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Instant Download PDF Chemistry The Molecular Nature of Matter 7th Edition Jespersen Solutions Manual Full Chapter
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Chapter 6
Chapter Six
Energy and Chemical Change
Practice Exercises
æ 1 kcal öæ 1000 cal öæ 4.184 J ö
6.1 J = 140 Cal ç ÷ç ÷ç ÷ = 5.86 105 J = 5.9 105 J
è 1 Cal øè 1 kcal øè 1 cal ø
æ 1 kJ ö
5.9 105 J ç ÷ = 590 kJ
è 1000 J ø
æ 1 kcal ö
6.2 kcal = 160 Cal ç ÷ = 160 kcal
è 1 Cal ø
æ 1000 cal ö
cal = 160 Cal ç ÷ = 1.6 105 cal
è 1 Cal ø
æ 4.184 kJ ö
kJ = 160 Cal ç ÷ = 670 kJ
è 1 Cal ø
æ 4.184 kJ ö æ 1000 J ö
J = 160 Cal ç ÷ç ÷ = 6.7 105 J
è 1 Cal ø è 1 kJ ø
6.6 q = mst
549 J = (7.54 g Si)(0.705 J g–1 °C–1)(t°Cf – 25.0 °C)
t°Cf = 128 °C
6.7 The reaction of hydrogen and oxygen is an explosion, as stated, explosions are exothermic
because they release heat.
6.8 Since the container becomes cold, the reaction is absorbing heat, and is endothermic.
6-1
Chapter 6
6.9 Both reactions are exothermic, as stated. The first reaction releases some of the energy as work,
the second reaction releases all of the energy as heat since it is run at constant volume. The
second run releases more heat.
6.10 The first reaction releases some of the energy as work. The second reaction releases all of the
energy as heat. The second reaction will have a larger increase in temperature.
æ 1 mol ö
6.11 mol = (2.85 g) ç ÷ = 0.0233 mol benzoic acid
è 122.12 g ø
qbenzoic acid = Hcombustion nbenzoic acid = (–3227 kJ mol–1)(0.0233 mol) = –75.3 kJ
qbenzoic acid = –qcalorimeter –qcalorimeter = 75.3 kJ
–qcalorimeter = Ct
75.3 kJ = C( 29.19 °C – 24.05 °C)
75.3 kJ 75.3 kJ
C= = = 14.6 kJ °C–1
29.19 °C – 24.05 °C 5.14 °C
6.12 C12H22O11 MM = (12 mol C 12.01 g/mol C) + (22 mol H 1.01 g/mol H)
+ (11 mol O 16.0 g/mol O) = 342.34 g/mol C12H22O11
qcalorimeter = Ct = 8.930 kJ/°C(26.77 °C – 24.00 °C) = 8.930 kJ/°C(2.77 °C) = 24.74 kJ
qsucrose = –qcalorimeter = –(24.74 kJ) = –24.74 kJ
æ –24.7 kJ ö æ 342.3 g C H O ö
12 22 11 = –5636 kJ mol–1
heat released by 1 mole of sucrose = ç ÷ç ÷
è 1.50 g C12 H 22O 11 ø è 1 mol C12 H 22O 11 ø
= –5640kJ mol–1
æ 1 mol C12 H 22O 11 ö æ 1 Cal ö
heat released by 1 g of sucrose in Cal = –5640 kJ mol–1 ç ÷ç ÷
è 342.3 g C12 H 22O 11 ø è 4.184 kJ ø
= –3.94 Cal/g
6.13 HCl and NaOH react 1:1, therefore the heat released per mole of NaOH will be the same as per
mole of HCl, or –58 kJ mol–1 NaOH
6-2
Chapter 6
-169 kJ
-310 kJ
-141 kJ
2 CuO(s)
The reaction is exothermic.
6.18
NO(g) + 1/2O2(g)
-56.6 kJ
+90.4 kJ
NO2(g)
+33.8 kJ
1/2N2(g) + O2 (g)
The reaction is endothermic.
6.19 For this problem: divide the second reaction by two:
1 {2N O(g) + 3O (g)
2 2 2 ¾¾ ® 4NO2(g)} H = 12 (–28.0 kJ)
N2O(g) + 3
2
O2(g) ¾¾
® 2NO2(g)} H = –14.0 kJ
Reverse the first reaction
2NO2(g) ¾¾ ® 2NO(g) + O2(g) H = +113.2 kJ
Add the reactions together:
N2O(g) + 32 O2(g) ¾¾ ® 2NO2(g) H = –14.0 kJ
2NO2(g) ¾¾
® 2NO(g) + O2(g) H = +113.2 kJ
N2O(g) + 1
2
O2(g) ¾¾
® 2NO(g) H = +99.2 kJ
6-3
Chapter 6
6.20 This problem requires that we add the reverse of the second equation (remembering to change the
sign of the associated H value) to the first equation:
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) ¾¾ ® 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) H° = –1411.1 kJ
2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) ¾¾ ® C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) H° = +1367.1 kJ
C2H4(g) + H2O(l) ¾¾
® C2H5OH(l) H° = –44.0 kJ
æ 1 moles C3H 6O ö æ -1790.4 kJ/mol ö
6.21 kJ = (12.5 g C3H6O) ç ÷ç ÷ = –385 kJ
è 58.077 g C 3H 6O ø è 1 moles C8H18 ø
It is customary to include the minus sign to indicate that heat is given off (produced) by the
chemical reaction.
æ –5450.5 kJ/mol ö
÷ = –2.62 × 10 kJ
6
6.22 kJ = (480 mol C8H18) ç
è 1 moles C8 18 ø
H
It is customary to include the minus sign to indicate that heat is given off (produced) by the
chemical reaction.
6.23 K(s) + 1
2
Br2(l) ¾¾
® KBr(s) DH fo = –393.8 kJ
6.24 Na(s) + 1
2
H2(g) + C(s) + 3
2
O2(g) ¾¾
® NaHCO3(s) DH fo = –947.7 kJ/mol
6.26 S(s) + 3
2
O2(g) ¾¾
® SO3(g) DH fo = –395.2 kJ/mol
S(s) + O2(g) ¾¾ ® SO2(g) DH fo = –296.9 kJ/mol
Reverse the first reaction and add the two reactions together to get
SO3(g) ¾¾
® SO2(g) + 1
2
O2(g) DH fo = +98.3 kJ
H° = [sum DH fo products] – [sum DH fo reactants]
H° = {[1 mol SO2 × DH fo SO2(g)] + [ 12 mol O2 × DH fo O2(g)]} – {1 mol SO3 × DH fo SO3(s)}
H° = {[1 mol × (–296.9 kJ/mol)] + [ 12 mol × 0 kJ/mol]} – [1 mol × (–395.2 kJ/mol)]
H° = +98.3 kJ
The answers for the enthalpy of reaction are the same using either method.
6-4
Chapter 6
6.1 (a) Energy is something that matter possesses by virtue of an ability to do work.
(b) Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
(c) Potential energy is stored energy.
6.2 Energy can be considered the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy.
1
6.3 Kinetic energy = mv2 where m is the mass of the object and v is its velocity. Since velocity, v,
2
is squared, it has a larger effect on kinetic energy when it is doubled.
6.4 The law of conservation of energy states that the energy of the universe is constant: it can be
neither created nor destroyed but only transferred and transformed. The energy of the child on a
swing is all potential energy when she is at the top of the arc. As she descends, the energy is
converted to kinetic energy. At the bottom at the arc, all the energy is kinetic energy. The
potential energy increases as she rises and is completely potential energy at the top of the arc.
6.5 The pendulum starts at the top of the swing, motionless, so all of the energy is potential energy.
As it falls through the arc, the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy, at the bottom of
the arc, the pendulum is moving at its fastest velocity, and all of the energy is kinetic energy.
Then the pendulum rises on the other side of the arc, and the energy is converted back into
potential energy, until, at the top of the arc, it is all potential energy and the pendulum freezes
before it starts the next swing.
6.6 The instant the Slinky is released, all of the energy is potential energy, as the Slinky compresses,
the energy is converted into kinetic energy. As it reaches its maximum compression, the kinetic
energy is converted back into potential energy. When it is at its maximum compression, all of the
energy is potential energy, and then it begins to stretch again and convert the potential energy into
kinetic energy. The difference between the Slinky and pendulum is that the Slinky's motion is
along a line and the pendulum's motion is in an arc, but both are converting potential to kinetic
energy and back again.
6.7 Chemical energy is the potential energy in substances, which changes into other forms of energy
when substances undergo chemical reactions.
6.8 (a) increases
(b) increases
(c) increases
(d) decreases
6.9 The SI unit of energy is a joule (kg m2 s–2).
1
E= (75 kg)(45 m s–2)2 = 76,000 J
2
æ 1 cal ö
cal = (76,000 J) ç ÷ = 18,000 cal
è 4.184 J ø
6-5
Chapter 6
6.10 The heat produced by combustion of gasoline does no useful work. It is expended into the
surroundings.
6.11 Heat is a form of energy that is transferred between objects, and is the molecular kinetic energy
possessed by molecules as a result of the temperature of the sample. Heat is related to the total
kinetic energy of the molecules and temperature is related to the average kinetic energy.
6.12 The internal energy is the sum of the molecular kinetic energy and the potential energy. The
change in internal energy is defined as the difference in internal energy between the energy of the
products and the energy of the reactants.
6.13 (a) Thermal equilibrium is when two objects in contact with each other are at the same
temperature. The molecules in the hot object are moving with more kinetic energy than
the colder object. As heat is transferred from the hot object to the cold one, the atoms in
the hot object slow down and the atoms in the cold speed up until they have the same
average kinetic energy.
(b) The process is the same for the two liquids, except in the mixing of the liquids, the
molecules from the hot liquid are intermingles with the molecules of the cold liquid.
(c) The mixing of two liquids will achieve thermal equilibrium quicker since the molecules
themselves are mixing.
6.14 (a) point c
(b) point d
(c) It will increase
(b) The height of the curve at point A will decrease. The maximum of the curve will be lower
and shifted to the right.
6.15 a, b, c
6.16 The quart of boiling water has more heat and will cause a more severe burn because the quart has
more water, so that the quart has more kinetic energy.
6.17 The first diagram represents an isolated system. Isolated systems cannot transfer mass or energy
across its boundary.
The second diagram represents an open system. Open systems transfer mass and energy across
boundaries.
The third diagram represents a closed system. Closed systems cannot transfer mass but can
transfer energy across its boundary.
6.18 A state function is a quantity whose value depends only on the initial and final states of the
system and not on the path taken by the system to get from the initial to the final state. Examples
of a state function are pressure, volume, temperature, enthalpy, and energy.
6.19 To determine if an experimental parameter is a state function, conduct the experiment using a
different route between the initial and the final states and see if the difference between the initial
and final states are the same.
6.20 The state of a system in chemistry is usually specified by its current conditions such as its
chemical composition, its pressure, its temperature and its volume.
6.21 The system is that part of the universe under study and separated from the surroundings by a real
or an imaginary boundary. The surroundings are that part of the universe other than the system
6-6
Chapter 6
being studied and separated from the system by a real or an imaginary boundary. An isolated
system does not allow matter or energy to be transferred between the system and the
surroundings. The closed system can absorb or release energy but not mass across the boundary
between the system and its surrounding.
6.22 (a) specific heat
(b) molar heat capacity
(c) heat capacity
(d) energy or heat
6.23 The amount of energy needed to increase the temperature of a substance depends directly on the
specific heat of the substance. So the material with the large specific heat requires the higher
energy input for the 5 C rise in temperature.
6.24 Heat capacity is an extensive property and is proportional to the mass of the sample. Specific heat
is an intensive property.
6.25 A negative value for heat means that heat is released from the system; it is exothermic.
6.26 If object A has twice the specific heat and twice the mass of object B, and the same amount of
heat is applied to both objects, the temperature change of A will be one-fourth the temperature
change in B.
qB = mBsBt
q = amount of heat applied
sB = specific heat of B specific heat of A = 2sB
mB = mass of B mass of A = 2mB
q q 1æ q ö 1
tB = tA = = çç ÷÷ = Dt B
mB s B 2mB ´ 2sB 4 è mB sB ø 4
6-7
Chapter 6
For this reaction, V is approximately zero since the moles of gas for the products equals the
moles of gas for the reactants, so H = E.
6.37 H = E + PV
6.38 H > 0 for an endothermic change.
6.39 The enthalpy of the surroundings must decrease by 100 kJ, since energy is conserved.
6.40 w = –PV
6.41 Since the heats of reaction will in general depend on temperature and pressure, we need some
standard set of values for temperature and pressure so that comparisons of various heats of
reaction are made under identical conditions. The standard temperature is 25 °C, slightly above
room temperature, and the standard pressure is 1 atmosphere.
6.42 A thermochemical equation contains the value for the associated H.
6.43 Fractional coefficients are permitted because thermochemical properties are extensive (they
depend on the amount of material present). If 1/2 the amount of materials reacts, 1/2 the amount
of heat will be generated or required. The coefficients of thermochemical equations are moles of
substance.
6.44 H is a state function.
6.45 The reaction must (1) produce one mole of a compound at 25 C and 1 atm, and (2) the reactants
must be elements in their standard states.
6.47 The heat of formation thermochemical equations for H2O(g) and CO2(g).
6.48 The heat of formation thermochemical equations for H2O(g), CO2(g), SO2(g), and NO2(g).
Review Problems
1 2 1 1
6.49 KE = mv KE1 = m(30 mi/h)2 KE2 = m(60 mi/h)2
2 2 2
1 1
KE1 = m(900 mi2/h2) KE2 = m(3600 mi2/h2)
2 2
KE 2 3600
= =4
KE1 900
There is a four-fold increase in the kinetic energy due to the doubling of the speed of the car.
If the speed decreases to 10 mph:
1 1
KE1 = m(10 mi/h)2 KE2 = m(30 mi/h)2
2 2
1 1
KE1 = m(100 mi2/h2) KE2 = m(900 mi2/h2)
2 2
6-8
Chapter 6
KE2 900
= =9
KE1 100
The kinetic energy decreases by 9 times due to the decreasing of the speed of the car by 10 mph.
1 1
6.50 KE1 = m1v2 m2 = 2m1 KE2 = 2m1v2
2 2
KE 2 2m1
= =2
KE1 m1
There is a two-fold increase in the kinetic energy due to the doubling of the mass of the truck.
The kinetic energy decreases to one-tenth its original kinetic energy when the mass decreases to
one-tenth its original mass.
æ 32.00 g O2 ö æ 1 kg O 2 ö
6.51 kg O2 molecule = 1 mol O2 ç ÷ç ÷
è 1 mol O2 ø è 1000 g O2 ø
= 3.200 10–3 kg
1 2 1
KE = mv = (3.200 10–3 kg)(255 m s–1)2 = 1.04 103 J
2 2
æ 1 kJ ö
1.04 103 J ç ÷ = 1.04 kJ
è 103 J ø
6.54 q = ms∆t
Assume that the density of water is 1.00 g mL–1 so that the mass of water is the same as its
volume.
q = 215 g × 4.184 J g–1 °C–1 × (99.0 °C – 25.0 °C) = 6.66 × 104 J
1 cal
cal = (6.66 × 104 J) × 4
= 1.59 × 10 cal
4.184 J
6-9
Chapter 6
æ ö
ç 1912 J ÷
g H2O = ç ÷ = 45.7 g H2O
( -1
ç 4.184 J g °C
è
-1
( )
35.0 °C – 25.0 °C) ÷
ø
6.56 The heat gained by the water must equal the heat lost by the copper. To get the correct signs for
the heat transfer, remember heat lost is negative and heat gained is positive.
qCu = –qH2O q = ms∆t
mCu × 0.387 J g C × (32.3 C – 67.0 C) = –[100.0 g × 4.184 J g–1 C –1 × (32.3 C – 27.0 C)]
–1 o –1
6.61 4.184 J g–1 °C–1 × (4.54 × 103 g) × (58.65 °C – 60.25 °C) = –3.04 × 104 J = –30.4 kJ
6.62 4.184 J g–1 °C–1 × (2.46 × 103 g) × (27.31 °C – 25.24 °C) = 2.1 × 104 J = 21.3 kJ
( –3.8 ´ 10 J ) ç 3 æ
1 kJ ö
÷
è 1000 J ø
Thus the enthalpy change is: = - 53 kJ
(0.072 mol) mol
6-10
Chapter 6
( –5.02 ´ 10 J ) ç
2 æ 1 kJ ö
÷
kJ è 1000 J ø
Thus the enthalpy change is: = = –6.3 kJ
mol (0.080 mol) mol
6-11
Chapter 6
(b) To determine H for 1 mol, simply multiply the original H by 1/3; –283 kJ/mol.
æ -1203 kJ öæ 1 mol Mg ö
6.75 q = 6.54 g Mg ç ÷ç ÷ = –162 kJ
è 2 mol Mg øè 24.305 g Mg ø
162 kJ of heat are evolved
æ 1 mol CH OH öæ -1199 kJ ö
6.76 kJ = 46.0 g CH3OH çç 3 ÷÷çç ÷÷ = –861 kJ
è 32.04 g CH3OH øè 2 mol CH 3OH ø
æ 1 mol CH öæ 16.04 g ö
6.77 g CH4 = –432 kJ çç 4 ÷ç ÷÷ = 8.64 g
֍
è –802 kJ øè 1 mol CH 4 ø
æ 2 mol CH OH öæ 32.04 g ö
6.78 g CH3OH = –625 kJ çç 3 ÷÷çç ÷÷ = 33.4 g
è -1199 kJ øè 1 mol CH3OH ø
6.79
6.80
NO(g) + 1/2O2(g)
-56.6 kJ
+90.4 kJ
NO2(g)
+33.8 kJ
1/2N2(g) + O2 (g)
6-12
Chapter 6
6.82 Reverse the first equation, multiply the result by two, and add it to the second equation:
2KCl(s) + 2H2O(l) ¾¾ ® 2HCl(g) + 2KOH(s), H° = 407.2 kJ
H2SO4(l) + 2KOH(s) ¾¾ ® K2SO4(s) + 2H2O(l), H° = –342.4 kJ
Adding gives us:
2KCl(s) + H2SO4(l) ¾¾ ® 2HCl(g) + K2SO4(s), H° = 64.8 kJ
6.83 If we label the four known thermochemical equations consecutively, 1, 2, 3, and 4, then the sum
is made in the following way: Divide equation #3 by two, and reverse all of the other equations
(#1, #2, and #4), while also dividing each by two:
1 Na O(s) + HCl(g)
2
2 ¾¾ ® 12 H2O(l) + NaCl(s) H° = –253.66 kJ
NaNO2(s) ¾¾
® 1
2
Na2O(s) + 1
2
NO2(g) + 1
2
NO(g) H° = +213.57 kJ
1
2
NO(g) + 1
2
NO2(g) ¾¾
® 1
2
N2O(g) + 1
2
O2(g) H° = –21.34 kJ
1
2
H2O(l) + 1
2
O2(g) + 1
2
N2O(g) ¾¾
® HNO2(l) H° = –17.18 kJ
Adding gives:
HCl(g) + NaNO2(s) ¾¾
® HNO2(l) + NaCl(s), H° = –78.61 kJ
6.84 Reverse the second and the third thermochemical equations and add them to the first:
CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) ¾¾ ® CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) H° = –186 kJ
Ca(OH)2(s) ¾¾ ® CaO(s) + H2O(l) H° = 65.1 kJ
Ca(OH)2(aq) ¾¾ ® Ca(OH)2(s) H° = 12.6 kJ
Adding gives:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) ¾¾ ® CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) H° = –108 kJ
6.85 Multiply all of the equations by 1 and add them together.
2
1 CaO(s) + 1 Cl2(g) ¾¾® 12 CaOCl2(s) H = –55.5 kJ
2 2
1
2
H2O(l) + 1 CaOCl (s) + NaBr(s)
2 2 ¾¾® NaCl(s) + 1
2
Ca(OH)2(s) + 1
2
Br2(l) H= –30.1 kJ
1
2
Ca(OH)2(s) ¾¾
® 1
2
CaO(s) + 1
2
H2O(l) H= +32.6 kJ
Adding gives:
1 Cl (g) + NaBr(s)
2 2 ¾¾
® NaCl(s) + 1
2
Br2(l) H= –53 kJ
6.87 Multiply the second equation by two and add them together:
3Mg(s) + 2NH3(g) ¾¾ ® Mg3N2(s) + 3H2(g) H = –371 kJ
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ¾¾ ® 2NH3(g) H = 2(–46 kJ)
6-13
Chapter 6
Adding gives:
3Mg(s) + N2(g) ¾¾
® Mg3N2(s) H = –463 kJ
6.88 We need to eliminate the NO2 from the two equations. To do this, multiply the first reaction by 3
and the second reaction by two and add them together.
12NH3(g) + 21O2(g) ¾¾ ® 12NO2(g) + 18H2O(g) H = 3(–1132 kJ)
12NO2(g) + 16NH3(g) ¾¾ ® 14N2(g) + 24H2O(g) H = 2(–2740 kJ)
28NH3(g) + 21O2(g) ¾¾ ® 14N2(g) + 42H2O(g) H = –8876 kJ
Now divide this equation by 7 to get
4NH3(g) + 3O2(g) ¾¾ ® 2N2(g) + 6H2O(g) H = 1/7(–8876 kJ) = –1268 kJ
6.89 The heat of formation is defined as the enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is
produced from its elements in their standard states.
Only (c) satisfies this requirement.
For choice (a,) reactant CO(NH2)2 is not an element
For choice (b), O and H are not the standard states for oxygen and nitrogen gas. The state for C is
not given as graphite or as a solid.
For choice (d), the reaction is not balanced
6.90 The heat of formation is defined as the enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is
produced from its elements in their standard states.
Only (b) satisfies this requirement.
For choices (a) and (c) the reactants are not elements in their standard state; (a) has molecules as
reactants and (c) has atoms.
Choice (d) might look okay but it does not fit the definition that one mole of product is formed.
6.91 (a) 2C(s, graphite) + 2H2(g) + O2(g) ¾¾
® HC2H3O2(l) DH fo = –487.0 kJ
(b) 2C(s, graphite) + 1
2
O2(g) + 3H2(g) ¾¾
® C2H5OH(l) DH fo = –277.63 kJ
(c) Ca(s) + S(s) + 3O2(g) + 2H2(g) ¾¾
® CaSO4·2H2O(s) DH fo = –2021.1 kJ
(d) 2Na(s) + S(s) + 2 O2(g) ¾¾
® Na2SO4(s) DH fo = – 1384.5 kJ
6-14
Chapter 6
Additional Exercises
6.97 Water has the highest specific heat and therefore will take the greatest amount of heat to raise its
temperature a given amount.
Lead has the smallest specific heat, though gold is only 0.001 J g–1 °C–1 higher, so it will increase
the most in temperature for the given amount of applied heat.
6.98 HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ¾¾ ® NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
The heat of neutralization is released to three "independent" components of the system, all of
which undergo the same temperature increase: t = 20.610 °C – 16.784 °C = 3.826 °C. Also, the
total heat capacity of the system is the sum of the three heat capacities:
Csystem = CHCl + CNaOH + Ccalorimeter
= (4.031 J g–1 °C–1 × 610.29 g) + (4.046 J g–1 °C–1 × 615.31 g) + 77.99 J °C–1
= 5028 J °C–1
The heat flow to the system is thus:
q = 5028 J °C–1 × 3.826 °C = 1.924 × 104 J = 19.24 kJ
The heat of neutralization is the negative of this value, since this process is exothermic:
qsystem = qreaction
–19.24 kJ
Hneutralization = = –57.98 kJ/mol
0.33183 mol HCl
6-15
Chapter 6
6.102 H° = {[8 mol CO2(g) × DH fo CO2(g)] + [10 mol H2O(l) × DH fo H2O(l)] + [2 mol N2(g) × DH fo N2(g)]}
6-16
Chapter 6
6.106 1
2
HCHO2(l) + 1
2
H2O(l) ¾¾
® 1
2
CH3OH(l) + 1
2
O2(g) H° = +206kJ
1
2
CO(g) + H2(g) ¾¾
® 12 CH3OH(l) H° = –64 kJ
1
2
HCHO2(l) ¾¾
® 1
2
CO(g) + 1
2
H2O(l) H° = –17 kJ
Add these together:
6-17
Chapter 6
HCHO2(l) + H2(g) ¾¾
® CH3OH(l) + 1
2
O2(g) H° = +125 kJ
6-18
Chapter 6
6-19
Chapter 6
Multi-Concept Problems
è gal øè L øè mL øè g ø
6.116 Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) ¾¾ ® Ca(OH)2(s) + H2(g)
∆Hreact = [1 mol Ca(OH)2(s) × Hf°Ca(OH)2] – [2 mol H2O(l) × Hf°H2O(l)]
= –986.59 kJ mol–1 – 2(–285.9 kJ mol–1)
= –415.1 kJ
One mole of Ca(OH)2 is formed in the reaction, so we can calculate the amount of heat released
for Ca(OH)2
1 mol
–415.1 kJ mol–1 Ca(OH)2 × = –5.60 kJ g–1 Ca(OH)2
74.09 g
K(s) + H2O(l) ¾¾
® K+(aq) + OH–(aq) + 1 H2(g)
2
∆Hreact = {[1 mol K+(aq) × Hf°K+(aq)] + [1 mol OH–(aq) × Hf°OH–(aq)]}
– {1 mol H2O(l) × Hf°H2O(l)]
= –252.4 kJ + (–230.0 kJ) – (–285.9 kJ)
= –195.5 kJ for the reaction
One mole of KOH is formed in the reaction, so we can calculate the amount of heat released for
KOH
1 mol
–195.5 kJ mol–1 KOH × = –3.50 kJ g–1 KOH
56.106 g
6-20
Chapter 6
The reaction of Ca with water gives off more heat per mole and per gram.
Now consider the oxidation of the two metals.
Ca ¾¾ ® Ca2+ + 2e– K ¾¾ ® K + + e–
Calcium is a two electron oxidation and potassium is a one electron oxidation.
1 mol Ca(OH) 2
–415.1 kJ mol–1 Ca(OH)2 × = –207.55 kJ mol–1 e–
2 mol e -
1 mol KOH
–195.5 kJ mol–1 × = –195.5 kJ mol–1 e–
1 mol e –
Ca reacting with water gives off more heat per mole of electrons.
6.117 The number of moles of HCl in a 2.5 L bottle can be determined by the following:
12.0 mol HCl L–1 × 2.5 L = 30 mol HCl
The number moles of ammonia in the solution can be determined by the following:
13.4 mol NH3(aq) L–1 x 2.5 L = 33.5 mol NH3(aq)
The neutralization reaction involves one mole each of the acid and base. Note that we have an
excess of NH3, 33.5 mol NH3 versus 30 mol HCl, and thus HCl is the limiting reagent.
50.49 kJ mol–1 HCl × 30 mol HCl = 1515 kJ of heat would be evolved in this reaction.
6.118 The balanced equation is
2AgNO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) ¾¾ ® 2AgCl(s) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)
Ag (aq) + Cl (aq) ¾¾
+ –
® AgCl(s)
H° = [1 mol AgCl(s) × DH fo AgCl(s)]
– {[1 mol Ag+(aq) × DH fo Ag+(aq)] + [1 mol Cl–(aq) × DH fo Cl–(aq)]}
H° = (–127 kJ) – {(105.58 kJ) + (–167.2 kJ)}
= –65.4 kJ
Moles of ions:
æ 0.225 mol AgNO öæ 1 mol Ag+ ö
mol Ag+ = 0.0950 L AgNO3 çç 3 ÷ç ÷ = 2.14 10–2 mol Ag
÷ ç ÷
è 1 L AgNO3 øè 1 mol AgNO3 ø
æ 0.225 mol CaCl öæ 2 mol Cl – ö
÷ç 1 mol CaCl ÷ = 2.14 10 mol Cl
mol Cl– = 0.0475 L CaCl2 çç 2 ÷ç ÷ –2 –
è 1 L CaCl 2 øè 2ø
–65.4 kJ
qreaction = 2.14 10–2 mol AgCl = –1.40 kJ
1 mol AgCl
q = mst
qreaction = –qwater
qwater = –(–1.40 kJ) = 1.40 kJ = 1.40 103 J
q
t =
ms
1.40 ´ 103 J
t = = 2.35 °C
142.5 g ´ 4.1485 J g –1 °C –1
tfinal = 23.7 °C + 2.35 °C = 26.1 °C
6-21
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employers in this country of importing European labor under
contract to perform services in the United States at much less than
the market rate of wages, is so great, that, as in the previous case,
human nature cannot resist the temptation, provided the chances of
escaping detection are sufficiently good. And this part of the law, like
that relating to advertising, is of such a nature as to make it
susceptible of continued and extensive evasion by unscrupulous
persons, possessed of such skill and craftiness as characterize the
typical contract labor agent. While there is no way of estimating the
extent of this practice, there is no doubt that only a very small
proportion of the present immigration, from the Mediterranean
countries at least, is innocent of the letter of the law, strictly
interpreted. This is not to say that they are under actual contract to
labor, but that their coming has been encouraged by some sort of
intimation that there would be work awaiting them.
By a recent opinion of the Attorney-General, two essential points
have been laid down in the construction of the contract labor laws, as
follows:
“(1) That they ‘prohibit any offer or promise of employment which
is of such a definite character that an acceptance thereof would
constitute a contract.’
“(2) That the prohibition to encourage the immigration of an alien
by a promise of employment is ‘directed against a promise which
specially designates the particular job or work or employment for
which the alien’s labor is desired.’”[126]
Even under this somewhat liberal interpretation of the laws,
wholesale violations undoubtedly go on. In the words of the
Immigration Commission, “In this way hundreds of immigrants are
annually debarred at United States ports as contract laborers, while
doubtless hundreds of thousands more are admitted who have
practically definite assurances as to the place and nature of their
employment in this country.”
A fuller description of contract labor in general, and of that
particular form of it which is known as the padrone system, will be
given in another connection. The point to be emphasized here is that
it operates as one of the great causes of our present immigration, and
that it continues to exert a powerful, and probably increasing,
influence, in spite of all the efforts of the legislators and officials of
the United States to check it.
The third source of stimulation to emigration is the earlier
immigrant himself. He is probably the greatest factor of all in
induced immigration, and his influence is utilized in various ways by
both emigration agents and labor agents, and made to contribute to
the success of their efforts.
Every stream of immigration must have its origin in some few
individuals, who, the first of their region, break the ties of home and
fatherland, and go to seek their fortune in a new and far-away land.
Upon their success depends the question whether others from the
same district shall follow in their footsteps. If they fail in their
venture, it serves as a discouraging factor as respects further
emigration from that region. But if they succeed, and win a position
which makes them envied in the eyes of their fellow-countrymen, it
furnishes a powerful stimulus to further emigration. Sooner or later,
there will be some who succeed from every region, and the example
of a few successful ones is likely to far outweigh numerous failures.
Something like this is going on in countless remote districts of the
south European countries, and has gone on for decades in every
country which has sent us numbers of immigrants.
Take a typical example. Some Slav peasant, in a little village of
Austria-Hungary, of a more ambitious and adventurous disposition
than most of his fellows, hears of the opportunities in America, and
being dissatisfied with his present lot, decides to try his fortune in
the new world. His first “job” is in a mine in some small town of
Pennsylvania. Accustomed as he is to a low standard of living, he is
able to save a considerable part of the wages which seem munificent
to him. From time to time he writes letters home, telling of his
prosperity. Eventually he saves up enough to purchase a little store
or saloon. Of course there will be a letter telling about that. These
letters are wonderful documents in the eyes of his friends and
relatives at home. Correspondence does not flourish in these regions,
and the receipt of any letter is a matter of great importance. The
arrival of a message from across the sea creates an impression which
it is almost impossible for an American to comprehend. The precious
missive is read aloud in the coffee-houses, and passed from hand to
hand throughout the village. It may even travel to neighboring
hamlets, and make its impression there. The neighbor in America,
and his career, become the foremost topic of conversation for miles
around.
In time all this has its effect. A small group of the original
emigrant’s former neighbors resolve to try their luck too. The most
natural thing, of course, is for them to go to the place where their
friend is. He helps them to find work, tides them over difficulties,
and in various ways makes their life easier and simpler than his had
been. Each of these newcomers also writes letters home, which go
through the same round, and add to the growing knowledge of
America, and the discontent with European life in comparison. Once
started, the movement grows with great rapidity, and the letters from
America increase in geometrical proportion. Other nuclei start up in
other places, recruits are drawn from more distant villages, and the
first little trickling stream becomes a swelling tide.
This is what has come to be known as the chain-letter system.
Multiplied by hundreds of thousands, the foregoing example serves
to illustrate the irresistible network of communications which is
drawing the peasants of Europe to every part of the United States.
This is recognized by all authorities as probably the most powerful
single factor in stirring up emigration from such countries as Italy,
Austria-Hungary, Greece, Bulgaria, etc. Its effect has been
graphically described by a Greek writer in the following words:
“‘Such a one, from such a village, sent home so many dollars
within a year,’ is heard in some village or city, and this news, passed
like lightning from village to village and from city to city, and
magnified from mouth to mouth, causes the farmer to forsake his
plow, the shepherd to sell his sheep, the mechanic to throw away his
tools, the small-grocer to break up his store, the teacher to forsake
his rostrum, and all to hasten to provide passage money, so that they
may embark, if possible, on the first ship for America, and gather up
the dollars in the streets before they are all gone.”[127]
This is a perfectly natural influence, and obviously beyond the
power of any legislation to check, even if that were desirable. When
inspired merely by a friendly interest in the home neighbors, a desire
to keep in touch with them, and a little personal vanity, it is probably
the most harmless of any of the forms of stimulation. When, as all
too frequently happens, the underlying motive is sinister and selfish,
it becomes a source of the greatest deceit and injustice.
When the pioneer emigrant returns to his native village, after some
years of prosperous life in America, his influence and importance are
unbounded. He becomes in truth the “observed of all observers.”
Groups of interested listeners and questioners gather round him
wherever he goes, and hang on his words in breathless awe. His fine,
strange clothes, his sparkling jewelry and gold watch, his easy,
worldly manners, all arouse the greatest admiration. He has to tell
over and over again the story of his career, and describe the wonders
of that far-away land. If such a one is returning to the United States,
it takes no urging on his part to induce a number of his countrymen
to accompany him; they are fairly clinging to the skirts of his
garments, to be taken back. Even if he has come home to remain, his
constant example is there to inspire the youth of the village to follow
in his path. So the “visit home” and the “returned immigrant” add
their weight to the influence of the stream of letters. How universal
this condition has become is evidenced by the fact that in 1909 only
6.3 per cent of all the immigrants admitted to the United States were
not going to join either relatives or friends, according to their
statement; in 1910 the percentage was only 4.9. In 1912 it rose to 7.5.
About six times as many go to join relatives as friends.
Many of the letters from America contain remittances from the
immigrants to their friends and relatives at home. Often these
remittances take the form of prepaid tickets,[128] complete from some
European center or port to the city in America, where the sender is
waiting. Then their influence is absolutely irresistible. The
transportation companies make every effort to make the passage as
simple as possible, and railroad companies in this country make
special immigrant rates, to be used in connection with such tickets. A
large part of the induced immigration of the present day is also
assisted immigration. It is a perfectly natural thing that an
immigrant in this country should wish to be joined by certain of his
relatives on the other side, and, if he is able, should send them the
means to come. This has always been done. In the middle of the
nineteenth century E. E. Hale wrote that a large part of the letters
from Irish to their friends in this country consisted in
acknowledgments of remittances, and requests for more. The
remittances in 1850 are said to have amounted to about four and one
half million dollars. Prepaid tickets were also in use at that date. It is
manifestly impossible to estimate correctly the extent of this
business at the present time. According to the official reports, in
1910, 72.5 per cent of the immigrants had paid for their own tickets,
26.5 per cent had their tickets paid for by a relative, and 1 per cent by
some one other than self or relative. But this showing rests solely
upon the immigrant’s own statement, and is undoubtedly an
underestimate. The suspicion of immigrants whose passage is paid
for them, which characterizes our law, leads many to practice deceit
in this matter. For instance, it is almost impossible to believe that all
but 5.4 per cent of the Greeks had paid their own passage. An
examination of the figures shows that there is a larger proportion of
passages paid by some one besides the immigrant among the old
immigration than among the new. This is explained by the fact that
the old immigration has more of a family character, and that
immigrants are sending for wives and children. This can be
understood only by comparison with the sex and age tables.[129]
Even when these remittances are not in the form of prepaid
tickets, nor are even intended to pay passage in any way, they exert a
powerful influence in stirring up immigration, through the tangible
evidence which they furnish of American possibilities. There could be
no stronger proof of the success of immigrants in the United States
than the constant stream of gold which is flowing from this country
to Europe.
For the sake of clearness, these different forms of stimulation have
been discussed separately. In practice, they overlap and combine in a
variety of complicated relations. The emigration agent is often
himself a returned immigrant; if not, he utilizes all the influences
which arise from the letters, visits, and remittances of actual
immigrants to further his ends. The letters from America are often
misleading or spurious, used by labor agents in this country to entice
others to come. The prepaid ticket is susceptible of a wide variety of
uses. Assistance to emigrants is often furnished, not by well-disposed
friends and relatives, but by loan-sharks, whose motives are wholly
selfish, and whose sole aim is to secure usurious rates of interest for
sums advanced, which are amply protected by mortgages.
As a result of this complex of motives and forces, America has
become a household word even to the remote corners of Europe, and
he who wishes, for any reason, to stir up emigration from any region
finds a fertile field already prepared for him. It is amazing to find
how much an ignorant Greek peasant knows about conditions in
America. The economic situation is, of course, the prime interest. But
there is also a good fund of information about social and political
subjects. There are of course many misconceptions and errors, but it
is evident that the lines of communication between the European
village and the American city are very well established. Similar
conditions prevail in all the immigrant-furnishing countries.
It is impossible to say to just what extent our present immigration
ought to be classified as induced. It is probable that only a very small
part of the total immigration is wholly free from stimulation to some
degree. Certain it is that a very large proportion of it is thoroughly
artificial and induced. The getting of immigrants is now a thoroughly
developed system, planned to serve the needs of every form of
interest which might profit thereby.[130] As to the quality of such
immigration, something has already been said. There is evidently
nothing about the immigrants themselves, or the way in which they
are secured, that serves as a guarantee of their serviceability or value
to this country; as to their own prospects, we can do no better in
closing this chapter than to quote the words of the Commissioner
General; these various operations “often result in placing upon our
shores large numbers of aliens who, if the facts were only known at
the time, are worse than destitute, are burdened with obligations to
which they and all their relatives are parties,—debts secured with
mortgages on such small holdings as they and their relatives possess,
and on which usurious interest must be paid. Pitiable indeed is their
condition, and pitiable it must remain unless good fortune
accompanies the alien while he is struggling to exist and is denying
himself the necessaries of decent living in order to clear himself of
the incubus of accumulated debt. If he secures and retains
employment at fair wages, escapes the wiles of that large class of
aliens living here who prey upon their ignorant compatriots, and
retains his health under often adverse circumstances, all may
terminate well for him and his; if he does not, disaster is the result to
him and them.”[131]
CHAPTER IX
THE EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION. CONDITIONS OF
EMBARKATION AND TRANSPORTATION