HYDRAULICS

BS Civil Engineering - 3
 WHAT IS OPEN CHANNEL?
• Unlike pipes where water is completely enclosed, OPEN CHANNEL from refers to the movement of
water in a channel with a free surface exposed to the atmosphere. Example include rivers, streams,
irrigation canals, and ditches.

• It has a free surface and flows due to gravity

• Pipes (e.g. pipe culvert) not flowing full are also considered an open channel

• Open channel flow is driven by the slope of the channel

• Hydraulic gradient line coincides with the free water surface

 WHAT IS OPEN CHANNEL?
One defining feature is the presence of a free surface. This surface is not constrained by a solid
boundary and is in direct contact with the atmosphere. The pressure at this free surface is essentially
atmospheric pressure.
 WHAT IS OPEN CHANNEL?
ROLE OF OPEN CHANNEL IN SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
 IMPORTANCE OF OPEN CHANNEL
1. IRRIGATION
2. DRAINAGE
- Deliver water to agricultural fields
- Removing excess water from the land.
 IMPORTANCE OF OPEN CHANNEL
3. Municipal and Industrial Water Supply
- Transport water consumption and
industrial processes
4. HABITAT AND BIODIVERSITY
- Open channels like rivers and streams are vital
ecosystems that support a wide range of aquatic
plants and animals.
 IMPORTANCE OF OPEN CHANNEL
5. Hydropower Generation 6. TRANSPORTATION
- Open Channels can Harnessed to - Throughout history, rivers and canals have been
generate hydroelectric power. crucial transportation routes for people and goods
 IMPORTANCE OF OPEN CHANNEL
7. RECREATION
- Open channels provide opportunities
for various recreational activities like
swimming, fishing, boating, and
whitewater rafting..
OPEN CHANNEL

Factors that influence flow of water in the Channel

1. CHANNEL SHAPE

3. TEXTURE OF CHANNEL
OPEN CHANNEL

Factors that influence flow of water in the Channel

1. CHANNEL SHAPE

The shape and size of the channel

significantly impact flow. A wide and
deep channel will allow for a higher
flow rate compared to a narrow and
shallow one. The specific shape
(rectangular, trapezoidal, etc.) also
influences how the water interacts with
the channel walls, affecting velocity
distribution.
OPEN CHANNEL

Factors that influence flow of water in the Channel

1. CHANNEL SHAPE

1. Rectangular shape
2. Trapezoidal
3. Semi-circular
4. Circular (Partially full)
5. Combination
6. Irregular shape
OPEN CHANNEL

Factors that influence flow of water in the Channel

The steeper the slope of an open

channel, the higher the velocity of the
water flowing through it. The slope
provides the gravitational driving force
that overcomes friction and keeps the
water moving.
OPEN CHANNEL

Factors that influence flow of water in the Channel

The roughness of the channel bed and

walls creates friction that resists the flow of
water. A rough channel (think: filled with
rocks) will experience more friction
compared to a smooth channel (think:
concrete lining), leading to a slower flow
velocity for the same channel geometry
and slope.

3. TEXTURE OF CHANNEL
OPEN CHANNEL

Factors that influence flow of water in the Channel

3. TEXTURE OF CHANNEL
OPEN CHANNEL

EQUATION:

1. Continuity Equation
“Mass can neither be created nor destroyed”
the amount of water flowing into a channel section in a given time must equal the amount flowing
out in the same time.

𝑸 = 𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
Where
Q= Flow rate
A = Wetted Area
V = velocity of water
OPEN CHANNEL

EQUATION:

2. Bernoulli’s Equation
the sum of the pressure head, velocity head, and elevation head remains constant
along a streamline.

Specific Energy

𝑽𝟐
𝑬= +𝒅
𝟐𝒈
 OPEN CHANNEL C according to manning
𝟏 𝟏
EQUATION:
𝑪 = 𝑹𝟔
𝒏

3. CHEZY-MANNING’S FORMULA CHEZY-MANNING FORMULA

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
It relates the flow rate, channel geometry, slope, 𝒗 = 𝑹𝟑 𝑺𝟐
and roughness coefficient. While we won't delve
𝒏
into the full derivation yet, understanding its 𝑨 𝟐 𝟏
significance is crucial. 𝑸 = 𝑹𝟑 𝑺𝟐
𝒏
V according to Chezy Formula
𝒗 = 𝑪 𝑹𝑺 BOUNDARY SHEAR STRESS
S=slope of EGL; hydraulic slope; energy gradient 𝝉 = 𝜸𝑾 𝑹𝑺
𝑯𝑳 𝒉𝒇
𝑺= =
𝑳 𝑳
R= hydraulic radius (m)
𝑨
𝑹=
𝑷
P=wetted perimeter
1
𝑚2
C=chezy coefficient 𝑠
 OPEN CHANNEL

EQUATION:
3. CHEZY-MANNING’S FORMULA C according to Bazin
𝟖𝟕
It relates the flow rate, channel geometry, slope, 𝑪= 𝒎
and roughness coefficient. While we won't delve 𝟏+
𝑹
into the full derivation yet, understanding its
significance is crucial. C according to kutter
V according to Chezy Formula 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓
+ 𝟐𝟑 +
𝒗 = 𝑪 𝑹𝑺 𝑪= 𝒏 𝑺
𝒏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟓
S=slope of EGL; hydraulic slope; energy gradient 𝟏+ (𝟐𝟑 + )
𝑹 𝑺
𝑯𝑳 𝒉𝒇
𝑺= =
𝑳 𝑳 Given f
R= hydraulic radius (m)
𝑨 𝟖𝒈
𝑹= 𝑪=
𝑷 𝒇
P=wetted perimeter
1
𝑚2
C=chezy coefficient 𝑠
 MOST EFFICIENT SECTION
Also known as “optimum channel section”, most economical section most hydraulic efficient section,
most advantageous section, most favorable section, etc.

RECTANGULAR SECTION CIRCULAR SECTION

TRIANGULAR SECTION TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1. A rectangular channel 1.8 m wide conveys water at a depth of 1.2 m. Determine the velocity and
Flow rate if it is laid on a slope of 0.002 and n=0.012
SAMPLE PROBLEM

2. A rectangular channel 5.4m wide by 1.2m deep is lined with a smooth stone (n=0.013) and the
hydraulic slope of 1:1000.
a. What is the capacity of the channel in cu./s
b. What savings in earth excavation could have been offered by using more favorable proportions but
adhering to the same delivery and slope?
c. What saving in lining per meter length by using more favorable proportions but adhering to the same
delivery and slope?
SAMPLE PROBLEM

3. A rectangular channel has a steady flow of 6cu.m/s on a slope of 0.0018. For rectangular channel
with at least wetted perimeter and n= 0.015
a. Compute the depth and width of the channel
b. Compute the average unit tractive force/shear stress
SAMPLE PROBLEM

4. A rectangular channel with a flow rate of 600L/s has a flow depth of 1.2m and a width of 2m. n=0.012
a. Find the channel gradient
b. Find the Frictional resistance / head loss
c. Find the average unit tractive force at the bottom of the channel.
SAMPLE PROBLEM

5. A rectangular channel cut in a firm clay is 10m wide and a depth of water is 1.8m. The slope of the
channel is 0.001. The allowable velocity to prevent erosion is expressed as 𝑉 = 0.35 𝑔𝑑
a. Compute the maximum discharge of the channel to avoid erosion
b. Compute the specific energy in the channel
SAMPLE PROBLEM

5. A rectangular channel cut in a firm clay is 10m wide and a depth of water is 1.8m. The slope of the
channel is 0.001. The allowable velocity to prevent erosion is expressed as 𝑉 = 0.35 𝑔𝑑
a. Compute the maximum discharge of the channel to avoid erosion
b. Compute the specific energy in the channel
SAMPLE PROBLEM

6. Given:
Hydraulic Radius = 1.503
Coefficient of roughness = 0.015
Slope of the gradient = 0.0009
a. Compute the velocity using Kutters formula
b. Compute the velocity using Chezy formula given f
c. Compute the velocity using Bazin Formula
SAMPLE PROBLEM

7. A trapezoidal channel with a side slope of 1:1 is to carry a discharge of 45 cu.m/s and a mean
velocity of 0.6m/s. If n=0.015, compute the following:
a. Depth of channel if the base width is 5.3m
b. Length of the channel if it drops a height of 3m at its end
c. Average shearing stress at the boundary
SAMPLE PROBLEM

8. A flood occurs in the main channel having a trapezoidal section with base width of 4.5m. If the
channel is designed to carry a mean velocity of 1.2m/s, compute the discharge capacity of the canal
using the following condition:
a. When one side of the canal is vertical and the other sloping at an angle of 45-degree with the
horizontal. The depth is 75% of the base width.
b. When the canal has a most economical trapezoidal section.
c. When the canal is design for minimum seepage. The side of the trapezoidal canal slope 60-degree
𝜃
with horizontal. 𝑏 = 4𝑑 tan(2 )
SAMPLE PROBLEM

9. A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 1V:2H is to be excavated in a clay with a permissible
velocity of 1.22 m/s to convey 6.38 cu.m/s on a slope of 0.0008. Assume n=0.02. Determine the depth of
the channel.
SAMPLE PROBLEM

10: The channel has a slope of 0.0018 and carries a flow of 57 cu.m/s. Using n=0.015
a. Compute the depth of the flow
b. Compute the hydraulic mean
c. Compute the average mean depth.

10m

𝜃 = 10°
SAMPLE PROBLEM

10: The channel has a slope of 0.002 and carries a flow of 15 cu.m/s. Using n=0.012
a. Compute the depth of the flow
b. Compute the hydraulic mean
c. Compute the average mean depth.

1
2

0.5m

3m
SAMPLE PROBLEM

11. An efficient triangular channel has n=0.020 and carries 227L/s of water through a total drop of 3m.
a. Compute the slope of the channel bed
b. Compute the length of the channel
c. Compute the average shear stress
SAMPLE PROBLEM

12. A semi-circular aluminum (n=0.020) channel 2.44m in diameter has a slope of 0.006.
a. Compute the velocity of the channel
b. Compute the flow rate
SAMPLE PROBLEM

13. A circular channel has a diameter of 3m. The slope of the channel bed is 0.5-degree with coefficient
of roughness of 0.016. The channel caries a discharge of 20 cu.m/s
a. Compute the depth of the channel
b. Determine the specific energy
SPECIFIC ENERGY
SPECIFIC ENERGY
𝑣2
Specific Energy, 𝐸 = 𝑑 +
2𝑔

total mechanical energy per unit weight of

water relative to the channel bottom.

Imagine a fixed discharge (amount of

water flowing per unit time) in a
channel. As the depth increases, what
happens to the velocity? How would
this affect the specific energy?
There is a depth of flow, dc, which maximizes
the flow Q. This is called the critical depth

For any value of flow Q between 0 to Qmax,

there are two possible depths (d1 and d2)
occurring with the same specific energy, E..
These are the upper stages and Lower stages
of flow.

Lower Stages
- rapid, high velocity
- Called Super critical depth
Upper Stage
- Tranquil
- Called Sub critical depth
Hydraulic Jump
- A phenomenon that occurs
where there is an abrupt
transition from supercritical flow
to subcritical flow.
ALTERNATE STAGES OF FLOW

FRAUD NUMBER

𝒗
𝑵𝑭 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝒈𝒅𝒎
𝐴
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ =
𝐵
𝐵 = 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝒗
𝑵𝑭 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝒈𝒅
Hydraulic Jump
- A phenomenon that occurs where there is an abrupt transition
𝐼𝑓 𝑁𝐹 = 1; 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
from supercritical flow to subcritical flow.
𝐼𝑓 𝑁𝐹 > 1; 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝐼𝑓 𝑁𝐹 < 1; 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
CRITICAL DEPTH
𝒗 Critical Depth
𝑵𝑭 = =𝟏 Depth at which for a given total specific energy, the discharge is maximum,
𝒈𝒅𝒎
or the energy is minimum.

𝒗 𝑸/𝑨𝒄 𝑸
=𝟏 =𝟏 =𝟏 𝑨𝟑𝒄
𝑨 𝑨 𝑨𝟑𝒄 𝑸= 𝒈( )
𝒈( 𝒄 ) 𝒈( 𝒄 ) 𝒈( ) 𝑩
𝑩 𝑩 𝑩

𝑨𝟑𝒄 𝑸𝟐 𝑨𝟑𝒄
𝑸𝟐 = 𝒈 =
𝑩 𝒈 𝑩 For any given section

For any rectangular section

𝑞 = 𝑄/𝐵
𝟑 𝒒𝟐
𝒅𝒄 =
𝒈
CRITICAL VELOCITY
𝒗
𝑵𝑭 = =𝟏 𝑽𝒄 = 𝒈𝒅𝒄
𝒈𝒅𝒎

2
𝒅𝒄 = 3 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛
NON – UNIFORM FLOW (VARIED FLOW)
NON – UNIFORM FLOW (VARIED FLOW)
𝐹2 𝑡 − 𝐹1 𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣1 − 𝑚𝑣2
𝑚 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉𝑜𝑙
𝑡
𝜌𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 𝑉𝑜𝑙
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑄 =
𝑡 𝑡
𝑭𝟐 − 𝑭𝟏 = 𝝆𝑸 𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐

𝑄 𝑄
𝛾ℎ2 𝐴2 − 𝛾ℎ1 𝐴1 = 𝜌𝑄 −𝐴
𝐴1 2
The water losses momentum, that is the 𝑄2 1 1
unbalanced force acting to retard the mass is ℎ2 𝐴2 − ℎ1 𝐴1 = −𝐴
𝑔 𝐴1 2
equal to the rate of momentum

𝑑2 𝐹2
𝐹1 𝑑1
NON – UNIFORM FLOW (VARIED FLOW)
NON – UNIFORM FLOW (VARIED FLOW)

𝑞2 (𝑑2 +𝑑1 )
𝑄2 1 1 = 𝑑1 𝑑2
ℎ2 𝐴2 − ℎ1 𝐴1 = −𝐴 𝑔 2
𝑔 𝐴1 2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙
𝑑2 + 𝑑1 3
𝐻𝐿 =
𝑑2 𝑑1 (𝑞𝑏)2 1 1 4𝑑1 𝑑2
𝑏𝑑2 − 𝑏𝑑1 = − 𝑏𝑑
2 2 𝑔 𝑏𝑑1 2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1
𝑑22 𝑑12 𝑞2 𝑏2 1 1
𝑏 2
− 2
= 𝑏𝑔 𝑑1
−𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝
2

ℎℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑑2 − 𝑑1
𝑑22 −𝑑12 𝑞2 𝑑2 −𝑑1
2
= 𝑔 𝑑1 𝑑2
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ
(𝑑2 +𝑑1 )(𝑑2 −𝑑1 ) 𝑞2 𝑑2 −𝑑1
= 𝐸2 − 𝐸1
2 𝑔 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝐿=
𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆
(𝑑2 +𝑑1 ) 𝑞2 1
=
2 𝑔 𝑑1 𝑑2
NON – UNIFORM FLOW (VARIED FLOW)

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ
𝐸2 − 𝐸1
𝐿=
𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆
SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. Water flows in a triangular channel (apex down) at a depth of 0.90m. The apex angle is 90-degree.
A hydraulic jump occurs and the depth just down the stream of the jump is found to be 1.8m
a. Determine the discharge
b. Determine the Froude number after the jump
c. Determine the energy dissipated due to the jump
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. Water is flowing in a right-angle triangular channel at a depth of 39cm. A hydraulic jump occurs. The
depth of the hydraulic jump is 126cm.
a. What is the discharge
b. What is the decrease in specific energy caused by the jump?
c. What is the head loss in kW?
SAMPLE PROBLEM
3. A rectangular stream having a width of 5.4 m carries 16.5 m3/s at a velocity of 4.2 m/s.
a. What is the Froude number?
b. If hydraulic jump occurs, what is the depth of water downstream?
c. How much energy is dissipated by the jump?
PRACTICE PROBLEM
4. Over a hydraulic drop structure in a river 22.8m wide flows 170 m3/s. On the level apron of the
structure the water flows 0.60 m deep in the rapid state. A hydraulic jump is to take place in the
apron.
a. What is the depth downstream?
b. What will be the critical depth?
c. What is the energy lost in hp?
d. What is the Froude number upstream?
PRACTICE PROBLEM
5. Water flows through an almost level channel 3 m. wide at 12 m3/s. The depth gradually increases
form 1.0 m. to 1.1 m. for a length of flow of 5m.
a. What is the head loss?
b. What is the slope of the energy gradient?
c. Compute the value of the roughness coefficient.
PRACTICE PROBLEM
6. A 3.1 – m wide rectangular flume carries water at 5.60 m3/s. The bed slope is 0.00078 and n = 0.010. At
a certain section, the depth is 92 cm.
a. How far therefrom is the depth 80 cm?
b. What is the slope of the EGL?
c. What is the head loss?