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Detailed contents

Foreword xiii
James N. Rosenau

How to use this book xx

Guided tour of the Online Resource Centre xxii
Acknowledgements xxiv
Notes on contributors xxvi

Introduction 1
Steve Smith, Amelia Hadfield, and Tim Dunne
The contemporary relevance of foreign policy 2
Foreign policy theory: disciplinary groundings 4
Organization of the third edition 7

SECTION 1 Foreign policy analysis: Theoretical and historical perspectives

1 The history and evolution of foreign policy analysis 13

Valerie M. Hudson
Introduction: three paradigmatic works 13
Classic FPA scholarship (1954–1993) 17
The psychological and societal milieux of foreign policy decision making 23
FPA self-reflection in the late 1970s and 1980s 27
Conclusion: contemporary FPA’s research agenda 30
2 Realism and foreign policy 35
William C. Wohlforth
Introduction 35
What is realism? 36
The development of realist theories 37
Realist analysis of foreign policy 42
Using realism in analysing foreign policy 47
Conclusion: hedgehogs, foxes, and analysing foreign policy 50
3 Liberalism and foreign policy 54
Michael W. Doyle
Introduction 54
Liberalism 55
Liberal foreign relations 56
Mitigating trade-offs 69
Conclusion 76
viii Detailed contents

4 Constructivism and foreign policy 79

Trine Flockhart
Introduction 79
What is constructivism? 81
Applied constructivism 82
The essence of constructivism 83
Constructivism meets foreign policy 90
Conclusion 93
5 Discourse analysis, post-structuralism, and foreign policy 95
Lene Hansen
Introduction 95
Post-structuralism 97
Studying foreign policy discourses 102
Conclusion—the scope, strengths, and weaknesses of discourse analysis 107

SECTION 2 Analysing foreign policy: Actors, context, and goals

6 Actors, structures, and foreign policy analysis 113

Walter Carlsnaes
Introduction 113
Historical background 115
The role of actors and structures in ‘process’ approaches to FP 116
The role of actors and structures in ‘policy’ approaches to FP 118
Conclusion 124
7 Foreign policy decision making: Rational, psychological,
and neurological models 130
Janice Gross Stein
Introduction 130
Commonsensical understandings of rationality 131
Psychological models: the ‘cognitive revolution’ 132
Neuroscience, emotion, and computation 139
Conclusion 143
8 Implementation and behaviour 147
Elisabetta Brighi and Christopher Hill
Introduction 147
When actors meet their environment—theoretical issues 148
The practical importance of context 157
The instruments of foreign policy 161
Conclusion 166
 Detailed contents ix

9 Public diplomacy 168

Caitlin Byrne
Introduction 168
The origins and evolution of public diplomacy 170
Defining the new public diplomacy 172
Theorizing public diplomacy 176
Public diplomacy in action 179
Public diplomacy 2.0 182
Conclusion 183
10 The role of media and public opinion 186
Piers Robinson
Introduction 186
Public opinion and foreign policy 188
Media and foreign policy 190
Procedural versus substantive criticism and influence 196
Media, public opinion, and theoretical frames 198
New developments: organized persuasive communication
and the ‘war on terror’ 202
Conclusion 204
11 The primacy of national security 206
Brian C. Schmidt
Introduction 206
Realism and national security 209
Security studies and national security 212
National security and American grand strategy 215
Conclusion 219
12 Economic statecraft 222
Michael Mastanduno
Introduction 222
Economic statecraft: instruments and objectives 224
Economic sanctions: not always successful, but still useful 227
Economic incentives: an under-appreciated instrument of statecraft? 235
Economic interdependence: source of political harmony or conflict? 238
Conclusion 239
13 Duties beyond borders 242
Michael Barnett
Introduction 242
Duties beyond borders 243
Theories of foreign policy and duties beyond borders 245
x Detailed contents

Are foreign policies becoming kinder and gentler? 248

The tragedy of Rwanda 250
Libya: case of interests or responsibilities? 255
Conclusion 257

SECTION 3 Foreign policy case studies

14 The Cuban Missile Crisis 263

Graham Allison
Introduction 263
Operation Anadyr 264
Why missiles in: four hypotheses 267
Why American blockade 271
Why Soviet withdrawal of missiles from Cuba 275
Epilogue: three conceptual frameworks for analysing foreign policy 280
15 Canada and antipersonnel landmines: The case for human
security as a foreign policy priority 291
Lloyd Axworthy
Introduction 291
The context 295
The process 301
Establishing a legacy, planning for the future 307
16 Neoconservatism and the domestic sources of American
foreign policy: The role of ideas in Operation Iraqi Freedom 315
Yuen Foong Khong
Introduction 315
Neoconservatism as a domestic source of American foreign policy 317
The four tenets of neoconservative foreign policy thought 320
Neoconservatives and the slaying of the Iraqi monster 323
Neoconservatism in the context of other factors 327
Conclusion 329
17 China and the Tian’anmen Crisis of June 1989 334
Rosemary Foot
The external consequences of China’s open-door policy 335
The human rights issue before Tian’anmen 337
The Tian’anmen crackdown 338
Immediate foreign policy consequences 345
China’s foreign policy response to sanctions 347
The deepening of China’s involvement with human rights 349
China’s emergence as a significant global actor 350
Conclusion 351
 Detailed contents xi

18 India and the World Trade Organization 356

Amrita Narlikar
Introduction 356
From the margins of the GATT to the core of the WTO 358
The political economy of rising influence 362
Institution-specific explanations: learning to negotiate successfully 364
Negotiating culture: an explanatory variable 370
The burden of rising power 372
Conclusion 373
19 Rising Brazil and South America 376
Arlene B. Tickner
Introduction 376
Brazilian diplomacy: methods and mechanisms 378
Three keys to Brazil’s rise 381
Why South America? 384
Power without leadership 387
Conclusion 390
20 Australia and global climate change 394
Matt McDonald
Introduction 394
Global climate change and the UNFCCC 395
Australia and the dilemmas of climate action 399
Australia and the global climate regime 401
Conclusion 408
21 Israeli–Egyptian (in)security: The Yom Kippur War 411
Gareth Stansfield
Introduction 412
The legacies of the Six-Day War of 1967 415
Foreign policy thematics 424
Conclusion 427
22 What kind of power? European Union enlargement and beyond 431
Lisbeth Aggestam
Introduction 432
EU foreign policy 434
The Big Bang enlargement 436
Beyond enlargement: EU foreign policy in the neighbourhood 443
Conclusion: transformative power or political dwarf? 447
23 Energy and foreign policy: EU–Russia energy dynamics 451
Amelia Hadfield
Introduction 451
The role of energy in foreign policy 455
xii Detailed contents

Energy in post-Cold War reform 457

Pre-crisis 460
Security of supply crisis 465
Foreign policy perspectives 468
Conclusion 472
24 The failure of diplomacy and protection in Syria 476
Karin Aggestam and Tim Dunne
Introduction 476
From popular uprising to civil war 477
Meddling, mediating, muddling through 481
Great power cooperation and conflict 487
Conclusion 491

Glossary 495
Endnotes 505
Bibliography 512
Subject Index 551
Foreword
JAMES N. ROSENAU

My contribution to the analysis of foreign policy began on a blackboard. I was prompted to

clarify for students what variables were central to probing the dynamics of foreign policy. The
result was an eight-column matrix that listed the relative importance of five key variables in
eight types of countries (Rosenau 1966). That matrix still informs my teaching and research. It
also implicitly underlies more than a few of the chapters in this volume. Needless to say, I am
honoured that this volume takes note of my contribution to the field.
I called the eight-column matrix and the description of it a ‘pre-theory of foreign policy’. It
provoked sufficient interest among colleagues around the country to convene a series of con-
ferences that explored various facets of the pre-theory, which in turn led to the publication of
a collection of essays prepared for the conferences (Rosenau 1974). This collaboration among
some twenty scholars who had developed a keen interest in comparing foreign policies gave
rise to the founding of the Inter-University Comparative Foreign Policy (ICFP) project. The
members of ICFP remained in continual contact for some six years, thus demonstrating that
like-minded colleagues can pool their resources and sustain collaboration across some ten
universities during a period of diminishing support for comparative and quantitative research.
The matrix was impelled by the milieu of the field at that time. It was a period in which com-
parison was very much in vogue and it seemed to me that foreign policy phenomena were as
subject to comparative analysis as any other political process. Indeed, I still find it remarkable
that no previous analyst had undertaken a comparative enquiry of when, how, and why differ-
ent countries undertook to link themselves to the international system in the ways that they did.
In retrospect, it seems clear that the original pre-theory sparked wide interest not only
because it stressed the need for comparative analysis, but for several other reasons that also
underlay the enthusiasm for the ICFP. First, the pre-theory offered a means for analysing the
conduct of foreign policy in previous years as well as anticipating future developments in a
country’s external behaviour. Second, as stressed below, it provided a means for bringing for-
eign and domestic policy together under the same analytical umbrella. Third, it highlighted
the virtues of case studies as a basis for comparing, analysing, and interpreting foreign policy
phenomena. All of these central characteristics of the field are fully represented in the chap-
ters that comprise this volume.
Much progress has occurred in the field since the founding of the ICFP. The very fact that it is
now comfortably regarded as a ‘field’ is in itself indicative of how securely it has been established.
This is not to say, however, that the field is easily mastered. On the contrary, several of its key as-
pects pose difficult analytical problems. If politics is conceived as processes of trying to control the
actions and attitudes of other actors in the more remote environment, a formulation I have always
considered sound and worthy of applying to empirical materials (Rosenau 1963), it follows that
analysis must focus on a wide range of phenomena—from individuals and their orientations to the
groups and institutions that form the bases of societies, economies, and polities. Put succinctly,
little of human behaviour falls outside the scope of the analysis of foreign policy phenomena.
xiv Foreword

Some possible sources of fragmegration at four levels of aggregation

Levels of MICRO MACRO MACRO–MACRO MICRO–MACRO

aggregation ➞
Sources of
fragmegration

Skill revolution expands people’s enlarges the multiplies quantity constrains policy
horizons on a capacity of and enhances making through
global scale; government quality of links increased capacity
sensitizes them agencies to think among states; of individuals to
to the relevance ‘out of the box’, solidifies their know when, where,
of distant events; seize opportunities, alliances and and how to engage
facilitates a and analyse enmities in collective action
reversion to local challenges
concerns
Authority crises redirect loyalties; weaken ability of enlarge the facilitate the
encourage both governments competence of capacity of publics
individuals to and other some IGOs and to press and/
replace traditional organizations NGOs; encourage or paralyse their
criteria of to frame and diplomatic governments, the
legitimacy with implement policies wariness in WTO, and other
performance negotiations organizations
criteria
Bifurcation of adds to role facilitates generates empowers
global structures conflicts, divides formation of institutional transnational
loyalties, and new spheres of arrangements for advocacy groups
foments tensions authority and cooperation on and special
among individuals; consolidation of major global issues interests to pursue
orients people existing spheres in such as trade, influence through
towards local the multicentric human rights, the diverse channels
spheres of world environment, etc.
authority
Organizational facilitates multiple increases capacity renders the global contributes to
explosion identities, of opposition stage ever more the pluralism
subgroupism, groups to form and transnational and and dispersion
and affiliation press for altered dense with non- of authority;
with transnational policies; divides governmental heightens the
networks publics from their actors probability of
elites authority crises
Mobility upheaval stimulates enlarges the size heightens need increases
imaginations and and relevance for international movement across
provides more of subcultures, cooperation to borders that
extensive contacts diasporas, and control the flow lessens capacity
with foreign ethnic conflicts of drugs, money, of governments to
cultures; heightens as people seek immigrants, and control national
salience of the new opportunities terrorists boundaries
outsider abroad
 Foreword xv

Microelectronic enable like-minded empower accelerate constrain

technologies people to be in governments to diplomatic governments
touch with each mobilize support; processes; by enabling
other anywhere in render their secrets facilitate electronic opposition groups
the world vulnerable to surveillance and to mobilize more
spying intelligence work effectively
Weakening of undermines adds to the increases need lessens confidence
territoriality, states, national loyalties porosity of national for interstate in governments;
and sovereignty and increases boundaries and the cooperation on renders nationwide
distrust of difficulty of framing global issues; consensus difficult
governments and national policies lessens control to achieve and
other institutions over cascading maintain
events
Globalization swells ranks complicates intensifies trade increases efforts
of national of consumers; tasks of state and investment to protect
economies promotes uniform governments conflicts; generates local cultures
tastes; heightens vis-à-vis markets; incentives and industries;
concerns for jobs promotes business for building facilitates vigour of
alliances global financial protest movements
institutions

More important than its vast scope, however, this formulation is not easily subjected to
analysis. One not only needs to be familiar with the dynamics whereby states interact with
each other, but the internal processes whereby foreign policies are formed also need to be
probed. To ignore these processes by classifying them as ‘domestic’, and thus as outside
the analyst’s concerns, would be to omit central features of the behaviour one wants to
investigate. Students of domestic phenomena may be able to hold foreign inputs constant,
but the same cannot be said about the phenomena that culminate in foreign policies. In-
evitably the student of a country’s foreign policy must also be concerned with its internal
affairs. Put differently, he or she must be a student of sociology and psychology as well as
political science, economics, and history. No less important, they should have some knowl-
edge of the problems inherent in comparative enquiry. The methodologies of the field are
as salient as are the substantive problems that countries face in linking themselves to the
international system.
In short, foreign policy phenomena are inordinately complex. They encompass inputs that
can give rise to a variety of outputs, with a slight variation in one of the inputs having sizeable
consequences for the outputs they foster. Thus the causal processes are not easily traced.
They can be highly elusive when their variation spans, as it usually does, a wide range of inputs
that may vary from time1 to time2. Nor can the complexities be assumed away. They are too
central to the dynamics of foreign policy to ignore or bypass. One has no choice but to allow
for them and trace their consequences across diverse situations. Such a procedure facilitates
cogent analysis even as it risks drawing a less than complete picture.
The main characteristics of foreign policy—and the requirements they impose on analysts
of the subject—are fully observable in the ensuing chapters. Their authors demonstrate a keen
sensitivity to the problems of the field and the rewards for analysing them. They understand
the need for theory as well as empirical analysis of how any country conducts itself in the
xvi Foreword

international community. More than that, this understanding includes a grasp of how the
analysis must be varied to accommodate different approaches to the field.
In order to cope with the enormous variety of phenomena that may be relevant to the
study of foreign policy one has to select some of them as important and dismiss others as
trivial in so far as one’s enquiry is concerned. This process of selection is what being theo-
retical means. More accurately, the selected phenomena have to be examined in relation to
each other, as interactive, and the theoretician needs to grasp the dynamics of the interactive
processes as well as the domestic variables of the country of concern. Constructing incisive
theoretical perspectives is not easy, however. The process of explicating causal dynamics can
be very frustrating as well as very complicated. It is fairly easy to have a general sense of the
phenomena that underlie the foreign policy behaviour of interest, but it is quite another thing
to transform one’s general understanding into concrete, testable, and relevant hypotheses.
Put differently, specifying the dependent variables—the outcomes of a foreign policy input—is
readily conceived, but identifying and operationalizing the independent variables that foster
alterations in the dependent variable serves to challenge one’s grasp of the field. Everything
can seem relevant as an independent variable, but the analyst has to be selective and focus
on those dynamics that account for most of the variance conceived to be relevant to the
analysis. There is no need to account for 100 per cent of the variance, as some of it may be
due to chance factors that cannot readily be anticipated, but even accounting for, say, 90 per
cent can be difficult. Not only do analysts need to calculate the relative importance of the
different factors, but they also have to have some idea of how they interact with each other.
Consider, for example, the distinction between large and small countries. To differentiate
between the two, one has to have some sense of how a country’s size affects its conduct in
the international arena. Are small countries more aggressive abroad because of their limita-
tions? Do their foreign policies avoid confrontation because of an imbalance between the
resources at their disposal and those of the adversaries they contemplate taking on abroad?
Are their decision-making processes, in effect, paralysed by the relative size of their potential
adversaries? Such questions are not easily answered at first glance. And they become even
more difficult if one has to assess the amount of the variance involved.
However, many analysts have not been deterred by the problems encountered in estimat-
ing variances. They know that such estimates are essentially arbitrary, as few have a perspec-
tive founded on clear-cut notions of the range within which the causal potency of a variable is
specified. Nor are matters helped by stressing the relevance of a finding—‘other things being
equal’. Usually other things are not equal, so that clustering them together as if they were
equal can be misleading.
How, then, to proceed? If the available conceptual equipment cannot generate reliable hy-
potheses, and if a ceteris paribus (i.e. all things being equal) context has limited utility, how does
the analyst confront the task of framing and probing meaningful insights? The answer lies in
maintaining a focus on the potential rather than the pitfalls of comparative analysis. Even if the
underpinnings of a country’s foreign policy are ambiguous, one can nonetheless proceed to
examine what appear to be the main sources of the ambiguity, noting throughout the factors
that may undermine the analysis. To focus on the obstacles to an enquiry is to ensure that the
enquiry will fall short of what can be gleaned from the empirical materials at hand.
The best technique for moving ahead is that of specifying what independent variables
seem especially relevant to the phenomena to be explained even as one acknowledges that
 Foreword xvii

the sum of the variance they account for may fall short of 100 per cent. Such an acknowledge-
ment is not so much a statement of fact as it is a noting of the limits that confine the analysis.
Furthermore, even if only 80 per cent or 90 per cent of the variance is accounted for, such
findings are likely to be valuable despite the fact that they fall short of a full explanation. The
goal is not to account for all the variability, but to explain enough of it to enlarge our under-
standing of the key dynamics at work in the examined situation. Foreign policy phenomena
are too complex to aspire to a full accounting of all the dynamics at work in a situation. It is
enough to compare them carefully and draw conclusions about the central tendencies they
depict. A close reading of the ensuing chapters demonstrates that proceeding in this way can
yield deep and important insights into the diverse ways societies interact with their external
environments.
While most of the relevant independent variables are amply assessed throughout the for-
eign policy literature, two are less widely cited and thus can usefully be elaborated here. One
involves what I call the skill revolution and the other is the organizational explosion. Each ac-
counts for a sufficient proportion of the variance to warrant amplification and together they
significantly shape the conduct of any country’s foreign policy.

The skill revolution

Considerable evidence is available to demonstrate that people everywhere, in every country
and community throughout the world, are increasingly able to trace distant events through
a series of interactions back into their own homes or pocketbooks. The skill revolution is
understood to consist of three main dimensions: the analytical, the emotional, and the im-
aginative. The first of these involves an intellectual talent, an expanding ability to link the
course of events to the observer’s personal situation. Facilitated by the Internet and many
other technological innovations, people are ever more able to construct scenarios that depict
how situations in the arenas of world politics impact on their lives and well-being (Rosenau
2003: Chapter 10). The expansion of skills is presumed to occur through adding new scenarios
to those people employed in order to perceive and assess the situations of interest to them.
The emotional dimension of the skill revolution focuses on the way people feel about situ-
ations—to judge them as good or bad, welcoming or threatening—capacities that have also
expanded as a consequence of a world that is shrinking and impinging ever more closely on
their daily lives. The imaginative dimension depicts the capacity of people to envision alter-
native futures, lifestyles, and circumstances for themselves, their families, and their cherished
organizations.
The materials for wide-ranging imaginative musings are abundantly available in all parts
of the world. They include global television, soap operas, letters from relatives working as
maids in Hong Kong, cousins who find employment in Saudi Arabia, and children who marry
foreign spouses. The learning embedded in messages sent home is less directly experiential
for the recipients than are the encounters reported by their authors, but nevertheless it can
be a major contributor to the more worldly skills of those who do not travel. It may even
be that the letters and phone calls from relatives abroad can be as much a window on the
norms and practices of distant places as those offered on the television screen. These stimuli
are especially relevant for peoples in developing countries whose circumstances previously
limited contacts with other cultures and alternative lifestyles. Indeed, from the perspective
xviii Foreword

of those who have long been hemmed in by the realities of life on or below the poverty line,
the freeing up of their imaginative capacities is among the most powerful forces at work in
the world today.

The organizational explosion

Hardly less so than the population explosion, recent years have witnessed a veritable explo-
sion in the number of voluntary associations that have crowded onto the global stage. In all
parts of the world and at every level of community, people—ordinary folk as well as elites and
activists—are coming together to concert their efforts on behalf of shared needs and goals.
Exact statistics on the extent of this pattern do not exist (largely because so much of it occurs
at local levels and goes unreported), but few would argue with the propositions that the pace
at which new associations are formed and old ones enlarged is startling, so much so that to
call it an explosion is almost to understate the scale of growth. It has been calculated, for
example, that in 1979 Indonesia had only a single independent environmental organization,
whereas in 1999 there were more than 2000 linked to an environmental network based in
Jakarta (Bornstein 1999).

The social media explosion

Since the first edition of this book was published, we have, of course, witnessed the major
changes represented by the Arab Spring of 2011, which have further blurred the distinctions
between domestic and international politics, and further illustrate the interconnectedness
of all politics on the planet. This sees its most extreme example in the role of social media in
previously seemingly closed societies. The visions of Iranian protestors, or Syrian activists, or-
ganizing their protests by Twitter and Facebook show only too clearly that governments can
no longer control information flows. Such control was only ever partial, but the new social
media fundamentally breach the old walls of the state. In this sense, the rise of social media
represents a third revolution.

****

Integrating the skill revolution, the organizational explosion, and the political consequences
of the social media revolution into the analysis of the dynamics that shape foreign policy is
not an easy task. Not to do so, however, would be to greatly distort the analysis. Clearly, what
countries do abroad is highly dependent on the skills and attitudes shared among their popu-
lations at home. Taken together, the three variables account for a great deal of the variance
from one country to another and from one point in time to another.
 customer Book title Stage Supplier date
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20 How toand
Australia useglobal
this book
climate change
Matt Mcdonald

This book is enriched with a range of features designed to help you support and
reinforce
Chapter contents your learning. This guided tour shows you how to use your textbook fully and
Introduction 394
get the most out of your foreign policy study.
Global climate change and the UNFCCC regime 395
Australia and the dilemmas of climate action 399
Australia and the global climate regime 401
Conclusion 408

Reader’s guide
Reader’s guides
this chapter analyses australia’s approach to global climate change, particularly
its engagement with the climate change regime. this case study highlights two key
Each chapter opens with a reader’s guide to set the
points. the first is that australia’s changing approach to international negotiations on
climate change reflects a complex combination of domestic political considerations,
scene for upcoming themes and issues to be discussed
the ideology and foreign policy orientation of governments, and the state of inter- and indicate the scope of coverage within each chapter
national negotiations. While at times australia’s position seems to reflect domestic

customer
political constraints, at other times the australian government’s position seems to
Book title Stage
topic.
Supplier Date
Book Title OUP
Stage Supplier
be strongly influenced by the state of international cooperation. the second point
Foreign Policy First Proof
Date 18 april 2016
thomson Digital
is that australia’s changing approach to climate change cooperation illustrates the
Foreign Policy First Proof Thomson Digital
profound challenges for the climate change regime generally. In particular, the aus- 20 April 2016
tralian example suggests challenges for the climate change regime associated with
different and changing sets of state interests, complex ethical questions, the power
and institutionalized nature of existing political and economic arrangements, and
Chap TER
the varying drivers and effects of climate change in different 13 DuTiEs bEyonD boRDERs
places. 257

Boxes
box 13.5 obama on the syrian civil war
Introduction 497book, boxes provide you with
GlossAry Throughout the
Over the past two years, what began as a series of peaceful protests against the repressive regime of
Global climate change Bashar
hasal-Assad
emerged has turned
as oneintoofathe
brutal civil significant
most war. Over 100,000 people have
challenges been killed.
in world practitioners’
poli- Millions have perspectives, additional information, and
fled the country.
tics today. While uncertainty still Insurrounds
that time, America has worked
the specific with allies to provide
manifestations humanitarian
and time frame support,
of to
terfactual is to engage are not assumed
help the or
moderate opposition, taken as
and to given.
shape Constructivists
a political settlement. But I have
effects, climate change has the potential to directly threaten or displace millions of people en- practical
resisted calls for military illustrations of the theory described in the
action, because we cannot resolve someone else’s civil war through force, particularly after a decade of
and underminedogenize
bsence of the causal the livelihoods theofprocess
millions more, of interest
and posesand identity
a long-term formation.
threat to the sustain- main body of the text.
war in Iraq and Afghanistan.
would the outcome ability of life on the planet.
And thatWhile
is why,this
after is significant
careful enough,
deliberation, climate
I determined that change also constitutes
it is in the national security interests of the
a fundamental Energy
challenge dependence:
for the core institutions a situation
and practices in
of which
world the
politics. energy
the uncer-
United States to respond to the Assad regime’s use of chemical weapons through a targeted military strike.
? If the answer could
tainty associated needs
with ofeffects
Thethe a given
purpose of this actor
of strike
climate
would (usually
change a state)
undermines
be to deter Assad can
the
from using no longer
impetus
chemical tobe
for a genuinely
weapons, degrade his regime’s
d also test for theglobal
im- response, while varying degreesand toof contribution to global climate change—and
metability to use them,
indigenously make
through clear to the world
national that we will
energy not tolerate
sources. Thisvul- 2013).
their use (Obama
nerability to it—render attribution of responsibilities particularly difficult. and perhaps more
obliges the actor to depend upon the import of energy
of behaviour or phra- products from other exporters.
if Syria ever gets to a post-conflict phase, it will have an entire country to rebuild. But just
self from an unpleasant because the international community refused to use force does not mean that it did nothing.
Energy security: the combination of demand and
Glossary terms
Syria has been the recipient of one of the largest relief efforts, ever. and while humanitarian-
supply pressures
ism cannot linking
save a country, it canexporters and importers, both Key terms appear in bold throughout the text to alert
be a life-saver.
ory claiming that struc- of whom ultimately have the same goal, namely to
wer states can possess, ensure access to, transport of, and a market for energy you to each new concept. These terms are defined in a
Conclusion
resources required for the long-term and stable devel- glossary 21/04/16at theAM end of the book, which will prove very
mpetition.
1-Smith-Chap20.indd 394 11:50

opment of national
this discussion of the ideapower. helpful
of a duty to aid highlights how states are seemingly when
torn in two dif- you come to exam revision.
al realist theory thatCustomer ferent directions. there is thebook title
primacy of realpolitik and the expectation
stage
that the thomson
supplier
fundamental
date

rs. oUp
Engagement:
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Foreign policy
development
foreign policy is to protect of relationships
its national interest.
First proof
based not only does anarchy
digital 18 april 2016

on
drivetrust
statesand an alignment
towards this conclusion, ofsomotivations.
too do most of the powerful bureaucracies in the for-
entral plank of interna- eign policy process and most publics. Governments and societies are not inherently heartless.
s that liberal democra- Episodic news: a term
rather, when forced to choose between interestsused to describe and ethics, news they media
generally choose interests if
ow democracies. Some reports
the ethicalthat
choice are framed
imposes a real incost
terms or Chapof immediate
sacrifice.
tErFor every libya
8 implEmEntationevents there is and
one orbEhaviour
more Syria. 167
Yet, a distinguishing feature of modern global politics is a thickening of international soci-
hat democratic states and without broader context. A news report detailing
ety. although it might be far-fetched to posit the existence of an international
Key pointsof US troops during the 2003 Iraq War, but
Key points
community,
the
thereprogress
now exist rules, norms, and principles that bind states and societies together produc-
providing
ing an no broader
● ‘internationalization’
the international contextualization
of ethics.
environment and difficult to(e.g.
is fluidconsequently, there
manage. the arejusti-
Foreign genuine expectations
policy makers should be that
Athowever
the end of each chapter, the most important
ourages aggression by alert tonot
fication andtherationale
states pursue constant
only their feedback it provides
self-interest
for the butand
military alsoadapt
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could international
be clear
community
ate if it undertakes cer- their initial objectives.
and those imply the interests of states and people. While there is no expectation
described aspolicy
episodic.
concepts and
that states arguments discussed are summarized in
● Foreign is not self-executing; the implementation phasethatis critical
theytowillsuccess.
eptable. become committed cosmopolitans, there is the expectation not use sovereignty
astates
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path, they aremaking.
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come
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the
can distort foreign policy.
and even transform Do
community’s
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original ends. and universal
seek ●to uncover
aspirations.
the implementation law-governed
of foreign policy needs causal to beprocesses
highly flexible—it (posi-
is self-defeating to rely on one
tegy: a set of tactics tivism)?
the pull Or doalone,
we orinstead
of realpolitik
instrument and
onethe ask
push
strategy ofwhat
for long.makes such
internationalization
too meanpro-that foreign policy officials
recognize the extent to
● implementation which
takes placethey are expected
in several to broaden
different arenas the ethicallocal,
simultaneously—the purpose of their
the states for-
system,
ers, when one party’s cesses possible in the first place (interpretive modes of receiving
eign policy while also safeguarding
the global/transnational, and even the
thenational
domestic interest.
(of both the this canand
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state). it can
hose of the other. Tac- understanding)?
lead to
● a growing sense
implementation canofbehypocrisy—where
a purely technical executivestates matter.
seem to Yet,deliver
it too can nothing but disappoint-
entail major decisions
emands, refusal to make ment and thatempty
may turn promises.
out to have Yet, the very
strategic existence
implications. of hypocrisy
potentially, therefore, suggests that there
implementation is asare new
Ethics: concerns
political—and theasvalues
therefore ethical—aof actors,
dimension including
as any other aspectwhat of foreign policy.
ne’s minimum needs,
kinds of actions are right or wrong, what is a good life
d analysis, see John
and Further
how to readinglive it, what our obligations and respon-
ld Economy (Ithaca, NY:
sibilities are to others, and the application of moral
George, A. and Simons, W.E. (eds) (1994), The Limits of Coercive Diplomacy, 2nd edn (Boulder, CO:
rules and ethical principles to concrete problems and
Westview).
: a new round of situations.
the best discussion of how force and diplomacy are often combined, if not always to good effect.

ched at the Doha 14-Smith-Chap13.indd 257

Haass, Richard N. (2013), Foreign Policy Begins at Home: The Case for Putting America’s House in
20/04/16 6:38 PM
 ● the practice and scholarship of public diplomacy continue to evolve in step with the proliferation
of global actors, the emergence and spread of new media technologies, and the rising expectations
Key points
of hyper-connected, globally mobile public audiences.
● national security isisan
Public diplomacy essentially
described contested
as soft power’sconcept—it meansPublic
key instrument. different things toactivities
diplomacy differentcan
people.
● contribute
the toofthe
three S’s affective (attractiveness)
realism—statism, andself-help—contribute
survival, and normative (legitimacy)
to soft power ofofglobal
the primacy actors.
national
security.
the theory of social constructivism finds an easy synergy with public diplomacy’s relational tendencies.
xxi
●

● the prominence
emergence ofofnew
realism andtechnologies,
media the onset of the Cold War
including helped
social to has
media, establish the prevalence
transformed the way of
that
How to use this book
national security concerns
public audiences engage intoforeign
both academics andand
policy debate policy makers.
discussion.
● debates about grand strategy are explicitly related to competing conceptions of national security.

Questions
Questions
Questions
1. Should ordinary people be involved in the conduct of foreign policy?
A set of carefully devised questions help you to assess
1.
2. What
Why isdoes Wolfers mean
the american when he
experience sowrites that national
important security ispublic
to understanding an ambiguous symbol?
diplomacy today?
3. how
2. is public
doesdiplomacy simply
realist theory a euphemism
contribute to the for propaganda?
primacy of national security? your understanding and critically reflect on core
4. how
3. is international broadcasting
do the three a viable
S’s of realism accountinstrument of public
for the primacy of diplomacy?
national security? themes and issues.
5. What is the
4. newrelationship
about ‘new’between
public diplomacy?
the theory of realism and the field of security studies?
6. during
5. Do youthe
think thatWar,
Cold public
howdiplomacy canconceive
did scholars bring about change
of the in north
relationship Korea? nuclear weapons and
between
7. national
How does security?
public diplomacy contribute to power?
6.
8. What is the meaning
Does technology makeof public
national security? more effective?
diplomacy
7. how does a focus on the concept of human security change your understanding of national
security?
Further
8. reading
What is the best grand strategy for the USa to achieve national security?
Cull, N.J (2009a), ‘Public Diplomacy Before Gullion: Evolution of a Phrase’, in N. Snow and P. Taylor
(eds), Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy (New York: Routledge).
Further
Further reading
this chapterreading
sets out a brief history of the term ‘public diplomacy’ from patchy beginnings through to
the modern
Brown, coinage
M., Cote, O., of the phrase.S.E., and Miller, S. (eds), (2000), America’s Strategic Choices,
Lynn-Jones,
revised
Cull, edn (Cambridge,
N.J. (2009b), MA: MIT Lessons
‘Public Diplomacy:
To take your learning further, each section ends with a
Press). from its Past’, CPD Perspectives.
an informative
a typology surveydiplomacy’s
of public of the competing americanbased
main functions grandonstrategies for the
case studies reading list that will help you locate the key academic
post-Cold
from the past.War period.
Gray, C. (1999),
K.R.‘Clausewitz
(2010), ‘U.S.Rules,
PublicOK? The FutureNeglected
is the Past—with GPS’, Review of International
Fitzpatrick,
Studies, 25: 161–182.
Diplomacy’s Domestic Mandate’,
literature
CPD
examines the domestic dimensions of public diplomacy, drawing in particular on the american
in the field.
Perspectives.

One of the UK’s

experience, but leading
holdingstrategists
relevance arguing for the
for a wider continuing relevance of realism.
context.
Posen,
Gregory,Barry R. (2014),
B. (2011), Restraint:
‘American A New
Public Foundation
Diplomacy: for US Characteristics,
Enduring Grand Strategy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell
Elusive Transformation’,
University
Hague JournalPress).
of Diplomacy, 6: 351–372.
a
anpowerful
excellentargument of defines
article that why thepublic
USa needs to abandon
diplomacy for theprimacy and century,
twenty-first adopt a highlights
grand strategy of
its systemic
restraint.
features, and identifies those features, which are unique to the american experience and evolution of
public diplomacy.

10-Smith-Chap09.indd 184 21/04/16 2:53 PM

12-Smith-Chap11.indd 220 20/04/16 5:46 PM

Guided tour of the Online Resource Centre

The Online Resource Centre that accompanies this book provides both students and
lecturers with ready-to-use teaching and learning materials, designed to maximize the
learning experience.

www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/smith_foreign3e/

FOR STUDENTS
Flashcard glossary
A series of interactive flashcards containing key
terms and concepts has been provided to allow
you to check your understanding of terminology,
and to aid exam revision.
Guided tour of the Online Resource Centre xxiii

Timeline
The Online Resource Centre includes a timeline
so that you can find out about the different
periods in the evolution of foreign policy
analysis.

Web links
A selection of annotated web links makes it easy
to research those topics that are of particular
interest to you.

FOR LECTURERS
Teaching foreign policy cases
Steve Lamy introduces the case method of
teaching, an active teaching and learning
strategy which encourages critical analysis,
evaluation, and problem-solving.

Case studies
Additional case studies, including The Artic Race
and Britain and Iraq, are provided to supplement
the material in the book itself.

PowerPoint® slides
The fully customizable PowerPoint® slides are
available to download, offering a useful resource
to instructors preparing lectures and handouts.
Acknowledgements

All three editors are teachers of foreign policy. Steve Smith first taught foreign policy analysis
in the mid-1980s while a young lecturer at the University of East Anglia. Tim Dunne, who was
in Steve’s class in 1987–1988, taught comparative foreign policy at the University of Exeter,
and currently teaches and writes about decision making in relation to intervention at the
School of Political Science and International Studies at the University of Queensland. Amelia
Hadfield first taught foreign policy analysis at the University of Kent, Canterbury, and contin-
ues to research and teach FPA at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel.
The aim of the first edition was to gather into a single text the waterfront of themes that
ought to feature on a foreign policy course. The second and third editions continue that
same goal, with new and revised chapters written by first-rate scholars and instructors whose
ability to communicate their ideas via the research-led teaching of foreign policy analysis is
clearly revealed in the pages that follow. The book is nothing if not genuinely international;
the editorial team and the talented line-up of contributors drawn from the corners of the
globe.
During the long journey to publication, we could not have wished for better and more
supportive commissioning editors than Kirsty Reade and subsequently Sarah Iles at OUP.
Through various editions, we have been fortunate to draw on the support of several research
assistants: Dusan Radivojevic and Nika Jurcova helped with the second edition, and Michal
Gloznek and Constance Duncombe provided excellent support throughout the process of
putting together a new third edition.
We set out to assemble a book that could serve as an ideal resource for bringing courses on
foreign policy to life. If readers and instructors use it to debate and contest the great foreign
policy issues of our day, then the book will have made its mark. If readers and instructors do
this and draw on the major theories and concepts informing the study of foreign policy, then
we will have achieved more than we could have reasonably expected.
We are all three indebted to the work of Jim Rosenau in different ways. He graciously wrote
the Foreword to the first edition. When we first came up with the idea of asking Jim, we
thought it was a long shot. Within minutes of sending the invitation, we had an enthusiastic
reply that suggested all kinds of possible ways of opening Foreign Policy: Theories, Actors,
Cases. Such energy and creativity has marked out Jim’s contribution to a field which, more
than any other writer and thinker, he has shaped and defined.
As we were finishing the editing of the second edition, word came through that Jim ­Rosenau
had passed away (he died on 9 September 2011, aged 86, after suffering a stroke). Jim was
one of the most significant scholars working in foreign policy, and was one of the subject’s
founding fathers. His influence on foreign policy analysis was not only through his published
works, but also through the personal encouragement he gave to generations of students and
scholars. Jim only gave up teaching at George Washington University in 2009, and still started
each class by asking students to read out headlines from the New York Times and then asking
them ‘What is this an instance of?’, and how it related to ideas they had covered in the course.
His daughter, Margaret, said in one obituary that ‘he was in love with teaching and in love
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
and encourage. Since Colonel Philip Windham, Keith’s father, had
also fought under Marlborough, Keith had on one occasion asked
the old soldier some questions about the great Duke’s battles, and
found Preston very ready to hold forth on them, and in particular on
that bloody fight of Malplaquet, where he had commanded the
Cameronian regiment. And Keith remembered suddenly that the
Scottish friend of his father’s after whom he himself was named had
met his death at Malplaquet, and spoke to the old soldier about that
misty John Keith of whom he knew so little.
“Aye,” said the General, a Perthshire man himself, “I wondered
that ye should bear a Scots name in front of an English, Captain
Windham. I suppose yon Keith will have been in a Scottish regiment,
but I don’t mind of him. ’Tis thirty-six years syne, ye ken—a lang
time, more than your hale lifetime, young man.”
So John Keith, who had fallen on a Flanders battlefield nearly
forty years before, became more misty than ever. But Captain
Windham’s pre-natal connection with a Scot of Malplaquet had
interested old Preston in him, and he announced an intention of
reporting on the zeal and vigilance which the officer of the Royals
had displayed in the defence of the Castle.
From his chair the old General beckoned to that officer now, and
sent his servant out of hearing.
“Captain Windham, a word in your ear!” And, as Keith stooped,
he said gleefully, “’Tis a good word, if ever there was one. I’ve every
reason to believe that Edinburgh will be free of these Highland pests
the morn!”
Keith gave an exclamation. “They are evacuating the city, sir?”
The veteran chuckled. “They intend marching for England,
whence I pray not a man of ’em will return alive. The news has just
come in by a sure hand, but I had jaloused it already. In a day or two
ye’ll not see a plaid between Greyfriars and the Nor’ Loch!”

General Preston’s sure hand had carried perfectly correct tidings.

Against the wishes and the instincts of the Chiefs, Prince Charles
was about to march into England, believing that he would thus rally
to his standard those cautious English Jacobites on whose promised
support he built such large hopes, and many others too, who had
made no promises, but who would surely declare for him when he
appeared in person to lead them against their alien ruler.
And early on the morning of the first of November Ewen took his
farewell of Alison in Hyndford’s Close. Lochiel’s regiment, like the
bulk of the army, was already assembled at Dalkeith; for since
Prestonpans the Prince had never quartered troops in the city to any
great extent, and he himself was already gone. But Ewen, in order to
be with his own men in this strange country to which they were
bound, had resigned his position as aide-de-camp, and remained
behind in order to bring away the Cameron guard, who would
presently march out of Edinburgh with colours flying and the pipes
playing.
But here there was no martial display, only a knowledge that this,
and not the farewell at Ardroy in August, was the real parting. Ewen
was setting off to-day for something much more portentous than a
mere rendezvous—armed invasion. Yet some unspoken instinct
made them both try to be very matter-of-fact, especially Alison.
“Here is a sprig of oak for your bonnet, Ewen—you’ll be wearing
your clan badge now, I’m thinking. I picked it yesterday.” And she
fastened beside the eagle’s feathers a little bunch of sere leaves.
“And see, I have made you a new cockade . . . I doubt you’ll get your
clothes mended properly. England’s a dour place, I’m sure. Oh, I
wish you were not crossing the Border!”
“Nothing venture, nothing win,” replied Ewen tritely, looking down
at his bonnet, about which her fingers were busy. “I doubt, for my
part, that those oakleaves will bide long on their stalks, Alison, but
you may be sure I’ll wear them as long as they do. And the cockade
—’tis a very fine one, my dear—I’ll bring back to you somehow. Or
maybe you’ll get your first sight of it again in London!”
“I wonder will you meet Captain Windham anywhere in England?”
said Alison.
“How that fellow runs in your head, my darling! I vow I shall soon
be jealous of him. And I marching away and leaving him here in the
Castle—for I suppose he is there still. Make him my compliments if
you should meet him before setting out for Ardroy,” said Ewen,
smiling. For to Ardroy were his betrothed and her father retiring in a
day or two.
“Ewen,” said the girl seriously, taking him by the swordbelt that
crossed his breast, “will you not tell me something? Was there ever a
danger that, from the injury Captain Windham did you, you might
never have had the full use of your hand again?”
“Why, what put that notion into your head?”
“A word you let fall once, and an expression on Dr. Cameron’s
face one day when I mentioned the hurt to him.”
“For a day or two Archie did think it might be so,” conceded her
lover rather unwillingly. “And I feared it myself for longer than that,
and was in a fine fright about it, as you may imagine.—But, Alison,”
he added quickly, as, exclaiming, “Oh, my poor darling!” she laid her
head against him, “you are not to cast that up against Captain
Windham. It was I that took hold of his blade, as I told you, and I am
sure that he never meant——”
“No, no,” cried Alison, lifting her head, “you mistake me. No, I am
glad of what you tell me, because that hurt he did you is perhaps the
fulfilment of the ‘bitter grief’ which Angus said that he should cause
you . . . only happily it is averted,” she added, taking his right hand
and looking earnestly at the two red, puckered seams across palm
and fingers. “For that would have caused you bitter grief, Ewen, my
darling.” She covered the scars with her own soft little hands, held
the captive hand to her breast, and went on, eagerly pursuing her
exegesis. “Indeed, if for a time you believed that you would be
disabled always—how dare you have kept that from me?—he has
already caused you great grief . . . and so, that part is over, and now
he will only do you a service!”
But Ewen, laughing and touched, caught her to him with his other
arm.
“The best service Captain Windham can do is never to let me see
his face again, or I may remember how angry I was with him when I
found his letter and his guineas that night at Fassefern. Nor do I
think he’ll want to see mine, for in his soul he was not best pleased,
I’ll undertake, at being so lightly let off the other evening and shown
down the very secret stair he could not find.—But now, mo chridhe,
do not let us talk of the tiresome fellow any more. . . .”
 And five minutes later, when Hector Grant in his French uniform
appeared at the door, they had forgotten everything except that they
were parting.
“Come, Ardroy, you’ll be left behind,” he called gaily. “Dry your
tears, Alison, and let him go; we’ve eight good miles to cover.”
“I was not greeting, never think it,” said Alison as she was
released. “But oh, I’m wishing sore I could come with you two!”
“Indeed, I wish you could,” said Hector. “For I doubt the English
ladies cannot dance the reel.”
Alison looked from her brother to her lover and back again. She
might not have been crying, but there was little gaiety in her. “There’ll
be more than dancing over the Border, Hector!”
“There’ll be better than dancing, you mean, my lass,” said Hector
Grant, and his left hand fell meaningly on his sword-hilt. “I suppose I
may take a kiss of her, Ardroy?”
 III
THE EBB
“Then all went to wreck.”
—The Lyon in Mourning.
 CHAPTER I

There was a bitter wind sweeping across the Beauly Firth, and
Inverness on the farther shore lay shivering under a leaden sky. The
Kessock ferryman had to tug at his oars, although he carried but one
passenger, a gaunt, broad-shouldered young man, fully armed, who
sat looking across at the little town with rather harassed blue eyes.
Four months—four months and a week over—for to-day was the
seventh of March—since, full of hope and determination, the Prince’s
army had set out on the road to England. Of what avail those hopes?
England had not risen for the Stuarts, had not stirred. And yet, just
when it seemed that, if the invaders had put their fortunes to the
touch and pushed on, they might have gained a kingdom, they found
themselves turning their backs on their goal and trailing home again
over the Border. Little more than forty days had been spent on the
other side, and, save for the rear-guard action near Penrith, the
sword had not left its sheath there. The invasion had been a failure.
Yet, in spite of weariness and heartburnings, the little army had at
least recrossed Esk in safety—except those of it so mistakenly left to
garrison Carlisle—and many were not sorry to be back on Scottish
soil. But to have retreated once more after beating Hawley at Falkirk
in January, even though the bad weather had hindered pursuit and
prevented a more decisive victory, to have left Stirling, after failing to
take it, in such haste and disorder that the withdrawal had been
more like a rout, what name best befitted that strategy? For gradually
all the Lowlands had been occupied in their rear, and there was a
slow tide setting northwards after them which one day might be slow
no longer.
The Prince, maddened at the decision to withdraw north, which
was against his every instinct, had been told that the daily desertions
were so great as to leave no choice, that the only course was to
master the forts in the north, keep together a force until the spring,
and then increase it to fighting strength. But had the desertions been
so extensive? It was hard to judge, yet, from his own experience,
Ardroy would not have said so. Still, there were other difficulties,
other divisions; there was the preponderating influence of the Irish
favourites, who always had the Prince’s ear because they always fell
in with his opinions; there was the growing ill-feeling between him
and his able but hot-tempered general-in-chief, so acute that Ewen
had with his own ears heard Charles Edward charge Lord George
Murray behind his back with treachery. Yet Lochiel had been for
withdrawal, and whatever Lochiel did was right in Ewen’s eyes. He
was wondering to-day whether the Chief were still of the same
opinion; he had not seen him for over a fortnight.
The ferryman’s voice broke in on his passenger’s reflections. “’Tis
all much changed in Inverness now, sir, and for the better.” Evidently,
like most of the inhabitants, he was Jacobite at heart. “To think that
only two weeks agone I ferried Lord Loudoun and the Lord President
and the Chief of Macleod over in this very boat, and all their troops
crossing helter-skelter too, to get away from the Prince. . . . You’ll be
yourself, perhaps, from chasing after Lord Loudoun yonder?” he
added tentatively.
“Yes,” answered Ewen, his eyes still fixed on Inverness, “I am
from Lord Cromarty’s force.”
The reason why the Earl of Loudoun, commanding the district for
the Government, had evacuated Inverness without a battle, was
really due to the somewhat ludicrous failure of his attempt to seize
the person of the Prince when, in mid-February, the latter was the
guest of Lady Mackintosh at Moy Hall. Conceiving the idea of
surprising him there, the Earl had set out secretly at night with a
force of fifteen hundred men for that purpose. But timely warning
having been sent from Inverness, the Prince slipped out of Moy Hall,
and the whole of Lord Loudoun’s force was thrown into confusion,
and a part of it into headlong flight, by the ruse of Donald Fraser, the
Moy blacksmith, and four of Lady Mackintosh’s Highland servants,
who, by firing off their pieces in the dark and calling to imaginary
regiments to come up, re-enacted the comedy of High Bridge on an
even more piquant scale. Not only was the Earl obliged to return
ignominiously to Inverness, but the desertions from his Highland
companies consequent upon this affair were so great that he thought
it better to await Cumberland’s advance among the Whig clans of
Ross and Cromarty, to which he and his force accordingly retired;
and Prince Charles’s army had entered Inverness without a blow.
The water lapped the sides of the ferryboat impatiently. The sky
looked full of snow, and nearly as dark as on the day of Falkirk, while
the wind was even colder than Ewen remembered it as they had
plodded over Shap Fell in the December retreat from England. In
Cæsar’s time, as he used to read in his boyhood, armies went into
winter quarters. But all their marching and fighting had been done in
the severest season of the year, in autumn and winter; and who
knew what awaited them in the not less cruel rigours of a Highland
spring? For Cumberland, he knew, had been at Aberdeen since the
end of February.
Ewen frowned, and his thoughts went back to the somewhat
comic warfare from which he had just been recalled. For when Lord
Cromarty had been sent with a Jacobite force over the Moray Firth
after Lord Loudoun, the latter, retreating farther north into
Sutherland, established himself at Dornoch on the other side of the
deep-winding firth of that name, which Cromarty, having no boats,
could not cross. But directly Cromarty attempted to go round by the
head of the firth Lord Loudoun sent his men across by ferry to Tain,
on the Ross-shire side, once more; and when Lord Cromarty
returned to Ross, Lord Loudoun recalled his followers to Dornoch.
And thus a vexatious and absurd game of catch as catch can had
been going on, and might go on for ever unless the Prince could
send another detachment to hold Tain. No, Ewen was not sorry that
Lochiel had recalled him.
He pulled his bonnet with the draggled eagle’s feathers and the
soiled cockade farther down on his brows, and wrapped his plaid
round him, for they were now in the icy middle of the firth. The
ferryman babbled on, telling him for the most part things he knew
already; how, for instance, when the Prince had had the castle here
blown up after its surrender, an unfortunate French engineer had
been blown up with it. It was useless to ask the man what he really
wanted to know, how Miss Alison Grant did over there in Inverness,
Alison on whom he had not set eyes since Hector and he had said
farewell to her last All Hallows in Edinburgh. It was a question
whether they three would ever meet again, for Hector had been one
of the officers left behind as part of the ill-fated garrison of Carlisle,
and since the thirtieth of December he had been a prisoner in
English hands. How Alison was bearing this ill news Ewen could only
guess; it was all the heavier for her too, because her father was in
France, having been despatched thither on a mission by the Prince
directly after Falkirk.
Ewen knew that Alison and his aunt had come to Inverness in the
hopes of seeing him, immediately on the news of the town’s
surrender to the Highland army on February 18, but as it was before
their arrival that Ewen himself had been sent off with Lord Cromarty’s
composite force, the meeting had not taken place. Miss Cameron, as
a letter had since told him, had thought it best on that to return to
Ardroy, but, feeling sure that sooner or later Ewen’s duties would
bring him to Inverness, she had left Alison there in the care of Lady
Ogilvy, whose husband, with his regiment, was on the other side of
the Spey. And now Lochiel had recalled Ewen—but only to
accompany him on another enterprise. Of his approaching return
Ewen had told Alison in a letter which he had despatched yesterday
by Lachlan, but he had not told her how brief his stay would be, nor
had he broached the project which was in his own mind—the
determination which had been growing there since the retreat
northward.
But, as he thought of what that was, the harassed look went out
of his eyes, and he became deafer than ever to the ferryman’s
chatter.

At the guardhouse by the bridge over the Ness Ewen stopped to

enquire where Lady Ogilvy was to be found, for he was not sure of
her lodging, and as he was talking to the officer there he heard a
youthful voice behind him asking exactly the same question in
Gaelic.
Ewen turned quickly, for he knew that voice. There in the entry
stood a half-shy, half-excited boy of fifteen, who had never been in a
town before—young Angus, Neil MacMartin’s eldest son. His face lit
up, and he darted forward. “Letters, Mac ’ic Ailein!” And out of an old
sporran too big for him he produced two, none the better for their
sojourn in that receptacle.
With a smile and a kind word his master took them. One was
from Miss Cameron to himself, the other, addressed to Miss Alison
Grant at Ardroy, in an unknown and foreign-seeming hand, had been
redirected by his aunt to Inverness. He put them both in his pocket,
gave the lad money to procure himself food and lodging and a new
pair of brogues to go home in, told him where to find his father and
not to return to Ardroy without seeing him again, and himself set off
in haste for Lady Ogilvy’s lodging.
But Angus Og, footsore and hungry though he was, seeing his
young chieftain quite unaccompanied, pattered at a little distance
behind him with all the air of a bodyguard, his head full of wild plans
for joining his father and uncle in this place of many houses instead
of returning to Slochd nan Eun. If they were in Mac ’ic Ailein’s tail,
why not he?
Young Lady Ogilvy lodged in one of the larger houses at the
lower end of Kirk Street, and as Ewen passed the many-paned
projecting window on the ground floor he caught sight of a blue
ribbon confining dark curls. After that he was not much conscious of
being admitted, or of anything until he found its wearer in his arms.
“Oh, my darling! . . . You were expecting me—Lachlan brought
you my letter?”
Alison nodded, holding very fast to him, her eyes closed like one
surrendered to ecstasy. Much as they had to say to one another, for
a time neither said it; it was enough merely to be together again after
the months of strain and waiting and endurance and disillusioned
hopes. But when they had had their fill of looking at each other they
began to talk.
“I knew that you would come back to Inverness,” said Alison
happily. They were both sitting on the window seat now. And she
added, with all her old gaiety, “If Lochiel would permit so forward an
act, I would kiss him for having recalled you from Lord Cromarty’s
force.”
“But he has not recalled me in order to stay in Inverness, darling
—at least not for more than a couple of days. He and Keppoch are
shortly going with reinforcements to the siege of Fort William, and I
go too.”
All the peace and content was dashed out of Alison’s face. “Oh,
Ewen . . . and I thought you would be staying here!” She bit her lip
and the tears came into her eyes.
Her hand was in Ewen’s, and he sat a moment silent, looking
down with some intentness at his ring upon it. “But we shall have two
days together, m’eudail. And . . . do you not think that those two days
are long enough . . . that the time has come . . . to change this ring of
my mother’s for another?”
The colour ran over Alison’s face and her hand made a
movement as if to withdraw itself. “Oh, my dear,” she said rather
breathlessly, “not when my father is absent—not till he comes back!
And not when . . . when one does not know what will befall next!”
“But, my heart,” said Ewen quietly, “that is just why I want to
make you my wife. Do you not see that? Why, you should have been
mine these six months. I have waited even longer than I had thought
to wait, and God knows that was long enough.” And as Alison said
nothing, but looked down, twisting her ring, he went on, suppressing
a little sigh, “There are many reasons why we should be wed without
further loss of time, and these two days that we have now seem
designed for that. Our marriage could easily be arranged in the time;
Mr. Hay, the Episcopal minister of Inverness is, I believe, in the town;
Lochiel would take your father’s place. And I could carry you back to
Ardroy, as its mistress, when we start for Fort William . . . Alison,
dear love, say Yes!”
He was very gentle as he pleaded, for she seemed oddly
reluctant, considering that they had been formally contracted since
last July, and should indeed have been married in the autumn. She
even mentioned Hector and his perilous situation, rather tentatively,
as a reason for delay; but Ewen told her that her brother’s prospects
were ten times better than those of most who wore the white
cockade, for he held a French commission, and could not be treated
otherwise than as a prisoner-of-war. And finally Alison said that she
would ask Lady Ogilvy’s opinion.
Ewen tried not to be hurt. Since he had not the mistaken
conviction of some young men that he knew all about women, even
Alison’s feelings were sometimes a mystery to him. He longed to
say, “I have not a French commission, Alison,” and leave her to draw
a conclusion which might get the better of her hesitancy, but it would
have been cruel. And as he looked at her in perplexity he
remembered a commission of another kind, and put his hand into his
pocket.
“When I saw you, Alison, everything else went out of my head.
But here is a letter I should have given you ere this; forgive me. It
was sent to you at Ardroy, and Aunt Marget despatched one of the
MacMartin lads hither with it; and meeting me by the bridge just now
he gave it to me for you. It is from France, I think.”
“I do not know the hand,” said Alison, studying the superscription,
and finally breaking the seal. Ewen looked out of the window; but he
did not see any of the passers-by.
Suddenly there was an exclamation from the girl beside him on
the window seat. He turned; her face was drained of colour.
“My father . . . Ewen, Ewen, I must go at once—he is very ill . . .
dying, they think. Oh, read!”
Horrified, Ewen read a hasty French letter, already more than two
weeks old, which said that M. Grant, on the point of leaving France
again, had been taken seriously ill at Havre-de-Grâce; the writer,
apparently a recent French acquaintance of his, appealed to Mlle
Grant to sail for France at once, if she wanted to see her father alive
—not that the state of M. Grant at the moment was desperate, but
because the doctor held out small hope of ultimate recovery.
Alison had sprung to her feet, and clasping and unclasping her
hands was walking up and down the room.
“Ewen, Ewen, what if I am not in time! My dearest, dearest father,
ill and quite alone over there—no Hector anywhere near him now! I
must go at once. I heard Lady Ogilvy say that there was a French
vessel in port here due to sail for France in a day or two; I could go
in that. Perhaps the captain could be persuaded to sail earlier . . .”
In contrast to her restlessness, Ewen was standing quite still by
the window.
“Ewen,” she began again, “help me! Will you make enquiries of
the captain of the ship? I think she is for St. Maloes, but that would
serve; I could post on into Normandy. Will you find out the captain
now—this afternoon? . . . Ewen, what ails you?”
For her lover was gazing at her with an expression which was
quite new to her.
“I am deeply sorry to hear this ill news of Mr. Grant,” he said in a
low voice, and seemed to find a difficulty in speaking, “—more sorry
than I have words for. But, Alison, what of me?”
“You would not wish to keep me back, surely?”
“What do you think?” asked the young man rather grimly. “But I
will not—no, it would not be right. I will let you go, but only as my
wife. You’ll marry me to-morrow, Alison!”
There was no pleading about him now. He moved a step or two
nearer, having to keep a tight hold on himself neither to frighten her
nor to let slip a word against this other claim which, much as he
respected it, was coming in once more to sweep her away from him,
when he had waited so long. Whatever might be read on his face,
his actions were perfectly gentle.
And Alison came to him, the tears running down her cheeks, and
put her two hands in his. “Yes, Ewen, I am ready. Heart’s darling, I
wish it, too; you must not think I am unwilling. . . . And you said that
you would carry me off by force if I were,” she added, laughing a little
hysterically, as he folded her once again in his arms.

So next day they were married in the little Episcopal meeting-

house of Inverness. Only a very few people were present, but the
Prince was among them: not the lighthearted adventurer of the
escapade in Edinburgh in which the bridegroom had played so
belauded a part, but a young man who looked what the last three
months had made him, soured and distrustful. Yet he gave them a
glimpse of his old charming smile after the ceremony, when he
kissed the bride and wished them both happiness.
“I would I were venerable enough to give you my blessing, my
friends,” he said, “since ’tis all I have to give; but I think I am
somewhat the junior of your husband, Lady Ardroy; and in any case
how could I bestow my benediction upon a bridegroom who has the
bad taste to be so much taller than his future King!”
 “But you know that I am at your feet, my Prince,” said Ewen,
smiling, and he kissed once more the hand which he had kissed that
night at Holyrood.
Last of all Lochiel, grave and gentle, who had given Alison away,
kissed her too, and said, “Ewen is a very fortunate man, my dear; but
I think you are to be congratulated also.”
For their brief wedded life a little house which Mr. Grant had hired
the previous summer had been hastily prepared; it was bare almost
to penury, a tent for a night or two, meet shelter for those who must
part so soon. And Ewen had no gift ready for his bride—save one.
When they came home he put on her middle finger the ring which
the Prince had given him in Edinburgh.
Next day was theirs to play at housekeeping, and they were a
great deal more gay over it than Jeanie Wishart, Alison’s woman,
who went about her work perpetually murmuring, “Puir young
things!” In the afternoon, since the March sun had come out to look
at them, they wandered among the Islands and gazed down at Ness,
hurrying past, broad and clear and shallow, to the firth. That evening
they had thought to spend alone by their own fireside; yet nothing
would serve Lady Ogilvy save to give a supper for the new-married
pair, and Lady Ardroy, in a rose-coloured gown, was toasted by not a
few who would never drink a pledge again; and all the Jacobite
songs were sung . . . but not, somehow, that only too appropriate,
‘Oh, this is my departing time, for here nae longer maun I stay,’ with
which gatherings were wont to conclude.
Yet Ewen and Alison sat by their fire after all, sat there until the
last peat crumbled, and it began to grow cold; but Alison, as once
before, was warm in the Cameron tartan, for Ewen had wrapped it
round her knees over her pretty gown. He sat at her feet, looking
very long and large, the firelight, while it lasted, playing on the
shining golden brown of his hair, accentuating too the faint hollow in
his cheek, the slight suggestion of a line between the brows which
the last two months had set there.
“Ewen, I want to tell you something.” Alison hesitated and a tinge
of colour stole over her face. “Do you know, m’eudail, that you talk in
your sleep?”
 He looked up at her surprised. “Do I? No, dearest, I did not know.
Did I talk much—to disturb you?”
She shook her head. Ewen seemed to turn over this information
for a moment. “I believe,” he said thoughtfully, “that as a boy I used
to do it sometimes, so Aunt Margaret said, but I thought that I had
outgrown it. What did I talk of—you, sweetheart, I’ll warrant?”
“No,” said Alison, smiling down upon him. “Not a word of your
wife. You seemed to think that you were speaking to someone of
whom she may well be jealous; and what is more, when I spoke to
you, thinking for a moment that you were awake, you answered quite
sensibly.”
“Jealous!” exclaimed Ewen, turning his clear, candid gaze full
upon her. “My little white love, there’s no one in this world of whom
you have occasion to be jealous, nor ever has been. Do not pretend
to be ignorant of where my heart is kept!” He took her clasped
hands, opened them gently, and kissed the palms. “The space is
small,” he said, looking critically at it, “but, such as the heart is, all of
it lies there.”
Alison enveloped him in a warm, sweet smile, and slid the hands
round his neck. “All? No; there’s a corner you have kept for someone
else, and in it you have set up a little shrine, as the Papists do, for
your saint—for Lochiel. But I am not jealous,” she added very softly.
“I understand.”
Ewen gave her a look, put his own hands over those clasped
round his neck, and dropped his head on to her knee in silence. After
a while she put her cheek against the thick, warm waves of his hair.
Joy and apprehension had so clasped hands about Alison Cameron
this day that it was hard to know which was the stronger.
But in the night she knew. The icy fingers of foreboding seemed
gripped about her heart. Not even Ewen’s quiet, unhurried breathing
beside her, not even the touch of his hand, over which her fingers
stole in search of comfort, could reassure her; his nearness but
made the pain the sharper. Oh, to have him hers only to lose him so
soon! But her father—alone, dying, over the seas! She reached out
and lit a candle, that she might look once more at the husband she
was leaving for her father’s sake, for God knew whether she should
ever see him asleep beside her again. It was not the seas alone
which were about to sunder them. . . .
Ewen was sleeping so soundly, too, so quietly; and he looked as
young and untroubled as the boy she had known five years ago in
Paris. There was no sign on his face, in its rather austere repose, of
the trouble which had forced its way through his unconscious lips
last night. Alison had not told him by the fire, that on their bridal night
he had uttered protests, bewildered questionings, against that
double retreat in which he had shared. ‘Must we go back, Lochiel—
must we go back?’
She gazed at him a long time, until for tears she could see him no
longer, and, blowing out the light, lay and sobbed under her breath.
She thought she should die of her unhappiness; she almost wished
that she might; yet she sobbed quietly lest she should wake Ewen to
unhappiness also. But quite suddenly, though he had not stirred, she
heard his voice in the darkness; and then she was in his arms, and
he was comforting her in their own Highland tongue, with all its soft
endearments and little words of love. And there at last she fell
asleep.
But Ewen stayed awake until the grudging March daylight crept
into the little room where he lay wide-eyed, with Alison’s dark curls
on his heart, and within it a chilly sword that turned and turned. He
would never hold her thus again; he was sure of it.

The morning was very cold, and when he took Alison to the
French brig a little snow was falling; the gang-plank was slippery too
with rime. He carried her bodily over it, and down to the cabin which
she would share with Jean Wishart.
There under the low beams Alison’s courage broke at last.
Clinging to him convulsively she said, in a voice that was not hers,
that he must come with her; that she could not go without him—she
could not! He must come too, and then he would be safe . . .
Ewen turned even paler than she. “My darling, my heart’s darling,
you don’t mean that!”
Alison swayed; her eyes closed. Alarmed, he put her on a seat
against the bulkhead, and, kneeling by her, began to chafe her
hands. Soon they clenched in his, and she opened her eyes, dark
pools of sorrow, and said firmly through colourless lips, “No, no, I did
not mean it! I know that you cannot come. Will you . . . can you
forget what I said, Ewen?”
“It is forgotten. It was not you who spoke,” he answered, trying to
keep his own voice steady as he knelt there, holding her hands very
tightly. There was a trampling sound on deck; how long had they for
all the thousand, thousand things that remained to say? There was
no time to say even one. He bent his head and pressed his lips
passionately upon the hands he held. Anguish though it was to lose
her, it was better that she should go. For since he had urged her to
marry him that he might take her back to Ardroy he saw with different
eyes. The future looked blacker than he had realised; away in Ross
he had not known of the desperate want of money, even of food, the
gradually thinning ranks. He knew of these now, and saw even
Cumberland’s delay at Aberdeen in a sinister light, as if the
Hanoverian commander knew that the fates were working on his
side and that there was no need for haste. . . .
Above him Alison’s voice said suddenly, “Ewen . . . Ewen, why do
you not say, ‘Stay then in Scotland with me—do not go to France
yourself!’?”
He was startled; had she read his thoughts? “Why, my darling,”
he answered as readily as he could, “because your father needs you
so sorely.”
Her voice sank still lower. “There is another reason, too—do not
deny it! You think that I am safer away!”
And Ewen did not answer.
“And you gave me this ring—the Prince’s ring—not only as a
wedding gift, but because you feared that one day . . . soon . . . it
might be taken from you!”
After a pause he said, “Partly, perhaps.”
“Then . . . I cannot leave you, even for my father,” said Alison,
and sprang up. “I must stay in Scotland, beside you. I am your wife.
Take me back to the quay, Ewen—tell Mrs. Wishart . . .”
But Ewen, on his feet too, caught her in his arms. “No, darling,
no! Think of your father, whom you may never see again. And, love
of my heart”—he tried to make his voice light—“you cannot come
besieging Fort William with me! When we have beaten Cumberland,
as we beat Cope and Hawley, I will come to France and fetch you
home to Ardroy.”
“When we have beaten Cumberland.” Alison looked up into her
husband’s eyes with a most insistent question in her own. But he did
not answer the question, though he knew very well what it was, for
he said gently, “How can one see into the future, darling? One can
only . . . do one’s duty.”
Even as he uttered that rigorous word there came a knock at the
cabin door, and a gruff French voice announced that they would be
casting off in another minute or two, and that if Monsieur wished to
land he must be quick.
So the sword slid down between them. Ewen’s grasp tightened.
“Alison, white love, rose of my heart, we are one for ever now!
You will know, I think, what befalls me.”
Her face was hidden on his breast, so close that he could not
even kiss it. “Darling, darling, let me go . . .” he whispered. But it was
rather a question, he felt, whether he could ever unloose his own
clasp and cast his heart from him. And men were running about
shouting overhead; the hawser was coming inboard . . .
Suddenly Alison lifted her face, and it was almost transfigured.
“Yes, I shall know . . . for I think you will come back to me, God
keeping you.” She took her arms from his shoulders; he bent to her
lips for the kiss that first turned his heart to water and then ran
through it like wine, loosed his hold of her, and walked straight out of
the cabin without another word or look. With the same unchecked
movement he crossed the gang-plank from the deck, as if he could
not trust himself to remain the moment or so longer that it would take
the sailors to cast off the second hawser.
But on the quay he turned, wishing they would be quick, and
make it impossible for him to leap on board again, though the plank
was now withdrawn, and be carried off with Alison. And at last, after
an eternity which was all too short, the end of the rope splashed into
the water. More sails went up; the distance began to widen. Alison
was going from him.
He stood there motionless, long after the brig had left the shore,
watching her move to the waters of the firth. The sparse snowflakes
whirled relentlessly against him, but they melted as soon as they
came to rest, as brief in their stay as his two days’ happiness.

From the quay Ewen went straight to Lochiel’s head-quarters and

reported himself for duty. Two hours later his body was marching out
of Inverness in the van of the Cameron reinforcements. Where his
soul was he hardly knew.