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Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Electro
technology
Practice
5th Edition
Jeffery
Hampson
Steven
Hanssen
Electrotechnology Practice © 2020 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
5th Edition
Jeffery Hampson Copyright Notice
Steven Hanssen This Work is copyright. No part of this Work may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior
written permission of the Publisher. Except as permitted under the
Head of content management: Dorothy Chiu Copyright Act 1968, for example any fair dealing for the purposes of private
Content manager: Chee Ng study, research, criticism or review, subject to certain limitations. These
Content developer: Rhiannon Bowen / Kate Doherty limitations include: Restricting the copying to a maximum of one chapter or
Senior project editor: Nathan Katz 10% of this book, whichever is greater; providing an appropriate notice and
Cover designer: Petrina Griffin warning with the copies of the Work disseminated; taking all reasonable steps
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production process. Note, however, that the publisher cannot vouch for the For product information and technology assistance,
ongoing currency of URLs. in Australia call 1300 790 853;
in New Zealand call 0800 449 725
Fifth edition published in 2020
For permission to use material from this text or product, please email
aust.permissions@cengage.com
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

ISBN: 9780170412223
A catalogue record for this book is available from the National Library of
Australia.
Cengage Learning Australia

Level 7, 80 Dorcas Street
South Melbourne, Victoria Australia 3205
Cengage Learning New Zealand

Unit 4B Rosedale Office Park
331 Rosedale Road, Albany, North Shore 0632, NZ
For learning solutions, visit cengage.com.au
Printed in Singapore by 1010 Printing International Limited.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 23 22 21 20 19
Brief contents
Chapter 1 Work health and safety 1EP
Chapter 2 Document and apply measures to control WH&S

risks associated with electrotechnology work 54EP
Chapter 3 Fabricate, assemble and dismantle utilities

industry components 82EP
Chapter 4 Fixing and support devices and techniques 121EP
Chapter 5 Drawings, diagrams and schedules 140EP
Chapter 6 Develop and connect electrical control circuits 179EP
Chapter 7 Wiring systems types, applications

and terminations 242EP
Chapter 8 Installation of wiring systems 313EP
Chapter 9 Electrical installation – cable selection

and coordination 355EP
Chapter 10 Electrical installations – arrangement,

control and protection 444EP
Chapter 11 Electrical apparatus and existing

circuits – verification and testing 489EP
Chapter 12 Introduction to regulations, compliance

standards and codes 516EP
Chapter 13 Electrical heating 523EP
Chapter 14 Lighting 546EP
Chapter 15 Batteries 590EP
Chapter 16 Make up and assemble busbars (MindTap chapter)
Chapter 17 Verifying installation compliance (MindTap chapter)
Chapter 18 Electrical winding (MindTap chapter)
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202 iii
Contents
Guide to the text viii Chapter 2
Guide to the online resources x
Document and apply measures to
Preface xii
Acknowledgements xiii
control WH&S risks associated with
About the authors xiv electrotechnology work 54EP
2.1 Risk management 55EP
Chapter 1 2.2 Hazard identification and control 58EP
Work health and safety 1EP 2.3 Low-voltage systems 61EP
2.4 Coherent optical hazards 62EP
1.1 Work health and safety fundamentals 2EP
2.5 Harmful dusts and airborne contaminant
1.2 Work environment 4EP
hazards 63EP
1.3 Work environment safety signs 6EP
2.6 Lockout, isolation and tagging 65EP
1.4 Workplace emergencies 7EP
2.7 Step and touch potential 66EP
1.5 Manual handling 9EP
2.8 Testing equipment 71EP
1.6 Chemicals in the workplace 11EP
2.9 Installation safety 73EP
1.7 Working at heights 14EP
2.10 Construction site periodic inspection
1.8 Physical and psychological hazards 17EP
and test 77EP
1.9 Working with electricity 21EP
Chapter review 79EP
1.10 Common electrical hazards 24EP
Trial exam 80EP
1.11 Rescue from a live situation 26EP
1.12 First aid information and life support 27EP Chapter 3
1.13 Legal and ethical issues 31EP
Chapter review 32EP
Fabricate, assemble and dismantle
Trial exam 33EP utilities industry components 82EP
3.1 Mechanical drawing 83EP
Appendix 3.2 Measuring and marking 96EP
Material safety data sheets 36EP 3.3 Holding and cutting 99EP
3.4 Sheet metal work 103EP
Section 1: Product identification 36EP
3.5 Drills and drilling 105EP
Section 2: Hazardous identification 36EP
3.6 Tapping and threading 106EP
Section 3: Composition/ information
3.7 Power tools 109EP
on ingredients 41EP
3.8 General hand tools 111EP
Section 4: First aid measures 41EP
3.9 Joining techniques 115EP
Section 5: Firefighting measures 41EP
Chapter review 117EP
Section 6: Accidental release measures 43EP
Trial exam 119EP
Section 7: Handling and storage 43EP
Section 8: Exposure controls/personal
protection 43EP
Chapter 4
Section 9: Physical and chemical properties 43EP Fixing and support devices
Section 10: Stability and reactivity 45EP and techniques 121EP
Section 11: Toxicological information 45EP 4.1 Fasteners and fixings 122EP
Section 12: Ecological information 45EP 4.2 Stud wall attachment devices 124EP
Section 13: Disposal considerations 45EP 4.3 Fasteners 126EP
Section 14: Transport information 46EP 4.4 Fixings 130EP
Section 15: Regulatory information 47EP 4.5 Fixing adhesives and tapes 133EP
Section 16: Other information 49EP 4.6 Environmental and heritage awareness 136EP
Trial exam 138EP
iv Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Contents | v
Chapter 5 7.13 Communications and data cables 306EP

Drawings, diagrams and schedules 140EP
Trial exam 311EP
5.1 Architectural drawings 141EP
5.2 Electrical symbols, drawing scales Chapter 8
and electrical schedules 152EP
5.3 Electrical drawings 159EP Installation of wiring systems 313EP
5.4 Lighting circuits 166EP 8.1 Standards, codes and requirements
Chapter review 177EP applicable to the installation of
Trial exam 178EP wiring systems 314EP
8.2 Special situations 318EP
Chapter 6 8.3 Hazardous areas 329EP
8.4 Equipment for damp situations 332EP
Develop and connect electrical
8.5 Aerial cabling 340EP
control circuits 179EP
8.6 Underground point of supply 341EP
6.1 Relays 180EP 8.7 Techniques for installing cables
6.2 Relay circuits and drawing conventions 185EP and wiring systems 344EP
6.3 Remote stop–start control and electrical 8.8 Inspecting and testing installed
interlocking 191EP and terminated cables 345EP
6.4 Circuits using contactors 196EP Chapter review 352EP
6.5 Jogging and interlocking 202EP Trial exam 353EP
6.6 Control devices 204EP
6.7 Programmable logic controllers 209EP Chapter 9
6.8 Three-phase induction Electrical installation – cable selection
motor starters 217EP
and coordination 355EP
6.9 Three-phase induction motor reversal
and braking 225EP 9.1 Performance standards 356EP
6.10 Three-phase induction motor 9.2 Voltage drop 364EP
speed control 228EP 9.3 Creation of separate circuits and
6.11 Converting a wiring diagram to a installation circuit arrangement 370EP
circuit diagram 233EP 9.4 Factors affecting the choice of
6.12 Fault-finding techniques 235EP wiring systems 377EP
Chapter review 238EP 9.5 Current-carrying capacity 383EP
Trial exam 240EP 9.6 Determining maximum demand of
consumer’s mains and sub-mains 398EP
Chapter 7 9.7 Earth-fault-loop impedance 410EP
9.8 Protective devices for overload
Wiring systems types, applications
and fault currents 417EP
and terminations 242EP 9.9 Miniature circuit breakers 423EP
7.1 Conductors and terminations 243EP 9.10 Devices for isolation and switching 425EP
7.2 Insulation types 250EP 9.11 Tariffs 426EP
7.3 Plugs and sockets 255EP 9.12 Switchboards 427EP
7.4 Wiring systems 258EP Chapter review 439EP
7.5 Cables 259EP Trial exam 441EP
7.6 Trunking 264EP
7.7 Wiring enclosures 272EP Chapter 10
7.8 Setting rigid steel conduit 288EP Electrical installations – arrangement,
7.9 Fire protection cabling and systems 299EP
control and protection 444EP
7.10 Mineral-insulated
metal-sheathed cable 301EP 10.1 Safety principles 445EP
7.11 Armoured cable 303EP 10.2 Extra-low-voltage circuits 448EP
7.12 Trailing cables 306EP 10.3 Protection against indirect contact 450EP
vi | Contents
10.4 Earthing systems and Chapter 14

fundamental requirements 451EP
Lighting 546EP
10.5 Earth fault loop 464EP
10.6 Core balance earth leakage (CBEL) 466EP 14.1 Lighting concepts 547EP
10.7 Control of an electrical 14.2 Luminaires 555EP
installation and circuits 469EP 14.3 Lamp types 559EP
10.8 Protection against over-voltage 14.4 Energy-saving lighting, neon
and under-voltage 470EP and devices 570EP
10.9 Safety services 477EP 14.5 Exit and emergency evacuation
10.10 Fire detection systems 479EP lighting and lighting control 574EP
10.11 Security systems 484EP 14.6 General requirements for luminaires 581EP
Chapter review 485EP Chapter review 588EP
Trial exam 487EP Trial exam 589EP
Chapter 11 Chapter 15
Electrical apparatus and existing Batteries 590EP
circuits – verification and testing 489EP 15.1 Cells and batteries 591EP
15.2 Primary batteries 592EP
11.1 Electrical safety 490EP
15.3 Secondary or rechargeable cells 595EP
11.2 Legislated regulations 491EP
15.4 Lead acid battery 599EP
11.3 Fault-finding 492EP
15.5 Nickel–cadmium battery 601EP
11.4 Testing of electrical
installation work 494EP 15.6 Battery configurations 601EP
11.5 Testing electrical apparatus 15.7 Load testing 602EP
and existing circuits 496EP 15.8 Intrinsically safe batteries (ISBs) 604EP
11.6 Earth electrode resistance testing 508EP 15.9 Charging methods 605EP
11.7 Documentation 510EP 15.10 Routine maintenance 608EP
Chapter review 514EP 15.11 Safe working practices
Trial exam 515EP and batteries 609EP
Chapter 12 Trial exam 611EP
Introduction to regulations, compliance Chapter 16

standards and codes 516EP
Make up and assemble busbars
12.1 Legislated regulations 517EP
(MindTap chapter)
12.2 Technical standards and statutory
requirements 518EP 16.1 Materials and applications
12.3 Purpose, format and content 16.2 Shaping techniques
of typical job specifications 521EP 16.3 Terminations and connections
Chapter review 521EP 16.4 Other types of busbars
Trial exam 522EP Chapter review
Chapter 13 Chapter 17
Electrical heating 523EP Verifying installation compliance
13.1 Heating and heat energy 524EP (MindTap chapter)
13.2 Control of heating 529EP 17.1 Verification and testing
13.3 Heating process 532EP 17.2 DC circuit theory
Chapter review 544EP 17.3 AC circuit theory
Trial exam 544EP 17.4 Fundamental safety principles
vi Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Contents | vii
17.5 Electric motor control and protection 18.3 Magnet wire varnishes
17.6 Earthing 18.4 Varnish removal methods
17.7 Transformers 18.5 Measuring magnet wires
17.8 Protection of installations 18.6 Applications of winding wires
17.9 Selecting cables 18.7 Stator windings
17.10 Special installation requirements 18.8 Armature windings
17.11 Electrical diagrams 18.9 Transformer windings
17.12 Working safely Chapter review
Chapter review
Trial exam Answers to the exercises 612EP
Index 625EP
Chapter 18
Electrical winding (MindTap chapter)
18.1 Winding wires
18.2 Magnet wire testing
Not all electrical installation work can be done on the • fittings: brok
ground floor or at floor level. To perform installation work • spreaders an
above these levels, ladders or scaffolding are required. While • safety feet: b
ladders are uncomplicated, planning and care are required In addition to
to use them safely. Scaffolding over 2 m in height requires a a smooth surfac
Guide to the text

permit and must comply with state or territory legislation. colour and witho
Before work starts, you need to identify all physical grooves along th
locations and tasks that might cause you to fall. should have the
Identification is mandatory under the Code of Practice for on the ladder:
the Prevention of Falls in Housing and Construction. • manufacture
As you read this text you will find a number of features in every • load rating (i
chapter to enhance your study of Electrotechnology
Ladder hazards and help you • working leng
Step ladders
understand how the theory is applied in the are
Ladder accidents real world.
usually caused by inappropriate only and a worke
selection, lack of maintenance or unsafe use. Some of tread. For a sing
the more common hazards involving ladders, such as stand above the
CHAPTER-OPENING FEATURES FEATURES
unsteadiness,WITHIN CHAPTERS
falls and electric shock, can be foreseen Portable ladd
and prevented. Prevention of ladder accidents requires of the following
Identify the key concepts that the chapter will cover with Switch on boxes
planning, correcthighlight important
ladder selection, hintsprocedures
safe work and tips. standards:
the Learning objectives at the start of each chapter. and effective ladder maintenance. • AS/NZS 1892
• AS 1892.2:19
5
• AS/NZS 1892
130EP | Chapter 4 Fixing and support devices and techniques SWITCH ON
plastic
Hazard prevention • AS/NZS 1892
• Always face the ladder when ascending use and care
Drawings, diagrams
REVIEW QUESTIONS or descending.
• Ascend or descend one rung at a time.
Portable ladd
and are construc
and schedules 1 What are the requirements for operators of powder-
actuated fasteners?
6 What is the function of a cotter pin?
• Always have three limbs (two arms and one leg
7 Which device is used
• Type I Indus
or one arm and twoinlegs)
assemblies whererungs
on the ladder parts at rating of 120
2 Describe the physical properties of a pan head must be accurately
one time. positioned and held in complete • Type II Dom
This chapter provides electrotechnology workers with the knowledge and skills to interpret architectural drawings,
screw.
electrical drawings, circuit diagrams and lighting circuits. relation to one another? rating of 100
• Never hand-carry equipment or tools on a ladder –
3 Name four types of bolt. 8 Whatusetool
toolisbelts.
needed to install or remove a retaining Only industr
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ring?
4 What is the function of a washer? • Never over-reach in order to carry out a task; move with the AS/NZS
Architectural drawings 141EP Electrical drawings 159EP
– 5 What is the function
Classify various building structures ofdiagrams
– Construct block a key? the ladder. when carrying o
– Use a site plan – Draw a line diagram
–
–
State the purpose of setting out
Identify brick veneer construction
– Create a circuit diagram
– Construct wiring diagrams • Always place the ladder on firm or level ground. lengths are show
– Identify a timber frame with external linings Lighting circuits 166EP
– Identify the components of a timber wall frame • Ensure that the support for the top of the ladder
TABLE 1.2 Maxim
– Recognise circuit wiring – TPS cable
4.4 Fixings
– Understand where timber floors are used – Draw one-way lighting circuits
–
–
List the stages of construction
Standard floor plan for domestic dwellings
– Draw two-way lighting circuits is secure.
– Draw two-way plus intermediate lighting circuits
– Use a floor plan – Draw a master on switching circuit Construction
Electrical symbols, drawing scales – Draw a master off circuit for two-way switching
material
Ladder types
and electrical schedules 152EP – Convert a circuit diagram to a wiring diagram
– Interpret an installation diagram
– Develop an electrical specification schedule Metal ladders
Load rating of fixings

– Identify various telecommunication and audio-visual
Choosing what fixingbetoinspected
use can be
onconfusing, but it comes
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS
symbols and reinforced
All ladders should delivery, after
down to two main factors: plastic ladders
suspected damage and once every six months. The safety
The load ratings of fixings are expressed in kilograms (kg) 1 inspection
the weight Timber ladders
of of the equipment
ladders that
should look foryou
thewant them to
following:
Practice whatoryou have learned
newtons in the
(N) as either text
static using
load Exercise
limit or ultimate static Example
10.4 boxes and
Earthingsupport
systems demonstrate how to use| 463EP
fundamental requirements relevant formulae
• stiles: broken, split, cracked, decayed
boxes. Check load
yourlimit.
answers in the back of the book. in practice.
2 • the typeoroftreads:
rungs wall, floor and ceiling
missing, broken,material.
split, cracked,
1 kilogram (mass) = 9.8 newtons (force) decayed, corroded, worn, dirty
EXERCISEStatic
10.1loads are any loads that remain in a stationary
12 State oneEXAMPLE
requirement4.4 that the cross-sectional
position for extended periods of time. By contrast, static area (CSA) of a protective earthing conductor
Masonry expansion anchor M6 × 8 × 90 mm with
Questionsload
on earthing
limit is a rated stationary load limit for a fixing and should ensure.
flange nut.
integrates
Refer to Wiring rules,a Section
substantial safety margin which is a factor of
5, ‘Earthing Answer
If the load the bolts had to support was a 1000 kg
4:1 (sometimes
arrangements and earthing 5:1).conductors’
For example,toiflocate
a fixing must carry a Clause number
the
switchboard measuring 450 mm wide by 900 mm
load
appropriate
140EP of 5summarise
rule; kg the fixing the used is designed
requirement to carry 20 kg.13 Where the active conductor comprises a number
and
deep and fixed to a concrete wall, then the number of
document theUltimate
applicable clause
static limit is the highest rated stationaryof conductors, connected in parallel, how will the
load number.
fixings would be:
1 What areloadthe
limit (the
five numberfunctions
earthing of kilo newtons per square millimetre)
that selected earthing conductor size be determined?
Tensile stress area (TSA) of the bolt is 20.737
allowed
earthing which, if exceeded,
arrangements must perform may cause failure
to ensure Answer
a of the fixing. square mm
safe operation
As a of the
rule of electrical
thumb, in installation?
order to find out how many Clause number
A Class 4.6 bolt has a tensile strength of 400 MPa
Answer fixings you’ll need to a load, divide the total weight of 14 theUsing the appropriate table, what is the minimum 2
Stress (MPa) × Area (m )
Clauseload
number
by the static load rating of the fixing. copper earthing conductor = associated with a
Force (kN)size
1000
of loads – shear and 25 mm active conductor?
2
2 Describe the There (MEN) distribution
are two system that
other expressions
forms the standard Answer Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) 8.2948 kN
tensile. Shear distribution
loads are createdsystem used
when theinweight of the
Australia and New Zealand. Clause number Conversion to kilograms = kN × 101.972 = 846 kg
fixed equipment exerts force parallel to the surface of
Answer 15 State the CSA Applying a safety
of a copper mainmargin of 4:1 then an M6 × 1
earthing
the base material, while tensile loads are created when
Clausethenumber Class 4.6 bolt could carry a load of 211.5 kilograms
conductor.
fixed equipment exerts force perpendicular to the
shear weight vertical force flat to the wall. The
3 State the
basepurpose
material,of for
protective a ceiling surface to which a Answer
example,earthing.
Clause horizontal force taken at 0.6 times the vertical force
number
Answer suspended load is attached. Always determine the weight
would be 127 kg.
Clauseofnumber
suspended loads before attaching to a ceiling fixing. 16 What type of conductors in every electrical
The actual tension force on the bolt is the height
4 For operational
With the reasons,
equipmentshould functional
that earthin exterior
is suspended installation should be connected to the main
divided by the width, multiplied by the mass of the
connections
locations for the
dataeffects
and signalling purposes
of shock loading mustbebe considered.earthing terminal/connection or bar, either
object. Therefore, the tension created by the mass:
insulated
Shockfrom all protective
loading earthing connections
is the magnification of the stationary weight directly or indirectly, to form an equipotential
and conductors and be connected together at can
oneimpose bonding network? 0.45 ÷ 0.9 = 0.5
of the material. Wind and seismic forces
point? several times the stationary weight. Therefore, both the Answer 0.5 × 50 kg = 25 kg
Answer Clause number Now 127 divided by 25 = 5.08. To support the load
fixing and the structure to which the fixing is attached
Clause number 17 State the functionsix
securely ofM6
themasonry
MEN connection or link be suitable.
anchors would
must be capable of supporting several times the weight of
5 Is equipotential bonding of extraneous conductive with an Additional
electrical installation.
anchors may be warranted, not because of
the suspended equipment. Reference should be made to
parts included
a structural within a protective
engineer earthing before proceedingAnswerweight, but because of the size of the fixture.
for interpretation
arrangement for an electrical installation? Clause number However, industry practice uses four; therefore,
viii with2019
Copyright any Cengage
suspension of theAll
Learning. material.
Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Answer 18 How is the
each CSAboltofwould
the MEN connection
safely hold a 40 kgf.
Installing electrical equipment properly begins with
Clause number determined? The load values quoted in fixings catalogues
understanding how the walls and ceilings of structures
Guide to the text | ix
END-OF-TOPIC
FIGURE 6.25FEATURES
Legend plate
Test your knowledge and consolidate your learning from the topic using
FIGURE Reviewlamps
theIndicator
6.26 Questions.
and their symbol
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What type of diagram can involve two circuits 9 Design a horizontal orientation control circuit
either separate or together? diagram using the following circuit description:
2 How can distinguishing of control or power circuit • Include line numbers, wire number, and contact
diagrams be achieved? locations.
3 How are contact numbers (K1.1) placed in the • When pushbutton S1 is pressed relay K1 will
Chapter review | 353EP
circuit diagram? energise and latch.
4 Where should line numbers for vertical circuit • Once energised K1 causes an indicator lamp (L1)
diagram orientation start? to illuminate.
equipotential bonding if they are within arm’s reach • A service pillar is the standard utility’s supply point
5 When referencing line numbers for timer contacts • When pushbutton S2 is pressed relay K2
of the pool’s edge. for a residential allotment in an underground area.
what superscript should be used? energises and latches.
• All wiring systems used in a classified zone must not • If consumer’s mains pass under concrete then the
6 What system provides knowledge of the number of • Once energised relay K2 will cause an indicator
allow moisture or water to enter any connection or minimum depth of consumer’s mains can vary.
conductors that connect the devices in a circuit? lamp (L2) to illuminate and turn off relay K1 and
wiring enclosure or be affected by pool chemicals.
7 Name the device that has two states – NO and NC. 8.7 Techniques
indicator for installing cables and wiring systems
lamp L1.
• The requirements for the safety of people and
8 An energised green indicator lamp usually • •Pushbutton
DomesticS3wiring in most installations
de-energises constructed
the control circuit.
equipment in fountain and water feature locations
indicates what type of circuit state? with timber or steel framing is installed within the
are based on the application of a zonal model.
wall cavity and inside the ceiling space using PVC-
• All electrical equipment installed within a hosing
insulated and sheathed cables.
down location must be suitable for the environment
6.3 Remote stop–start control

of that area and the process used for the hosing 8.8 Inspecting and testing installed and
END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES down operation. terminated cables
and electrical interlocking

• The purpose of inspection and testing is to provide
8.5 Aerial cabling
for, so far as is reasonably practicable, the safety of
At the end of each
• An chapter
overhead youdistribution NEW Chapter
will find a system Review
uses various typesand a Trial Exam to help you to review, practise and
persons and livestock against the effects of electric
352EP | Chapter 8ofInstallation of wiring systems
extend your knowledge in preparation
conductors called for your exams.
aerials.
shock and burns.
• A riser bracket can be used to lift the aerials to the
Stop–start circuits
correct height.
• colour• Mainof the earthing
also be
start, yellow
button – red
fortested
a return
conductors
forto
and bonding
for stop, green
continuity.
or blackearths
the initial state, white for
for must
CHAPTER REVIEW • Flying

A starting device services
is a controlaredevice
used to avoid
used crossing
primarily a
to start any•function
A series notofcovered
leakagebytests are required
the other colours to verify
machineryneighbour’s
and hold it inproperty.
operation. A stopping device is the insulation
• illumination requirement resistance of each outgoing circuit
a control
8.1 Standards, 8.6device usedrequirements
Underground
codes and to shut down
point machinery,
applicable while an • All•relocatable
of supply shape andincluding
premises
physical themust
unconnected
size consumer’s mains from a
have electrical
to theisolator •is aUnderground
installation device that systems
of wiring holds and locks
consumer’s out the
mains canmachinery
originate from protection
• IP rating switchboard.
that isolates the complete relocatable site
of operation.
• Cables A accessories
start
service
and their and stop
pillars knownpushbutton
should asbegreen control
buoysindevice
installed that are aninstallation. • Before
• security using any instruments, make sure that all test
requirements
with legend
locations that plate is illustrated
above-ground
prevent themmeans Figure
frominbeing
of 6.27. to the mains
connecting
exposed • A and
relocatable
• suitabilityprobes
home and
must
for the meter leads are
be furnished
environmental in the
with ansame category as
conditions.
in which chemical
mechanical damage, service fuses
attack,may be located.
weathering, automatic
Devices the
fire to meter.
detection
start andand alarm
stop system.
machinery A
should be in
heat, corrosion and other damaging environmental concession
a positionstand
whereisthey a permanent or semi-permanent
can be readily and conveniently
settings. structure
reachedsuch
by the asperson
a booth whofrom which such
operates food or other
machinery, and
• Wiring systems are classified in order to define their items are sold, aand
be fabricated display, an amusement
arranged so as to avoid park
the accidental
circuit performance ability when subjected to fire,Stop device suchofas
starting a ride-on
such machinery.deviceSomeor any other single
machines have lockable
cutting or TRIAL EXAM
impact damage and, if required, their
Start entertainment unit. shown in Figure 6.28, to avoid
isolating switches,
ability when exposed to water spray. • Supply cables for
unauthorised a temporary site may be
use.
FIGUREFor
• Methods of6.27
cableStart and
support
Chapter stop buttons
andassessment,
8 skills please complete theburiedFor
associated securing either
5safety,direct
the in
Controls asthe
start set ground or appropriate
out in the
pushbuttons BCA are known
may have as:
individual
devices should
followingbe selected
trial exam. to ensure that circuit underground
key locks to a enclosures.
performance
prevent requirements
unauthorised operation of the
When
integrity choosing
1is not
WSreduced. a pushbutton control device, factors • A marina
11 means: is ab sheltered
machinery. use ofport
separation
The for light
pleasure
distances
a pilot craft tothat
to indicate berth.
the
• Powerthat cables
shoulda should
bewiring
considered
not include:
be installed
system 30 minuteswithin themoderate
fire, same • The
impact service cpillar
machinery is similar
is barriers
energised to a relocatable
is another additional premises
safety factor.
• mounting
enclosure requirements
asbthewiring
cablessystem
of other15services
minutessuch fire,as fire,impact service
light pillarcontact
A hold-in d and normally
structural
or latching hascontact
one 15 A
elements socket outlet
is usually a normally
• number
alarm, data, candand contacts
communications
wiring to avoid the
system 60 minutes fire,risk of
massive impact peropen
berth6 protected by an MCB/RCD
contact connected in parallel with aon
To guarantee minimal combination
impact thebutton
start building
to fabric,
• currentcontact
inadvertent dand voltage
wiring betweenrating
system the
120 different
minutessystems.
fire, massive impact protection device.
allow a relaywiring
coil to systems
remainto be installed
energised oncein heritage
the buildings
start button
• The Building 2 What CodeisoftheAustralia
minimum (BCA) is a uniform
bending radius for armoured• A standard installation
should: method with marinas is to
set of technical provisions for the design and
cable? run a feed from a use the TPS
shorewiring
to a floating
installed pontoon via surfaces
on building
constructionaof buildings
3D and other structures a bridge or ramp,
b use with a flexible section
concealment methods to allow for
throughout Australia.
b 4D tidal movement. c use TPI cables installed in conduit
• To guaranteec minimal 8D impact on the building fabric d be extra low voltage
8.3 Hazardous areas
wiring systems d 12Duse various concealment methods 7 Cardiac-protected areas must minimise leakage
• Hazardous areas are areas in which flammable or
such as installing
3 State the behind cornices
overall minimumand within
bending radius when combustiblecurrent
floor values to below:
gases, vapours and mists, liquids, dusts,
and wall cavities,
bendingusing TPSold gaslight pipes and coal
cable. a 30 mA
powders and flyings may be present which when
chutes wherea these 2D exist. b 10 mA
mixed with air in sufficient quantities may result in
b 5D c 100 µA
8.2 Special situations an explosive atmosphere and thus require particular
c 4D d 100 mA
• Electrical safety is critical in treatment areas, safety measures.
d 6D 8 How many socket outlets must be available to each
especially those areas using electromedical treatment. • Hazardous areas are classified into zones based on
4 To avoid the risk of mechanical and electrical damage patient in cardiac-protected areas?
• To minimise the effects of any fault current entering the frequency of the hazardous occurrence from the
through electromagnetic induction, cables shouldpoint a 2
be: of release,
a patient, RCDs, isolation transformers or line- the duration of the explosive fuel
a installed within the same enclosure b 8
isolation monitors must be installed. mixture and the quality of ventilation.
b sheathed c 4
• Cardiac-protected areas are identified with a sign. • The symbol ‘Ex’ followed by a lowercase letter or
c earthed d 6
• Extension leads should not becompartment
used in body-protected letters indicates the particular code of explosion
d in a separate
or cardiac-protected areas. protection.
• Type 1 RCDs (safety switches) are used in patient
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May 8.4 copied,
not be Equipment
scanned,for or
damp situations
duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
treatment areas to monitor and protect the mains • A damp situation is a location in which moisture is
supply.
Guide to the online resources
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR
Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources that
will help you prepare your lectures and assessments. These teaching tools
are accessible via cengage.com.au/instructors for Australia
or cengage.co.nz/instructors for New Zealand.
SOLUTIONS MANUAL
The Solutions Manual provides detailed solutions to every question in the text.
MAPPING GRID
The Mapping Grid is a simple grid that shows how the content of this book relates to
the units of competency needed to complete the Certificate III in Electrotechnology
Electrician UEE30811.
COGNERO TEST BANK

A bank of questions has been developed in conjunction with the text for creating quizzes,
tests and exams for your students. Create multiple test versions in an instant and deliver
tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want using Cognero. Cognero test
generator is a flexible online system that allows you to import, edit and manipulate
content from the text’s test bank or elsewhere, including your own favourite test
questions.
POWERPOINT™ PRESENTATIONS (Premium and Basic)

Cengage Premium PowerPoint lecture slides are available as an optional, purchasable, instructor resource to NEW
provide you with additional teaching support.
These resources are a convenient way to add more depth to your lectures, covering additional content and with an
exclusive selection of engaging features aligned with the textbook including additional student
activities, and mapping of slides to the units of competency for the Certificate III in
Electrotechnology Electrician UEE30811. Contact your Cengage learning consultant to find
out more.
Complimentary Basic PowerPoint slides are still available to instructors when this
textbook is prescribed as a course resource.
ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT

Add the digital files of graphs, pictures and flow charts into your course management
system, use them in student handouts, or copy them into your lecture presentations.
x Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Guide to the online resources | xi
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR
MINDTAP
Premium online teaching and learning tools are available on the MindTap platform – the personalised eLearning NEW
solution.
MindTap is a flexible and easy-to-use platform that helps build student confidence and gives you a clear picture of their
progress. We partner with you to ease the transition to digital – we’re with you every step of the way.
The Cengage Mobile App puts your course directly into students’ hands with course materials available on their
smartphone or tablet. Students can read on the go, complete practice quizzes or participate in interactive real-time
activities.
MindTap for Hampson and Hanssen’s Electrotechnology: Principles and Practice 5e is full of innovative resources to
support critical thinking, and help your students move from memorisation to mastery! Includes:
• Hampson and Hanssen’s Electrotechnology Practice and Electrial Trade Principles eBooks
• Instructional videos
• Labelling activities
• Concept Check quizzes
MindTap is a premium purchasable eLearning tool. Contact your Cengage learning
consultant to find out how MindTap can transform your course.
FOR THE STUDENT
MINDTAP
MindTap is the next-level online learning tool that helps you get better grades!
MindTap gives you the resources you need to study – all in one place and available when you need them. In the MindTap
Reader, you can make notes, highlight text and even find a definition directly from the page.
If your instructor has chosen MindTap for your subject this semester, log in to MindTap to:
• Get better grades
• Save time and get organised
• Connect with your instructor and peers
• Study when and where you want, online and mobile
• Complete assessment tasks as set by your instructor.
When your instructor creates a course using MindTap, they will let you know your
course key so you can access the content. Please purchase MindTap only when
directed by your instructor. Course length is set by your instructor.
Preface
The fifth edition of Electrotechnology Practice: A Practical Approach
continues the tradition of previous editions and its companion Electrical
Trade Principles: A Practical Approach in that it is written for the student of
electrical studies. This edition focuses on essential knowledge and practical
skills that have direct relevance for electrical workers. The text always
responds to the changing needs of the electrical industries and presents
a broad-based expression of knowledge, which is essential for effective
workplace participation. It is also a very practical reference text for anyone
interested in practical aspects of the electrical industry.
The text presents information and concepts using graphics: to this
end the text uses over 1000 illustrations to convey various concepts and
real-world aspects of electrical practices. The illustrations provide variety
and meaning to the subject material, which aids the learner in retaining
knowledge and engages the electrical worker.
Individuals recognise and process information in different ways and attain
understanding at different rates. This text addresses the uniqueness of individual
learning processes. The text is student-centred in that it helps learners in ways
that are effective for them, and matches individual needs. The structure of the
text leads the learner from what they know to what they need to know, and
provides regular topic summaries and review questions. For the teacher, the
structure of the text makes it well-suited for flexible delivery methods.
This fifth edition is available in print and digital format. As an eBook,
the text enables a more personal ownership of the learning experience. For
example, the eBook format enables students to search for words and phrases,
highlight important data and bookmark key pages. In addition, students can
add their notes on the topic and explore additional interactive activities.
Colleges, trade learning centres and schools find that they have access to
a relevant and up-to-date depository of electrical content suitable for the
delivery of many varied electrical certificates and diplomas. For instructors of
these courses, the eBook allows for additional notes.
This text provides a sound understanding of the skills behind the electrical
trades. In addition, the content makes theoretical skills development as
flexible and accessible as possible, while ensuring the delivery of appropriate
instruction that is linked to industry standards. The content aligns with essential
capabilities required by existing electrical courses contained in the National
Electrotechnology Training Package – UEE11.
The text follows the uniform structure and system of delivery as
recommended by the nationally accredited vocational educational and
training authorities. Relevant required skills and knowledge and work
performance specifications are available from E-Oz Training Standards
Australia, online at http://www.e-oz.com.au.
This self-paced text is ideal for various modes of delivery, including workplace-
based learning, classroom learning, blended workplace and classroom learning, and
distance learning in the classroom or online through the eText format.
Topics such as ‘Electrical installation – cable selection and coordination’ and
‘Electrical installations – arrangement control and protection’ align with the latest
Australian standards AS/NZS 3000:2018 and AS/NZS 3008.1.1:2017. On-the-job fault-
finding skills are an essential facet of all electrical activities, which is reflected in the
topic ‘Electrical apparatus and existing circuits – verification and testing’.
We, the authors, believe that this text is designed to bring students of the
electrocomms industry closer together by providing understandable concepts.
Special thanks are due to Chee-Kin Ng (Content Manager, Vocational
Education and Training) and Rhiannon Bowen (Content Developer) at
Cengage, and Sylvia Marson (Copy editor), for their work, support and advice.
xii Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Acknowledgements
The authors and Cengage wish to thank the many lecturers and industry
experts who gave valuable assistance in the preparation of this new edition of
Electrotechnology Practice: A Practical Approach. Their helpful suggestions,
concerning many aspects of the technical content of this book, have been
drawn from broad experience in the electrical trades.
These lecturers and industry experts include:
• Kenneth Miles – TAFE Northern Sydney Institute
• Kristopher Heel – Tec NQ and Reflect Tech
• Andrew Smith – TAFE SA
• Jo O’Mahony – Goulburn Ovens Institute of TAFE
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202 xiii
About the authors
Jeffery Hampson and Steven Hanssen each have more than 25 years of
teaching experience in the VET sector. Jeff has taught electrical trades
students at SkillsTech Australia (TAFE Queensland) as a leading vocational
teacher. Steven is currently a head teacher of electrical trades in TAFE NSW
Sydney Region.
xiv Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
1
Work health and safety
This chapter provides electrotechnology workers with knowledge and skills about work health and safety
fundamentals.
Electrotechnology workers will gain an overview of work health and safety knowledge and skills that will allow
them to implement safe procedures for working in the electrotechnology industry.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Work health and safety fundamentals 2EP Working at heights 14EP
– State the primary principles of work health and safety – Identify hazards, equipment and precautions when working
– State the functions of health and safety committees at heights
– Describe the principles of risk management Physical and psychological hazards 17EP
Work environment 4EP – Define a ‘confined space’ and its potential hazards
– Describe possible hazards at a worksite – Evaluate common hazards in the workplace
– Recognise various safety signs Working with electricity 21EP
– Define an ‘emergency situation’ – Discuss the effects of electric shock and describe
– Identify a range of fire extinguishers suitable for a specific precautions to minimise those effects
type of fire – Recognise the various protective devices intended primarily
Work environment safety signs 6EP for the protection of conductors and equipment
– State the aim of work environment safety signs Common electrical hazards 24EP
Workplace emergencies 7EP – State the three categories of common electrical hazards
– Recognise a workplace emergency situation Rescue from a live situation 26EP
– Distinguish fire extinguishers from each other by their – Provide the requirements for a low-voltage rescue kit when
colour scheme working on or near live electrical equipment
Manual handling 9EP First aid information and life support 27EP
– Define ‘manual handling’ – Develop a priority action plan
– Describe correct lifting procedures – Determine a casualty’s level of consciousness via gentle
Chemicals in the workplace 11EP touching and loud talking
– Identify and understand a material safety data sheet Legal and ethical issues 31EP
– Understand the detail required of a chemical – Understand the principle of ‘duty of care’.
substance register
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202 1EP
2EP | Chapter 1 Work health and safety
1.1 Work health and safety fundamentals

In force across Australia is the national harmonisation 4 to provide for consultation and cooperation between
law that is a significant reform to WH&S legislation. This employers and employees in achieving the principles of
reform is reflected in new federal Acts called the Work, the relevant state or territory WH&S Act or regulation
Health and Safety Acts (WH&S Acts). This legislation 5 to ensure that risks to health and safety at a workplace
came into effect on 1 January 2012. are identified, assessed and eliminated or controlled
Previously, reference had to be made to the relevant 6 to provide a legislative framework that enables a living
state or territory legislation referring to WH&S in which the standard of WH&S to take account of future changes in
electrical worker resides. Today each of the state and territory technology and work practices
WH&S laws are replaced by national laws based on the 7 to deal with the impact of particular classes or types of
WH&S Act. This approach to WH&S provides consistency dangerous goods and plant at, and beyond, places of work
for workers (same work, health and safety protection and 8 to develop and promote community awareness of
standards) anywhere they work across Australia. In Australia, WH&S issues.
WH&S is watched over by Safe Work Australia. Every worker in Australia and New Zealand has a
Important changes introduced are: right to healthy and safe work and to a work environment
• a broader definition of the term ‘worker’ that enables them to live a socially and economically
• clarification of the term ‘due diligence’ productive life.
• union rights
• worker consultation requirements
• incident notification Responsibilities, rights
• role of inspectors and regulators. and obligations
All prudent electrical workers should read the WH&S
The WH&S legislation in Australia and New Zealand
legislation, which must be available to them in the workplace.
places an absolute duty on employers and controllers of
In general, work health (which includes psychological
workplaces (including directors and managers) to provide
health as well as physical health) and safety provides a
a safe and healthy workplace for employees and visitors to
broad framework incorporating legislation (which codifies
the workplace. The various Acts impose clear obligations
the duties of care that are owed under common law),
on all persons to ensure safe work environments.
policies, procedures, obligations and practical means that
Employers are to provide work environments that
aim to protect the safety, health and welfare of all persons
ensure the health and safety of workers. Employers must
within a workplace. A workplace is any place where work
also maintain the various classes or types of dangerous
is being performed. The harmonised principles of the
goods and plant and systems of work under their control
WH&S Acts are as follows:
without risking the health and safety of any person.
1 All persons in a workplace must be given the
Workers have obligations not to put others at risk and
highest level of health and safety protection that is
to obey the reasonable instructions of their employer in
sensibly feasible.
relation to WH&S.
2 Those who manage or control work activities that give
Persons other than employers and workers (visitors or
rise, or may give rise, to risks to health or safety are
unwelcome persons) must not put others and workplaces at
responsible for removing or minimising health and
risk and must obey the WH&S instructions specific to the
safety risks, so far as is sensibly feasible.
workplace location they have entered.
3 Employers and self-employed people should develop a
‘hands-on’ approach and take sensible workable measures
to ensure health and safety in their business activities. Induction
4 Employers and workers should exchange information Induction is a legislative requirement. The WH&S Act
about workplace risks to health or safety and actions states that a manager has an obligation to protect the
that can be taken to eliminate or reduce those risks. health and safety of workers and others by ensuring that
5 Employees are entitled, and should be encouraged, to they are not exposed to risks to their health and safety
be represented on health and safety issues. arising from their employment and that they have enough
The objectives of WH&S are structured around the information, training and supervision to stay safe.
following eight core values: Induction is imparting information to a prospective
1 to secure and promote the health, safety and welfare staff member at various points during the familiarisation
of people at work process for a work program, for example, at an interview
2 to protect all people at a place of work against risks to and at the local workplace. All new staff should be given
health or safety arising out of the activities of persons a general orientation program which includes providing
at work information which is specific to the local workplace and all
3 to promote a safe and healthy work environment for all relevant safety information.
persons at a workplace to protect them from injury and
illness
1.1 Work health and safety fundamentals | 3EP
Induction is normally carried out by a nominated staff

member who provides information about processes and
Safety observers
activities regarding the work area including health and Safety observers must receive specific instructions in their
safety matters. All new staff must be informed about the duties from the licensed electrical worker or workers on
hazards and the possible risks and know how to avoid or potential risks associated with the work to be performed.
minimise the risks. Safety observers must:
• wear the necessary personal protective equipment
required by personnel involved with the electrical work
Health and safety committees activities
Health and safety committees are set up in workplaces to • constantly observe the safety procedures that are
help resolve health, safety and welfare issues that arise in carried out by electrical personnel working in a
the workplace. The committee is a representative group of potentially hazardous situation
the employer and workers that meets in a cooperative way • be familiar with the location of all isolation points and
to improve systems which assist proposed changes to the how to operate them for the work being performed
workplace, workplace policies, and practices or procedures • provide prompt warnings when necessary to prevent
that could affect the health, safety or welfare of any person electrical workers coming into direct contact with
in the workplace. exposed electrical parts
Health and safety committees should: • provide help in the case of emergency.
• develop safe systems of work and safety procedures Safety observers must also:
• analyse accidents and causes of notifiable occupational • have demonstrated ability in isolation techniques
diseases, and make recommendations to prevent • be proficient in rescue procedures and tools for
recurrences extracting persons from live low-voltage circuits
• review risk assessments and equipment
• examine safety audit reports • be skilled in resuscitation techniques
• consider reports submitted by safety representatives • render immediate first aid assistance in the event of an
• monitor the effectiveness of health and safety training accident.
• monitor and review the adequacy of health and safety A safety observer is required for all instances of live
communication within the workplace. work. For example, a licensed electrical worker has to
perform the following tasks:
• fault finding on low-voltage electrical installations or
Safety inspectors equipment that is energised
A workplace health and safety inspector may enter any • testing of low-voltage electrical equipment that
workplace to monitor its compliance with the WH&S introduces an energy source (voltage or current), that is,
Act and to exercise their powers while they are in that bench testing equipment.
workplace. Usually the inspector will be visiting to
undertake a health and safety inspection. However, they
could also visit after an accident that may have been
Housekeeping
caused by work activities. After entering the workplace the Housekeeping is not just cleanliness; it is a significant
inspector has the power to: factor in creating a safe, healthy workplace for workers.
• search any part of the workplace The development of a good housekeeping culture in a
• carry out inquiries, examinations, surveys and workplace is a team effort and should be the desire of every
investigations, including taking measurements, worker. Best-practice procedures make housekeeping a
photographs and samples with respect to the degree standard part of working. Good housekeeping also raises
of risk at the workplace or the standards of health and awareness and highlights the importance of sustainability,
safety existing at a workplace environmental responsibility and hygiene concerns.
• inspect and copy documents Where a workplace has been allowed to become
• make inquiries into the circumstances and probable cluttered and polluted, poor work practice procedures
causes of workplace incidents and frequent accidents often result. Good housekeeping
• take any person, equipment or materials into the means that:
workplace to assist in the exercising of a power • work areas are free from rubbish and obstructions
• require any person in the workplace to give • surfaces are safe and suitable
reasonable help • surfaces are free from slip/trip hazards
• require a person to produce specific documents • appropriate waste bins are available
• issue improvement or prohibition notices • stock/material is stored safely
• seize evidence of a WH&S offence • aisles are unobstructed and clearly defined with
• seize anything dangerous or otherwise used to commit adequate lighting. There should be good vision at
a WH&S offence. corners and the aisles must be wide enough for the
Note that it is an offence to obstruct, threaten or processes carried out.
interfere with a WH&S inspector who is exercising their
powers under the legislation.
SWITCH ON Insulated gloves

Workplace housekeeping is a task of both employers Insulated gloves for working on low-voltage equipment
and workers, for the benefit of both. Good industrial are to be rated to the highest voltage expected when
housekeeping creates a working environment performing the task. The gloves must comply with AS
in which workers can do their job correctly, 2225:1994 Insulating gloves for electrical purposes.
professionally and in safety.
Safety footwear
Personal protective equipment Safety shoes/boots must comply with the requirements
of AS/NZS 210.2:2000 Occupational protective footwear –
Personal protective equipment (PPE) refers to garments, Requirements and test methods.
equipment or barrier substances designed to be worn by a The shoes/boots selected should have minimal
person to protect them from exposure to risks of injury or synthetic material in their construction and must have a
illness. Different types of PPE may be used depending on full leather upper.
the type of hazard. Note that all PPE must be approved by When in service the shoes/boots must be in good
Australian standards. condition and are not to have any exposed metal such as
steel toe-caps.
Clothing
Flame-resistant clothing (100% cotton clothing) that Face shields
covers the whole body (neck to wrists and ankles) must be Face shields are to cover the full face and have no exposed
worn by all electrical workers involved with de-energised metal parts and have an electrical rating suitable for the
electrical work activities. task being performed.
Flame-retardant clothing that covers the whole body All PPE must be checked regularly for condition,
(neck to wrists and ankles) must be worn by electrical cleanliness and use-by dates, and the storage of PPE must
workers involved with live work activities. be appropriate. If electrical workers do not use the correct
PPE they will continue to be involved in accidents and they
will suffer injuries.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 State two common principles that unite all the state 6 What is meant by the term ‘induction’?
and territory individual WH&S Acts. 7 When is a safety observer required?
2 State two core values that the objectives of WH&S 8 Provide three responsibilities that a safety
in the different states and territories of Australia observer must demonstrate.
are structured around. 9 What does ‘good housekeeping’ mean?
3 What is the definition for a workplace? 10 What type of clothing must be worn when
4 State the purpose of a health and safety committee. performing de-energised electrical work activities?
5 Name three powers of a workplace health and 11 What type of clothing must be worn by electrical
safety inspector. workers?
1.2 Work environment

The work environment, or worksite, is the place of that carry over into the workplace. This can have fatal
employment, base of operation or location of workers. It consequences if these workers are not identified and
includes all of the employer’s buildings or facilities located counselled before the situation escalates.
within the same building and their parking facilities. Criminal issues include stealing and sabotage to
In today’s changing times, safe premises, buildings and buildings, assets or documents (paper or data). Persons
security address not only natural disasters but also crime, engaged in these activities are usually disgruntled
violence in the workplace and acts of terrorism. Security workers, opportunists or hackers. Our era has seen an
means the protection of the premises, the employees increase in terrorist-related violence. Workplaces now have
working there, visitors and assets. the potential to be used as weapons of mass destruction.
The most common threat in the work environment is When developing a practical plan of action, the
workplace violence. Workplace violence includes cases workplace environment must be examined from several
of unhappy, angry workers causing harm to a building, viewpoints: operations, physical security and valid
its assets or other workers, and includes domestic issues data-collecting processes. A practical plan of action
1.2 Work environment | 5EP
theoretically leads to safer environments for workers and

the surrounding community.
Hazards at the worksite
A hazard can be work practices, procedures or anything
that has the potential to harm the health or safety of a
Standard work procedure person. Risk is a measure of the probability of a specific
Standard work procedure means implementing specific, harmful effect in particular circumstances. It is important
efficient plans of action for each task or process undertaken to distinguish between hazard and risk. Worksite hazards
in a workplace. It starts with identifying the generally occur:
accepted safe and sound way to perform a particular task, • in the work environment
then developing methods and procedures. These standard • as a result of the use of machinery, tools and materials
procedures become an effective baseline against which • as a result of unsuitable work systems and procedures.
improvement actions are measured. Hazards encountered at a worksite can be classified
Standard work procedures enable each worker to learn into five broad areas; see Table 1.1.
and follow best practices that help them complete each
task or process to a high level of efficiency with safety. TABLE 1.1 Examples of worksite hazards
Observation and analysis of each process enables the Hazard category Example
identification of workplace activities that are not safe or
Physical noise, radiation, light, vibration,
are inefficient and that must therefore be eliminated or
temperature, humidity,
improved. This can be anything from a worker engaged ergonomic (movement)
in excessive lifting to having to work live. The process
Chemical poisons, dusts, lead, solvents,
is then documented as a carefully planned step-by-
resins, glues, fluxes
step sequence of actions, applied and monitored to
ensure it is implemented as planned. A flow chart for the Biological viruses, plants, parasites,
vermin, insects, mites, wood and
establishment of standard work procedures is illustrated other plant material (allergies),
in Figure 1.1. infections (tuberculosis), viruses
(from needlestick injuries)
Work requiring Mechanical/electrical slips, trips and falls, tools,
implementation
of standard work
electrical equipment
procedures
Psychological fatigue, violence, bullying, stress
Worksite risk assessments and inspections are key

Break down task
into various steps activities in the prevention of accidents occurring from
worksite hazards. Risk assessments and inspections:
Modify • identify existing and potential hazards
Identify hazards the task • increase worker awareness, leading to the prevention of
in each step worksite accidents and illnesses
• ensure compliance with standards and regulations.
Existing or potential hazards identified by worksite
YES risk assessments and inspections can be prevented or
controlled by the following six levels of control measures,
Can the task be modified in order of priority.
to make it safer and easier?
1 Elimination – stop whatever is causing the hazard.
2 Substitution – use a lower hazard alternative.
3 Isolation – separate use from the rest of the workplace.
4 Engineering controls – install equipment that will
NO
reduce exposure or risk.
Develop control measures and 5 Safe work practices – change the way people work.
safety precautions to deal
6 Personal protective equipment (PPE) – gloves, goggles,
with an emergency should it
occur during the execution ear plugs and respirators, for example, can reduce
of the task worker contact and exposure to the hazard. PPE is
always the last resort, but in some worksite situations,
it may be the most practicable.
Write standard work When assessing workplace hazards and risks always
procedures incorporating the Regular consider and document the probability of an event, length
derived control measures audit
and safety precautions of exposure to the hazard or risk and the consequences.
FIGURE 1.1 Standard work procedure flow chart
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 With what should all new staff be provided? 5 What is the most common threat in the work
2 With what would a standard work procedure start? environment?
3 What may constitute a hazard in the workplace? 6 Why are standard work procedures documented?
4 Name the five broad categories of workplace 7 What do risk assessments and inspections provide?
hazards. 8 What is meant by the term ‘worksite’?
1.3 Work environment safety signs

The aim of work environment safety signs is to regulate blue circle. A white pictograph such as hearing protection
and control safety-related behaviour, to warn workers and is superimposed on the blue circle to indicate the activity
members of the general public of health and safety hazards that is mandatory. The background is white, and any text
and to provide emergency information, including fire is black.
protection information. The Australian standard setting
out requirements for the design and use of safety signs is
AS 1319:1994 Safety signs for the occupational environment. Restriction signs
The standard specifies several sign classifications and Restriction signs as illustrated in Figure 1.4 place a
layouts as follows. numerical or other defined limit on an activity or use of a
facility. Their symbolic shape is a red circle, but without
the diagonal slash as in prohibition signs. This would also
Prohibition signs have a black pictograph or other legend inside the circle, a
Prohibition signs as illustrated in Figure 1.2 indicate that white background and any text in black.
an action or activity is not permitted. Their designated
symbolic shape is a red circle with a diagonal red slash
through it. This is usually superimposed over a black
pictograph, for example, a person, to indicate what specific
activity is referred to. The background is white and any
text is black.
NO
ENTRY
FIGURE 1.4 Restriction sign
RESTRICTED AREA
AUTHORISED
Danger signs
PERSONNEL ONLY Danger signs as illustrated in Figure 1.5 warn of a
particular hazard or hazardous condition that is likely
FIGURE 1.2 Prohibition sign to be life threatening. Their symbolic shape is the word
DANGER in white on a red oval, which is surrounded by a
Mandatory signs black rectangle. This usually forms a heading for a white
background on the sign. Alternatively, it may occupy the
Mandatory signs as illustrated in Figure 1.3 indicate that an left side of a horizontal sign. Any text is in black.
instruction must be carried out. Their symbolic shape is a
230
VOLTS
FIGURE 1.5 Danger sign
HEARING PROTECTION
MUST BE WORN
FIGURE 1.3 Mandatory sign – hearing protection must be worn

1.3 Work environment safety signs | 7EP
Warning signs Fire signs

Warning signs as illustrated in Figure 1.6 warn of a Fire signs as illustrated in Figure 1.8 advise the location of
hazard or hazardous condition that is not likely to be life fire alarms and firefighting equipment. The background is
threatening. Their symbolic shape is a black triangular red and any text or pictograph is white.
outline. A black pictograph usually appears inside the
triangle to indicate the specific detail, for example, an
information symbol. The sign background is yellow with
any text in black.
FIRE
EXTINGUISHER
SHUT OFF POWER FIGURE 1.8 Fire sign
BEFORE WORKING
ON EQUIPMENT The type of work environment safety sign used should
be suitable for the intended application and workers should
FIGURE 1.6 Warning sign be informed of its purpose.
Work environment safety signs should be located where
Emergency information signs the message is legible, and where they attract the attention
of, and are clearly visible to, all workers by being placed at
Emergency information signs (see Figure 1.7) indicate the eye height. Signs should be located against a contrasting
location of, or directions to, emergency-related facilities background so they are more obvious, thereby reducing the
such as exits, safety equipment or first aid facilities. The risk of them becoming obscured by stacked materials or
background is green and any text or pictograph is white. other visual obstructions.
For maximum effectiveness, work environment safety
signs should be maintained in good condition, kept clean
EMERGENCY and well illuminated.
ASSEMBLY
AREA
FIGURE 1.7 Emergency information sign
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Outline the aim of work environment safety signs. 7 Which sign indicates the location of, or directions
2 What do prohibition signs indicate? to, emergency-related facilities such as exits, safety
3 Describe the symbolic shape of a prohibition sign. equipment or first aid facilities?
4 What do mandatory signs indicate? 8 How should the maximum effectiveness of work
5 Describe the symbolic shape of a mandatory sign. environment safety signs be ensured?
6 Which sign warns of a hazard or hazardous

condition that is not likely to be life threatening?
1.4 Workplace emergencies

A workplace emergency is a situation that threatens • fires
workers or the public, disrupts or shuts down workplace • explosions
operations or causes physical or environmental damage. • chemical spills
Emergencies may be naturally caused or manmade and • toxic gas releases
can include the following: • workplace violence.
• cyclones The most effective way to deal with a workplace
• floods emergency is to prepare to respond to a possible
emergency before it happens. Putting together a broad apply an extinguishing medium that cools burning fuel,
emergency action plan that deals with workplace issues displaces or eliminates oxygen or stops the chemical
specific to a worksite is not difficult. It includes involving reaction so a fire cannot continue to burn. When the
both management and workers using brainstorming safety pin is removed and the handle of an extinguisher
techniques to determine potential emergencies that could is activated, a canister of high-pressure gas is triggered,
occur at the workplace. This technique helps to develop a forcing the extinguishing medium through a tube and out
workplace emergency action plan. An emergency action the nozzle. For fire to exist, four elements must be present
plan must include the following: at the same time:
1 A method for reporting fires and other emergencies. 1 some sort of fuel or combustible material
2 An evacuation policy and procedure. 2 oxygen to sustain combustion
3 Emergency escape procedures and escape route path. 3 heat to raise the combustible material to its ignition
Include floor plans, workplace site maps and location of temperature
designated safe areas to account for all employees after 4 a chemical reaction.
an evacuation. Not all fire extinguishers can be used effectively on
4 The names and emergency phone numbers all types of fires. Some fires involve combustibles such as
of designated persons who have duties and paper, some involve liquids and others involve energised
responsibilities under the emergency plan. electrical equipment. Different types of fire extinguishers
5 Actions for designated workers who stay to shut down are distinguished from each other by their colour scheme
important machinery and equipment operations, and are designed to extinguish different classes of fire. Fire
operate fire extinguishers or perform other essential extinguishers empty quickly, anywhere from 8 seconds to
services that cannot be shut down immediately for 60 seconds. Fire extinguishers (see Figure 1.9) are classified
every emergency before evacuating. by the type of fire they best extinguish.
6 Rescue and medical duties for workers designated to Water is one of the most commonly used extinguishing
perform them. agents for class A fires. Another extinguisher used for class
A fires is the air-pressurised water (APW) extinguisher. An
Fires APW can be recognised by its large silver container. APWs

are two-thirds filled with water then pressurised with air.
Fire protection in the workplace requires appropriate APWs extinguish fire by cooling the surface of the fuel to
means of extinguishing local fires in all locations where remove the heat element of the fire.
workers are employed. These locations should have Wet chemical extinguishers utilise an aqueous solution
adequate safety notices to instruct, warn and guide discharged in a fine spray to the surface of class F fires (see
workers about possible fires. Portable fire extinguishers Figure 1.9). Wet chemical extinguishers extinguish fire by
WATER
DRY CARBON
WET
FOAM CHEMICAL DIOXIDE
AIR-PRESSURISED CHEMICAL
POWDER (CO2)
WATER
FIRE
CLASS
A
Ordinary combustibles YES YES YES YES NO
(wood, paper, plastics, etc.)
B
Flammable combustible NO NO YES YES YES
liquids
C NO NO NO YES NO
Flammable gases
E
Fire involving energised NO NO NO YES YES
electrical equipment
F
Fire involving cooking NO YES YES YES NO
oils and fats
FIGURE 1.9 Fire extinguishers and classifications
1.4 Workplace emergencies | 9EP
smothering the surface of the fuel to separate the oxygen are instructions for its correct use. To use a fire
element of the fire from the fuel. The wet chemical also extinguisher properly all you have to remember is PASS.
cools the surface of the fuel to remove the heat element
of the fire.
SWITCH ON
Foam extinguishers contain a solution of aqueous
film-forming-foam (AFFF) concentrate and water. When P – Pull the safety pin
the extinguisher is operated, the solution is discharged A – Aim at the base of the fire
through the nozzle that is designed to excite air to produce S – Squeeze the trigger
a foam discharge. Foam extinguishers extinguish fire by S – Sweep at the base of the flame from side to side
smothering the surface of the fuel to remove the oxygen
element of the fire. The foam also limits the release of
Fire blankets as illustrated in Figure 1.10 extinguish
flammable vapours to prevent any re-ignition of the fire.
fire by smothering the surface of the fuel to remove the
Dry chemical extinguishers coat the fuel with a thin
oxygen element of the fire. They can be used for small class
layer of fire-retardant powder. Dry chemical extinguishers
A and small cooking fat fires but are mainly used to wrap
extinguish fire by smothering the surface of the fuel to
around workers if their clothes catch alight. Fire blankets
separate the oxygen element of the fire from the fuel. The
are either a flame-retardant-treated woollen material or a
powder also works to disrupt the chemical reaction.
combined Proban® cotton and Aramid (nylon fibre) flame-
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a non-flammable gas placed
retardant textile.
under extreme pressure within a CO2 extinguisher. CO2
extinguishers extinguish fire by displacing the oxygen
element of the fire. Because of its high pressure, pieces of
dry ice are also emitted from the extinguisher which has a
cooling effect on the fire.
There is another fire class, class D, for combustible
metals. Some ships are made with magnesium steel to
1 m square
make the ship lighter and therefore faster in the water.
However, if enough heat is generated the metal will burn.
Fire extinguishers should be serviced every six months.
They are checked to make sure they are charged and
nothing is missing on them. You can check the yellow
metal tag on an extinguisher to see when it was last
tested. Written on the front of each type of fire extinguisher
FIGURE 1.10 Fire blanket
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What is a workplace emergency? 6 How frequently should fire extinguishers be
2 Outline the most effective way to deal with a checked?
workplace emergency. 7 PASS is a useful mnemonic for using a fire
3 Name the four elements required to sustain a fire. extinguisher. To what do the letters refer?
4 Which extinguisher type is most common for 8 How is a fire blanket used to extinguish a fire?
extinguishing class A fires?
5 How is a fire extinguished by a wet chemical
extinguisher?
1.5 Manual handling

The term ‘manual handling’ is used to describe any
activity requiring the use of the hands or bodily force
Injuries
applied by a person to lift, lower, push, pull, heave, carry, Injuries most frequently associated with manual handling
move, support or restrain an object, person or animal. include:
Manual handling also covers activities which require • back injuries – spine, joints, ligaments, muscles and
the use of bodily force such as operating power tools intervertebral discs
or crowbars and repetitive movements such as using a • fractures – to the fingers, hand, feet and toes
screwdriver or keyboard activity. • lacerations – to the hands and fingers
• crush injuries – to the fingers Direct injury can be caused by unexpected happenings
• sprains – to the wrist, thumb and ankle such as an electrician walking on irregular ground
• strains – to the back, shoulder, arms, hands (construction site) while carrying cartons of electrical
and fingers cable or equipment and experiencing a trip hazard and
• contusion – bruising to various parts of the body falling. Some examples of actions that may cause manual
• hernia – an opening in the wall of a muscle, tissue or handling injuries are:
membrane that normally holds an organ in place. • activities involving sudden, jerky or hard-to-control
Every muscular effort, however slight, involves the movements such as hammer drilling
spine. When you lift, your back is put under stress, • activities involving too much bending, reaching or
especially the lower spine. The lower spine is very mobile twisting such as installing cables
and is able to bend forwards, sideways and backwards but • activities where a long time is spent in the same
is capable of only very little rotation. Twisting or jerking posture or position such as working in confined spaces
while lifting and carrying can injure the small facet joints within roofs
(stabilising joints located between and behind adjacent • activities that are fast and repetitious such as coil
vertebrae) which guide movement of the back. turns placement in stator slots with respect to
Intervertebral discs, which separate the vertebrae motor rewinding
(spinal bones), and the ligaments, which hold the • activities where heavy equipment has to be lifted
vertebrae together, are also at risk. The vertebrae of the and carried manually, for example, air-conditioners
spinal column run down the back as shown in Figure 1.11, and stoves
connecting the skull to the pelvis. These bones protect • activities where force is needed to carry out a task such
nerves that come out of the brain and travel down the as when using screwdrivers or spanners.
spinal cavity and out to the entire body.
The intervertebral discs are composed of soft
gelatinous substances which provide spinal column Procedures for lifting
cushioning. The discs are also surrounded by a strong There are several simple procedures to remember when
fibrous ring and with repeated incorrect lifting the discs, lifting or handling loads.
fibrous ring or its supporting ligaments may tear or rupture.
In general, back injuries are caused by wear and Plan the lifting activity
tear and damage to the joints, ligaments, muscles and Assess the risk factors with respect to the load including:
intervertebral discs which occur during day-to-day • type of load – glass, drum, etc.
manual handling activities. Manual handling injuries may • weight of load
result from: • size of load
• ongoing wear and tear caused by frequent or extended • distance the load has to be carried or moved
periods of manual handling activity, such as frequent • route
handling of electrical stock throughout the day • placement requirements.
• sudden damage caused by extreme or difficult manual If in doubt, do not lift alone.
handling or awkward lifts such as lifting an electric
motor, an air-conditioner or white goods from the
ground to a van or utility.
Keep the load close to the body
The further away the load is from your body the more stress
is placed on your lower spine. To prevent this type of stress
when lifting from a ground position the knees must be bent
7 cervical vertebrae
with the load gripped between the waist and shoulders
to ease the strain on the back and the arms. Keeping
the load close to your chest with the shoulders back and
your bottom out makes you more secure. The spine has a
12 thoracic vertebrae natural S curve. The shoulders are back and the S curve
is directly over the pelvis. Make sure you know where the
centre of gravity of the load is and keep the heaviest side
nearest to your body at waist level.
Discs
5 lumbar vertebrae Maintain balance
Stand square on to the load and as close to it as is
comfortable. Have your feet flat on the floor surface with
Sacral vertebrae Sacrum your leading leg forward, preferably facing the direction
you’re going to move. Ideally you should lift, carry and
Coccyx place in one direction where possible.
FIGURE 1.11 S-shaped spine
1.5 Manual handling | 11EP
Use your legs turn your back to the load and push with your legs. Do not
pull the load if possible.
Bend your legs slightly, and use your leg muscles to take
the weight. Do not turn or twist your body once you have
made the lift. Always bend your knees when setting the Alternative materials-handling aids
load down. An illustration of the correct lifting technique Alternative materials-handling aids for carrying or moving
is shown in Figure 1.12. loads should be used whenever possible to minimise lifting
and bending activity. These alternative materials-handling
aids include use of lift truck, scissors lift truck, pallet truck
and other mechanical devices – levers, crowbars, gloves.
Implementing proper lifting techniques and other
safety measures can significantly reduce your chance of a
back injury incident.
All persons involved with manual handling should read
the following documents:
• National standard for manual handling, NOHSC:1001
(1990), Commonwealth of Australia
iStockphotos/angelhell • National code of practice for manual handling,
NOHSC:2005 (1990), Commonwealth of Australia
FIGURE 1.12 Correct lifting technique
• Information Booklet, Manual handling (1992),
Commonwealth of Australia.
Some loads can be pushed if the load is on a smooth
surface. A recommended method in these situations is to
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What does the term ‘manual handling’ describe? 4 Name three alternative materials-handling aids.
2 Name four common injuries associated with manual 5 What is the main cause of back injuries?
handling.
3 Name the four simple procedures for safe manual
handling.
1.6 Chemicals in the workplace

The word ‘chemicals’ includes substances such as paint, and are of short duration. Acute illnesses are irritation,
glue, cleaning agents, fuel, pesticides and solvents. corrosivity, sensitisation and lethal dose. Chronic illnesses
In order to ensure chemical safety in the workplace, generally occur as a result of long-term exposure, and are
information must be available about the identities and of long duration – symptoms may develop only years after
hazards of the chemicals. All persons involved with repeated and prolonged exposure. Chronic illnesses are
chemicals in the workplace should read AS 2508 Safe cancer, asthma, dermatitis, anaemia, chronic bronchitis
storage and handling information cards for hazardous and other diseases.
materials. Dangerous goods are solid, liquid or gaseous Dangerous goods and hazardous substances can enter
substances that may cause fires, explosions, rapid the body of a worker through inhaling, absorption through
chemical reactions, immediate health risks (such as the skin and ingestion.
poisoning) or long-term effects such as cancer. A substance is deemed hazardous if:
Dangerous goods can kill or injure workers. Their • it is listed on the National Occupational Health and
effects are usually sudden, evident and can be violent Safety Commission’s (NOHSC) List of designated
towards the worker. Dangerous goods are classified into hazardous substances
nine classes according to the danger characteristics as • it meets the criteria in the NOHSC Approved criteria for
illustrated in Figures 1.13, 1.14 and 1.15. It is important to classifying hazardous substances.
know which dangerous goods produce toxic gas; which Some dangerous goods are also hazardous substances,
are highly flammable; which are dangerous when wet; or including toxic substances in Class 6 (poisons) and
which are dangerous when they come into contact with air. corrosives in Class 8.
Hazardous substances are chemicals and other Manufacturers of chemicals are required to supply
substances that can cause injury, illness or disease. The accurate data to enable the identification of those
health effects may be acute or chronic. Acute illnesses substances that are hazardous or dangerous.
usually occur rapidly as a result of short-term exposure,
Class 1 Class 6.1

Explosive substances Toxic substances
Examples Examples
TNT, nitroglycerine, ANFO, sodium cyanide,
propellant powder, display fireworks, lead compounds,
safety cartridges, detonators some pesticides
Class 6.2
Class 2.1 Infectious substances
Flammable gases
Examples
Examples vaccines, AIDS virus
acetylene, hydrogen, LP gas, butane
Class 7
Class 2.2 Radioactive substances
Non-flammable non-toxic gases
Examples
Examples uranium, radioisotopes
oxygen, nitrogen, argon
Class 8
Class 2.3 Corrosive substances
Toxic gases
Examples
Examples hydrochloric acid,
ammonia, chloride sodium hydroxide
Class 9
Class 3 Miscellaneous dangerous goods
Flammable liquids
Examples
Examples dry ice, polyester beads, aerosols
petrol, ethanol, kerosene
FIGURE 1.13 Classification diamonds 1 FIGURE 1.15 Classification diamonds 3
Class 4.1
Flammable solids Material safety data sheets
Examples
phosphorus, sulphur, matches
(MSDSs)
Material safety data sheets (MSDSs) and labels indicate
whether or not the chemical substance or material is
Class 4.2
considered a hazardous substance.
Spontaneously combustible
substances MSDSs contain information about the substance
such as:
Examples
white phosphorus, • a statement indicating whether it has been classified as
aluminium, alkyls hazardous to health in accordance with NOHSC criteria
Class 4.3 • the contents
Water-reactive substances • what it should be used for and how to use it safely
Examples
• its health effects
sodium, aluminium phosphide • first-aid instructions
• advice about safe storage and handling.
Make sure the MSDS is not out of date (i.e. older than
Class 5.1
Oxidising agents five years).
An example of an MSDS for mineral turpentine
Examples
calcium hypochlorite, ammonium (see Figure 1.16) is shown in the appendix to this section
nitrate (page 50EP).
MSDSs are the primary source of chemical hazard
Class 5.2 information and must be readily accessible to workers.
Organic peroxides (liquid or solid)
They should contain all pertinent physical and health
Examples hazard information, exposure limits, precautions for
benzoyl peroxides
safe handling and use and applicable control measures
including PPE use requirements.
FIGURE 1.14 Classification diamonds 2

1.6 Chemicals in the workplace | 13EP
• the chemical ingredients

• health effects (short and long term)
• fire and explosion information
• requirements for safe handling and ways of controlling
exposure to the substance
• first aid information
• storage and transport requirements
• spills and disposal information
• emergency information for firefighters
• contact information for further details.
For more information on each section of an MSDS turn
to the appendix starting on page 36EP.
Storage procedures
When storing chemical substances:
1 Make a register of every chemical substance to
be stored. The register must contain details of all
dangerous goods and hazardous substances currently
Source: Recochem Inc., Australia
used, stored or handled on the premises.
2 Obtain from the supplier an MSDS for each chemical
FIGURE 1.16 Mineral turpentine
substance.
Storage procedures involve the following:
Chemical substance labelling is also an effective • manage your stock – only keep minimum amounts
method used to communicate chemical hazard • label shelves and storage cabinets with a
information. Labels are a direct visual reminder of the segregation scheme so that chemical substances
hazards presented by a chemical substance and they can be put away in the right place quickly
include all appropriate environmental and health • refer to MSDSs for specific chemical substance
hazard warnings. incompatibilities
• ensure that the storage cabinets are locked
How to translate a material • do not store liquids above solids in case of
contamination in the event of a spillage
safety data sheet • limit the size of containers where possible to
The MSDS summarises knowledge of the health and safety ≤5 L/kg
hazard information of the material and how to handle • always store corrosives on spill trays – kitty litter
and use the product safely in the workplace. Each user trays are ideal
should read the MSDS and consider the information in the • do not overload shelves
context of how the product will be handled and used in the • do not store containers on the floor
workplace, including in conjunction with other products. • dispose of outdated chemical substances including
The following information will help you translate an MSDS. all portable LPG cylinders that are not in test
(i.e. 10 years).
Acronyms All workers must be given a training program that
informs the workers not only of the hazards of the chemical
• AICS: Australian Inventory of Chemical Substances
substances in their work area but also how to use the
• CAS number: Chemical Abstracts Services Registry
information generated in the hazard communication
Number
program.
• Hazchem code: Emergency action code that provides
information to emergency services
• UN number: United Nations Registry Number Labelling
• ADG code: Australian dangerous goods code.
If you transfer chemical substances into a secondary
container, ensure that the new container is properly
Format labelled. This means that the full name of the chemical
The Australian Safety and Compensation Council (ASCC) substance, appropriate risk and safety phases as per
has developed minimum standards for the format and the MSDS, dangerous goods class and subsidiary class
layout of an MSDS. For each product, the MSDS should diamond(s) if suitable are recorded. Also, if the chemical
provide: substance is classified as hazardous then the word
• the name of the product ‘Hazardous’ must be printed on the label.
• the name, address and telephone number of the
manufacturer or distributor
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 List the three dangerous substances that may be 4 What does ‘CAS number’ refer to?
found in a workplace. 5 What information should a register of chemical
2 How is a substance deemed to be hazardous? substances contain?
3 What document is the primary source of chemical
hazard information?
1.7 Working at heights

Not all electrical installation work can be done on the • fittings: broken, worn, loose, faulty
ground floor or at floor level. To perform installation work • spreaders and ropes: broken, worn, decayed
above these levels, ladders or scaffolding are required. While • safety feet: broken, worn, faulty.
ladders are uncomplicated, planning and care are required In addition to the above, fibreglass ladders should have
to use them safely. Scaffolding over 2 m in height requires a a smooth surface that is clean and polished, of uniform
permit and must comply with state or territory legislation. colour and without any pits, chips, voids or longitudinal
Before work starts, you need to identify all physical grooves along the stiles. All ladders used by electricians
locations and tasks that might cause you to fall. should have the following information permanently marked
Identification is mandatory under the Code of Practice for on the ladder:
the Prevention of Falls in Housing and Construction. • manufacturer’s name
• load rating (in kg)
Ladder hazards • working length of the ladder.

Step ladders should be used in the fully opened position
Ladder accidents are usually caused by inappropriate only and a worker should not stand above the second-top
selection, lack of maintenance or unsafe use. Some of tread. For a single or extension ladder a worker should not
the more common hazards involving ladders, such as stand above the third-top rung.
unsteadiness, falls and electric shock, can be foreseen Portable ladders should comply with the requirements
and prevented. Prevention of ladder accidents requires of the following relevant Australian and New Zealand
planning, correct ladder selection, safe work procedures standards:
and effective ladder maintenance. • AS/NZS 1892.1:1996 Portable ladders – Metal
• AS 1892.2:1992 Portable ladders – Timber
• AS/NZS 1892.3:1996 Portable ladders – Reinforced
SWITCH ON
plastic
Hazard prevention • AS/NZS 1892.5:2000 Portable ladders – Selection, safe
• Always face the ladder when ascending use and care.
or descending. Portable ladders are designed for one-man operation
• Ascend or descend one rung at a time. and are constructed under two general classes:
• Always have three limbs (two arms and one leg • Type I Industrial – heavy duty with a minimum load
or one arm and two legs) on the ladder rungs at rating of 120 kg
one time. • Type II Domestic – light duty with a maximum load
• Never hand-carry equipment or tools on a ladder – rating of 100 kg.
use tool belts. Only industrial wooden or fibreglass ladders stamped
• Never over-reach in order to carry out a task; move with the AS/NZS mark must be used by electrical workers
the ladder. when carrying out their activities. Maximum ladder
• Always place the ladder on firm or level ground. lengths are shown in Table 1.2.
• Ensure that the support for the top of the ladder
TABLE 1.2 Maximum ladder lengths
is secure.
Construction Single Extension Step ladders
material
Ladder types Metal ladders 9 m industrial 15 m industrial 6.1 m industrial
and reinforced 5 m domestic 7 m domestic 2.4 m domestic
All ladders should be inspected on delivery, after
plastic ladders
suspected damage and once every six months. The safety
Timber ladders 9.2 m runged 15.3 m 5.5 m industrial
inspection of ladders should look for the following: 4.9 m cleated 2.4 m domestic
• stiles: broken, split, cracked, decayed
• rungs or treads: missing, broken, split, cracked,
decayed, corroded, worn, dirty
1.7 Working at heights | 15EP
equipment will be essential for some tasks. An extension

EXERCISE 1.1 and a single-length ladder are illustrated in Figure 1.18.
The selection of a ladder must take into account the
top three rungs where a person should not stand.
Using Table 1.2, which ladder would be suitable for
reaching an object which is:
a 10 m above the ground
b 4 m above the ground?
Rungs
Pulley
Step ladders Extension lock

Stiles
Step ladders (see Figure 1.17) can be used when installing
Rope
lighting points, fans and other electrical fittings.
Treads
Spreader
to be locked FIGURE 1.18 Extension and single-length ladders
3rd step only Always use two people to carry and set up a single-
length or extension ladder, if possible. Small ladders can be
carried parallel to the ground by one person when lifted at
the midpoint of the side rail. With two-person ladders the
ladder should be carried on the same shoulder. Extension
Fully open
Platform type
FIGURE 1.17 Fibreglass step ladders ladders are adjustable in length and they consist of two or
Placed on level surface
more single sections travelling in guides or brackets.
Step ladders should be securely fully open. All four When installing a ladder:
legs must be on solid, level ground with the spreaders 1 Visually inspect the building features to see if anything
locked fully open. Never climb on the cross-bracing. Never will impair the safe climbing, descending or moving of
use a folding step ladder in an unfolded position (leaning the ladder.
it against a wall) unless it is designed for that purpose. 2 Place the ladder on its back with the feet butted up
The main cause of injuries is from step ladders tipping against the building. If this is obstructed, a second
sideways. Where a potential fall hazard exists (to below person can assist in setting up the ladder by placing
where the step ladder is standing) the minimum distance their foot on the bottom rung and the other foot on the
between the step ladder and fall hazard is to be the sum of base of one stile.
the person’s head height (i.e. from floor/ground) and a 1.5 m 3 Lift the ladder’s top by maintaining pressure against
‘buffer zone’. For example, if a worker is positioned on a the wall or assistant.
ladder 1 m above the ladder base and the worker is 1.6 m 4 Lift the ladder overhead. With your hands extend
tall, a minimum distance of 4.1 m is required between the the ladder to your highest point of reach, work hand
base of the step ladder and the fall hazard. If installation over hand pushing the ladder towards the building or
or repair work is to be carried out closer to the fall hazard, assistant. When you reach beyond the middle point of
the worker should be secured in a harness which is not setting up your extension ladder or lift past the middle
attached to the step ladder. AS/NZS 1891.4:2009 Industrial rung, the increasing force of the weight of the top of the
fall-arrest systems and devices – Selection, use and ladder will be working against your efforts.
maintenance requires fall protection to be provided where a 5 Once vertical, rest the ladder against the building
person could fall a distance greater than 2 m. wall, lift the ladder’s base with both arms and move
the ladder slowly away from the building to obtain the
correct ladder pitch (see Figure 1.19). Make sure you
SWITCH ON do not move the ladder into window glass or mark the
Note that step ladders, with their broad tread, are exterior building surface.
safer than rung-type ladders because of their stability 6 Extend the ladder using the ladder’s rope and pulley
and balance. system while stabilising the ladder with your right or
left foot on the ladder’s bottom rung. The ladder must
be close to if not fully vertical in position. Once the
Single-length and extension ladder is erected to the correct working height, slowly
ladders lower the top of the ladder until it rests against the
building. Both feet of the ladder and both left and right
Before working at height, identify all hazards, assess top stiles must rest equally against the building. To
their risks and prepare a safe work procedure. Fall-arrest lower the ladder, follow these steps in reverse order.
Workers on scaffolds more than 2.4 m above a lower

level must use fall protection. A personal fall-arrest
system consists of an anchorage, connectors and a body
harness. It may also include a lanyard, deceleration device
Ladder pitch: the or lifeline. An emergency rescue plan is also an essential
horizontal distance
from its top support requirement with any personal fall-arrest system.
point to the foot of
the ladder is 1/4 of
the unsupported
length of the Elevated work platforms
ladder, or equal to a An elevated work platform (EWP) consists of a telescoping
75° angle at level
grade (e.g. a ladder device, scissor device, boom lift as illustrated in Figure 1.21
Unsupported extended 8 m from
length L or articulating device used to raise or lower workers,
its base should be
2 m from the equipment and material to and from a work location above
building) the EWP’s support surface.
1L
4
FIGURE 1.19 Ladder pitch
Scaffolds
A scaffold is any temporary elevated platform and its
structure is used for supporting workers or materials or
both. Regulations govern the safe use of scaffolds and
these vary from state to state. Scaffolds as shown in
Figure 1.20 must be erected by a construction worker called
a scaffolder or rigger whose main job is to erect or dismantle
scaffolds (of metal or timber) on construction sites, and who
has received appropriate training in this field.
FIGURE 1.20 Scaffold
Unsafe scaffolds endanger workers in many ways.

Mechanisms can break, collapse or give way. Planks, FIGURE 1.21 Installing fibre-optic cables as an aerial system,
boards, decks or handrails can fail and it is possible for using a boom lift
entire structures to collapse. Even on sound scaffolds,
workers can slip, trip or lose their balance, and without The operator/worker may independently control the
appropriate protection they don’t have to fall far to get height and reach of the EWP from within the worker box.
injured. In many cases, scaffold accidents are the result of Owing to the EWP’s particular operation, risks to workers
untrained or incorrectly trained workers. can arise from:
Tools, materials or equipment can fall from a scaffold • lack of training in proper use
and strike workers below. Therefore, the scaffold must be • no pre-planning for activities has been carried out
barricaded or a toe board must be placed along the edge of • not using additional safety equipment such as a safety
the scaffold platform. Panelling or screening must protect belt or harness
persons below when tools, materials or equipment are piled • over-reaching by operators from the worker box
higher than the top edge of the toe board. Alternatively, • lack of suitable maintenance or repair
guardrail systems, canopies or catch platforms may be • use on unstable ground or in extreme weather
installed to retain materials. conditions such as wind and storms.
1.7 Working at heights | 17EP
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Which items of equipment is an electrician likely to 5 Which ladder type should be used in the fully
use when working above ground or floor level? opened position?
2 What are the main causes of accidents involving 6 Why are step ladders safer than rung-type ladders?
ladders? 7 What is a scaffold?
3 How frequently should ladders be inspected? 8 What is the load rating of a Type I industrial
4 All ladders used by electricians should have what ladder?
information permanently marked on the ladder? 9 Name two types of elevated work platforms.
1.8 Physical and psychological hazards

Confined spaces The potential hazards that could be expected when
working in confined spaces are listed below:
A confined space is an enclosed, or partly enclosed, area • low oxygen
which is not planned, or intended, principally as a place of • mechanical motion
work. In addition, a confined space may have a restricted • non-ionising radiation or ionising radiation
means for entry and exit. Types of confined space are • asphyxiants (dusts) and poisoning (inhalation/skin)
outlined in Table 1.3. • electric shock
• noisy environment
TABLE 1.3 Confined spaces
• fire/explosion
Confined space type Example • manual handling
• head or eye impact
Open spaces drains, trenches and pits
• constrained movement and entrapment including
Tunnel-type spaces sewers, pedestrian tunnels, burial beneath solids
ductwork, shafts and lift wells
• heat stress or cold stress
Building space unventilated ceiling space • falling objects
as illustrated in Figure 1.22, • drowning
basements and cold rooms,
• claustrophobia
storage rooms, closets, plant
rooms and crane cages • slips, trips or falls
The major hazard when working in confined spaces is
Moving space lifts
an unsafe level of oxygen – depleted or enriched (less than
Tanks and vessels storage tanks, pressure vessels, 19.5% or greater than 23.5% in volume). Note that excess
vacuum vessels, boilers and silos carbon dioxide in a confined space depletes oxygen levels.
A space that would not normally be regarded as a
confined space may become a confined space by the nature
of the work that is done within it, for example welding,
which can cause atmospheric contamination.
Where entry into a confined space is necessary,
appropriate safety procedures must be followed so that
the risk associated with entry into and performance of
work within the confined space is minimised as far as is
reasonably practicable. Before working in a confined space,
suitable emergency response and first aid procedures and
provisions must be planned and established.
Entry means the action by which an authorised person
passes through an opening to a permit-to-enter-required
confined space. Entry includes consequent work activities
within the confined space and has occurred as soon as any
part of a person’s body breaks the plane of an opening to
FIGURE 1.22 Confined ceiling space the confined space.
There must always be a safety observer available at the industrial noise include hearing loss, sleep disturbances,
entrance to the confined space whose task is to provide job performance reduction and frustrated communication
information to assist rescue workers. This person should responses (some sounds are still loud, others are not heard
never enter the confined space unless trained. and this makes speech difficult to understand). Protecting
the hearing and health of workers imposes a wide range
Portable gas detectors of explicit obligations upon employers, employees and
manufacturers of machinery and equipment.
Without appropriate gas detection hazardous atmospheres
Noise levels are measured in decibels (dB(A)) and
within confined spaces may significantly affect the health
exposure to noise is based on the amount a person
of any entry person. Many airborne contaminants cannot
receives during a typical day. Hearing loss may begin
be detected by smell or vision and can only be sensed with
with continuous daily noise over 75 dB(A) over several
special detectors.
years. The level of continuous noise which is classified
A range of Standards Association of Australia approved
as excessive is 85 dB(A). Some noises, such as blasts,
portable gas detectors is available for confined space
explosions and heavy hammering, are so loud they can
applications to evaluate contamination levels. Confined
damage the sensitive hair-like nerves in the cochlea of the
space entry gas detectors are capable of continuous
inner ear, causing immediate permanent damage. Sound
measurement (with alarms) of many gases such as oxygen,
energy that is too loud or intense can damage and break
combustibles’ LEL (lower explosive limit – a combustible
off the hair-like nerve cells. Because they are nerves they
gas or vapour in air which will ignite if a source of ignition
do not grow back once they are injured and they cannot
is present), carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen
be repaired. To avoid damaging these sensitive nerves,
sulphide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, chlorine,
workers need protection from workplace noise.
chlorine dioxide, phosphine, ammonia and hydrogen
A noise problem in the workplace can be mitigated by
cyanide. Gas detectors have built-in sample pumps, hose
applying any combination of the following three control
draw with water trap and filter and data-logging functions.
measures:
The most common form of sampling the air within a
1 Replacing or modifying the noise source to eliminate or
confined space is the sample draw method. The advantage
reduce the noise output. This is the best way to prevent
of this method is that the detecting is performed by a
occupational noise-induced hearing loss.
competent person outside the confined space. With a
2 Using sound absorbing screens to weaken the sound
sample draw method, a pump moves the sample from the
conduction path thereby reducing the noise level
atmosphere (up to 30 m within the space) and draws it
reaching the worker. The louder the sound, the less
through a hollow tube to the sensors.
time it takes to cause a hearing loss. Therefore, the
For personal protection always test the sides of a
noisier the workplace, the fewer exposures and the
confined space hatch before opening. This process
shorter the number of years it will take to produce a
prevents the lemming effect whereby one entry person
significant hearing loss.
blindly follows another in the absence of any real or
3 Varying the worker’s exposure either through limiting
understood rationale.
the exposure time or by using personal protective
Persons who are required to work in confined spaces as
equipment. Using personal hearing protectors will
part of their employment must be provided with training.
reduce noise by an amount between 15 dB and 25 dB.
Such training would include:
• legislation
• codes of practice and the Australian/New Zealand Personal protectors
standard AS/NZS 2865:2009 Safe working in a confined Figure 1.23 shows the basic types of personal protectors for
space noise. These are the insert type and the ear-muff type, and
• confined space hazard identification there are advantages and disadvantages to both. For the
• safe work procedures insert type the advantages are that they are small and easy
• confined space entry/exit procedures to carry. The disadvantages are that they can get dirty
• correctly fitting a full-body harness when removed and inserted with dirty hands. Muff-type
• breathing apparatus protectors are technically better for reducing noise levels.
• gas detection
• rescue
• emergency procedures
• firefighting and equipment inspection
and maintenance.
Industrial noise
Noise is defined as unwanted sound. Industrial noise for
workers can become a major industrial disease which
threatens the quality of life. Unpleasant health effects of FIGURE 1.23 Hearing protectors
1.8 Physical and psychological hazards | 19EP
Too much noise in the workplace may cause other UV radiation is known to have unfavourable health
effects such as continuous ringing in the ears, stress, effects both in the short and long term. UV radiation is
high blood pressure and tiredness and, at very high levels, absorbed in the skin and the adverse health effects are
physical pain. mostly confined to the skin and eyes. In most cases it is
Action must be taken to protect hearing where 75 dB is thought that shorter wavelengths (UVB) are more harmful
exceeded at any time, even if only for a short period. than longer wavelengths (UVA). Short-term exposure to
UV radiation causes reddening of the skin, sunburn and
Vibration swelling, which may be very severe.

The most serious long-term effect of UV radiation is
Vibration motion can be in one or more directions – up the induction of skin cancer. The non-melanoma skin
and down, side to side, front to rear or rotational. A worker cancers are basal cell carcinomas and squamous cell
who regularly and frequently is exposed to high levels of carcinomas. They are relatively common in white-skinned
vibration can suffer permanent injury. people, although they are rarely fatal. They occur most
Vibration hazards in the workplace usually present frequently on sun-exposed areas of the body such as the
themselves in two forms: face and hands and show an increasing incidence with
1 whole-body vibration, where the body is shaken by a increasing age.
machine or vehicle Malignant melanoma is the main cause of skin cancer
2 hand–arm vibration, where the vibration effect is death. A higher incidence is found in people with large
localised to a particular part of the worker’s body. numbers of moles, those with a fair skin, red or blond hair
The rapid motion of incorrectly suspended cabins and and those with a tendency to freckle, to burn and not to tan
seats during bumpy rides in tractors, trucks, buses or on sun exposure. There is no known low exposure limit for
earth-moving equipment can expose the worker to whole- UV effects such as skin cancer.
body vibration, resulting in haemorrhoids, backache and Exposure of the eye to UV radiation causes inflammation
heart problems. of the cornea and the conjunctiva, more commonly known
Electrical workers operating hand-held machinery such as welder’s flash. Symptoms range from mild irritation to
as rotary hammers, drills, grinders and pneumatic tools severe pain and possibly irreversible damage.
and fixed machinery such as bench grinders and lathes In relation to sources of UV radiation, well-designed
may suffer from vibration syndrome. Vibration syndrome is engineering, administrative and personal protective
characterised by aches in the arms and shoulders, damage controls can keep the risks to a minimum. Engineering
to nerves, muscles and joints and vibration white finger controls would include the provision of shade cover or
in the hands. This condition, for which there is no cure, canopies for outdoor work. For indoor work opaque barriers
starts as tingling or numbness in the fingers and prolonged and UV-radiation-blocking filters would be suitable.
exposure can lead to gangrene in the fingers and hands. Administrative controls for outdoor workers would
The extent of damage vibration causes to the human body include rescheduling outdoor work programs where
depends on: possible to be performed outside the peak UV radiation
• the length of time of exposure period from 10:00 am to 2:00 pm. For indoors the
• the frequency (motion) at which the vibration occurs administrative controls would include warning signs and
• the amplitude of vibration. limiting the time during which UV radiation sources are
To limit exposure to vibration, portable hand tools switched on.
should have recoil damping and air cushioning to soften Personal protective equipment for outdoor workers
vibration, and padded handles to reduce transmission. should consist of protective clothing that is loose fitting,
Vibration exposure can be limited by using seat and cabin made of close-weave fabric and provides protection to the
suspension. neck and the lower arms and legs. Hats should shade the
face, neck and ears and have a wide brim (8–10 cm). If hard
Ultraviolet radiation hats have to be worn they should have attached neck flaps.
The type of sunscreen used should be a minimum
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is a known cause of skin cancer, broad-spectrum SPF 15 and be applied regularly and
skin ageing and eye damage and may affect the body’s liberally to exposed skin. Sunglasses should be close
immune system. Therefore, it is essential that all workers fitting, of a wrap-round design and block at least
exposed to UV radiation at work should be given training 99 per cent of the UV radiation.
so that they understand the risks associated with UV
exposure.
Electrical workers who work outdoors are likely to suffer Overuse syndrome
health damage from exposure to solar UV radiation. Other Occupational overuse syndrome (OS) is a form of injury
sources of UV radiation at a worksite that electricians may which affects tendons, joints and muscles in the fingers,
be exposed to include arc welding, UVA radiation tanning hands, wrists and elbows. It is caused by repetitive
lamps, high UVB and UVC emitting lamps used to sterilise movements or an uncomfortable working stance stressing
work areas and medium- to low-power UVA lamps used in the body parts beyond their physical limit. OS is also
insect control. known as repetitive strain injury, or RSI.
Occupational OS is usually associated with repetitive • Think positively. Look at each stressful event and
hand movements such as using a screwdriver or placing occurrence as an opportunity to improve your life.
conductors in stator slots when rewinding small-frame • Don’t take work problems home or home problems
electric motors, but any part of the body can be affected. to work.
Rest is usually the best cure. To help reduce work-related stress, workers need to
To limit exposure to OS in the workplace, work benches develop a network of friends and family members to create
should be at waist height so that shoulders can relax a strong social support group that will be there when
and arms can bend gently at the elbows. In addition, all serious stress is experienced.
hand tools used should be ergonomically designed. Some
tasks such as motor rewinding can only be carried out by
hand. Therefore, the intensity, duration or frequency of the Drugs and alcohol
activity can be reduced through the use of frequent breaks. The rights of persons to drink and take drugs socially are
acknowledged, but when work performance suffers or
fellow workers are endangered then some action must
Stress be taken.
Workers experience work-related stress when they
feel that they are unable to cope with the working
SWITCH ON
environment demands placed upon them. Stress can
be the result of understaffing, bullying, harassment or Workers should not be adversely affected by alcohol
intimidation, long work hours, job insecurity or poor or drug use during working hours
management practices. Work-related stress can lead to
mental and physical ill health. Drug and alcohol abusers in the workplace can be
When a worker is exposed to constant, extended work- difficult to identify but there are some signs that indicate
related stress, they may experience physical and emotional possible drug and alcohol problems. These include:
symptoms such as: • regular and often unexplained absences
• frequent headaches • involvement in workplace accidents
• feeling frustrated and irritable or angry • unreliable work patterns and reduced productivity
• loss of energy and motivation • lack of concern with personal hygiene
• changes in appetite and weight • overreaction to real or imagined criticism.
• sleep difficulties Physical signs can include tiredness, hyperactivity,
• generally feeling worn out or run down. dilated pupils, slurred speech, unsteady walk, bloodshot
Attitude has a lot to do with whether events and or glassy eyes, persistent cough, hangovers and mood
occurrences at work produce a feeling of stress. Stress swings.
management comes down to finding ways to change your Drug and alcohol prevention workplace programs seem
thinking and manage your expectations. Some important to be the best way of preventing, detecting and dealing
ways to adjust your attitude include: with drug and alcohol abusers. These programs can help
• Be realistic. Don’t expect too much of yourself or others. individual workers to become healthy and productive
• Try to be assertive rather than passive or aggressive. again.
• Be flexible.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What defines a confined space? 6 Name four unpleasant health effects of industrial
2 Name four potential hazards that could be expected noise.
when working in confined spaces. 7 What are the two forms of vibration hazard?
3 What is the major hazard when working in confined 8 What are three adverse effects of ultraviolet (UV)
spaces? radiation?
4 What is needed where entry into a confined space 9 What causes occupational overuse syndrome (OS)?
is necessary? 10 How can drug and alcohol abusers in the
5 Name the device used to test the quality of air in a workplace be identified?
confined space?
1.9 Working with electricity | 21EP
1.9 Working with electricity

The physiological effects The ventricles of the heart have three states – rest,
normal beat and fibrillation. If the heart is violently
of current disturbed by the passage of current it may pass to the
When working on or near electric circuits capable of fibrillation state. Once there it will exist in this state and
delivering high power, electric shock becomes more death will occur unless action is taken to ‘defibrillate’ the
of a reality and pain is the least significant outcome of heart. It is also possible that the experience of electric
electric shock. Therefore, safe working practices must shock creates fear in a person and the person dies of a
always be implemented. Electric shock is a general term heart attack rather than from the electric shock experience.
for the excitation or confusion of the purpose of nerves or
muscles caused by the passage of an electric current. It Body resistance
is usually painful but is not necessarily associated with The resistance of the body from hand to hand or from
actual damage to a person. There are two methods by hand to foot is variable and depends upon the area of
which a person can suffer electric shock. The first is by electric contact and whether that area is dry, moist or
direct contact whereby a person comes into contact with wet. Australian Standard AS/NZS 60479.2:2000 Effects of
a conductor that is normally live and becomes part of the current on human beings and livestock – Special aspects
fault path. The second is by indirect contact whereby a tables the human body’s opposition for different voltages
person comes into contact with material that has become and lists a person’s body resistance range as being
live under fault conditions. between 1750 Ω and 6100 Ω at a touch voltage of
The effect that electric shock has on the body depends 25 V. In dry conditions the body can offer some resistance
on the magnitude of the fault current, the body parts to current but above 30 V the body practically has no
through which the current flows and the physical condition impeding effect at all. The body acts like a voltage-
of the person. Serious electric shock is almost always dependent resistor, meaning that as the voltage increases
associated with alternating current and is rare when low- the resistance of the body decreases.
voltage direct currents are used.
Electrical injuries have three categories: nerve Physiological sensations of current
immobilisation, fibrillation and tissue destruction.
Practically speaking, the magnitude of fault current can
The common feature of electric shock is a brutal
be neither predetermined nor discovered after an electric
piercing and deadening pain at the points of entry and
shock. The physiological values of current are suitable only
exit. Muscular action is complex and under the control
for research on deciding on permissible leakage currents
of nerves. Electric shock is frequently accompanied by
for electrical devices. At around 15–17 mA rms, the so-
an unintentional contraction of muscles associated with
called ‘grip’ current, it becomes extremely difficult to
the path of current. It is this unconditioned response
release a conductor held in the hand. Reactions to
that can tear tendons and the muscle tissue apart. The
50 Hz rms current are shown in Figure 1.24.
motor neurons are living cells capable of carrying an
electric signal. Nerves are made up of neurons and they
can be stimulated in various ways; it could be thermally, 1000 Defibrillation
chemically, by pressure, light or a current entering the
body. The current’s effect on the nerves and the nerve
250 Tissue burning
centre of a person is one of prime control and restraint.
Current level (mA rms)
Fibrillation DEATH
As a direct result of electric shock, a person may clench
100 Cardiac reaction
and be unable to release a conductor or an appliance, 75 Respiration stops
or if the person has touched a live conductor without Paralysis of arms
Breathing difficulties
clenching, the muscles of the person’s back and legs may
Grip current
contract harshly so that the person is unwillingly thrown
backwards. 15 Unbearable pain
Another possible result of involuntary muscle Pain
Mild discomfort
contraction is that the muscles of the diaphragm and chest Spasm
may contract and thereby prevent breathing. This could Perception
lead to death by suffocation. Death may also occur as a
0
result of current flowing through the respiratory control
centres of the central nervous system of a person. However, FIGURE 1.24 Possible reactions to 50 Hz rms current
death is usually caused by direct interference with the (assumed conditions – hand grip of 5 seconds’ duration)
action of the heart.
• test equipment conducting the potential closer to the

EXERCISE 1.2 electrician
Using Figure 1.24, determine the possible effect that a • test equipment being the wrong class for the task
25 mA fault current could have on a person who has (particularly test probes)
accidentally held a live metallic object. • inadequate test points
• incorrect or poorly maintained testing instruments
• inadequate knowledge of equipment or causes of faults
Effect of voltage frequency • equipment located in hazardous areas, which often
include bolt-on or screw-on covers
It is unfortunate that mains voltage is generated at a
• working alone on live equipment or installations.
frequency of 50 Hz, because at this frequency voltage
finds resonance with the nerve endings within the human
body, producing maximum excitation and therefore control Permit-to-work system
of the nerves. Lower or higher frequencies do not do this.
A permit-to-work system is a formal written system using
However, if a person’s body is exposed to high-frequency
a systematic disciplined approach to assessing the risks
electric fields it will be heated up like any other conductor.
of a task and specifying the precautions to be taken.
Note: This should not be taken to imply that voltages at
Examples where a permit-to-work system is required
frequencies other than 50 Hz are safe.
include:
• performing live work
The fundamental principles • hot work (work involving welding, thermal or oxygen
cutting, heating, grinding and other fire-producing or
The Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 3000:2018
spark-producing operations)
Wiring rules, ‘Protection for safety’ lists 10 fundamental
• roof access
principles for protection against the damaging effects
• excavation
of current. The carrying out of these 10 principles is
• elevated work (a permit is required for all forms of
intended to ensure the safety of persons, livestock and
mechanical work platforms and scaffolding)
property against dangers and damage that may arise in the
• high-voltage work
reasonable use of electrical installations. The principles are
• working in a confined space.
listed below.
It is also a way of establishing an effective means of
communication and understanding between the enterprise
SWITCH ON personnel requiring the work to be done and the workers or
contractors who are going to do the work.
10 fundamental principles for protection against
The permit-to-work system:
the damaging effects of current
• specifies the work to be done and the equipment
1 Protection against both direct and indirect
to be used
contact by use of extra-low voltage
• specifies the safety precautions to be taken when
2 Protection against direct contact
3 Protection against indirect contact performing the task
4 Protection by use of residual current devices • gives permission for work to begin
(RCDs) • advises occupants of the workplace that work is being
5 Protection against thermal effects in normal performed within their workplace
service • provides a check to ensure that all safety considerations
6 Protection against unwanted voltages have been taken into account, including the validity
7 Protection against over-current of permits and certificates and compliance with
8 Protection against fault currents the workplace safety policies and procedures. On
9 Protection against over-voltage completion of work it provides a mechanism to check
10 Protection against injury from mechanical that all work has been completed to the satisfaction of
movement the controller of the workplace.
The issue of a permit to work does not in itself make
a task safe. It also does not represent permission to do
Causes of electrical accidents dangerous work and therefore should not be seen as a
Risks for electricians arise in a work situation because simple way of eliminating a hazard or reducing risk.
it is sometimes difficult to find faults or malfunctions in
electrical equipment when the equipment is not operating. Clearance certificates
Some common causes of electrical accidents in fault A clearance certificate is a permit for entry for workers
finding or repair include: required to undertake installation or maintenance work in
• exposed live terminals hazardous locations such as laboratories, animal houses,
• terminals or conductors being live under different glasshouses, chemical stores and flammable fluid stores.
conditions of operation of the equipment This is to ensure that a defined area is safe prior to work
• loose or disconnected leads becoming live being undertaken.
1.9 Working with electricity | 23EP
Isolation permissions TABLE 1.4 Protective measures
It is the responsibility of all workers and contractors Protective device Explanation

performing work within a worksite to ensure the safety Fuse This device will open a circuit when
of themselves as well as other occupants of the building a predetermined excess of current
or work area. To enable the safe conduct of electrical flows. It may be able to be rewired
or alternatively may incorporate a
maintenance and installation work, plant and equipment
wire in a glass case or embedded in
to be worked on must be isolated to the satisfaction of the insulating powder within a cartridge
controller of the workplace. case.
If the electricity source is not isolated, the electrician
Circuit breaker This is a form of switch which
would be working on a live circuit. The electrician would opens automatically if the circuit is
be vulnerable to electrical hazards including electric shock, overloaded; it may operate on either a
electrical flashover and short-circuit. The consequences of thermal or a magnetic principle.
an electrical accident may be electrocution, serious burns Earthing The external metal casing of
on human bodies, falls from a height, fire and explosions electrical equipment, cables and
and so on. Therefore, any electrical equipment to be conduit must be earthed if required.
This arrangement provides a low
worked on must be isolated from all sources of supply
impedance path for the return of
by either: earth-fault currents. Earthing also
• opening switches or isolators ensures that a shorted circuit is
• removing fuses or links automatically disconnected from the
supply by drawing sufficient current
• opening circuit breakers
to blow the fuse or operate the circuit
• removing circuit connections. breaker.
Prior to commencing isolation work, the controller of
Separated extra- This is a means of protecting persons
the electrical installation must be consulted to confirm low voltage against electric shock. SELV is
that the isolation of supply will not cause a loss of supply (SELV) defined as not more than 50 V ac or
to critical medical equipment, information technology 120 V ripple-free dc. These voltage
equipment or other essential equipment. The following limits are regarded as user safe.
Circuits using voltages to these
items must be planned in advance prior to commencing maximum levels are designed and
isolation work: protected to remain under these safe
1 The time for the isolation to start. voltage levels in normal operation and
2 The extent of the isolation to ensure the electrical under single-fault conditions.
equipment to be worked on is removed from all sources Residual current A residual current device (RCD)
of supply. device (RCD) or safety switch is a device that
3 The operation of control devices which may immediately trips out the electricity
supply in the event of a fault to earth
inadvertently energise the installation or equipment to (current leaking to earth). This device
be worked on. can provide protection from harmful
4 Information provided in a formal written system which electric shocks in situations where
will be given to all affected persons regarding the a person comes into contact with a
live conductor and earth. RCDs are
agreed outcomes. designed to operate within 10–50 µs.
Isolation and tagging must be carried out in
Isolation of When performing electrical work on
accordance with the agreed isolation, safety tagging and
electrical supply low-voltage circuits and equipment,
locking procedure. By observing these requirements, the all sources of low voltage are to
risk of injury to workers as well as disruption to building be isolated and locked off. Where
occupants can be minimised. isolation switches are unable to be
locked, they are to be secured to
Once work is completed the electrical supply can be
prevent inadvertent operation.
reconnected, provided all parties to the isolation agree that
they are satisfied that the work carried out has been done to Securing devices Securing devices can be used to
ensure that the isolation points,
an acceptable standard and the necessary tests have been
when in the open position, require
carried out. The affected parties must sign off on the permit. a deliberate action to engage or
disengage them. These securing
devices should have the facility
Protective measures to allow a padlock to be applied.
Warning signs and tags must also be
Fuses and circuit breakers are intended primarily for the put on the lock or switch to inform
protection of conductors and equipment. They prevent other persons of electrical isolation.
overheating of conductors that might otherwise create
Low-voltage Low voltage is defined as voltage
hazards for installations. They also open the circuit under systems exceeding 50 V rms ac or 120 V dc
certain hazardous earth-fault conditions in an MEN (multiple but not exceeding 1000 V rms or
earth neutral) system. Also, these protective devices may 1500 V dc.
protect persons against electric shock; see Table 1.4.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What is ‘electric shock’? 6 What is a clearance certificate?
2 What are the factors that determine the severity of 7 What is the primary purpose of fuses and circuit
electric shock? breakers?
3 How can the passage of current through the human 8 If the electricity source is not isolated, the
body result in death? electrician would be working on what type
4 What does the term ‘grip’ current refer to? of circuit?
5 Name five common causes of electrical accidents in 9 Who has responsibility to ensure the safety of
fault finding or repair. themselves as well as other occupants of the
building or work area?
1.10 Common electrical hazards

There are three categories of common electrical hazards: 5 Finally, high voltage allows a fault current to flow with
• electric shock impunity into the body of a person, causing contact
• arcing burns that can punch through the layers of the skin
• toxic gases associated with the arcing hazard. destroying the tissue below. Burns caused on the body
of a person are sterile and heal very quickly.
Electric shock Electric shock is not an isolated event and many

persons will experience one at some point in their life.
Low-voltage contact can cause severe shock and burn In Australia, the majority of electric shocks occur at the
injuries and even death. The shock experience can be mains potential of 230 V and 400 V. Most fatalities occur
received by direct contact with a live part, arcing or at these voltages and high-voltage injuries are mainly from
tracking (equipment leakage currents associated with burns. Because of so many material variables within the
appliances such as ranges). person, it is not possible to state the minimum current
Electric shock can also be encountered with earth that will result in death. Muscle tissue does play a part
conductors when the earth conductors are carrying a total and it appears the current threshold is lower for women
load current because of an open-circuited main neutral. than men.
Electric shock can occur with neutrals. For example, if
the neutrals are connected at a common terminal, as can
exist with some equipment, when the circuit being worked Arcing
on is isolated another circuit may be alive, allowing the A short-circuit fault can cause an intense, determined
disconnected neutral to become live when disconnected at and rapidly intensifying arc of electrical energy to be
the common terminal. established within a very small interval in time. This
energy when released suddenly will result in terrible burns
Burns on anyone within the arc’s range.
There are five possible burns that a person who has
suffered electric shock could experience. Toxic gases
1 Point of contact and exit burns that are local and can be
The arcing and burning associated with a low-voltage
just to the skin or deeper, reaching to the bone.
electrical fault may cause toxic gases to be emitted which
2 Arc burns that can be very extensive, especially if the
can have an adverse effect on a target organ. The effect
person experiences a high-voltage flashover. Arcs are
may be severe if carcinogens are present.
extremely hot. The person will be physically scarred
Electrical hazards represent a serious, widespread
from the experience and may lose limbs.
occupational danger; all electricians are exposed to
3 Radiation, similar to sunburn, from the intensity of
electrical energy during the performance of their daily
the arc.
4 Burns from the vaporised metal of a conductor that can
saturate the face or hands.
1.10 Common electrical hazards | 25EP
duties, and electrocutions do occur. Other low-voltage intensity. The passage of even a very small current through
electrical hazards include: a vital part of the human body can cause death.
• wiring not in conformance with the Standards For dc-powered equipment, although the voltage levels
Association of Australia standard are usually not hazardous, energy hazards (>5 joules)
• exposed electrical parts may still exist. Electrical energy stored in capacitors and
• contact with overhead supply batteries can present a significant shock or arc flash hazard
• defective/inadequate insulation if that energy is released quickly and unexpectedly (e.g.
• improper earthing of equipment accidental shorting).
• overloaded circuits (can produce heat or arcing)
• damaged power tools, equipment and testing devices. High currents
Lack of training and an unsafe work environment (wet
Electricians need to be aware that, if working on live
work surfaces, inclement weather conditions, noise, toxic
circuits, fault current of up to 20 times the rated current of
chemicals and flammables) are common circumstances
the supply can flow during fault conditions. High current
that can aggravate working on low-voltage tasks.
means greater damage to the body as a result of heating
within tissues. The thermal heating of tissues increases
Controlling low-voltage with the square of the current (I 2R) and produces severe
burns.
hazards
Most incidents involving low-voltage hazards are
preventable. The most effective controls are those which High-voltage hazards
eliminate or reduce the consequences of the hazard. The term ‘high voltage’ applies to electrical equipment
The essential element for creating a safe work that operates at more than 1000 V ac rms or 1500 V dc. The
environment is the de-energising and proving and lockout state or territory Electrical Safety Act, regulations, AS/
of electrical equipment before making repairs or finding NZS 3000:2018 Wiring rules and codes of practice and HV
a fault condition. In addition, the implementation of safe isolation and access procedures manuals must always be
work practices (e.g. do not work alone) and proper training consulted when any high-voltage work is intended to be
will assist the electrician in controlling low-voltage undertaken. These provide advice on ways to discharge
hazards. safety obligations.
Sometimes it is not practicable to disconnect low- Isolation of electrical circuits is a basic safety
voltage equipment and circuits before working on them. procedure that protects workers, electrical production and
For example, it may be necessary to have equipment consumption devices or service lines. This means that the
operating in order to test it. In such cases the work power is turned off and isolated at the conduction source
must be performed by electricians who are qualified so that no energy can enter or leave those devices or
and authorised to do the task. They must follow written service lines.
safe work procedures. In order for an electrician to work Isolation procedures must include a warning to all
‘live’, the regulatory requirements of the Electrical Safety workers that the equipment in a particular area is being
Regulations, the Code of Practice and the Electrical Safety worked on and must not be operated or the area entered.
Act must be met.
Extra-low voltage
Electrical safety audit checklist
A well-planned and executed electrical safety audit can
Extra-low voltage is defined as voltage not exceeding
identify many hazards and safety omissions that could
50 V rms ac or 120 V or less ripple-free dc. Voltages at these
reduce dangers to persons and equipment. Audits are an
levels are usually not hazardous but hazards may exist
important part of a control system because they ensure
under certain conditions. For example, extra-low voltage
that persons are working in a safe manner. A model of an
may be hazardous in a confined location with moisture or
electrical safety audit checklist is illustrated in Figure 1.25.
heat on the work area, especially if the electrician is lying
Note that under each item heading only one example is
on the floor.
given; more can be added to provide a comprehensive
Extra-low voltage can cause death when the resistance
checklist.
of the body (large area contact) is lowered. Primarily
current, rather than voltage, is the measure of shock
ELECTRICAL SAFETY AUDIT CHECKLIST Version 1 10/09
Site: ............................................... Date: / / Conducted by: ........................................... Position: .........................
Item Status Action Responsible Completed

required person
General controls
Low voltage rescue kits are available Yes No NA
Testing and safety
Electrical safety and test reports are filed Yes No NA
Testing to prove de-energised
Verification of tests to prove de-energised are filed Yes No NA
Test equipment
Instruments used for measuring are ‘in service’ Yes No NA
PPE
PPE is suitable for the task Yes No NA
Tools
Tools are insulated to 1000 V ac Yes No NA
Training and competency
Workers are trained as ‘Authorised Electrical Persons’ Yes No NA
Incident reporting
All expected, probably and might electrical incidents
Yes No NA
reported to relevant authorities
Electrical installations
All 230 V socket outlets are RCD protected Yes No NA
Overhead lines
Warning signs displaying height of the aerials displayed Yes No NA
Hazardous areas
Electrical equipment and instruments to be used
Yes No NA
comply with AS 2381 series
Registers/records
Register of licensed electrical workers kept Yes No NA
Other/Further details: Signature of person

conducting inspection:
Copies provided to:
FIGURE 1.25 Electrical safety checklist
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Name the three categories of common electrical 4 What causes damage to the body as a result of
hazards. heating within tissues?
2 How is it possible to receive electric shock with 5 Define the term ‘high voltage’.
earth conductors? 6 What can a well-planned and executed electrical
3 When is extra-low voltage hazardous to an safety audit identify?
electrician?
1.11 Rescue from a live situation

When working on or near live electrical equipment, a kit has a recent tag indicating that the items in the kit are
fully equipped low-voltage rescue kit must be at or near not damaged or stressed and that they are in good working
the worksite. The items in the rescue kit must be ‘in test’ order and are suitable for their intended application.
before starting installation work. ‘In test’ means that the
1.11 Rescue from a live situation | 27EP
Low-voltage rescue kit Rescue from low-voltage

A rescue kit should contain the following equipment and
be inspected every six months to ensure all items are
equipment
The steps for rescuing a victim from live low-voltage
present, in good condition.
equipment after receiving an electric shock are:
1 Fibreglass-insulated crook used to extend the reach
• Call 000 first. (For mobile phones only, dial 112 as an
to a casualty. You use the crook (see Figure 1.26) to
alternative to dialling 000.)
encircle the casualty’s body to pull them away from the
• Assess the scene for danger before trying to assist the
‘live’ situation
casualty.
2 1000 V rated insulating gloves (tested with an air
• Put on insulating gloves.
pressure test)
• Isolate the supply.
3 ‘Isolate Here in Emergency’ sign
• Free the casualty using the insulated crook.
4 Burn dressings and fire blanket
• Extinguish flames if required.
5 Fire extinguisher
• Drag the casualty to a safe area.
6 Torch.
• Assess the casualty’s condition.
• Perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation if required.
• Place the casualty in the recovery position and await
medical professionals.
• Remain with the casualty.
FIGURE 1.26 Insulated crook
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What item of equipment is necessary when working 2 What is the recommended first step for rescuing
on or near live electrical equipment? a victim from live low-voltage equipment after
receiving an electric shock?
1.12 First aid information

and life support
First aid is the emergency treatment of an injury or illness threatening conditions before commencing treatment of
at an initial level until skilled medical assistance arrives. non-life-threatening injuries. Refer to Figure 1.27 for details
The responsibilities of a first aider include swift and of each step.
efficient treatment of the injury. This means to restart
breathing and heartbeat, to stop the bleeding and to treat Emergency procedure at an accident
the body for shock and hypothermia.
When approaching an accident scene:
A designated first aider should have completed a
• Look around for dangers.
recognised training course such as those offered by the St
• Check casualties and their response.
John Ambulance or a Red Cross first aid course and have a
• Call 000 (112 from mobile phones).
working knowledge of their first aid manuals. In addition,
• Care for injuries.
the first aider should be able to keep concise records of
It is necessary to have an order of priority at an accident
treatment given.
to ensure the safety of the first aider, then casualties,
then bystanders, and to treat the casualties with life-
The priority action plan threatening conditions first and then progress to the less
serious conditions.
The priority action plan as suggested by the St John
1 Look around for dangers.
Ambulance is a step-by-step strategy for managing the
• Is the area safe (e.g. any live electrical wires,
emergency incident. The acronym DRSABCD (Dangers,
leaking fuel and fires)?
Responsive, Send for help, Open Airway, Normal Breathing,
• What does the incident or emergency involve?
Start CPR and Attach defibrillator) is used as guidance
• How many persons are involved in the incident?
for the action plan. The acronym allows the first aider as
• Is anyone able to assist?
the first responder to identify and deal with initial life-
DRSABCD
IN AN EMERGENCY CALL TRIPLE ZERO (000) FOR AN AMBULANCE
Danger?
D Check for danger and ensure the area is safe
for yourself, bystanders and the patient.
Response?
R Check for a response: ask name, squeeze shoulders.
No response? Send for help.
Response? Make comfortable, monitor breathing and
manage severe bleeding and then other injuries.
S Send for help!

Call triple zero (000) for an ambulance or ask bystander to make the call.
Stay on the line.
Airway?
A Open the patient’s mouth and check the airway for foreign material.
Foreign material? Roll the patient onto their side and clear the airway.
No foreign material? Leave the patient in position.
Open the airway by tilting the head back with a chin lift.
Breathing?
B Check for breathing: look, listen, feel for 10 seconds.
Not normal breathing? Ensure an ambulance has been called; start CPR.
Normal breathing? Place in the recovery position and monitor breathing.
CPR!
C 30 chest compressions : 2 breaths.
Continue CPR until help arrives, the patient starts breathing normally,
or you are physically unable to continue.
D Defibrillator!
Apply a defibrillator as soon as possible and follow the voice prompts.
Learn first aid•1300 ST JOHN•www.stjohn.org.au

THIS INFORMATION IS NOT A SUBSTITUTE FOR FIRST AID TRAINING. FORMAL INSTRUCTION IS ESSENTIAL. © St John Ambulance Australia Inc. 2018
Source: © St John Ambulance Australia Inc. 2018
FIGURE 1.27 DRSABCD Action Plan
1.12 First aid information and life support | 29EP
2 Check the casualty’s response. move the chin slightly downwards so that their mouth
• You must first look for conditions that are an opens. Seal your mouth over their mouth, pinch their nose
immediate threat to the casualty’s life. gently and blow steadily for two breaths.
• Remember COWS (see below) If there are no signs of life after two breaths, make sure
• Is the casualty responding to spoken commands 000 has been called and commence chest compressions.
or not? The rescuer should quickly move to commence
• If the casualty is not responding, immediately roll compressions but review the casualty’s condition if
them into the recovery position and check their any signs of life have returned (coughing, movement,
airway. normal breathing). The important thing is not to delay
• Once the airway is clear, check breathing. commencing compressions while you look for signs of life.
• If the casualty is breathing, check the circulation for
regularity and strength. Chest compressions
• Check for external bleeding.
When there are no signs of life present (the casualty
One of the most common and intense emotions at
is unconscious, unresponsive and not moving), the
the time of a medical emergency for some first aiders
rescuer should commence CPR. When engaging in chest
is fear (fear of death, fear of failure and fear of negative
compressions:
consequences), which can quickly result in panic.
• interruptions to compressions should be minimised
• compressions should be fast and hard
Casualty examination • over-ventilation should be avoided.
Determine the casualty’s level of consciousness via gentle The compression ventilation ratio is 30:2 (30 compressions
touching and loud talking. Do not shake the casualty. to two ventilations) for infants, children and adults.
Casualty examination for the first aider follows a plan, Find the lower half of the sternum – you should visualise
which is known by the initials of its component parts, the ‘centre of the chest’ and compress at that point. There
‘COWS’. This is used to remind first aid providers of some is no need for measuring. Position the heel of your hands
simple steps that will help to determine a casualty’s ability in the centre of the person’s chest; interlace your fingers
to respond. These are: and lift them off the chest. Using the heel of your hand,
• Can you hear me? give 30 compressions. Each compression should depress the
• Open your eyes. chest by about one-third. After 30 compressions take a deep
• What’s your name? breath, seal your mouth over the person’s mouth, pinch their
• Squeeze my hands. nose and give two firm breaths.
If the casualty is conscious and they express no pain, Continue giving 30 compressions followed by two
observe their behaviour for any distress, unusual position breaths until medical help arrives. If signs of life return, move
or posture and any body swelling. Where there is more the person into the recovery position. Continue to monitor
than one casualty, always give priority to the unconscious breathing and be ready to start CPR again at any time.
casualty. If unconscious, perform DRSABCD. CPR should be performed by a single rescuer until
other rescuers are available, then it may be performed by
Checking vital signs two rescuers (one performing chest compressions and one
performing rescue breaths).
If a person is unconscious, the first step is to check their
mouth for any items blocking the airway. These items
could include their tongue, food or vomit. If blockages Level of consciousness
are found, gently roll the person onto their side into the ‘Level of consciousness’ is a term used to describe a
recovery position. Clear any blockages using your fingers, person’s alertness and understanding of what is occurring
then check for breathing. If no blockage is found, roll the in their surrounds. A person’s consciousness can vary
person onto their back and check for breathing. Listen for from being normal, such as being completely alert,
the sound of the breath, look for movements of the chest or talking and making sense, to being deeply unconscious
feel for the breath on your cheek. and not responding in any way. Changes in the level of
consciousness of a person may be due to an injury to
Rescue breathing the head. An AVPU scale is used to determine levels of
consciousness.
The term ‘rescue breathing’ has replaced ‘expired air
resuscitation’ (EAR). The guidelines now recommend that
full CPR be given to all those requiring resuscitation. If SWITCH ON
the person is breathing, roll the person into the recovery
A = alert
position. Phone 000 and check the person regularly until
V = responds to voice
medical assistance arrives.
P = responds to pain
If the person is not breathing, place one hand on their
U = unresponsive
forehead tilting the head back and with your other hand
Also note the time of response, observe pupils and note When treating any minor cut or laceration, you must
any change in AVPU. stop the bleeding. In most cases a minor wound will begin
To check alertness, ask questions such as: to clot with steady pressure applied for about 15 minutes.
• What is your name? In all emergency situations wash your hands thoroughly
• Where are you? and put on latex or medical gloves, a surgical mask and
• What day and time is it? safety glasses.
• What happened? Elevate the wound if possible and have the injured
Ask the injured person the above four questions often person apply steady, direct pressure to the cut or laceration
and note any changes. Note the level of responsiveness. for 15 minutes with a non-adherent pad. If the bleeding
If the person is alert, they are an ‘A’ on the AVPU scale. does not stop after 15 minutes seek medical attention.
If the injured person is unable to answer, ceases to With serious bleeding make every effort to stop the
answer or only answers a few of the questions, the first bleeding immediately, as this kind of bleeding can become
aider needs to assess responsiveness to verbal or painful fatal for the injured person in just a few minutes. Seek
stimulus. medical attention immediately for the following conditions:
To assess response to verbal stimulus, speak or yell to • Blood flow cannot be stopped.
the injured person and see whether they open their eyes, • A tourniquet has been applied.
move or make some sound. If the injured person responds, • The wound is large or gaping widely.
they are a ‘V’ on the AVPU scale. If the injured person is • The wound involves a joint, foot, hand or face.
unable to or ceases to respond to verbal stimuli, the first • The wound involves an embedded object.
aider needs to assess the person’s responsiveness to pain. • Skin or parts of the body have been partially or
Gently pinch the person’s skin on both sides of the body completely severed.
and watch their face for movement. If the person shows
any movement or makes any sounds, they are a ‘P’ on the
AVPU scale. Broken bones
If the injured person is not responsive to pain, they are Broken bones, also called fractures, are among the most
considered unconscious and in a coma. This is indicated as common orthopaedic injuries. If you’re not sure what bone
‘U’ on the AVPU scale. The AVPU information needs to be is broken or you think the neck or back is broken, do not
given to the medical professionals when they arrive. try to move the injured person. Seek medical attention
immediately. The worst thing for a broken bone is to move
it. Always reassure the injured person and wait for the
Clinical shock arrival of a trained medical professional.
Clinical shock is brought on by the body’s circulatory
system failing to deliver a sufficient supply of blood to all
parts of the body following severe injuries. Shock involves Burns
the following symptoms: Burns are often categorised as first-, second- or third-
• anxiety and restlessness or irritability degree burns, depending on how badly the skin is
• rapid weak pulse and fast shallow breathing damaged.
• pale, cool, moist skin • First-degree burns affect only the outer layer of the skin.
• dazed look, nausea or vomiting They cause pain, redness and swelling.
• complaint of thirst. • Second-degree burns affect both the outer and
underlying layers of skin. They cause pain, redness,
Treatment for shock swelling and blistering.
• Third-degree burns extend into deeper tissues. They
Treatment for shock involves the following procedure.
result in white or blackened, charred skin that may
1 Lie the casualty on their back.
be numb.
2 Elevate the legs by 30 cm to return the blood supply to
Before giving first aid, assess how badly burned the
the brain.
person is and try to determine the depth of the most
3 Control any bleeding (if necessary).
serious part of the burn. Then, treat the entire burn
4 Loosen the casualty’s clothing at the neck, chest
accordingly. If in doubt, treat it as a third-degree burn.
and waist and cover the casualty to maintain body
By giving immediate first aid before a trained medical
temperature.
professional arrives, you can help lessen the severity of the
5 Only moisten the casualty’s lips with water (no drink is
burn. Prompt medical attention to serious burns can help
to be given).
prevent scarring, disability and deformity.
6 Comfort and reassure the casualty.
For all burns run cool water or any cool drinkable fluid
over the burned area for five minutes or more and remove
Bleeding clothing from the burned area (except for clothing that is
stuck to the skin) if required. Finally, apply a sterile gauze
Bleeding is frequently the most serious risk to an injured
pad or bandage or cover with a clean sheet. Seek medical
person’s life.
attention immediately.
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— Kertokaa Norlannista. — Maria loi nyt rohkeasti pyytävät
silmänsä häneen.
— Varsin mielelläni. — Erik Bohrmanin äänessä oli ennestään

tuttu reipas sointu.
Mutta ei hän jatkanutkaan ja hetkisen kuluttua lausui äkkiä:
— Minun on miltei mahdoton uskoa, että olette naimisissa,

ennenkuin näen miehenne.
Maria tunsi veren kohoavan poskilleen, mutta vastasi kuitenkin

tyynesti:
— Miksi teidän sitä on vaikea uskoa?
— Te ette ylimalkaan ole samanlainen kuin muut nuoret rouvat.

Teissä ei ole sitä kaavamaista arvokkaisuutta, jolla muut nuoret
rouvat nykyaikana koristelevat itseään. Te olette vielä kuin nuori
tyttö. Teidän katseessanne on vielä aavisteleva, uneksiva ilme kuin
usein on nuorilla tytöillä, mutta joka tavallisesti aina katoaa naimisiin
jouduttua. Te olette tuon kaiken säilyttäneet entisellään — ja
kuitenkin olette olleet naimisissa neljä vuotta.
— Miksi sitten pitäisi muuttua naimisiin mentyä?
— Niin, miksi? Mutta niin se vain kaikessa tapauksessa on

useimmiten. Se riippuu ehkä meistä miehistä osaksi, mutta ette te
naisetkaan siinä suhteessa aivan syyttömiä ole.
— Ei, emme tietystikään. Naimisissa huolehditaan niin paljon

kaikenlaisista ulkonaisista asioista, että usein oma itsekin tahtoo
unohtua sielun kehityksestä puhumattakaan, josta juuri silloin pitäisi
enimmän huolehtia.
Niin se on. Mutta te ette näytä kuuluvan niihin naisiin.
— En, enkä tahdokkaan kuulua.
— On henkilöitä, jotka väittävät, että jos nainen oikein rakastaa

jotakin miestä, ei hän milloinkaan mene hänen kanssaan naimisiin.
— Sen minä ymmärrän. — Maria nousi äkkiä istualtaan. — Oi,

miten hyvin sen ymmärrän!
— Niinkö todella? — Tuomari Bohrman katsoi tenhovan

surunvoittoisesti rouva Askeria. — Mutta minä sitä vastoin en voi sitä
ymmärtää.
Rouva Asker teki lähtöä.
— Täällä ulkona alkaa jo käydä ilma kosteaksi, virkkoi hän. —

Ehkä on parasta mennä sisään.
Erik otti vaatteen käsivarrelleen ja he nousivat hiljaa rinnettä

myöten ylös ymmärtäen kumpainenkin keskustelun olleen vähällä
siirtyä hyvin vaarallisille aloille.
— Kauvanko olette oleskelleet täällä saaristossa? — kysyi rouva

Asker tavallisella äänellään.
— Neljätoista päivää. Ja yhtä kauvan aion vielä viipyä. Olen

nimittäin ottanut kuukauden virkaloman.
— Minne lähdette sitte?

— Tukholmaan tietystikin. Pari kuukautta takaperin tulin siellä
nimitetyksi erääseen virkaan.
Minulla on ollut suuria myötäkäymisiä elämässäni — ja vastuksia

myöskin, sillä ilman niitä ei juuri tulla toimeen maailmassa. Nyt on
vihdoin kaikki tulevaisuuteni suhteen valjennut.
— Kumma, etten ole milloinkaan tavannut teitä Tukholmassa.
— Ihmekös tuo! Suurkaupungissa on lukemattomia, jotka eivät

eläissään ole nähneet varjoakaan toisistaan.
He olivat saapuneet verannalle, jonne vähitellen kaikki kesävieraat

kokoontuivat. Kun kaikki olivat asettuneet paikoilleen, saatiin taas
keskustelu vilkkaaseen vauhtiin.
4.
Maria oli ollut Maryhillissä jo neljätoista vuorokautta ja viihtyi siellä

mainiosti. Raitis meri-ilma, kylvyt ja oleskelu ulkona, niin, koko
saaristolaishuvi-elämä vaikutti odottamattoman virkistävästi hänen
hermoihinsa ja palautti mieleen entisen reippaan iloisuuden. Hän oli
muuan noita eloisia luonteita, jotka voivat viehättyä koko sielustaan
nykyisyyteen ja siitä joskus kohota unelmien siivillä arki-elämän
yläpuolelle. Hän ei omistanut tuokionkaan ajatusta olleille ja
menneille kirjaville muistoille. Eikä hän myöskään ajatellut, mitä tulisi
tapahtumaan kun kesä on mennyt. Maria oli kesävieraiden suosikki,
hänen raitis naurunsa liehtoi iloisuutta ympäriinsä ja tarttui toisiinkin.
Yksinpä rouva Elfingin sydämen oli hän valloittanut ja he olivat hyviä
ystäviä.
— Eihän hän olekkaan ainoastaan herroille puhelias ja

rakastettava, vaan ylimalkaan meille kaikille, sanoi rouva Elfving
miehelleen pari päivää sen jälkeen kuin Maria oli tullut rouva
Fosserin luo.
Tämä yleinen myötätunto aiheutti, ettei kukaan milloinkaan

lausunut paheksuvaa sanaa tuomari Bohrmanin ja Maria Askerin
alituisesta seurustelemisesta toistensa kanssa. Hehän ovat
molemmat norlantilaisia — lapsuuden leikkitovereita — heillä lienee
paljon yhteisiä muistoja — mitä omituista ja pahaa siinä olisi? Tätä
yleistä myötätuntoa huvilan "päivänhenkilöt" käyttivätkin hyväkseen
seurustelemalla toistensa kanssa päivät päästään. Usein kumminkin,
kun Maria oli koko päivän viettänyt jollakin hauskalla
purjehdusmatkalla tai kävelyretkellä, tunsi hän jonkunmoisia
omantunnon soimauksia illalla omaan huoneesensa mentyään.
Mutta silloin muisteli hän vaaleaa kiharaa, jonka oli nähnyt putoavan
miehensä taskukirjan välistä, muisteli kaikkia niitä iltoja ja öitä, jotka
kuolettavassa yksinäisyydessä, tuskassa ja surussa oli saanut
viettää — ja levottomuus heti pakeni. — Mitä pahaa tässä kaikessa?
Hän ei ollut tehnyt mitään, jota ei koko maailma olisi voinut nähdä,
miksi ei hän siis olisi saanut vähän nauttia elämästä hänkin?
Mariassa oli ilahuttava muutos tapahtunut, hän oli vallan kuin

ennen. Kaikki olivat huomanneet tämän muutoksen, mutta jokainen
luuli sen aiheutuneen huvila-elämästä. Sitä vastoin eivät vähän
kummastuneet mamma Asker ja hänen tyttärensä, kun tapasivat
Marian iloisena ja onnellisena kuin päiväperhonen. Milloin he
jotenkin suurella melulla tulivat häntä tervehtimään, otti Maria heidät
vastaan sydämellisyydellä, joka sai heidät ihmettelemään. Kaksi
kertaa olivat he käyneet rouva Fosserin luona.
— Enpä ollut tuntea miniääni, virkkoi rouva Asker tyttärilleen

heidän toista kertaa palatessaan Maryhillistä, hän on nyt tasaantunut
ja tullut niin iloiseksi; eikö teistäkin, lapseni?
Niin, sen olivat kaikki panneet merkille.
Mitä Mariaan itseensä tulee, tiesi luonnollisesti hänkin muutoksen,

mikä oli tapahtunut koko sielunelämässä, mutta ei hän kellekään
virkkanut siitä, eipä edes tahtonut itsekään sitä ajatella — ettei tuon
muutoksen syyt kokonaan paljastuisi. Hän antoi kaiken entisen olla
niinkuin se oli.
Aamiaiskello soi ja Maria kiinnitettyään rubiinineulan vaaleaan

kesäpuseroonsa kiirehti ruokasaliin Kirje oli hänen paikallaan; se oli
Kaarlolta, hän tunsi käsialan. Maria aukasi sen luki nopeasti. Hän ei
huomannut, että ruskea silmäpari kaiken aikaa mielenkiinnolla
tarkasteli häntä. Erik Bohrman tahtoi lukea Marian kasvoista jotakin,
tahtoi nimittäin saada varmuuden ajatuksilleen, joista ei voinut
irtautua nimittäin kysymykseen, rakastiko Maria todellakin, miestään.
Hän ei uskonut sitä ja näytti nyt Marian kasvonilmeistä saavan tukea
epäluulolleen. Kun Maria oli lopettanut ja taittanut arkin takaisin
kuoreen, meni Erik Bohrman verannalle ja syvissä mietteissä katseli
viiniköynnöksen sinertäviä lehtiä.
Aamiaisen jälkeen tuli Erik Marian luo puutarhaan.
— Olen täksi päiväksi vuokrannut veneen ja rohkenen ehdottaa

pitkää purjehdusmatkaa, sanoi hän tavallista hiljempää, mutta
muuten luonnollisella äänellä. — Olette hieman kalpea ja sen vuoksi
purjehtiminen teitä paljon virkistäisi.
— Kiitos, olisin mielelläni tullut, mutta mieheni saapuu tänään

tänne ja viipyy huomiseen asti. — Maria puhui yhteen henkäykseen
ikäänkuin peläten, ettei ehtisi kaikkea saada kyllin nopeaan
sanotuksi. Katse oli maahan luotuna.
— Vai niin. Olenpa utelias näkemään hänet. Mihin aikaan hän

tulee.
— Vallan pian. Kirjettä on hän tavallisuuden mukaan

epähuomiossa pitänyt yhden päivän taskussaan lähettämättä, sillä
sen olisi pitänyt eilen saapua.
— Sepä ikävää. — Erik Bohrman paineli keppiään naulaan. —

Tämä on viimeinen päivä kuin minä olen täällä, ja…
Maria keskeytti hänet nopeaan eikä tahtonutkaan salata

äänessään ilmenevää ikävää:
— Lähdettekö pois täältä!
Sydän löi epävakaisen kiivaasti ja kyyneleet yrittivät pakkautua

silmiin.
— En, en tietystikään kokonaan lähde, mutta tulen melkein joka

päivä matkustamaan Tukholmaan, enkä sen vuoksi voi enää
esimerkiksi tällaisia koko päivän kestäviä purjehdusmatkoja panna
toimeen. — Hän katsoi rouva Askeria kiinteästi, mutta tämä ei
uskaltanut silmäyksiään muuttaa kaukaiselta metsänrannalta.
— Tulkaa te kanssani höyryveneelle miestäni vastaan. — Se tuli
kuin rukous.
— Tietysti! Sehän on hauskaa, ja sitäpaitsi olen äärettömän

utelias.
Kävellessään metsän läpi puhelivat he hyvin vähän tai ei

ollenkaan ja vasta laivasillalla Maria virkkoi:
— Teille on epäilemättä hyvin vaivaloista matkusteleminen

edestakaisin Tukholmaan ja Maryhillin väliä, kun täytyy pitää niin
tarkka huoli lähtöajoista ja kaikista.
— No se ei mitään. Sen korvaa monikertaisesti huvi saada olla

täällä.
Karl Asker oli hyvällä tuulella, syleili vaimoaan, suuteli ja taputti

poskelle. Erikiä kohtaan oli hän yhtä rakastettava ja pian olivat he
vilkkaassa keskustelussa; Maria käveli ääneti rinnalla ja hymyili.
Iltapäivällä tilasivat he punssia ja muita virvokkeita puutarhaan ja
illallisen jälkeen tekivät pitkän kävelymatkan. Maria oli hyvin väsynyt
palatessa ja meni pian vuoteeseen.
Seuraavana päivänä sanoi Kaarlo vaimolleen, kun olivat kahden:
— Helkkarin hauska mies tuo juristi. Minä sovin hänen kanssaan

niin mainiosti yhteen.
Kun hän samana iltana istui Tukholmaan lähtevän höyryveneen

kannella, ojensi hän sydämellisesti kätensä tuomari Bohrmanille ja
virkkoi:
— Kuules Bohrman, kun tulet kaupunkiin jonakin iltana, niin
pistäydy talossa. Vakuutan toimittavani sinulle ja itselleni p—n
hauskan illan.
— Kiitos, kiitos! Mutta viihdyn mieluummin täällä saaristossa loma-

ajat.
— Aha… jaha… vain niin! Ja kuka se on, joka sua täällä

"vetää"…?
Vene erkani rannasta Maria, liehutti nenäliinallaan ja Erik Bohrman

heilautti hattuaan.
— No mutta kaikessa tapauksessa sentään — jos vahingossa

eksyt kaupunkiin, niin tule toki minun luokseni yöpuulle, huusi Kaarlo
vielä.
Maria ja Erik kääntyivät takaisin huvilaan.
— Oh, meidän on varottava itseämme, meidän on varottava, —

sanoi Erik
Bohrman.
— Mitä tarkoitatte?
— Olen tullut viettämään saaristoelämää, sillä kaupunkielämästä

olen saanut kylläni Upsalassa, enkä sitä enää kaipaa, mutta kiusaus
voi toisinaan tulla aavistamatta.
— Luuletteko… että hän viettää tuota "kaupunkielämää?"
— En tiedä, mutta kovin paljon hän pitää punssista ja se on

tavallisesti epäilyttävä merkki.
— Sitä ei voi kieltää. Punssi on todella hänen mielijuomansa.
He kävelivät tuokion äänettä. Maria taisteli itsensä kanssa, mutta

ei lopulta voinut olla suoraan kysymättä:
— Sanokaa, mitä piditte miehestäni?
Tuomari Bohrman vastasi hetken kuluttua:
— Veli Asker on omituinen luonne, hänessä on paljon hyvää jos

pahaakin, niinkuin meissä kaikissa syntisissä ihmisissä. Hänessä on
koko lailla kevytmielisyyttä ja nautinnon himoa, mutta niinkuin
tuollaisissa luonteissa tavallisesti, vastaavassa määrässä
hyväntahtoisuutta ja tasaista, tyyntä mieltä. Hän on luonne, jossa
hyvä ja paha on näkyvissä selvemmin kuin useissa muissa
ihmisissä, ne ovat kuin perusaine, jota kuvanveistäjä käyttää. Sen
vuoksi tuollaisten luonteiden arvosteleminen on peräti vaikeaa.
Maria oli tullut varsin totiseksi.
— Niin, kyllä ymmärrän, sanoi hän hiljaa, mutta minä en ole voinut
vaikuttaa häneen niin, että… että minua voitaisiin verrata
kuvanveistäjään, joka voi muodottomasta, rumasta savesta
muovailla siron esineen. Hän on mennyt omia teitään…
— Tietysti, onhan se helppoa ymmärtää. Te olette liian taipuva ja

kätenne liian heikot muodostamaan jotain sellaista. Teissä ei ole sitä
voimaa, mikä tässä tapauksessa vaaditaan, sillä te itse olette
vaikutuksille alttiina.
He kävelivät hiljaa edelleen.

5.
Kesä oli ollut tavattoman kaunis ja syksystä, vaikka jo elokuu oli, ei

näkynyt varjoakaan. Erik ja Maria olivat edelleen Maryhillissä, mutta
insinööri Vadsteinia ja neiti Bildtiä lukuunottamatta olivat muut
kesävieraat hajonneet eri tahoille ja heidän huoneissaan oli nyt
uudet asukkaat. Heti kun tuomari Bohrman oli tullut kaupungista ja
päivällinen oli syöty, tekivät he aina yhdessä pitkän kävelymatkan
rannoilla. He olivat kesän kuluessa niin tottuneet toistensa seuraan,
etteivät enää kaipauksetta voineet pysytellä erillään. Huvilan luona,
rinteen alla pistäysi mereen korkea ja jyrkkä kallio, jota sametin
hieno sammalkerros verhosi, ylhäällä puitten latvassa saattoi tuuli
hurjana mellastaa, mutta täällä alhaalla oli alati hiljaista ja tyyntä.
Tämän kallion Erik ja Maria viime aikoina olivat valinneet
lempipaikakseen. Täällä viettivät he päivien herttaisimmat hetket.
Rannan kalliot ja puut kuvastuivat selvästi matalaan, tyyneen veteen.
Milloin oli vesi kuvastimenkirkas ja aurinko paistoi tummansiniseltä
taivaalta, milloin kuohupäät aallot kohisten törmäsivät rantaan ja
milloin kävivät hiljaiset, lempeät laineet, mutta aina oli luonnossa
sama rauhoittava, lohduttava, elähyttävä vaikutusvoima. Erik ja
Maria rakastivat kumpainenkin tätä vaihtelevaa luonnon kauneutta
enemmän kuin mitään muuta ja omistivat enimmän osan ajastaan
sen ihailulle. He eivät kumpainenkaan ajatelleet, miten vaarallinen
tämä yhteistunnelma oli, se sitoi heidät joka päivä yhä kiinteämmin
toisiinsa. Ja monta kertaa unohtivat he kokonaan sen
kumoamattoman tosiasian, että armoton kohtalo oli heidät ainaiseksi
erottanut toisistaan ja että kaikki oli ohi, ikuisesti ohi!
Hetki hetken jälkeen vierähti heidän vilkkaasti haastellessaan

kalliolla tai leikitessään ja melutessaan kuin lapset. Toisinaan Erik
palasi Tukholmasta mukanaan joku uusi kaunokirjallinen merkkiteos,
jonka he sitte ahmimalla yhdessä tutkivat läpi. Erik useimmiten luki
ääneensä ja Marialla oli tällöin hyvä tilaisuus tarkastella hänen
kasvojensa sisällön mukaan vaihtelevaa ilmettä.
Tuollaisina hetkinä Erik vasta oli Marian mielestä entisellään ja

silloin tunsi hän rajattoman ikävän saada katsoa häntä syvälle
silmien ja sielun pohjaan, nojautua hänen rintaansa vasten ja
kuunnella voimakkaan sydämen sykintää. Kenelle sykki hänen
sydämensä nyt? Hän keskeytti aina väkisinkin tähän kohtaan nuo
luvattomille teille harhautuneet ajatukset. Maria tahtoi olla
epätietoisuudessa omista tunteistaan, sillä hänellä oli varma
aavistus, että sinä päivänä kuin ne selviytyvät, on hänen onnensa
aika ollut ja mennyt.
Rouva Asker tyttärineen oli kesän kuluessa useasti käynyt

Maryhillissä Mariaa tervehtimässä; suhde heidän välillään oli paljon
parempi kuin ennen. Kaarlo oli sitä vastoin vain kaksi kertaa käynyt
saaristossa. Viime kerralla oli hän tahtonut, että Maria jo muuttaisi
kaupunkiin, sillä illathan alkavat pimetä ja käydä ikäviksi. Mutta
Maria oli itsepäinen, eikä sanonut haluavansa muuttaa, ennenkuin
syksyn kylmät ja myrskyt tulevat.
— Näethän itse, miten hyvin olen täällä viihtynyt, sanoi hän ja

katsoi iloa loistavilla silmillä miestään.
— Kauvanko Bohrman vielä viipyy täällä? kysyi Karl Asker

yhtäkkiä heidän kävellessään alas höyryveneelle.
Maria kumartui ottamaan kukkaa maasta; hän tunsi punastuvansa.
— Hän lähtee luultavasti näinä päivinä.

— Vai niin! Otaksunpa, että sinä tulet kotiin samoihin aikoihin.
— Kuinka niin?
Niin, näetkös, — Kaarlon ääni oli salaperäinen ja tärkeän

näköisenä kuiskasi hän, — se on sillä lailla, että… Sinä olet kai sen
huomannut… mamma sanoi, ettei hän voinut erehtyä Borhmanin
tunteista häntä kohtaan. Ja hän, tietystikin, on aivan hullaantunut
juristiin. "Joko hänet tai ei sitte ketään," on hän sanonut sekä
mammalle että minulle, ja sinä tiedät, että hän on luonne, jota eivät
kaikki tuulet häilytä.
Maria oli suuresti kummastunut eikä ymmärtänyt sanaakaan.
— Mutta sano herran tähden suoraan, Kaarlo, ketä tarkoitat, äläkä

puhu arvoituksilla! — huudahti hän hiukan vihaisesti.
— Ketäkö tarkoitan: he ovat rakastuneet toisiinsa — Bohrman ja

Agnes — olet kai sen huomannut?
Maria löi kummastuksesta yhteen käsiään.
— Agnes ja tuomari Bohrman! hän pani erityisen painon joka

sanalle. —
Ystävä rakas, se on hurjinta mielikuvitusta, mitä ajatella voi.
Karl Asker näytti joutuvan hämilleen.
— Niin, enhän minä tiedä, mutta niinhän ne sanovat, mamma ja

Agneskin… ja muuten, niin vaikka se ehkä nyt vielä on
mielikuvitusta, voi se muuttua todeksikin.
— Ei… koskaan! Minä vakuutan sen.

— Vakuutatko — mistä sinä tiedät? — Karl Asker ei voinut olla
ihmettelemättä vaimonsa äänen vakuuttavaa päättäväisyyttä. —
Kuuleppas minun suunnitelmaani: Minä kutsun Bohrmanin tuon
tuostakin kotiimme ja siellä hän ja Agnes saavat rakennella
lähempää tuttavuutta toistensa kanssa ja suorittaa pienen
rakkausafäärinsä. Jos tunnen Bohrmanin oikein, niin… ja Agnes on
kaikin puolin hyvä tyttö.
— Eivät kaikki halua mennä naimisiin rahojen tähden. — Marian

ääni oli niin kummallinen.
— Ei, ei tietystikään, Mari kultani. Useimmiten kokonaan muut

ominaisuudet saavat kiintymään, mutta jos on köyhä, niin kuka
tietää… Rahat ovat aina hyviä olemassa.
Maria ei vastannut.
Mutta Kaarlo jatkoi vakuuttaen:
— Sehän on vain pieni suunnitelma, jonka äiti ja minä olemme

keksineet auttaaksemme Agnesia. Eihän siinä mitään pahaa ole, ja
jälkeenpäin he molemmat kiittävät meitä. Eikö totta, sinun pitää olla
mukana asiassa. Sinähän tunnet hänet vanhastaan ja voit vaikuttaa
paljon jos tahdot.
Nyt kääntyi Maria suoraan miehensä puoleen ja hänen kasvoillaan

oli niin vakava ilme, että Kaarlo katui äskeisiä sanojaan.
— Tämän asian kanssa en tahdo olla missään tekemisissä, paina

mieleesi se, en missään.
— Mutta jos minä sen nyt kumminkin teen, jos kutsun hänet
kotiimme niin usein kuin tahdon. Mitäs siihen sanot? — lausui Karl
Asker äkkiä kiihtyneellä äänellä.
— En mitään. Sinä saat tehdä kuten tahdot.
Kun Maria oli saattanut miehensä höyryveneelle ja hiljaa kävellen

palasi huvilaan, oli hän niin huonolla tuulella, ettei koko täällä olo-
aikanaan. Agnes ja Erik rakastuneet toisiinsa! Sille voisi oikein
nauraa. Puuttuisi, että hänkin nyt vielä sekoittuisi Askerin sukuun.
Kaukana siitä! Erik Bohrman ei voi tehdä niin suurta alennusta, hän
on liian hyvä siihen. Pitääpä olla herkkäuskoinen voidakseen
sellaista kuvitellakaan… Hän ymmärsi nyt kaikki. Erik oli monta
kertaa kuullut Marian sanovan, että hän Agnesista pitää enemmän
kuin muista miehensä omaisista. Sen vuoksi hän oli Agnesille
kohteliaampi kuin muille. Siinä kaikki… Siis Erikin tähden rouva
Asker ja tytöt niin usein kävivät Maryhillissä, eivätkä Marian vuoksi,
kuten hän oli luullut. Oli hän kyllä ihmetellyt sitä hyväntahtoisuutta,
mitä oli viime aikoina saanut osakseen; nyt käsitti hän syyn.
Huvilalle tultuaan meni hän suoraan huoneeseen hakien

yksinäisyyttä ajatuksilleen.
*****
Kuukausi takaperin oli rouva Fosserille tullut täysihoitoon eräs

nuori tyttö, tehtailija Bahrin tytär Helsinglandista. Isänsä oli lähettänyt
hänet tänne toivossa, että raitis meri-ilma ja kylvyt virkistäisivät
hänen "kalpean liljansa," kuten rouva Fosserille lähettämässään
kirjeessä tytärtään nimitti. Anny Bahr oli kuusitoistavuotinen,
tavattoman synkkämielinen ja kärsivän näköinen pieni olento. Hän oli
ollut sellainen lapsesta asti. Posket olivat verettömät ja koko olento
arka ja hento. Ensi päivästä lähtien viehättyi hän heti Marian seuraan
ja hermostuneet, haaveilevat silmät katselivat häntä jonkinlaisella
ihmettelyllä. Anny totteli hänen pienintä viittaustaankin — Maria
tarvitsi vain kiinnittää siniharmaat silmänsä tyttöseen, ja tämä oli kuin
tenhottu. Hän melkein jumaloi Mariaa, suuteli usein hänen käsiään ja
nojasi mielellään helmaan. Aluksi tämä kaikki miellytti Mariaa, mutta
pian hän siihen väsyi. Ei saanut milloinkaan olla rauhassa. Jos meni
huoneeseen ja alkoi kirjoittaa vaikka miten tärkeää kirjettä, niin sai
olla varma, että pian kuuluu koputus oveen ja arka ääni: "Rakas
pieni herttainen Maria, enkö saa tulla sisään?" Ellei Maria silloin
ottanut häntä vastaan, kuului oven takaa miltei epätoivoinen: "Oi,
Maria kulta, olkaa kiltti!" Se oli niin luonnottoman surullista, että
Mariaa usein pelotti; sehän muistutti vallan mielenvikaisuutta!
Toisinaan hän koetti päästä selville siitä, miksi tyttö aina haki
hänen seuraansa, mutta kaikki turhaan. Hän saattoi olla
epäystävällinen, melkeinpä suorastaan ilkeä Anny Bahria kohtaan,
mutta mikään ei auttanut. Oli usein tapahtunut, että Maria tyttösen
koputtaessa ovelle oli lähtenyt ulos ja käskenyt tyttöä poistumaan tai
suorastaan lausunut kovia vihaisia sanoja. Anny raukka tällaisissa
tilaisuuksissa katseli häntä surullisin silmin, huokasi raskaasti, painoi
katseensa alas ja hiipi hiljaa pois.
Mutta seuraavana päivänä oli sama asia.
— Mitä on minun tehtävä? — kysyi hän usein tuomari Bohrmanilta

neuvoa. — Minä ajan hänet luotani tuon tuostakin, olen pahanilkinen
hänelle, jopa niin, että jälkeenpäin itseänikin kaduttaa, usein pyydän
lujalla äänellä saada olla rauhassa ja saadakseni hänestä tuon
ihmeellisen ihailun irtautumaan, ravistelen häntä säälimättömästi
käsivarresta — mutta mikään ei auta. Minuutin kuluttua riippuu hän
minussa uudelleen kuin takkiainen. Sanokaa, mitä minun on
tehtävä?
— Thjaa! En todellakaan tiedä. — Nuori lakimies pudisti päätään.
— Mutta mitä luulette tuosta tyttösestä?
— Hän on hypnotiseerattu teihin, laski Erik leikkiä.
— Oh, ei! Sanokaa suoraan, pyyteli Maria.
— Sitte ei hänen hermostonsa ja aivonsa ole oikein täydessä

kunnossa, tai kenties hän todella on jollain tavoin hypnotiseerattu,
tapasi hän sanoa.
6.
Oli sanomattoman kaunis päivä syyskuun alkupuolella. Puitten

vihreys oli tummentunut eikä auringon säteillä enää ollut keskikesän
kirkkautta — oli kuin luonto olisi hiljaa surrut, että sen kauneus kohta
on lakastuva. Maria oli enää kaksi päivää oleva rouva Fosserin
huvilassa ja lähtöään ajatellen joutui hänkin salaisen kaihon valtaan.
Hän oli noussut aikaiseen, tehnyt pitkän kävelymatkan ja ottanut
hyvästit kesäisiltä lempipakoiltaan. Näkeekö hän enää koskaan
uudelleen niitä? Hän koetti vakuuttaa itselleen, että onhan
samantekevää, vaikkei hän näekään. Mutta sydämensä
salaisuudesta toivoi hän tämänlaisen kesän uudelleen saavansa
viettää — ehkä jo ensi vuonna. — Mutta mitä hyötyä siitä oikein on?
Maria käveli hitain askelin puutarhassa, ei voinut suoria ajatuksiaan,
ne olivat niin raskaat, melkein yhtä raskaat kuin hänen mielensä.
Hän asteli puutarhan läpi ja käveli metsään päin. Kohta kuului
askeleita takaapäin ja liikuttava ääni pyysi:
— Pikku Maria, älkää ajako minua pois tänään! Yhdessäolomme
loppuu kohta. Saanhan tulla mukana metsään?
Maria kääntyi ja näki edessään tietysti Anny Bahrin.
— Milloin lähdet kotiisi? — kysyi hän hyvin kylmästi.
— Samana päivänä kuin Mariakin, virkkoi tyttönen arkana.
— Miten sinä näin aikaseen olet ylhäällä tänään, eihän se ennen

ole tietääkseni tapahtunut, jatkoi Maria samalla teeskennellyllä
ankaruudella.
— En tiedä, Maria kulta. Heräsin tunti sitte ja minun tuli niin kovin
ikävä metsään.
— Tiesitkö minun olevan täällä?
— En, en ollenkaan! Miten minä sen olisin tiennyt? En aavistanut

mitään, ennenkuin näin Marian täällä.
Maria ei uskaltanut tarkemmin ruveta ajattelemaan, mikä salainen

vaisto tytön taas tällä hetkellä toi hänen luokseen juuri kuin hän oli
toivonut saavansa olla yksin. Mutta tänään ei hänellä ollut sydäntä
ajaa pois Annya. He kävelivät yhdessä yhä kauvemmas metsään.
Suuren, sammalpeitteisen kiven luo pysähtyi Maria ja kävi istumaan
maahan; Anny Bahr sijoittui hänen jalkojensa viereen.
— Oletko pahoillasi kun pitää lähteä? — kysyi Maria tytöltä.
— En, päinvastoin! Minun on niin kovin ikävä Norlantiin papan ja

mamman luo.
Maria ei ymmärtänyt häntä. Miten voi ikävöidä pois ja kuitenkin
olla täällä oloonsa viehättynyt?
Huulillaan kummallinen hymy kysyi hän tytöltä muuten kylmällä ja

tunteettomalla äänellä:
— Eikö sinun ole ikävä erota minusta? — Sanat kuulostivat Marian

omissakin korvissa itserakkailta, mutta hän ei voinut olla niitä
lausumatta uteliaana haluten tietää mitä tyttö vastaisi.
— Ei!… En tiedä… En ole sitä ajatellut, Anny virkkoi levottomana.
Nyt ymmärsi Maria häntä vielä vähemmän kuin milloinkaan.
— Anny, sanoi hän ankarasti, mitä minun pitää ajatella sinusta?

Sanot, ettet ollenkaan ikävöi, vaikka minä lähden pois, ja kumminkin
aina juokset perässäni. Miksi et sitte anna minun olla rauhassa?
— En tiedä, Maria kulta, en todellakaan tiedä. On kuin jokin

sisäinen voima minut kiinnittäisi Mariaan. — Hän painoi päänsä
rouva Askerin polvelle. — Ja… niin, en minä osaa sitä selittää.
— Ja… mitä? — huudahti Maria.
— Niin, ja Marian silmät ovat samanlaiset kuin tohtori

Vesterdahlin!
Ahaa! Tuollakin lapsella on lemmentarinansa, mietti Maria ja häntä

alkoi asia yhä enemmän kiinnittää.
— Kuka on tohtori Vesterdahl?
— Hän on lääkäri, taitava hypnotiseeraaja. Se oli hän, joka pitkän

ajan koetti hypnotiseeraamalla parantaa minussa alakuloisuutta ja
kalvetustautia. Hän oli oikein kiltti.
Maria tunsi rohkeutensa niin kummallisesti vavahtelevan, eikä

tiennyt mitä vastata. Se kaikki oli niin ihmeellistä. Hetkisen kuluttua
herätti hänet mietteistään Anny, joka nousten puoleksi seisaalleen
kuiskasi:
— Katsokaa, Maria! Tuolla on tuomari Bohrman.
Puhuteltu katsoi nuoren tytön osoittamaan suuntaan. Rinteen

juurella, lähellä rantaa seisoi Erik selin heihin. Hän näytti niin
hartaana katselevan meren herääviä aamulaineita ja sinertävää
metsänreunaa veden tuolla puolen, ettei ollenkaan huomannut mitä
ympärillään tapahtui. Maria tuli rauhattomaksi ja selittämättömästä
syystä alkoi veri hänen poskillaan vuoroin kohota ja laskeutua.
— Ole hyvin hiljaa! — sanoi hän Anny Bahrille ja kosketti

kädellään tytön poskea. — Ollaan täällä piilossa, ettei hän huomaa
meitä.
Itse kumartui hän vieläkin alemmas ja kaatuneen puurungon yli

saattoivat he nyt katsella Erik Bohrmania. Maria ei voinut vastustaa
tilaisuutta… hän tahtoi nähdä Erikin yksinäisyydessään… Eihän se
ollut vakoilemista, ei missään tapauksessa; se oli vain hänen
sydämensä voittamaton kaiho saada huomaamattomana seurata
häntä katseellaan täällä luonnon helmassa, jäähyväisiksi lähettää
hänelle ne katseet ja sitte hiljaisuudessa polttaa hänen kuvansa
ikipäiviksi sielun syvyyteen. Hän rohkeni töin tuskin hengittää. Silloin
kuului läheltä valittavaa uikutusta. Se ei ollut ihmisääni, sen saattoi
eroittaa, se oli joku viaton eläin, joka täten sanattomin valitusäänin
ilmasi kärsimyksiään. Anny Bahr tarttui vanhemman ystävättärensä
käteen ja yhdessä he nyt katselivat ja odottivat. Tuomari Bohrman oli
nimittäin kuullut saman valittavan äänen, hän kuunteli hetkisen
huulet puoli avoimena ja katsellen sinne päin, mistä uikutus kuului.
Sitte hän lähti hiljaa kävelemään pitkin rantaa Erään pensaikon
luona hän pysähtyi ja kumartui tarkastelemaan jotakin. Sitte asettui
hän polvilleen ja veti pensaikosta esiin jotakin esinettä. Se oli suuri,
haavoittunut koira, jonka toisessa etujalassa oli ammottava haava.
Maa oli yltympäri veressä ja eläinraukka näytti olevan
uupumaisillaan. Erik Bohrman tutki tarkoin haavan.
— Pikku raukka, pikku raukka, puhui hän tyynnyttäen kauniilla

äänellään ja silitteli koiran selkää ja päätä. — Tuleppas, niin koetan
parantaa kipeää… Hän nosti eläimen lähemmäs rantaa, tarttui
keveästi haavoittuneeseen jalkaan ja sitoi nenäliinansa haavan
kohdalle. Sitte juoksi hän hakemaan lakillaan vettä. — Kas noin, kas
noin, pestäänpäs nyt puhtaaksi, niin se paranee. — Joka liikkeessä,
joka sanassa, joka äänenvärähdyksessä oli niin syvää osanottoa
haavoittunutta elukkaparkaa kohtaan. Se oli niin sydämellistä, että
Maria luuli sen voivan liikuttaa rannan kiviäkin. Erik Bohrmanin
olennossa ei ollut mitään teennäistä. Hän luuli olevansa yksin täällä
metsässä ja käyttäytyi vapaasti ja luonnollisesti, ilman vähintäkään
tietoisuutta siitä, että neljä silmää liikutuksen kyyneleistä kimmeltäen
seurasi joka hänen liikettään. Hän repi nyt nenäliinansa kapeiksi
kaistaleiksi ja sitoi huolella eläimen jalan. Kun kaikki oli tehty, asettui
hän istumaan maahan, otti syliinsä koiran pään ja silitellen sen
hienoa kuonoa puheli:
— Kas niin, kas niin — onko parempi nyt, mitä? Pikku raukka,
koko yönkö olet saanut maata täällä tuskissasi ja odottaa, että joku
kuulisi itkusi. Mutta ei kukaan ymmärtänyt sinua eikä kukaan tullut
lohduttamaan ja auttamaan. Sinä väsyit jo valituksesi muuttuivat
huokauksiksi, jotka olisivat liikuttaneet metsän puutkin, jos ne olisivat

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National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Cengage Learning Australia

Cengage Learning New Zealand

For learning solutions, visit cengage.com.au

Printed in Singapore by 1010 Printing International Limited.

Chapter 2 Document and apply measures to control WH&S

Chapter 3 Fabricate, assemble and dismantle utilities

Chapter 4 Fixing and support devices and techniques 121EP

Chapter 5 Drawings, diagrams and schedules 140EP

Chapter 6 Develop and connect electrical control circuits 179EP

Chapter 7 Wiring systems types, applications

Chapter 8 Installation of wiring systems 313EP

Chapter 9 Electrical installation – cable selection

Chapter 10 Electrical installations – arrangement,

Chapter 11 Electrical apparatus and existing

Chapter 12 Introduction to regulations, compliance

Chapter 13 Electrical heating 523EP

Chapter 14 Lighting 546EP

Chapter 15 Batteries 590EP

Chapter 16 Make up and assemble busbars (MindTap chapter)

Chapter 17 Verifying installation compliance (MindTap chapter)

Chapter 18 Electrical winding (MindTap chapter)

Chapter 5 7.13 Communications and data cables 306EP

10.4 Earthing systems and Chapter 14

Introduction to regulations, compliance Chapter 16

Guide to the text

Load rating of fixings

6.3 Remote stop–start control

and electrical interlocking

CHAPTER REVIEW • Flying

COGNERO TEST BANK

POWERPOINT™ PRESENTATIONS (Premium and Basic)

ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT

FOR THE INSTRUCTOR

FOR THE STUDENT

1.1 Work health and safety fundamentals

Induction is normally carried out by a nominated staff

SWITCH ON Insulated gloves

1.2 Work environment

theoretically leads to safer environments for workers and

Worksite risk assessments and inspections are key

FIGURE 1.1 Standard work procedure flow chart

1.3 Work environment safety signs

FIGURE 1.3 Mandatory sign – hearing protection must be worn

Warning signs Fire signs

6 Which sign warns of a hazard or hazardous

1.4 Workplace emergencies

Fires APW can be recognised by its large silver container. APWs

FIGURE 1.9 Fire extinguishers and classifications

Chapter 2 Document and apply measures to control WH&S

Chapter 3 Fabricate, assemble and dismantle utilities

Chapter 7 Wiring systems types, applications

Chapter 9 Electrical installation – cable selection

Chapter 10 Electrical installations – arrangement,

Chapter 11 Electrical apparatus and existing

Chapter 12 Introduction to regulations, compliance

10.4 Earthing systems and Chapter 14