the body or causing a fall, providing the novice does not
lose his nerve. It is necessary to practice on rough and uneven
ground if the skier desires ever to attain much expertness, and
plenty of falls must be expected, but not dreaded by the beginner. A
fall on skis is by no means fraught with danger, and one may fall with
impunity providing all muscles are relaxed. Many beginners find
falling the easiest manner of stopping, but this should not be
necessary, providing the hints given are well understood and
practiced. However, the novice should have no fear of falling if he
wants to become proficient on skis, and to offset any timidity, which
so very often causes the novice to lean backward and fall in this
direction, it is a good plan to lean well forward to check this natural
tendency. Getting up after a fall is easily enough managed if the
head is pointing up the slope, but when the position is reversed
much floundering is necessitated. It would seem that this would be
obvious to all, yet the majority of beginners often forget it altogether.
Braking with the stick is only effective when the body is properly
balanced, and the stick is kept well forward and as nearly vertical as
possible. Straddling the stick, sitting upon it, or leaning backward on
it held at an angle, are slovenly methods which every novice should
avoid.
The “snowplow” is most largely used by all good skiers for braking,
stopping, and turning. This is accomplished by stretching the legs
wide apart and at the same time turning the toes in as much as
possible, thus presenting the side of the ski to the snow and
retarding the speed. Aside from straddling the legs wide apart, the
novice will have no trouble in learning this useful knack. For the first
practice, pick out a fairly steep hill road, or a hillside where the snow
is old and not soft. Begin the run as for coasting, and when good
speed has been attained, spread the legs wide apart, turn the toes in
and endeavor to control the speed with the skis rather than depend
upon the stick. On hard snow the edges of the ski may be used to
check the speed, but on ordinary soft and well-packed snow, the
runner may be kept quite flat. This is well shown in Fig. 8.
The knack of “stemming” is a variation of the snowplow, inasmuch
as the skier runs straight downhill on one ski, and turns the heel of
the other ski outward and downward and uses it as a brake, as in
Fig. 9. This is a very useful movement, and is largely used when
coasting down steep slopes, and when one has learned the knack of
it, stemming will serve for braking and steering, and is useful for
stopping by turning the skiing course uphill. To earn it, select a steep
hillside, coast down at an angle, with the feet a trifle part, and
endeavor to retard the speed with the stick and turn the heel of the
lower ski outward. This makes the turn and the skier faces uphill and
comes to a stop. By turning the heel of the lower ski outward and the
heel of the upper ski inward, the skis will travel downhill with a sort of
snowplow movement. When practicing these movements, the
beginner should endeavor to use the stick as little as possible and
learn to depend upon the skis for controlling the speed.
The “side slip” is useful on steep slopes, and is done by turning
the skis so that the runners are at a decided angle to the course
traveled. This affords the maximum braking by the skis alone, and is
especially effective when combined with the braking done with the
stick. Side-slipping may, of course, be done while the skier is
traveling forward, by keeping the skis close together so that the
edges almost touch. While this movement checks the speed in much
the same manner as stemming, side-slipping is less tiresome, since
the weight of the body gives the required braking effect, while, in
stemming, the muscles are called upon to keep the heel pressing
outward.