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 THIRD
EDITION

McGraw-Hill ConnectPlus®
geology Geology

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R EYNOLDS JOH NSON MOR I N CARTE R

 CONTENTS
Preface xiv 2.6 How Do Geologists Refer to Rates and Time? 36
Supplements xxv 2.7 How Do We Investigate Geologic Questions? 38
Acknowledgments xxviii
2.8 How Do Scientific Ideas Get Established? 40
About the Authors xxxi
2.9 What Does a Geologist Do? 42
CH AP TE R 1: 2.10 CONNECTIONS: How Did This Crater Form? 44
TH E N ATU RE OF G E OLOGY 2 2.11 INVESTIGATION: What Is the Geologic
History of Upheaval Dome? 46
1.1 How Does Geology Influence Where
and How We Live? 4
1.2 How Does Geology Help Explain Our World? 6
1.3 What Is Inside Earth? 8
1.4 What Processes Affect Our Planet? 10
1.5 How Do Rocks Form? 12
1.6 What Can Happen to a Rock? 14
1.7 How Do the Atmosphere, Water,
and Life Interact with Earth’s Surface? 16
1.8 What Is Earth’s Place in the Solar System? 18 C HA PT ER 3:
1.9 CONNECTIONS: How Is Geology Expressed PLAT E T ECT O NICS 48
in the Black Hills and in Rapid City? 20
1.10 INVESTIGATION: How Is Geology 3.1 What Are the Major Features of Earth? 50
Affecting This Place? 22
3.2 Why Do Some Continents Have Matching Shapes? 52
3.3 Where Do Earthquakes and Volcanoes Occur? 54
3.4 What Causes Tectonic Activity to Occur in Belts? 56
3.5 What Happens at Divergent Boundaries? 58
3.6 What Happens at Convergent Boundaries? 60
3.7 What Happens Along Transform Boundaries? 62
3.8 How Do Plates Move and Interact? 64
3.9 How Is Paleomagnetism Used to Determine
Rates of Seafloor Spreading? 66
3.10 What Geologic Features Does Plate Tectonics Help
Explain? 68
3.11 CONNECTIONS: Why Is South America Lopsided? 70
CH AP TE R 2:
3.12 INVESTIGATION: Where Is the Safest Place to Live? 72
I N VE STIGATIN G G E OLOGIC
Q U E STION S 24

2.1 What Can We Observe in Landscapes? 26

2.2 How Do We Interpret Geologic Clues? 28
2.3 How Do We Depict Earth’s Surface? 30
2.4 How Do We Depict Earth’s Heights, Slopes,
and Subsurface Geology? 32
2.5 How Are Geologic Problems Quantified? 34

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 CH AP TE R 4: 5.5 How Do Rocks Melt? 116
E A RTH M ATE RIA LS 74 5.6 How Do Igneous Rocks Form? 118
5.7 How Does Magma Move? 120
4.1 What Is the Difference Between a Rock 5.8 How Does Magma Solidify? 122
and a Mineral? 76 5.9 How Does Magma Form Along Divergent
4.2 How Are Minerals Put Together in Rocks? 78 Plate Boundaries? 124
4.3 How Do We Distinguish One Mineral 5.10 How Does Magma Form Along Convergent
from Another? 80 Plate Boundaries? 126
4.4 What Controls a Crystal’s Shape? 82 5.11 How Is Magma Generated at Hot Spots and
4.5 What Causes Cleavage in Minerals? 84 Other Sites Away from Plate Boundaries? 128
4.6 How Are Minerals Classified? 86 5.12 How Do Large Magma Chambers Form and
How Are They Expressed in Landscapes? 130
4.7 What Is the Crystalline Structure
of Silicate Minerals? 88 5.13 How Are Small Intrusions Formed
and Expressed in Landscapes? 132
4.8 What Are Some Common Silicate Minerals? 90
5.14 CONNECTIONS: How Did the Sierra
4.9 What Are Some Common Nonsilicate Minerals? 92
Nevada Form? 134
4.10 Where Are Different Minerals Abundant? 94
5.15 INVESTIGATION: What Types of Igneous
4.11 What Are the Building Blocks of Minerals? 96 Processes Are Occurring Here? 136
4.12 How Do Atoms Bond Together? 98
4.13 How Do Chemical Reactions Help Minerals
Grow or Dissolve? 100
4.14 CONNECTIONS: How Are Minerals
Used in Society? 102
4.15 INVESTIGATION: What Minerals Would
You Use to Build a House? 104

CH AP TE R 5: C HA PT ER 6:
I G N E OU S E N V IRON M ENT S 106 VO LC ANO ES AND VO L CA NIC
HAZARDS 138
5.1 What Textures Do Igneous Rocks Display? 108
5.2 How Are Igneous Rocks Classified? 110 6.1 What Is and Is Not a Volcano? 140
5.3 What Are Some Other Igneous Rocks? 112 6.2 What Controls the Style of Eruption? 142
5.4 How Do Temperature and Pressure 6.3 What Features Characterize Basaltic Volcanoes? 144
Vary Inside Earth? 114 6.4 How Do Shield Volcanoes Form? 146

VII

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 6.5 What Causes Flood Basalts? 148 7.9 Where Does Sandstone Form? 188
6.6 What Are the Hazards of Basaltic Eruptions? 150 7.10 How Do Fine-Grained Clastic Rocks Form? 190
6.7 What Are Composite Volcanoes? 152 7.11 How Do Carbonate Rocks Form? 192
6.8 What Disasters Were Caused by 7.12 How Do Changing Environments Create
Composite Volcanoes? 154 a Sequence of Different Kinds of Sediments? 194
6.9 How Do Volcanic Domes Form? 156 7.13 How Do We Study Sedimentary Sequences? 196
6.10 Why Does a Caldera Form? 158 7.14 Why Are Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
6.11 What Disasters Were Related to Calderas? 160 Important to Our Society? 198
6.12 What Areas Have the Highest Potential 7.15 CONNECTIONS: How Did Sedimentary
for Volcanic Hazards? 162 Layers West of Denver Form? 200
6.13 How Do We Monitor Volcanoes? 164 7.16 INVESTIGATION: What Is the Sedimentary
History of This Plateau? 202
6.14 CONNECTIONS: What Volcanic Hazards
Are Posed by Mount Rainier? 166
6.15 INVESTIGATION: How Would You Assess
Hazards on This Volcano? 168

C HA PT ER 8:
DEF O RMAT IO N A ND
METAMO RPHIS M 204
CH AP TE R 7:
SE D IM E N TA RY E N V IRO NMENT S 8.1 How Do Rocks Respond to Stress? 206
A N D ROCKS 170 8.2 How Do Rocks Respond to Changes in Stress,
Temperature, and Fluids? 208

7.1 What Sedimentary Environments Occur on Land? 172 8.3 How Do Rocks Fracture? 210

7.2 What Sedimentary Environments Are 8.4 What Are Different Types of Faults? 212
Near Shorelines and in Oceans? 174 8.5 What Are Folds and How Are They Shaped? 214
7.3 Where Do Clasts Come From? 176 8.6 What Are Some Metamorphic Features? 216
7.4 What Are the Characteristics of 8.7 What Are Some Common Metamorphic Rocks? 218
Clastic Sediments? 178 8.8 How Does Metamorphism Occur? 220
7.5 What Types of Rocks Do Clastic Sediments Form? 180 8.9 Where Does Metamorphism Occur? 222
7.6 What Are Nonclastic Sedimentary Rocks and 8.10 What Processes Occur in Extensional
How Do They Form? 182 and Strike-Slip Settings? 224
7.7 Why Do Sedimentary Rocks Have Layers? 184 8.11 How Are Different Structures
7.8 Where Do Breccia and Conglomerate Form? 186 and Metamorphic Features Related? 226

VIII

rey24123_fm_i_xxxii.indd viii 11/7/11 11:00 AM

 8.12 How Are Geologic Structures and Metamorphic C HA PT ER 10:
Rocks Expressed in the Landscape? 228 T HE S EAF LO O R A ND
8.13 How Do We Study Geologic Structures CO NT INENTAL M A R GINS 268
and Metamorphic Features? 230
8.14 CONNECTIONS: What Is the Structural 10.1 How Do We Explore the Seafloor? 270
and Metamorphic History of New England? 232
10.2 What Processes Occur at Mid-Ocean Ridges? 272
8.15 INVESTIGATION: What Structural and
10.3 What Are Major Features of the Deep Ocean? 274
Metamorphic Events Occurred Here? 234
10.4 How Do Oceanic Islands, Seamounts,
CH AP TE R 9: and Oceanic Plateaus Form? 276
G E O LOG IC TIM E 236 10.5 What Processes Form Island Arcs? 278
10.6 How Did Smaller Seas of the Pacific Form? 280
9.1 How Do We Infer the Relative Ages of Events? 238 10.7 How Did Smaller Seas Near Eurasia Form? 282
9.2 How Do We Study Ages of Landscapes? 240 10.8 How Do Reefs and Coral Atolls Form? 284
9.3 What Is the Significance of an Unconformity? 242 10.9 What Is the Geology of Continental Margins? 286
9.4 How Are Ages Assigned to Rocks and Events? 244 10.10 How Do Marine Salt Deposits Form? 288
9.5 What Are Fossils? 246 10.11 How Did Earth’s Modern Oceans Evolve? 290
9.6 How and Why Did Living Things Change 10.12 CONNECTIONS: How Did the Gulf of Mexico
Through Geologic Time? 248 and the Caribbean Region Form? 292
9.7 How Are Fossils Used to Infer Ages of Rocks? 250 10.13 INVESTIGATION: How Did These Ocean
Features and Continental Margins Form? 294
9.8 How Was the Geologic Timescale Developed? 252
9.9 What Is the Evidence for the Age of Earth? 254
9.10 What Were Some Milestones
in the Early History of Life on Earth? 256
9.11 What Were Some Milestones
in the Later History of Life on Earth? 258
9.12 How Do We Reconstruct Geologic Histories? 260
9.13 Why Do We Investigate Geologic History? 262
9.14 CONNECTIONS: What Is the History
of the Grand Canyon? 264
9.15 INVESTIGATION: What Is the Geologic History C HA PT ER 11:
of This Place? 266 MO UNTAINS , B A SINS,
AND C O NT INEN TS 296

11.1 Why Are Some Regions High in Elevation? 298

11.2 Where Do Mountain Belts and High Regions Form? 300
11.3 How Do Local Mountains Form? 302
11.4 Where Do Basins Form? 304
11.5 How Do Mountains and Basins Form
at Convergent Continental Margins? 306
11.6 How Does Continental Extension Occur? 308
11.7 What Are the Characteristics and History
of Continental Hot Spots? 310

IX

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 11.8 What Features Characterize the Interiors 12.7 How Do Earthquakes Cause Damage? 340
of Continents? 312 12.8 What Were Some Major North American
11.9 What Are Tectonic Terranes? 314 Earthquakes? 342
11.10 How Do Continents Form? 316 12.9 What Were Some Recent Large Earthquakes? 344
11.11 How Did the Continents Join and Split Apart? 318 12.10 How Does a Tsunami Form
11.12 CONNECTIONS 1: How Did the Appalachian and Cause Destruction? 346
and Ouachita Mountains Form? 320 12.11 How Do We Study Earthquakes in the Field? 348
11.13 CONNECTIONS 2: What Is the Geologic History 12.12 Can Earthquakes Be Predicted? 350
of the Western United States? 322 12.13 What Is the Potential for Earthquakes Along
11.14 INVESTIGATION: Where Will Mountains the San Andreas Fault? 352
and Basins Form in This Region? 324 12.14 How Do We Explore Earth’s Subsurface? 354
12.15 What Do Seismic Waves Indicate
About Earth’s Interior? 356
12.16 How Do We Investigate Deep Processes? 358
12.17 CONNECTIONS: What Happened During
the Great Alaskan Earthquake of 1964? 360
12.18 INVESTIGATION: Where Did This Earthquake
Occur, and What Damage Might Be Expected? 362

C HA PT ER 13:
CLIMAT E, WEAT HE R , A ND
T HEIR INF LUENCE S O N GE O L O GY 364
CH AP TE R 12 :
E A RTH Q U A KE S A N D E ART H’S
13.1 What Causes Winds? 366
I N T E RIOR 326
13.2 Why Does It Rain and Snow? 368
13.3 How Do Hurricanes, Tornadoes, and Other
12.1 What Is an Earthquake? 328
Storms Develop? 370
12.2 How Does Faulting Cause Earthquakes? 330
13.4 How Do Ocean Currents Influence Climate? 372
13.5 What Causes Short-Term Climatic Variations? 374
13.6 What Controls the Location of Rain Forests? 376
13.7 What Are Deserts and How Do They Form? 378
13.8 How Does Wind Transport Material? 380
13.9 What Features Are Common in Deserts? 382
13.10 What Is the Evidence for Climate Change? 384
13.11 What Factors Influence Climate Change? 386
13.12 What Is the Relationship Among Climate,
12.3 Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur? 332 Tectonics, and Landscape Evolution? 388
12.4 What Causes Earthquakes Along 13.13 How Does Geology Influence Ecology? 390
Plate Boundaries and Within Plates? 334 13.14 CONNECTIONS: What Occurred During
12.5 How Do Earthquake Waves Travel? 336 the Hurricane Seasons of 2004 and 2005? 392
12.6 How Do We Determine the Location and 13.15 INVESTIGATION: What Kinds of Climate
Size of an Earthquake? 338 and Weather Would Occur in This Place? 394

rey24123_fm_i_xxxii.indd x 11/7/11 11:00 AM

 CH AP TE R 14 : C HA PT ER 15:
G L A CIE RS, SH ORE LIN ES , WEAT HERING, SO IL ,
A N D CHA N G IN G SE A LEVELS 396 AND UNS TABLE SL O P E S 436

14.1 What Are Glaciers? 398 15.1 What Physical Processes Affect Rocks
14.2 How Do Glaciers Form, Move, and Vanish? 400 Near the Surface? 438
14.3 What Happens When Glaciers Erode 15.2 How Do Chemical Processes Affect Rocks
into the Landscape? 402 Near the Surface? 440
14.4 What Features Do Glacial Sediments Form? 404 15.3 How Do Different Rocks and Minerals Weather? 442
15.4 What Factors Influence Weathering? 444
15.5 How Does Soil Form? 446
15.6 Why Is Soil Important to Society? 448
15.7 What Controls the Stability of Slopes? 450
15.8 How Do Slopes Fail? 452
15.9 How Does Material on Slopes Fall and Slide? 454
15.10 How Does Material Flow Down Slopes? 456
15.11 Where Do Slope Failures Occur in the U.S.? 458
15.12 How Do We Study Slope Failures
and Assess the Risk for Future Events? 460
15.13 CONNECTIONS: What Is Happening
with the Slumgullion Landslide in Colorado? 462
15.14 INVESTIGATION: Which Areas Have
14.5 What Features Are Peripheral to Glaciers? 406 the Highest Risk of Slope Failure? 464
14.6 What Is the Evidence for Past Glaciations? 408
14.7 What Happened During Past Ice Ages? 410
14.8 What Starts and Stops Glacial Episodes? 412
14.9 What Processes Occur Along Shorelines? 414
14.10 What Causes High Tides and Low Tides? 416
14.11 How Do Waves Form and Propagate? 418
14.12 How Is Material Eroded, Transported,
and Deposited Along Shorelines? 420
14.13 What Landforms Occur Along Shorelines? 422
14.14 What Are Some Challenges of Living
Along Shorelines? 424
14.15 How Do Geologists Assess the Relative
Risks of Different Stretches of Coastline? 426
14.16 What Happens When Sea Level Changes? 428 C HA PT ER 16:
14.17 What Causes Changes in Sea Level? 430 S T REAMS AND FL O O D ING 466
14.18 CONNECTIONS: What Would Happen to Sea
Level if the Ice in West Antarctica Melted? 432 16.1 What Are River Systems? 468
14.19 INVESTIGATION: How Could Global Warming 16.2 How Do Streams Transport Sediment
or a Glacial Period Affect North America? 434 and Erode Their Channels? 470

XI

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 17.9 How Can Water Become Contaminated? 518
17.10 How Does Groundwater Contamination
Move and How Do We Clean It Up? 520
17.11 CONNECTIONS: What Is Going On with
the Ogallala Aquifer? 522
17.12 INVESTIGATION: Who Polluted Surface
Water and Groundwater in This Place? 524

16.3 How Do River Systems Change Downstream

or Over Short Time Frames? 472
16.4 What Factors Influence Profiles of Streams? 474
16.5 Why Do Streams Have Curves? 476
16.6 What Features Characterize Mountain Streams? 478
16.7 What Features Characterize Braided Streams? 480
16.8 What Features Characterize
Low-Gradient Streams? 482
16.9 What Happens When a Stream Reaches C HA PT ER 18:
Its Base Level? 484 ENERGY AND M INE R A L
16.10 How Do Rivers Change Over Time? 486 RES O URC ES 526
16.11 What Happens During Stream Incision? 488
16.12 What Is and What Is Not a Flood? 490 18.1 How Do Oil and Natural Gas Form? 528
16.13 What Were Some Devastating Floods? 492 18.2 In What Settings Are Oil and Gas Trapped? 530
16.14 How Do We Measure Floods? 494 18.3 How Do Coal and Coal-Bed Methane Form? 532
16.15 CONNECTIONS: How Does the Colorado River 18.4 What Are Other Types of Hydrocarbons? 534
Change as It Flows Across the Landscape? 496
18.5 How Do We Explore for Fossil Fuels? 536
16.16 INVESTIGATION: How Would Flooding
18.6 How Is Nuclear Energy Produced? 538
Affect This Place? 498
18.7 How Is Water Used to Generate Electricity? 540
CH AP TE R 17 :
WAT E R RE SOU RCE S 500

17.1 Where Does Water Occur on Our Planet? 502

17.2 How Do We Use Freshwater? 504
17.3 Where Is Groundwater Found? 506
17.4 How and Where Does Groundwater Flow? 508
17.5 What Is the Relationship Between
Surface Water and Groundwater? 510
17.6 What Features Form When Groundwater
Interacts with Limestone? 512 18.8 What Are Alternative Energy Sources? 542
17.7 How Do We Explore for Groundwater? 514 18.9 What Are Mineral Deposits
17.8 What Problems Are Associated and How Do They Form? 544
with Groundwater Pumping? 516 18.10 How Do Precious Metal Deposits Form? 546

XII

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 18.11 How Do Base Metal Deposits Form? 548
18.12 How Do We Explore for Mineral Deposits? 550
18.13 Why Are Industrial Rocks and Minerals
So Important to Society? 552
18.14 CONNECTIONS: Why Is Wyoming So Rich
in Energy Resources? 554
18.15 INVESTIGATION: Where Would You Explore
for Fossil Fuels in This Place? 556

CH AP TE R 19 :
G E O LOG Y OF THE SOL AR S YS T EM 558
Glossary G-1
19.1 How Do We Explore Other Planets and Moons? 560 Credits C-1
19.2 Why Is Each Planet and Moon Different? 562 Index I-1
19.3 What Is the Geology of the Inner Planets? 564 Shaded-Relief Map of the United States I-18
19.4 What Is the Geology of Our Moon? 566 Tapestry of Time Map of North America Inside Back Cover
19.5 What Is Observed on Jupiter and Its Moons? 568
19.6 What Is Observed on Saturn and Its Moons? 570
19.7 What Is the Geology of the Outer Planets
and Their Moons? 572
19.8 CONNECTIONS: What Have We Learned
About Mars? 574
19.9 INVESTIGATION: How and When Did Geologic
Features on This Alien World Form? 576

XIII

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 PREFACE
TELLING THE STORY . . .
WE WROTE EXPLORING GEOLOGY SO THAT STUDENTS
could learn from the book on their own, freeing up instructors to
teach the class in any way they want. I (Steve Reynolds) first iden-
tified the need for this book while I was a National Association
of Geoscience Teachers’ (NAGT) distinguished speaker. As part
of my NAGT activities, I traveled around the country conducting
workshops on how to infuse active learning and scientific inquiry
into introductory college geology courses, including those with
upwards of 200 students. In the first part of the workshop, I asked
the faculty participants to list the main goals of an introductory
geology college course, especially for nonmajors. At every school
I visited, the main goals were similar and are consistent with the
conclusions of the National Research Council (see box below):
• to engage students in the process of scientific inquiry so
that they learn what science is and how it is conducted,
• to teach students how to observe and interpret landscapes
and other aspects of their surroundings,
• to enable students to learn and apply important geologic
concepts,
• to help students understand the relevance of geology to
their lives, and
• to enable students to use their new knowledge, skills, and
ways of thinking to become more informed citizens.
I then asked faculty members to rank these goals and estimate
how much time they spent on each goal in class. At this point,
many instructors recognized that their activities in class were not
consistent with their own goals. Most instructors were spending
nearly all of class time teaching content. Although this was one of
their main goals, it commonly was not their top goal.
Next, I asked instructors to think about why their activities were
not consistent with their goals. Inevitably, the answer was that
NRC The National Research Council
NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE
EDUCATION STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENT,
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
LEARNING SCIENCE IS AN ACTIVE PROCESS.
Learning science is something students do, not something that
is done to them. In learning science, students describe objects
and events, ask questions, acquire knowledge, construct expla-
nations of natural phenomena, test those explanations in many
different ways, and communicate their ideas to others. Science
teaching must involve students in inquiry-oriented investiga-
tions in which they interact with their teachers and peers.
XIV
rey24123_fm_i_xxxii.indd xiv
Like most geologists, author Steve Reynolds prefers teaching stu-
dents out in the field, where they can directly observe the geology
and reconstruct the sequence of geologic events.
most instructors spend nearly all of class time covering content
because (1) textbooks include so much material that students
have difficulty distinguishing what is important from what is not;
(2) instructors needed to lecture so that students would know
what is important; and (3) many students have difficulty learning
independently from the textbook.
In most cases, textbooks drive the curriculum, so the author team
decided that we should write a textbook that (1) contains only
important material, (2) indicates clearly to the student what is
important and what they need to know, and (3) is designed and
written in such a way that students can learn from the book on
their own. This type of book would give instructors freedom to
teach in a way that is more consistent with their goals, including
using local examples to illustrate geologic concepts and their rel-
evance. Instructors would also be able to spend more class time
teaching students to observe and interpret geology, and to partici-
pate in the process of scientific inquiry, which represents the top
goal for many instructors.
COGNITIVE AND SCIENCE-
EDUCATION RESEARCH
To design a book that supports instructor goals, we delved into cog-
nitive and science-education research, especially research on how
our brains process different types of information, what obstacles
limit student learning from textbooks, and how students use visu-
als versus text while studying. We also conducted our own research
on how students interact with textbooks, what students see when
they observe photographs showing geologic features, and how they
interpret different types of geologic illustrations, including geo-
logic maps and cross sections. Exploring Geology is the result of
our literature search and of our own science-education research.
As you examine Exploring Geology, you will notice that it is stylis-
tically different from most other textbooks, which will likely elicit
a few questions.
11/7/11 11:55 AM
 HOW DOES THIS BOOK SUPPORT STUDENT CURIOSITY AND INQUIRY?

CHAPTER

15
We a t h e r i n g , S o i l , a n d U n s t a b l e S l o p e s 437

Weathering, Soil, and TOPICS IN THIS CHAPTER

Unstable Slopes 15.1 What Physical Processes Affect Rocks
Near the Surface? 438
15.8
15.9
How Do Slopes Fail?
How Does Material on Slopes Fall and Slide?
452
454
15.2 How Do Chemical Processes Affect Rocks 15.10 How Does Material Flow Down Slopes? 456
SLOPES CAN BE UNSTABLE, leading to slope failures that can produce catastrophic landslides or mudslides Near the Surface? 440
involving thick slurries of mud and debris. Such events have killed tens of thousands of people and destroyed 15.11 Where Do Slope Failures Occur in the U.S.? 458
15.3 How Do Different Rocks
houses, bridges, and entire cities. Where does this loose material come from, what determines if a slope is 15.12 How Do We Study Slope Failures and
and Minerals Weather? 442
Assess the Risk for Future Events? 460
stable, and how do slopes fail? In this chapter, we explore slope stability and the origin of soil, one of our 15.4 What Factors Influence Weathering? 444
most important resources. 15.13 Connections: What Is Happening with
15.5 How Does Soil Form? 446 the Slumgullion Landslide in Colorado? 462
15.6 Why Is Soil Important to Society? 448 15.14 Investigation: Which Areas Have
The Cordillera de la Costa is In December 1999, torrential rains in the mountains caused landslides and mobilized soil and other 15.7 What Controls the Stability of Slopes? 450 the Highest Risk of Slope Failure? 464
a steep 2 km-high mountain loose material as debris flows and flash floods that buried parts of the coastal cities. Some light-colored
range that runs along the coast landslide scars are visible on the hillsides in this image.
of Venezuela, separating the
capital city of Caracas from the How does soil and other loose material form on hillslopes? What factors determine whether a slope Huge boulders smashed through the lower two floors of this building in
sea. This image, looking south, is stable or is prone to landslides and other types of downhill movement? Caraballeda and ripped away part of the right side (▼). The mud and water
that transported these boulders is no longer present, but the boulders remain
1999 Venezuelan Disaster
has topography overlain with a
as a testament to the fury of the event.

A
satellite image taken in 2000. The debris flow is a slurry of water and debris,
white areas are clouds and the 15.00.a1 including mud, sand, gravel, pebbles, boul-
purple areas are cities. The ders, vegetation, and even cars and small
Caribbean Sea is in the buildings. Debris flows can move at speeds up to
foreground. 16 m/s (36 mph). In December 1999, two storms
dumped as much as 1.1 m (42 in.) of rain on the
coastal mountains of Venezuela. The rain loosened
Caracas soil on the steep hillsides, causing many land-
Caracas slides and debris flows that coalesced in the steep
canyons and raced downhill toward the cities
built on the alluvial fans.
Cordillera de la Costa In Caraballeda, the debris flows carried boul-
Landslide ders up to 10 m (33 ft) in diameter and weighing
Scars 300 to 400 tons each. The debris flows and flash
Landslide floods raced across the city, flattening cars and
Scars smashing houses, buildings, and bridges. They
left behind a jumble of boulders and other debris
along the path of destruction through the city.
After the event, USGS geologists went into
the area to investigate what had happened and
15.00.a2 Caraballeda, Venezuela why. They documented the types of material
that were carried by the debris flows, mapped
the extent of the flows, and measured boulders
Caracas Airport (▼) to investigate processes that occurred dur-
ing the event. When the geologists examined
Caribbean Sea what lay beneath the foundations of destroyed
Caraballeda houses, they discovered that much of the city had
Caribbean Sea been built on older debris flows. These depos-
Alluvial Fan
its should have provided a warning of what was
to come.

15.00.a4 Caraballeda, Venezuela

The mountain slopes are too steep for buildings, so people The city of Caraballeda, built on one such alluvial fan, was especially hard ◀ This aerial photograph of
built the coastal cities on the less steep fan-shaped areas at hit in1999 by debris flows and flash floods that tore a swath of destruction Caraballeda, looking south
the foot of each valley. These flatter areas are alluvial fans com- through the town. Landslides, debris flows, and flooding killed more than up the canyon, shows the
posed of mountain-derived sediment that has been transported 19,000 people and caused up to $30 billion in damage in the region. The damage in the center of the

15.0
down the canyons and deposited along the mountain front. damage is visible as the light-colored strip through the center of town. city caused by the debris
flows and flash floods.
What are some potential hazards of living next to steep moun- How can loss of life and destruction of property by debris flows and
tain slopes, especially in a city built on an active alluvial fan? landslides be avoided or at least minimized?
15.00.a3

436

rey7668x_c15_436_465.indd 436 8/19/09 11:46:00 rey7668x_c15_436_465.indd

AM 437 8/19/09 11:46:14 AM

Exploring Geology promotes inquiry and sci-

ence as an active process. It encourages stu- Inquire
dent curiosity and aims to activate existing
“Exploring Geology is a seminal textbook for the new century, created by a
student knowledge by posing the title of every
unique team of authors who have synergistically merged their expertise in geol-
two-page spread and every subsection as a
ogy and geoscience teaching, cognitive science, and the graphic arts. The design
question. In addition, questions are dispersed
of the book has been richly informed by current research on how students best
throughout the book. Integrated into the book
learn geoscience, and what topics are essential and relevant. Each chapter is
are opportunities for students to observe
designed as a sequence of two-page inquiry modules; each module focuses on a
patterns, features, and examples before the
specific topic, opens with an engaging question, and integrates clear, jargon-free
underlying concepts are explained. That is, we
explanations with generous, precisely detailed illustrations. In conventional text-
employ a learning-cycle approach where stu-
books, figures are often subordinate to columns and columns of type; in Explor-
dent exploration precedes the introduction of
ing Geology, text and illustrations are mutually embedded in a topical mosaic.
geologic terms and the application of knowl-
At the close of each chapter, a real-world application of the subject matter and
edge to a new situation. For example, chap-
an investigative exercise complete the learning cycle. This book is an innova-
ter 15 on slope stability begins with a three-
tive, accessible resource that fosters understanding through authentic geological
dimensional image of northern Venezuela, and
inquiry and visualization, rather than dense exposition.”
readers are asked to observe where people are
living in this area and what geologic processes Steven Semken
might have formed these sites. School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University
Past President, National Association of Geoscience Teachers

XV

rey24123_fm_i_xxxii.indd xv 11/7/11 11:33 AM

 WHY ARE THE PAGES DOMINATED BY ILLUSTRATIONS?
Geology is an extremely visual science. Typically, geology text-
books contain a variety of photographs, maps, cross sections,
block diagrams, and other types of illustrations. These diagrams
help portray the distribution and geometry of geologic units on
the surface and in the subsurface in a way words could never do.
In geology, a picture really is worth a thousand words or more.
Engage
“Finally, there is an introductory geology textbook that was
designed around how modern college students learn! Reynolds
and company paid attention to the research on learning and have
produced a text that matches how I teach. My students study
and discuss images in class and then in their textbook. This
book is built around the illustrations—information-rich, graphi-
cally interesting figures that engage most students better than
the best-written narrative could. From the spectacular open-
ing spreads to the Connections and Investigations, Exploring
Geology provides a full course worth of interesting learning
opportunities for use in the classroom and as homework.”
Scott R. Linneman
Western Washington University
Past President, National Association of Geoscience Teachers
New experiences from the environment enter the
brain via the senses. Images, for example, come
in through the eyes, and sounds enter the ears.
XVI
rey24123_fm_i_xxxii.indd xvi
Exploring Geology contains a wealth of figures to take advantage
of the visual nature of geology and the efficiency of figures in con-
veying geologic information. This book contains few large blocks
of text, and most text is in smaller blocks that are specifically
linked with illustrations. An example of our integrated figure-text
approach is shown on the previous page and on the next page. In
this approach, each short block of text is one or more complete
sentences that succinctly describe a geologic feature, geologic
process, or both of these. Most of these text blocks are connected
to their illustrations with leader lines so that readers know exactly
which feature or part of the diagram is being referenced by the
text block. A reader does not have to search for the part of the fig-
ure that corresponds to a text passage, as occurs when a student
reads a traditional textbook with large blocks of text referencing
a figure that may appear on a different page.
The approach in Exploring Geology is consistent with the find-
ings of cognitive scientists, who conclude that our minds have
two different processing systems, one for processing pictorial
information (images) and one for processing verbal informa-
tion (speech and written words). Cognitive scientists also speak
Input from the senses is filtered and transferred into two
different types of working memory, a visual area for im-
ages and a phonetic area for words. Each type
of working memory has a very limited
capacity to hold new information.
Information from working memory is
processed further and transferred into
long-term memory. Ideally, new infor-
mation is linked to existing knowledge
in long-term memory to build a more
complete understanding.
When information from long-term
memory is needed, it is retrieved into
working memory, where it can be
processed to make decisions.
11/7/11 11:24 AM
 about two types of memory: work-
ing memory, also called short-term
memory, holds information that our
minds are actively processing, and
long-term memory stores informa-
tion until we need it (Baddeley, 2007).
Both the verbal and pictorial process-
ing systems have a limited amount of
working memory, and our minds have
to use much of our mental processing
space to reconcile the two types of
information in working memory. For
information that has both pictorial
and verbal components, the amount
of knowledge we retain depends on
reconciling these two types of infor-
mation, on transferring information
from working memory to long-term
memory, and on linking the new
information with our existing mental
framework. For this reason, this book
integrates text and figures, as in the
example shown here.
WHY ARE THERE SO MANY FIGURES?
This textbook contains more than
2,400 illustrations, which is two to
three times the number in most intro-
ductory geology textbooks. One rea-
son for this is that the book is designed
to provide a concrete example of each
rock type, environment, or geologic
feature being illustrated. Research
shows that many college students
require concrete examples before
they can begin to build abstract con-
cepts (Lawson, 1980). Also, many stu-
dents have limited travel experience,
so photographs and other figures
allow them to observe places, envi-
ronments, and processes they have
not been able to observe firsthand.
The inclusion of an illustration for
each text block reinforces the notion
rey24123_fm_i_xxxii.indd xvii
58
3.4 What Happens at Divergent Boundaries?
AT MID-OCEAN RIDGES, Earth’s tectonic plates diverge (move apart). Ridges are the sites of many small to
moderate-sized earthquakes and much submarine volcanism. On the continents, divergent motion can split a
continent into two pieces, forming a new ocean basin as the pieces move apart.
What Happens at Mid-Ocean Ridges?
Mid-ocean ridges are divergent plate boundaries where new oceanic lithosphere forms as two oceanic plates
move apart. These boundaries are also called spreading centers because of the way the plates spread apart.
1. A narrow trough, or rift, runs along the axis of most mid- 3. Much of the magma solidifies at depth, but some erupts onto
ocean ridges. The rift forms because large blocks of crust slip the seafloor, forming submarine lava flows. These eruptions create
down as spreading occurs. The movement causes faulting, new ocean crust that is incorporated into the oceanic plates as they
resulting in frequent small to moderate-sized earthquakes. move apart.
4. Mid-ocean ridges are elevated above the
2. As the plates move
apart, solid mantle in
surrounding seafloor because they consist
of hotter, less dense materials, including
the asthenosphere Oc magma. They also are higher because the
rises toward the sur-
face. It partially melts in Oc
ea
n
underlying lithosphere is thinner beneath
ridges than beneath typical seafloor. Lower
ea
response to a decrease
in pressure. The mol- nic
Cr
density materials and thin lithosphere mean
that the plate “floats” higher above the
ten rock (magma) rises us underlying asthenosphere. The elevation of
along narrow conduits,
accumulates in magma
Lit
ho
t the seafloor decreases away from the ridge
because the rock cools and contracts, and
M sph
chambers beneath
the rift, and eventually
an e
tle ric
because the less dense asthenosphere cools
enough to become part of the more dense
becomes part of the As lithosphere.
oceanic lithosphere. th
en
os
ph
er
e 03.04.a1-2
rey7668x_c03_050_071.indd 58 7/17/09 10:58:34 AM
Visualize
“This is it! This is a book that my students can use to learn, not just ‘do the reading.’ The
focus on questions on every page draws students in, and the immediacy of the illustration
and text focused on each question makes it almost impossible for students not to want to
plunge in to find out how each question is answered. And the centrality of high-quality illus-
trations, rather than exhaustive text, is a key component for helping students learn once
they are engaged. Geoscience is a visual science, and this approach helps students visualize
geologic processes in the real world, truly learning rather than simply preparing to parrot
back definitions. Do I worry that this book isn’t packed with text? Not in the slightest! With
examples, real-world data, and research results easily accessible on the Internet, I don’t want
or need an introductory textbook that tries to be encyclopedic. I want a book that engages
students, captures their imaginations, and helps them learn. This is the book!”
Barbara J. Tewksbury
Hamilton College
Past President, American Geological Institute
Past President, National Association of Geoscience Teachers
XVII
11/7/11 11:24 AM
 172 Sedimentary Environments 173

7.2 What Sedimentary Environments 07.02.a5

◀ Sandy dunes that
are inland from
▶ Some shorelines
include low areas,
07.02.a6 Rocky Point, Mexico

Are Near Shorelines and in Oceans? beaches are called

coastal dunes. These
dunes commonly form
called tidal flats,
that are flooded
by the seas dur-
OCEANS AND THEIR SHORELINES are dynamic environments with wind, waves, ocean currents, and sedi- where sand and finer ing high tide but
sediment from the exposed to the air
ment eroded from the coastline or brought in from elsewhere. The characteristics of each environment, espe- beach are blown or during low tide.
cially the types of sediment, depend mostly on the proximity to shore, the availability of sediment, and the washed inland and Most tidal flats
depth, temperature, and clarity of the water. reshaped by the wind. are covered by
mud and sand or
are rocky. Some
07.02.a2
low parts of the
◀ Beaches are stretches of coastline along which sediment has accu-
land adjacent to
mulated. Most beaches consist of sand, pieces of shell, and rounded
tidal flats can
gravel, cobbles, or boulders. The setting determines which of these
accumulate salt
components is most abundant. Some shorelines have bedrock all
and other evaporite minerals as seawater and terrestrial
the way to the ocean and so have little or no beach.
waters evaporate under hot, arid (dry) conditions.

07.02.a1 07.02.a7 Mississippi Delta, LA

Tidal Flat
Coastal Dunes
Beac
h
07.02.a3 Boracay, Philippines
◀ The water near the
shoreline may be sheltered
by a reef or islands. The
sheltered water, called a
Lagoon
lagoon, is commonly shal- Delta
low, quiet, and perhaps
warm. The near-shore
parts of lagoons contain
sand and mud derived from ▲ In addition to the parts of deltas overlapping the shore,
Reef submarine deltas extend in some places for tens of kilometers
land, whereas the outer
parts may have sand and offshore. The muddy or sandy front of the delta may be unsta-
Continental Shelf Submarine Delta ble and material can slide or tumble down the slope, sending
pieces of coral eroded from
a reef. sediment into deeper water.
07.02.a4 Red Sea, Egypt
Where ocean water is shal- Lagoon
low, warm, and clear, coral Other accumulations of sand rise above the shallow coastal
and other marine creatures Barrie waters as long, narrow islands, called barrier islands. Most
r Islan
construct reefs (◀), which ds barrier islands, such as the one below, are only hundreds of
can parallel the coast, Continental Slope meters wide. The areas between barrier islands and the shore-
encircle islands, or form line are commonly shallow lagoons or saltwater marshes. ▼
irregular mounds and
platforms. Reefs typically
protect the shoreline from
the energetic, big waves
of the deeper ocean.
Deep Seafloor

Away from the shoreline, many landmasses are flanked

by continental shelves and slopes consisting of layers of
mud, sand, and carbonate minerals. Material from these
sites can move down the slope in landslides or in turbu- Before You Leave This Page
lent, flowing masses of sand, mud, and water, called
The deep part of the seafloor is a dark,
Be Able To
turbidity currents. The slopes of some continents are

7.2
cold environment that commonly is several kilometers
incised by branching submarine canyons (not shown
beneath the surface. It generally receives less sediment than areas ✓ Sketch and describe the main sedimentary
here) that funnel sediment toward deeper waters. environments in oceanic and near-shore environments.
closer to land, and its sediment is dominated by fine, windblown dust
and by remains of mostly single-celled marine organisms. 07.02.a8 Santa Rosa Island, FL

that the point being discussed is important. In many cases, as in the

rey7668x_c07_168_201.indd 172 rey7668x_c07_168_201.indd
8/18/09 4:35:04 PM 173 8/18/09 4:35:22 PM

example on this page, conceptualized figures are integrated with

photographs and text so that students can build a more coherent
view of the environment or process.

Exploring Geology focuses on the most important geologic con-

cepts and makes a deliberate attempt to eliminate text that is not
essential for student learning of these concepts. Inclusion of infor-
mation that is not essential tends to distract and confuse students
rather than illuminate the concept; thus you will see fewer words.
Cognitive and science-education research has identified a redun-
dancy effect, where information that restates and expands upon a
more succinct description actually results in a decrease in student
learning (Mayer, 2001). Specifically, students learn less if a long fig-
ure caption restates information contained elsewhere on the page,
such as in a long block of text that is detached from the figure. We
avoid the redundancy effect by including only text that is integrated
with the figure.

The style of illustrations in Exploring Geology was designed to be

more inviting to today’s visually oriented students who are used
to photo-realistic, computer-rendered images in movies, videos,
and computer games. For this reason, many of the figures were
created by world-class artists who have worked on Hollywood
movies, on television shows, for National Geographic, and in the

XVIII

rey24123_fm_i_xxxii.indd xviii 11/7/11 11:25 AM

 computer-graphics industry. In most cases, the figures incorporate
real data, such as satellite images and aerial photographs. Our own
research shows that many students do not understand geologic
cross sections and other subsurface diagrams, so nearly every cross
section in this book has a three-dimensional aspect, and many maps
are presented in a perspective view with topography. Research find-
ings by us and other researchers (Roth and Bowen, 1999) indicate
that including people and human-related items on photographs
and figures attracts undue attention, thereby distracting students
from the geologic features being illustrated. As a result, our pho-
tographs have nondistracting indicators of scale, like dull coins
and plain marking pens. Figures and photographs do not include
people or human-related items unless we are trying to illustrate
how geoscientists study geologic processes and features.

XIX

rey24123_fm_i_xxxii.indd xix 11/7/11 11:25 AM

 HOW ARE GEOLOGIC TERMS INTRODUCED IN THIS BOOK?

Wherever possible, we introduce terms after students have an

opportunity to observe the feature or concept that is being named.
This approach is consistent with several educational philosophies,
including a learning cycle and just-in-time teaching. Research on
learning cycles shows that students are more likely to retain a
term if they already have a mental image of the thing being named
(Lawson, 2003). For example, this book presents students with
the collection of igneous rocks shown to the right and asks them
to think about how they would classify the rocks. Only then does
the textbook present a classification of igneous rocks.

Also, the figure-based approach in this book allows terms to be

introduced in their context rather than as a definition that is
detached from a visual representation of the term. In this book,
we introduce new terms in italics rather than in boldface, because students who wish to look up the definition of a term to refresh
boldfaced terms on a textbook page cause students to imme- their memory. To expand comprehension of the definition, each
diately focus mostly on the terms, rather than build an under- entry in the glossary references the page where the term is defined
standing of the concepts. The book includes a glossary for those in the context of a figure.

WHY DOES THE BOOK CONSIST OF TWO-PAGE SPREADS?

This book consists of two-page spreads, most of which are further concept of cognitive load (Sweller, 1994) has profound implica-
subdivided into sections. Research has shown that because of our tions for student learning during lectures and while reading text-
limited amount of working memory, much new information is lost books. Two-page spreads and sections help prevent cognitive
if it is not incorporated into long-term memory. Many students overload by providing natural breaks that allow students to stop
keep reading and highlighting their way through a textbook with- and consolidate the new information before moving on.
out stopping to integrate the new information into their mental
framework. New information simply displaces existing informa-
tion in working memory before it is learned and retained. This Before You Leave This Page
Be Able To
154 Vo l c a n o e s a n d Vo l c a n i c H a z a r d s 155

6.9 How Do Volcanic Domes Form? What Types of Rocks and Landscapes Characterize Domes?
Most volcanic domes consist of andesite, rhyolite, or rocks with a composition between andesite and rhyolite.
✓ Describe the characteristics of a
MANY VOLCANIC AREAS CONTAIN DOME-SHAPED HILLS called volcanic domes. The domes form when
volcanic dome.
They are distinctive features when they form and harden, and even after they have been partially eroded. They
viscous lava mounds up above and around a vent. When domes collapse, they sometimes release deadly consist of solidified lava that has several different textures, and typically they are associated with pyroclastic
pyroclastic flows that rush downhill at hundreds of kilometers an hour. Volcanic domes form distinctive rocks rocks and other debris that formed when the dome partially collapsed or was blown apart.
and features in the landscape.

✓ Explain or sketch the two ways by

06.09.c1 Torfa, Iceland

Rock Types 06.09.c2 Wickenburg, AZ

What Are Some Characteristics of a Volcanic Dome?
Some volcanic domes have a nearly symmetrical dome shape, but most have a more irregular shape because some
parts of the dome have grown more than other parts or because one side of the dome has collapsed downhill.
Domes may be hundreds of meters high and one or several kilometers across, but they can be much smaller, too.
06.09.a1
◀ Some parts of domes cool rapidly into volcanic glass (obsidian) which, although
dark, has a felsic composition. Obsidian can be almost entirely glass or can contain
vesicles, crystals, and pumice. This example has layers, called flow bands, formed by
shearing and other processes during flow. which a volcanic dome can grow.
▶ The outer parts of domes cool, solidify, and fracture into angular blocks that can
become incorporated into the magma to produce volcanic breccia. Such breccias
06.09.a2

✓ Explain or sketch how a volcanic

◀ This rubble-covered dome formed near the end of the 1912 eruption in vary from containing mostly blocks to being mostly intact lava, with some blocks.
the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Alaska. Volcanic domes commonly
have this type of rubbly appearance because their outer surface consists of ◀ Obsidian and other volcanic glasses are unstable and over time begin to change
angular blocks as small as several centimeters across to as large as houses.
Recent Dome from unordered glass into rhyolite composed of very small crystals. The conversion,
when not complete, creates a mottled rock with lighter colored rhyolite and darker

dome can collapse or be destroyed

The blocks form when solidified lava fractures as it is pushed from below,
and when pieces and blocks slide down steep slopes on the side of a dome. areas that are still partially glass.
Dome ▶ Most domes do not form in isolation but occur in clusters or in associa- ▶ When a volcanic dome collapses, avalanches of rock and other debris can rush
Older Dome downhill in a pyroclastic flow of blocks and ash. The resulting deposits are tuff or
tion with another type of volcano. Domes can form within the craters of
composite volcanoes, like these within the crater in Mount St. Helens, or
within large calderas. In composite volcanoes and calderas, domes com-
monly are minor eruptions of viscous magmas that remain after a major
06.09.c3 Wickenburg, AZ
volcanic breccia consisting of pieces of the dome in an ash-rich matrix.
by an explosion.
06.09.c4 Flagstaff, AZ
eruptive event (e.g., the explosion of Mount St. Helens).
Expression in the Landscape

How Are Volcanic Domes Formed and Destroyed?

◀ Some domes are intermediate between a simple dome shape and a lava flow with
lobes that spread out from the magmatic conduit. This flow-dome formed 1,300 years
ago and so has a relatively uneroded shape and contains unaltered obsidian.
✓ Describe the types of rocks
Domes form as viscous lava reaches the surface, flows a short distance, and solidifies near the vent. Domes can
grow in two different ways — from the inside or from the outside. Domes can also be destroyed in two different ▶ This peak is the remnant of a dome that has been extensively eroded. Over time,
the glass has converted to finely crystalline rhyolite.
associated with volcanic domes.
ways — collapse or explosion.
06.09.c5 Newberry Mtns., OR

✓ Describe how you might recognize

Growth of a Dome
Domes mostly grow from the inside
as magma injects into the interior of
the dome. This new material causes
the dome to expand upward and
outward, fracturing the partially solid-
ified outer crust of the dome. This
process creates the blocks of rubbly,
solidified lava that coat the outside
of the dome.
Domes can also grow as
magma breaks through to
the surface and flows out-
ward as thick, slow-moving
lava. As the magma
advances, the front of the
flow cools, solidifies, and
can collapse into angular
blocks and ash.
06.09.b1
Collapse or Destruction of a Dome
06.09.c6 Castle Mtns. NV
Domes can be partially
06.09.b2
destroyed when steep
flanks of the dome collapse Deadly Collapse of a Dome at Mount Unzen, Japan
and break into a jumble of
blocks and ash that flow
06.09.mtb1
a volcanic dome in the landscape.
M
ount Unzen towers above a small
downhill as small-scale city in southern Japan. The top of Before You Leave This Page
pyroclastic flows. ▶
the mountain contains a steep vol- Be Able To
canic dome that formed and collapsed repeat-
edly between 1990 and 1995. The collapsing
✓ Describe the characteristicss of a
domes unleashed more than 10,000 small volcanic dome.
pyroclastic flows (top photograph) toward
◀ Domes can also the city below. In 1991, the opportunity to ✓ Explain or sketch the two ways by
observe and film these small pyroclastic flows which a volcanic dome can
n grow.
be destroyed by
explosions originat- attracted volcanologists and other onlook- ✓ Explain or sketch how a volcanic
olcanic
06.09.b3 ing within the dome. ers to the mountain. Unfortunately, partial dome can collapse or be destroyed
06.09.mtb2
These typically occur collapse of the dome caused a pyroclastic by an explosion.
when magma solidi- flow larger than had occurred previously.
fies in the conduit This larger flow killed 43 journalists and vol- ✓ Describe the types of rocks
and traps gases that associated with volcanic domes.
6.9

canologists and left a path of destruction

build up until the
pressure can no
through the valley (lower photograph). Note ✓ Describe how you might recognize
that damage was concentrated along valleys a volcanic dome in the landscape.
longer be held.
that drain the mountain.

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XX
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rey24123_fm_i_xxxii.indd xx 11/7/11 11:02 AM

 Each spread has a unique number, such as 6.9 for the 9th topical
two-page spread in chapter 6 (see previous page). These numbers
help instructors and students keep track of where they are and
what is being covered. Each two-page spread, except for those that
begin and end a chapter, contains a Before You Leave This Page
checklist that indicates what is important and what is expected of
students before they move on. This list contains learning objec-
tives for the spread and provides a clear way for the instructor to
indicate to the student what is important. The items on these lists
are compiled into a master What-to-Know list.
SIGNIFICANT ADVANTAGES OFFERED
BY EXPLORING GEOLOGY
Two-page spreads and integrated Before You Leave This Page lists
offer the following advantages to the student:
• Information is presented in relatively small and coherent
chunks that allow a student to focus on one important
aspect or geologic system at a time.
• Students know when they are done with this particular
topic and can self-assess their understanding with the
Before You Leave This Page list.
HOW IS THIS BOOK ORGANIZED?
Two-page spreads are organized into 19 chapters that are arranged
into five major groups: (1) introduction to Earth and the science
of geology, (2) earth materials and the processes that form them,
(3) geologic time and tectonic systems, (4) climate and surface
processes, and (5) capstone chapters on resources and planetary
geology. The first three chapters provide an overview of geology, the
scientific approach to geology, and plate tectonics—a unifying theme
interwoven throughout the rest of the book. The next five chapters
cover earth materials, including minerals (chapter 4), different fami-
lies of rocks and structures (chapters 5–8), and the processes that
form or modify rocks. Unlike many geology books, Exploring Geol-
ogy begins the discussion of earth materials with an examination
of landscapes—something students can relate to—as a lead-in to
rocks, then to minerals, and finally to atoms, the most abstract topic
in geology books. The sedimentary environments chapter includes
a brief introduction to weathering, setting the stage for the discus-
sion of clastic sediments but saving a more detailed discussion of
weathering and soils for the part of the book that deals with surficial
processes. Also, this book integrates the closely related topics of
metamorphism and deformation into a single chapter.
After earth materials, we cover the principles of geologic time,
emphasizing how geologists reconstruct Earth’s history (chapter 9).
We then move on to ocean basins, mountains and basins, and earth-
quakes (chapters 10–12), all of which integrate and apply informa-
tion about rocks, structures, geologic time, and plate tectonics.
These chapters provide important details about aspects of plate
rey24123_fm_i_xxxii.indd xxi
• Two-page spreads allow busy students to read or study a
complete topic in a short interval of study time, like during
breaks between classes.
• All test questions and assessment materials are tightly
articulated with the Before You Leave This Page lists so
that exams and quizzes cover precisely the same material
that was assigned to students via the What-to-Know list.
The two-page spread approach also has huge advantages for
the instructor. Before writing this book, the authors wrote the
items for the Before You Leave This Page lists. We then used this
list to decide what figures were needed, what topics would be
discussed, and in what order. In other words, the textbook was
written from the learning objectives. The Before You Leave This
Page lists provide a straightforward way for an instructor to tell
students what information is important. Because we provide the
instructor with a master What-to-Know list, an instructor can
selectively assign or eliminate content by providing students
with an edited What-to-Know list. Alternatively, an instructor
can give students a list of assigned two-page spreads or sections
within two-page spreads. In this way, the instructor can identify
content for which students are responsible, even if the material
is not covered in class.
tectonics, after students have gained an understanding of rocks,
structures, and geologic time from earlier chapters. We have also
incorporated a small component of historical geology, including
evolution of the continents and ocean basins.
Next, we briefly discuss weather and climate (chapter 13) to pro-
vide a backdrop for subsequent chapters on surface processes and
to introduce timely topics, such as hurricanes and climate change.
This chapter also discusses deserts, drought, and rain forests.
Glaciers, shorelines, and sea-level changes are integrated into a
single chapter (chapter 14) to present a system approach to earth
processes and to emphasize the interplay between glaciations, sea
level, and the character of the shoreline. Chapter 15 focuses on
weathering, soils, and slope stability; chapter 16 presents streams
and flooding; and chapter 17 covers surface-water and groundwater
resources and groundwater-related problems.
We consider the last two chapters to be capstones, integrating and
applying previous topics to enable students to understand energy and
mineral resources (chapter 18) and planetary geology (chapter 19).
These two chapters give students and instructors an opportunity to
see how an understanding of rock types, rock-forming processes,
geologic structures, geologic time, and the flow of water and other
fluids can help us understand important resources and the surfaces
of other planetary bodies. The late placement of both chapters
allows a more comprehensive treatment of these topics than would
be possible if they were incorporated into earlier chapters.
XXI
11/10/11 1:40 PM
 SPECIAL TEXT FEATURES
Concept Sketches
Most items on the Before You Leave This Page list are
by design suitable for student construction of con-
cept sketches. Concept sketches are sketches that are
annotated with complete sentences that identify geo-
logic features, describe how the features form, char-
acterize the main geologic processes, and summarize
geologic histories (Johnson and Reynolds, 2005). An
example of a concept sketch is shown to the right.

Concept sketches are an excellent way to actively

engage students in class and to assess their under-
standing of geologic features, processes, and history.
Concept sketches are well suited to the visual nature
of geology, especially cross sections, maps, and block
diagrams. Geologists are natural sketchers using field
notebooks, blackboards, publications, and even nap-
kins, because sketches are an important way to record
observations and thoughts, organize knowledge, and try
to visualize geometries of rock bodies and sequences
of events. Our research data show that a student who
can draw, label, and explain a concept sketch generally
has a good understanding of that concept.

The next-to-last two-page spread in each chapter is a Connections

TWO-PAGE SPREADS spread, which is designed to help students connect and integrate
Most of the book consists of two-page spreads, each of which is the various concepts from the chapter and to show how these con-
about one or more closely related topics. Topical spreads convey cepts can be applied to an actual location. Connections are about
the geologic content and help organize knowledge. real places that illustrate the geologic concepts and features cov-
ered in the chapter and explicitly illustrate how a geologic prob-
512 Wa t e r R e s o u rc e s 513
lem is investigated and how geologic problems have relevance to
17.6 What Features Form When Groundwater
Interacts with Limestone?
What Features Are Associated with Caves?
Caves are beautiful and interesting places to explore. Some contain twisty, narrow passages connecting open
chambers. Others are immense tunnels and rooms full of cave formations. Caves can be decorated with intricate
society. The Connections spread also prepares the student for a
features formed by the dissolution and precipitation of calcite and several other minerals.
WATER IS AN ACTIVE CHEMICAL AGENT, and groundwater can dissolve rock and other materials. Ground-
water may completely dissolve limestone and other soluble rocks, leaving openings. When this happens, caves,
sinkholes, and other features can form.
1. Most caves form by the dissolution of limestone. Certain features on the land surface can indicate
that there is a cave at depth. These include the presence of limestone, sinkholes, and other features
of karst topography. Collapse of part of the roof can open the cave to the surface, forming a skylight
that lets light into the cave.
6. Dissolution of limestone along
fractures and bedding planes,
along with formation of sinkholes
and skylights, disrupts
following Investigation two-page spread.
How Does Groundwater Form Caves and Sinkholes? 2. Caves contain many features 17.06.c1
streams and other
drainages. Streams
formed by minerals precipitated
Groundwater, especially if it is acidic, can dissolve limestone and other carbonate rocks to form caves. Cave from dripping or flowing water.
may disappear into
systems generally form in carbonate rocks because most other rock types do not easily dissolve. A few other the ground, adding
Water flowing down the walls or
more water to the
rocks, like gypsum or rock salt, dissolve too easily — they completely disappear and cannot maintain caves. along the floor can precipitate
cave system.
travertine (calcium carbon-
ate) in thin layers that build
1. Limestone is primarily made 2. Groundwater dissolves limestone and other carbon- up to create formations called
of calcite (calcium carbonate), a ate rocks, often starting along bedding surfaces and flowstone or draperies. ▼ 5. In wet, humid
relatively soluble mineral that dis-- fractures, and then progressively widening them environments,
solves in acidic water. Rainwater over time. Open spaces become larger and 17.06.c2 Carlsbad Caverns, NM
weathering at the
is typically slightly acidic due to more continuous, allowing more water to flow surface commonly
dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2), through and accelerating the dissolution and produces red-
sulfur dioxide (SO2), and organic widening. If the openings become continu- dish, clay-rich soil.
material. Water reacts with calcite ous, they may accommodate underground The soil, along CONNECTIONS Wa t e r R e s o u rc e s 523

in limestone, dissolving it. Dissolu- pools or underground streams. with pieces of

tion can be aided by acidic water
coming from deeper in the earth, 17.06.a2 Winter Park, FL
limestone, can be
washed into
crevices and
17.11 What Is Going On with the Ogallala Aquifer? Where Does Groundwater in the Aquifer Come from and How Is It Used?
by microbes, and by acids that
sinkholes where ▼ This graph shows the water balance for the Ogallala aquifer.
microbes produce. THE MOST IMPORTANT AQUIFER IN THE UNITED STATES lies beneath the High Plains, stretching from Most of the water going into Water going into the aquifer is shown above the axis, whereas
it forms a reddish the aquifer is from local pre-
matrix around South Dakota to Texas. It provides groundwater for about 20% of all cropland in the country, but it is severely water being lost by the aquifer is below the axis. Some ground-
3. Most caves form below cipitation. This map shows water recharge occurs where water from precipitation seeps into
the water table, but some
17.06.c3 Kartchner Caverns, AZ limestone clasts. threatened by overpumping. The setting, characteristics, groundwater flow, and water-use patterns of this aqui- the amount of precipitation the aquifer, especially in areas that receive higher amounts of
form from downward-flow- fer connect many different aspects of water resources and illustrate their relationship to geology. received across the area, precipitation, as either rain or snow.
ing water above the water with darker shades indicat-
17.11.b2
table. Dissolution of ground- 17.06.c4 Kartchner Caverns, AZ ing more precipitation. The
VOLUMETIC RATE (1000 m3 /yr)

GAINS
◀ 3. Probably the most recognized western part of the aquifer
water over millions of years
features of caves are stalactites What Is the Setting of the Ogallala Aquifer? receives much less precipi-
500
can form a network of inter- Pumping Springs Rivers Storage
connected caves and tunnels in and stalagmites, which are formed tation (rain, snow, and hail) 0
Recharge

LOSSES
the limestone. If the water table when calcium-rich water dripping 4. As mineral-rich water drips from the than the eastern part.
from the roof evaporates and roof and flows from the walls, it leaves 1. The Ogallala aquifer, also called 3. The aquifer is named -500
falls, groundwater drains out of
leaves calcium carbonate behind. behind coatings, ribbons (▶), and straw- the High Plains aquifer, covers much for the Ogallala Group, the
the tunnels and dries out part 4. Collapse of the roof of a cave may produce a -1000
Stalactites hang tight from the like tubes. The water can accumulate of the High Plains area in the center of main geologic formation in
of the cave system. If the roof of sinkhole at the surface. The one shown here (▲) Predevelopment
roof. Stalagmites form when water in underground pools on the floor of the United States. The lightly shaded the aquifer. The formation Areas of the aquifer that -1500
the cave collapses, the cave can be formed in 1981 and destroyed cars and buildings in 2000
drips to the floor, building mounds the cave, precipitating rims of cream- area on this map shows the outline was named by a geologist receive the least precipita-
exposed to the air. Caves range in size Winter Park, Florida, where the underlying bedrock 2050
upward. colored travertine along their edges. of the main part of the aquifer. The in the early 1900s after the tion — the southwestern -2000
from miniscule to huge. The is limestone. The collapse resulted from lowering of the Area of
aquifer forms an irregularly shaped small Nebraskan town of parts — are also those pre-
Mammoth Cave System (Kentucky) is the lon- water table, which removed the water that helped support Ogallala The amount taken out of the As the aquifer dewaters
north-south belt from South Dakota Ogallala. dicted to go dry by 2050.
gest in the world, over 570 km (340 mi) long. the roof of the cave in limestone beneath the area. aquifer by pumping, springs, it compacts, which causes
Carlsbad Caverns
17.06.a1 and Wyoming through Nebraska, Aquifer
Colorado, Kansas, the panhandles and inflow into rivers greatly a decrease in porosity
Before You Leave This Page of Oklahoma and Texas, and eastern 4. Much of the Ogallala exceeds the recharge, so most and a loss of pore space

What Other Features Form in Dissolved Limestone Terrains?
17.06.b1 Guilin, China
◀ Karst Topography — Many limestone terrains exhibit a
distinctive topography, called karst topography. Karst is
topography characterized by sinkholes, caves, limestone
pillars, some poorly organized drainage patterns, and
disappearing streams.
▶ Travertine — When limestone dissolves in groundwater,
A
bout 260 million years ago, Carlsbad, it at the surface. Groundwater dripped and New Mexico. Group consists of sediment parts of the aquifer are being (in which to store water).
New Mexico, was an area covered trickled into the partially dry cave, where it Be Able To
deposited by rivers and dewatered. This cannot be undone.
17.11.b1
17.06.b2 Havasu Creek, AZ
by a shallow inland sea. A huge reef, deposited calcium carbonate to construct wind during the last half
lush with sea life, thrived in this warm the cave’s famous formations. ✓ Summarize the character and of the Cenozoic, mostly
water, tropical environment. Eventually the 17.06.mtb1 Carlsbad Caverns, NM
formation of caves, sinkholes, karst between 19 and 5 million How Has Overpumping Affected Water Levels in the Ogallala Aquifer?
topography, and travertine along
sea retreated, leaving the reef buried under 2. The Ogallala aquifer covers about years ago. Braided rivers The USGS estimates that the aquifer contains 3.2 billion acre-feet of water. That is enough to cover the entire
streams. 450,000 km2 (174,000 mi2) and is cur- carried abundant sediment
other sedimentary layers. lower 48 states with 1.7 feet of water. How much has overpumping affected the aquifer’s water levels, and what
rently the largest source of ground- eastward from the Rocky
While buried, the limestone was dis- ✓ Briefly summarize how stalactites, Mountains, spreading over will happen to the region and to the country if large parts of the aquifer dry up?
water in the country. It provides
solved by water rich in sulfuric acid gener- stalagmites, and flowstone form.
30% of all groundwater used for irriga- the landscape and deposit- This map shows the thickness (in feet) of the This map shows how many feet the water table Future Predictions — It is uncertain what will
17.6

ated from hydrogen sulfide that leaked

the dissolved material may later be reprecipitated when upward from deeper accumulations of
✓ Describe features on the surface that tion in the United States. In 1980, near ing a relatively continuous saturated zone within the aquifer. In some dropped in elevation between 1980 and 1995 happen, but hydrogeologists are conduct-
the groundwater flows onto the surface. Calcium carbon- indicate an area may contain caves the height of the aquifer’s use, 17.6 Location of Cross Section layer of sediment. Deposi- of its northern parts, more than 1,000 ft (300 as a consequence of overpumping. The larg- ing detailed studies of key areas to try to
petroleum. Later, erosion of overlying layers million acre-feet of water were with- tion stopped when regional
ate commonly precipitates as travertine, which can build at depth. m) of the aquifer is saturated with water, est drops, exceeding 40 ft, occurred in south- predict what will happen in the next decades.
irregular terraces along a flowing stream.
uplifted the once-buried and groundwater- drawn to irrigate 13 million acres of uplift and tilting caused the whereas less than 100 to 200 ft remain western Kansas and the northern part of Texas. Projections of current water use, combined
filled limestone cave and eventually exposed land. The water is used mostly for agri- rivers to downcut and erode saturated in the southern parts. Compare this map to the one for precipitation. with numerical models of the water balance,
culture and rangeland. The main agri- rather than continuing to predict that some parts of the aquifer will go
cultural products include corn, wheat, deposit sediment. Present- 17.11.c1 17.11.c2
dry by 2050. This will have catastrophic conse-
soybeans, and feed for livestock. day rivers continue to erode quences for the local farmers, ranchers, and
into the aquifer and drain businesses, and for people across the country
eastward and southward, who depend on the aquifer for much of their
eventually flowing into the food. Subsidence related to groundwater
rey7668x_c17_500_525.indd 512 8/13/09 10:45:27 AM rey7668x_c17_500_525.indd 513 8/13/09 10:45:37 AM Gulf of Mexico. withdrawal and compaction of the aquifer will
be an increasing concern. What do you think
17.11.a1 would happen to the region if this aquifer
were partly pumped dry?
The Aquifer in Cross Section 7. The upper part of the aquifer (shaded yellow) is above the water table
and in the unsaturated zone.
5. This vertically exagger-
5000
ated cross section shows NM TX TX OK 8. Blue colors show levels Before You Leave This Page
the thickness of the aquifer of the water table for 1950
ELEVATION (ft)

Be Able To

Each chapter has at least one two-page spread illustrating how

from west to east. It shows Ground surface and 2000, and purple shows
4000
the aquifer in various the predicted levels for 2050.
colors; rocks below the 2000 1950 Note that water levels in ✓ Summarize the location, charac-
Waterr table
aquifer are shaded bluish the aquifer have fallen due teristics, and importance of the
3000
gray. Note that the aquifer Base of Ogallala to overpumping. The west- Ogallala aquifer.
17.11

is at the surface and is an ern part is predicted to be

geology impacts society and another two-page spread that specifi- unconfined aquifer.
2000 West
80 km (50 mi) 2050

6. The irregular base of the aquifer is an unconformity that reflects erosion of the land before deposition of the aquifer.
East
17.11.a2
totally depleted by 2050 (no
purple).
✓ Summarize the water balance for the
aquifer and how water levels have
changed in the last several decades.

522

cally describes how geoscientists study typical problems.

rey7668x_c17_500_525.indd 522 8/19/09 11:15:34 AM rey7668x_c17_500_525.indd 523 8/19/09 11:16:14 AM

XXII

rey24123_fm_i_xxxii.indd xxii 11/7/11 11:02 AM

 Each chapter ends with an Investigation spread that is an exer- The third edition of Exploring Geology represents a moderate
cise in which students apply the knowledge, skills, and approaches revision compared to the second edition. The style, approach, and
learned in the chapter. These exercises mostly involve virtual sequence of chapters are unchanged, but revisions within chap-
places that students explore and investigate to make observations ters vary from moderate to major in extent. We revised many text
and interpretations and to answer a series of geologic questions. blocks to improve clarity and conciseness, or to present recent
discoveries and events. Most chapters contain the same number
and order of two-page spreads. Nearly all changes were made in
I N V E S T I G AT I O N Wa t e r R e s o u rc e s 525

17.12 Who Polluted Surface Water and 6. Bedrock units cross the land-
scape in a series of north-south
7. A north-south ridge
is composed of sand-
17.12.a2
Stratigraphic Section
Gravel – Unconsolidated sand and gravel in the lower
response to comments by reviewers and students. We describe
Groundwater in This Place? stripes, parallel to the strike of the stone, called the lower parts of the valley

SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER IN THIS AREA are contaminated. You will use the geology of the
area, along with elevations of the water table and chemical analyses of the contaminated water, to determine
rock layers. One of the north-south
valleys contains several large coal
mines and a coal-burning, electri-
cal-generating plant. An unsub-
stantiated rumor says that one of
sandstone. Slidetown, a
new town on this ridge,
is not a possible source
of the contamination
because it was built too
Upper Sandstone – Well-sorted, permeable sandstone
Upper Shale – Impermeable, with coal

Sinkerton Limestone – Porous, cavernous limestone

where the contamination is, where it came from, and where it is going. From your conclusions, you will decide the mines had some sort of chemi-
where to drill new wells for uncontaminated groundwater. cal spill that was never reported.
Activity at the mines and power
plant has caused fine coal dust to
1. The region contains a series of ridges to the
recently. A few nice-tast-
ing, freshwater springs
issue from the sand-
stone where it is cut by
the main revisions below.
Middle Shale – Impermeable shale
Lower Sandstone – Permeable sandstone
Lower Shale – Impermeable shale

CHAPTERS 1 and 2 received light revisions, with some new sec-

Goals of This Exercise:
• Observe the landscape to interpret the area’s geologic setting.
• Read descriptions of various natural and constructed features.
• Use well data and water chemistry to draw a map showing where contami-
be blown around by the wind small stream valleys. Basal Conglomerate – Poorly sorted with salty water
east and a broad, gentle valley to the west. Small and washed into the smaller
towns are scattered across the ridges and valleys. Granite – Sparsely fractured; oldest rock in area
rivers that flow along
There are also several farms, a dairy, and a number the valley.
of industrial sites, each of which is labeled with
a unique name. Geologists studied one of these 8. The highest part of the region is a ridge of granite and sedimentary
towns, Springtown, and concluded that it is not

tions and figures. In chapter 2, the two-page spread on continental

nation is and which way groundwater is flowing.
• Use the map and other information to interpret where contamination originated,
which facilities might be responsible, and where the contamination is headed.
• Determine a well location that is unlikely to be contaminated in the future.
• Suggest a way to remediate some of the contamination.
Procedures
rocks along the east edge of the area. This ridge receives quite a bit of
the source of any contamination. rain during the summer and snow in the winter. Several clear streams
begin in the ridge and flow westward toward the lowlands.
2. A main river, called the Black River for its 9. A company built a coal-burning power plant over tilted beds
unusual dark, cloudy color, flows westward (right of a unit named the Sinkerton Limestone, so called because it is
to left) through the center of the valley. The river
contains water all year, even when it has not
rained in quite a while. Both sides of the
valley slope inward, north and south,
toward the river.
associated with many sinkholes, caves, and karst topography.
The limestone is so permeable that the power plant has had
difficulty keeping water in ponds built to dispose of waste
waters, which are rich in the chemical substances (including
drift was moved to chapter 3.
the contaminant) that are naturally present in coal.

Use the available information to complete the following steps,
entering your answers on the worksheet or online.
1. This figure shows geologic features, rivers, springs, and human-
constructed features, including a series of wells (lettered A through
P). Observe the distribution of rock units, sediment, rivers, springs,
and other features on the landscape. Compare these observations
with the cross sections on the sides of the terrain to interpret how
10. The tables below list water-table elevations in meters and
17.12.a1 concentrations of contamination in milligrams per liter (mg/L)
for each of the lettered wells (A–P). This table also lists the con-
centration of contamination in samples from four springs (S1–S4)
and eight river segments (R1–R8). The location of each sample
site is marked on the figure. Wells M, N, and P are deep wells,
drilled into the Sinkerton Limestone aquifer at depth, although
they first encountered water at a shallow depth. The chemical
CHAPTER 3 gained two new spreads: the continental-drift two-
samples from these wells were collected from deep waters.

page spread from chapter 2 and the paleomagnetic two-page

the geology is expressed in different areas.
2. Read the descriptions of key features and consider how this informa-
tion relates to the geologic setting, to the flow of surface water and Well Elev. WT mg/L Well Elev. WT mg/L
groundwater, and to the contamination. A 110 0 I 130 30
3. The data table on the next page shows elevation of the water table in

spread from chapter 10. Text on these spreads was edited so as

B 100 0 J 130 0
each lettered well. Use these data and the base map on the worksheet
to construct a groundwater map with contours of the water table at C 105 0 K 120 0
the following elevations: 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, and 150 meters. On 5. From mapping and
other studies on the sur- D 110 20 L 130 0
the contoured map, draw arrows pointing down the slope of the
face, geologists have
water table to show the direction of groundwater flow.

not to disrupt the observe-first approach of the chapter.

4. Based on determined the sequence E 120 10 M 150 50
4. Use the data table showing concentrations of a contaminant, purpose- shallow drilling, of rock units, as summa- F 115 0 N 150 10
ly unnamed here, in groundwater to shade in areas where there is con- the water table (the rized in the stratigraphic
tamination. Use darker shades for higher levels of contamination. top of the blue shad- section in the upper G 120 0 O 140 0
ing) mimics the topog- right corner of this page.
5. Use the groundwater map to interpret where the contamination most raphy, being higher These studies also docu- H 120 50 P 150 0
3. Drilling
likely originated and which facilities were probably responsible. Mark and gravity beneath the ridges than ment a broad anticline and
a large X over these facilities on the map, and explain your reasons surveys show beneath the valleys. syncline beneath the east- Spring mg/L River mg/L River mg/L
in the worksheet. that the valley is Overall, the water table ern part of the region. Note
underlain by a thick slopes from east to west that contamination can S1 50 R1 0 R5 0

CHAPTERS 4 and 5 were lightly revised, except for figures.

6. Determine which of the lettered well sites will most likely remain free

17.12
sequence of relatively (right to left), parallel flow through the subsur-
of contamination, and draw a circle around one such well. to the regional slope of S2 0 R2 20 R6 0
unconsolidated and weakly cemented sand face, following limestone
7. Devise a plan to remediate the groundwater contamination by drill- and gravel. The deepest part of the basin has the land. All rocks below and other permeable units, S3 0 R3 0 R7 5
ing wells in front of the plume of contamination; mark these on the been downdropped by normal faults, one of the water table are satu- instead of passing horizon-
map with the letter R. which is buried beneath the gravel. rated with groundwater. tally through impermeable S4 0 R4 0 R8 5
ones, like shale.
524

Chapter 4 has 11 new or improved photographs and a new section

rey7668x_c17_500_525.indd 524 8/13/09 10:47:51rey7668x_c17_500_525.indd
AM 525 8/19/09 11:16:26 AM

on states of matter. Chapter 5 has 18 new or revised figures, with

rewritten sections to accompany a dozen new photographs.
Investigations are modeled after the types of problems geologists
investigate, and they use the same kinds of data and illustrations CHAPTERS 6 and 7 have 41 new photographs and slightly
encountered in the chapter. The Investigation includes a list of revised figures, in addition to changes to many text blocks. In
goals for the exercises and step-by-step instructions, including chapter 6, the two-page spread on scoria cones now covers all
calculations and methods for constructing maps, graphs, and basaltic eruptions. The name of chapter 7 was changed to Sedi-
other figures. These investigations can be completed by students mentary Environments and Rocks.
in class, as worksheet-based homework, or as online activities.
CHAPTER 8 received significant reorganization, swapping mate-
NEW IN THE THIRD EDITION rial between the first two spreads to consolidate the discussion of
force and stress and to reinforce the difference between deforma-
All chapters include additions and improvements. For example: tion and metamorphism. It contains 12 new or revised figures.
• This edition contains more than 130 new photographs, with CHAPTERS 9 and 10 were lightly revised, but contain 12 new
a deliberate emphasis on representing a wider geographic photographs and an equal number of slightly revised illustrations
diversity, including new photographs from the Northeast, (mostly in fidelity of color). A complex figure on correlation was
Midwest, Great Lakes, Rocky Mountains, Pacific Coast, and split into two figures, and the two-page spread on paleomagnetism
other parts of the world. was moved to chapter 3.
• Material was reorganized in seven chapters, including a
major reorganization of chapter 14 and moving spreads CHAPTER 11 received minor revisions, including a few new pho-
from two other chapters into chapter 3 (Plate Tectonics). tographs, revised illustrations, and expanded text descriptions.
• This edition contains more than 10 new sections or two- CHAPTER 12 features an entirely new spread on recent earth-
page spreads, including a new two-page spread on recent quakes in Japan, Haiti, and New Zealand, replacing a spread on
earthquakes in Japan, Haiti, and New Zealand. It contains world earthquakes. The sections on tsunami and volcano-related
new figures or discussions for recent discoveries and earthquakes were also expanded. Seven new figures accompany
events in the news. the new two-page spread and 11 other illustrations were revised.
• Many two-page spreads have been extensively revised with
improved layout, illustrations, and text. These include 50 new CHAPTER 13 had major revisions, including moving the wind-
or revised illustrations, as well as new or revised tables. transport spread closer to the deserts part of the chapter. Two
existing spreads on global warming were heavily revised to
• Investigations in chapters 16 and 17 have revised data val-
more broadly address climate change, including new graphs and
ues, and so have new correct answers.

XXIII

rey24123_fm_i_xxxii.indd xxiii 11/7/11 11:02 AM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
in all the splendour of his white hussar uniform was a revelation to
her.
“I did not know you were so nearly handsome,” she said fondly,
kissing his forehead. “But I never before saw you in the guise of a
gentleman.”
“Oh, my mother,” cried Gavin, “after I had left you and knew
something of the world, I wondered how you, alone and forsaken in a
strange country, ever continued to live at all! And to feed and clothe
me—what a burden I must have been to you!”
“No burden, but my only joy and hope. Tell me, therefore, my son,
have you so lived since we parted that I can still have joy and hope
in you? Look me in the face and tell me if you have led a clean life
and an upright life, for I know you cannot deceive my eyes, even if
you would.”
Gavin looked at her honestly, clearly, unflinchingly.
“I have not been perfect, mother,” he replied. “No one is that, you
have always told me; but there is not one hour of my life since we
parted that you cannot know all about, if you wish to hear it.
Remember, the ways and talk of private soldiers, of whom I was one
for two years, are not the ways and talk in which you bred me; but
these soldiers were honest, brave fellows, if they were uncouth and
coarse. I have felt, however, much more at home in the company
which St. Arnaud made possible to me than I ever did among the
soldiers; and in one thing, at least, I obeyed your commands”—here
Gavin laughed—“I was often ragged and always cold and hungry,
but I never was a moment without a piece of soap, a comb, and a
razor.”
At which Lady Hamilton smiled and said:
“You are my own true boy. My father and my brothers were
always clean and well-shaven, as becomes gentlemen. I don’t know
how I should feel toward a son who neglected those things.”
Gavin grew serious enough the next moment, for he said:
 “And do you know that my—that Sir Gavin Hamilton is in
Vienna?”
A deep flush rose instantly in Lady Hamilton’s pale face. Gavin
went on and described his adventure with Sir Gavin Hamilton at the
imperial palace and everything connected with him, and especially
the possibility that he and Lady Hamilton might meet if Lady
Hamilton went to the Empress Queen’s levee, which she, no doubt,
would.
“And after her Majesty receives you, mother,” cried Gavin
exultingly, “Sir Gavin can no longer insult you by saying you were not
his wife.”
“But will her Majesty receive me?”
“Undoubtedly; so Prince Kaunitz has promised St. Arnaud. And I
have privately told St. Arnaud that if by any accident or intrigue it is
refused, or even delayed, I will resign my commission at once and
enlist again as a private soldier. But St. Arnaud will manage it. St.
Arnaud has a great family connection in Paris. The Chancellor,
Kaunitz, knows all about him—so trust St. Arnaud to do for you what
he has done for me. He is the best friend with whom mortal man was
ever blessed.”
“I long to see him again. When I arrived I was so overcome and
agitated that I scarcely knew what I was saying; but I loved him
before I ever saw him. And I love that good Madame Ziska—ah,
Gavin, Gavin, how much good there is in the world!”
“Come,” cried Gavin, jumping up. “I hear the carriage at the door
—Madame Ziska has returned from the opera-house—and where is
St. Arnaud?”
Gavin ran in the other rooms of the apartment, shouting:
“St. Arnaud! Where are you? Come and see my mother;” but St.
Arnaud was nowhere to be found. Gavin then escorted his mother to
the floor below to meet Madame Ziska and her husband. In all the
terrible privations, humiliations, and struggles of twenty years, Lady
Hamilton had never lost the best part of her birthright—the air and
manner of the high-bred Englishwoman. Her black gown was shabby
and her slim hands roughened by the actual toil she had been
compelled to do, but she was everywhere at ease, with that serene
and graceful unconsciousness which is the mark of a person born to
consideration. Madame Ziska, although born and bred in a far
humbler position in life than the English gentlewoman, had been
gifted with a natural refinement and good sense that was equal to all
the advantages of birth and early education; so the two women, on
meeting, had every reason to be mutually satisfied with the other.
Gavin very proudly introduced his mother as “Lady Ameeltone”—
for he had not yet learned the true pronunciation of his own name—
to Madame Ziska and Count Kalenga. Lady Hamilton took both of
Madame Ziska’s hands in hers and said earnestly:
“How can I thank you enough for what you have done for my
son?”
To which Madame Ziska replied in her more emotional and
demonstrative way:
“Oh, madam, he is such a nice lad! And when I saw those two
admirable young men that freezing night when we first met, my heart
went out to them. At first they did not know whether I was married or
a widow. I believe they thought at first I was a widow, they paid me
so many gallant compliments, and all the time I was laughing to
myself, thinking how their tone would change if they knew I had a
husband and four big children snugly tucked away at home.”
“True,” cried Gavin with a grin. “We were sure that Madame Ziska
was a young widow, she was so charming, and we felt quite flat
when we found she regarded us merely as a couple of schoolboys to
be helped out of a predicament.”
Kalenga then joined in the conversation, and the children were
brought in and presented, Freda especially, a pretty, quaint child of
thirteen, who had already made friends with Lady Hamilton. When
Madame Ziska addressed her as Lady Hamilton, she smiled sadly
and said:
“A title has often seemed a mockery to me, when I have been in
so great poverty and obscurity for so many years. But it is a part of
my son’s heritage, and that is why I hold to it.”
Madame Ziska, the soul of hospitality, proposed that they should
all sup together.
“And how vexatious it will be of St. Arnaud if he is not here,” she
said. “He must be detained somewhere. As I do not dance to-night,
we can put off our supper until eight o’clock, and by that time he will
probably be here.”
The afternoon passed only too quickly, Lady Hamilton listening to
the adventures of Gavin, and every moment feeling a deeper
thankfulness for the man he had become. She herself, accustomed
in her youth to the most refined society, had formerly noted with
regret many little things in Gavin which it was inevitable that he
should acquire from the humble associates of his childhood and
boyhood. But all these small faults of manners and language
seemed to have disappeared. In two short months Gavin had
become perfectly fitted for the society to which he was born and
entitled.
Eight o’clock came, and Kalenga’s chair had just been wheeled
up to the comfortable supper-table, when St. Arnaud appeared.
Madame Ziska covered him with reproaches for deserting them on
that, of all afternoons.
“Wait, madam,” mysteriously said St. Arnaud. “I have not been
forgetful of Lady Hamilton, though I presume she thought I vanished
into thin air when I disappeared so suddenly. I have been to see
Prince Kaunitz at the Chancellery. The Chancellor has been to see
the Empress Queen, and has just given me this.”
St. Arnaud drew from his pocket an elaborately sealed letter, with
the imperial arms, addressed to “The Lady Hamilton.” It was a letter
from the Court Chamberlain commanding the attendance of Lady
Hamilton at the next weekly levee of the Empress Queen, on the
following Tuesday evening.
Gavin jumped up, snapped his fingers, danced, laughed,
embraced St. Arnaud a dozen times.
“Now,” he cried, “we will see what Sir Garvan Ameeltone”—with
infinite contempt—“will do when her Majesty receives Lady
Ameeltone!”
Lady Hamilton, more accustomed than Gavin to the society of the
great, was deeply gratified, but not, like him, highly elated; and when
he spoke of his father in a tone that indicated so much hatred and
contempt, she flashed him a look that reduced him to silence at
once. Nevertheless, there was no mistaking the earnest gratitude of
the few words, straight from her heart, with which she thanked St.
Arnaud. It was, indeed, a long step toward her rights to be received
by a great and virtuous sovereign in the very presence, as it were, of
the man who had vainly tried to repudiate her.
It was an evening of great happiness to them all. Madame Ziska
and Kalenga had become so attached to Gavin and St. Arnaud that
whatever made them happy, the husband and wife shared
thoroughly. Lady Hamilton found in Kalenga so much patience under
misfortune, and so much affection and appreciation of his wife, that
she honoured him with all her heart. When she saw their mutual
devotion, she could not but think with vain regret: “Had Sir Gavin
Hamilton so treated me, I should have been the happiest woman in
the world.”
Next morning a very great and important subject came up, of
which only Lady Hamilton and Madame Ziska realized the true
significance. This was the gown that Lady Hamilton was to wear to
the imperial levee. Gavin tried to settle it at once by saying:
“Go to the shops and buy the handsomest gown you can find. I
can pay for a part of it, and St. Arnaud will lend me the rest.”
“Thank you, no,” replied his mother, smiling. “It would not be in
good taste that I should appear handsomely dressed, even if you
had the money, which you have not. It is much better that my dress
should be as simple as circumstances will allow. Therefore, I shall
wear a plain black satin gown. When I was presented, in my
girlhood, to the King and Queen of England, I wore a very simple
gown, for my parents were not rich people for their station in life. I
think I cannot do better than follow their plan now, although they
have long since been taken from me.”
The days could not go fast enough for Gavin between then and
Tuesday. The only thing that marred his happiness was the
possibility that Sir Gavin Hamilton would not be present to witness
the triumph of the woman he had so ill used and insulted. True, Sir
Gavin did not mean to be at the levee, for he heard in due time of the
arrival of his wife, and knew that the Empress Queen would receive
her. But he had no notion of being driven from Vienna by her
presence, and sardonically concluded that Lady Hamilton would be
as anxious to avoid him as he would be to avoid her.
Tuesday evening came, and Gavin and St. Arnaud, dressed in
their court uniforms, awaited Lady Hamilton’s appearance from her
room. With only little Freda to assist her, Lady Hamilton was making
her toilet. Presently the door opened, and Freda, with a candle in
each hand, came out, looking solemn beyond expression, and
putting the candlesticks on the table, gazed with grave admiration at
Lady Hamilton, who followed her.
Gavin caught his breath with admiration when his mother came
full into the circle of light. He had never thought of her as a beautiful
woman, only as the dearest woman in the world. He had seen only in
her large, dark eyes the mother love shining for him. He had only felt
in her rare smiles the sympathy with him that made her smile
sometimes in the midst of her hard lot. And he had never seen her
dressed except in the plainest and, often, in the shabbiest manner.
But to-night she wore her simple black satin robe with the air of a
princess. For the first time in twenty years her beautiful white neck
and handsome arms were bared to view. Her hair, silver and black
mingled, was still abundant, and arranged with singular grace and
becomingness. At night the lines of care in her face were not visible;
pleasure, from which she had long since parted, had again come to
her, and had brought to her cheek a flush like the glow of youth. She
wore no jewels—she had none to wear—but her majestic and high-
bred beauty needed no ornaments.
Gavin’s first gasp of admiration over, he was strangely silent,
while St. Arnaud, with the polished grace of a man of the world,
complimented Lady Hamilton upon her distinguished appearance.
No woman ever loses her appreciation of a pretty compliment, and
as for Gavin, Lady Hamilton was more touched than she would have
acknowledged by his admiration. She had asked herself while
dressing: “Will he like me in this guise?” as a young girl questions of
her lover. There was no doubt that Gavin liked her in that guise; but
when his mother turned to him once more his eyes were full of tears.
“Oh, my mother,” he cried. “To think what youth and beauty were
yours when sorrow came to you! To think that I, your child, never
before saw you except in the clothes of work and poverty! I feel now
as I never felt before the terrible hardship of your lot.”
“But the worst is over,” replied Lady Hamilton; “and remember, I
always had you.”
“Yes, to feed and clothe; to eat up all you could earn; to wear out
the poor garments you could afford to buy me.”
“At least, all you had was honestly earned. Let us be thankful that
you lived at no man’s grudging table and wore no one’s cast-offs.
That is why, after so many years of work and poverty, we are still
able to take our stand among our equals.”
As Lady Hamilton spoke with so much spirit and dignity, it
occurred to St. Arnaud that the man who could desert such a woman
must be very perverse or very bad.
St. Arnaud handed Lady Hamilton into the hired carriage that was
to take her and Gavin to the palace, saying he would follow them as
soon as he could dispose of some letters he must have ready for the
next post to Paris.
 As Lady Hamilton and Gavin walked together through the
splendid saloons of the Imperial Court none there showed more
dignity and composure. Lady Hamilton was the only woman present
who wore no jewels, and this absence of ornament made her
conspicuous. She was, however, well fitted by her splendid dignity
and the calm and unruffled manner of an English gentlewoman to
stand the scrutiny of the hundreds of eyes levelled at her. The
universal verdict was the same as St. Arnaud’s in respect to Sir
Gavin Hamilton. Gavin, resplendent in his gorgeous, white uniform,
looked about him with sparkling eyes of triumph, which said plainly to
all: “This is my mother. Have I not a right to be proud of her?” Many
persons stopped and spoke with them while they were finding their
place in line. Among them was Prince Kaunitz. The Chancellor ever
had an eye to grace and dignity in a woman, and within a few
minutes of being presented to Lady Hamilton he whispered to her
and Gavin:
“Will you do me the honour to sup at my house after the levee?”
Lady Hamilton accepted with politeness, and Gavin with a frank
delight he could not conceal. These little supper parties at the
Chancellor’s house were among the most agreeable and
distinguished parties in Vienna. Only a small number of persons,
more eminent for talents than rank, and the best among the foreign
visitors at Vienna, were asked to them. To be invited once gave the
entrée to any of them. Gavin had never been bidden before, and he
knew very well that he was indebted to his mother’s personal charm
for being invited at all.
When their turn came to be ushered into the presence of the
Empress Queen, Lady Hamilton showed to great advantage.
Unabashed by Maria Theresa’s splendid presence, she,
nevertheless, did homage to so much greatness united with all the
attractions of a charming and lovable woman. The Empress Queen’s
first remark was to say, with slight but unmistakable emphasis on the
words, “Lady Hamilton”:
 “I hope, Lady Hamilton, you are pleased with what we have been
able to do for your son.”
“More than pleased, your Majesty,” replied Lady Hamilton. “I am
deeply and eternally grateful both to yourself and to the Emperor.
And if my son ever comes into his inheritance as an English
gentleman there will be one Englishman who can never speak or
think of your Majesty except with the liveliest gratitude.”
“I and the Emperor were peculiarly gratified at the refusal of your
son and Captain St. Arnaud to accept of their parole when offered it
by the King of Prussia. And the marvellous escape they made gave
us as much pleasure as it did chagrin to the King of Prussia. These
incidents of personal daring are of great value in keeping up the
spirits of men engaged in defending us against the perpetual
assaults of Prussia.”
Lady Hamilton bowed deeply, and passed on.
It was Gavin’s turn next, and to him Maria Theresa made one of
those tactful speeches which, coming from a sincere heart, never
failed to win the hearts of others.
“I have had great pleasure in meeting Lady Hamilton. You are
fortunate in having such a mother.”
Gavin’s eyes shone so brightly and his face coloured so deeply
with pleasure that he was on the point of forgetting what little court
etiquette he had learned by dropping on his knee and seizing the
Empress Queen’s hands and kissing them violently. Some remnant
of self-control saved him, but his air and manner indicated so much
joy, pride, and gratitude that a smile went around the whole circle of
onlookers, not even excepting the Empress Queen and Emperor.
Lady Hamilton had thought that years of poverty and obscurity
would give her a dislike for the brilliant scenes of a court levee. On
the contrary, she found herself taking pleasure in a society for which
her birth and education originally fitted her. She was haunted,
however, by a horror of Sir Gavin Hamilton’s appearance. Great as
had been his offences toward her, he was still enough of an object of
interest to her to make her dread a possible meeting with him. She
once had loved him well, and however deep the resentment she felt
toward him, she could never regard him as an object of indifference.
Gavin, manlike, could not understand this. He did not seek the
places where he would find his father, but he certainly did not avoid
him. As he had never known affection for his father, he could well be
indifferent to meeting him.
But to Lady Hamilton’s intense relief, Sir Gavin did not appear at
the levee that evening. This was not from want of courage, but Sir
Gavin realized that he would be at a hopeless disadvantage. The
sympathies of the court and society were with his wife and son, and,
besides, he felt perfectly certain that no place or person would
restrain Gavin if Sir Gavin failed in respect to Lady Hamilton; so Sir
Gavin wisely went somewhere else for the early part of the evening.
Eleven o’clock was the hour when the specially favoured were to
assemble at the Chancellor’s splendid house. It had just struck the
hour when Gavin escorted his mother up the broad marble stairs of
the Chancellery and into a cosy little drawing-room, where a choice
company were assembled. St. Arnaud was there before them, and in
a moment more Prince Kaunitz came in, with profuse apologies for
being later than his guests.
“But I really believe,” he complained, “that the Empress Queen
can work twenty-four hours in the day, and she wishes me to do the
same. Will you believe it, in the middle of the levee she sent me
word that I must look over a batch of dispatches, awaiting me in her
closet, and I actually fell asleep over them, as I had been at work
since six this morning. After the levee her Majesty came into the
closet and shook me with her own hand until I waked. And,
confidentially, I may say I did not open my eyes as soon as I might.
Then she said in the briskest tone you can imagine: ‘Come, let us to
work. We must earn our bread.’ ‘Thank you, madam,’ I replied, ‘I
cannot speak for your Majesty, but I know the Emperor and myself
have earned at least a month’s bread by the work we have done this
day.’ ‘Well,’ said her Majesty, ‘I have spent more hours than either of
you in state affairs to-day, and I have likewise given, as I always do,
all the attention necessary to the education and training of my ten
children.’ ‘The good God has spared me the ten children, madam,
but I believe if your Majesty had twenty children to look after, you
would still do more work than the Emperor and myself—and we are
two of the most persistently industrious men living.’ This made her
Majesty laugh, and she said: ‘Poor, good Kaunitz, go home. I have
sent the Emperor to bed, and I alone will work at these dispatches.’ I
would have stayed at that, but she sent me away after a little. So
here I am, late, but glad to get here on any terms.”
The great Chancellor was a charming host, and when they
gathered around the supper-table, a small company of the brightest
wits in Vienna, he infected every one present with his own gayety
and charm. He distinguished Lady Hamilton by his attentions, and it
was a small but cherished triumph for Gavin, who counted that
among the happiest evenings of his life.
Supper was not over nor the guests ready to depart until some
time after midnight. Others had come in, and the party grew merrier
as the hours flew by. As the final move was made to go, Prince
Kaunitz stood up, with a glass of champagne in his hand, and said:
“Before parting, pledge with me the health of a lady who has only
lately come to adorn Vienna, but who, we hope, will long remain with
us.”
The Prince fixed his smiling glance upon Lady Hamilton, who sat
opposite to him. She rose, too, but the smile froze on her lips and
she turned deadly pale at the noiseless entrance of a person by a
door directly facing her and behind Prince Kaunitz. The Chancellor,
not hearing the new arrival, continued with much grace: “The lady
whose health I propose is Lady Gavin Hamilton.”
Lady Hamilton’s sudden pallor and agitation had not escaped
notice, and a slight movement on the part of the newcomer had
attracted every eye to him. The Chancellor, still unhearing, happened
to glance into a tall mirror over the fireplace, opposite him, and in it
he saw Sir Gavin Hamilton, standing perfectly cool and composed,
his hand on his dress sword, and looking Lady Hamilton full in the
eye. She, blanched and trembling, yet undauntedly returned his gaze
as she stood. The only change of attitude she made was to lay her
hand lightly upon the shoulder of Gavin, who sat next her. But the
action was eloquent. It was as if she said, “Here is my charge and
my protector in one.”
Gavin’s face had turned scarlet as his mother’s grew white. He
sat quite motionless, for once not knowing what to say or do. Many
times he had wondered what he should do when his mother and
father met, as they were likely to do at any moment after Lady
Hamilton’s arrival in Vienna, and he had never yet hit upon any
course of action. But he had vauntingly said to himself, “When the
time comes I shall do the right thing.” The time had come, and he sat
silent and disconcerted and feeling nothing but a furious anger and
helplessness.
Lady Hamilton continued to look Sir Gavin calmly in the eye, and
the pause grew momentous. A clock ticking in the room seemed a
loud noise, so utter was the stillness. Seconds passed, which
seemed minutes, and as Lady Hamilton’s glance remained fixed on
Sir Gavin, they seemed to change places. She grew courageous,
and the crimson returned to her face; while the fresh colour left his
cheeks, and he, this man of iron composure, grew tremulous. The
Chancellor, who watched it all, and who enjoyed it from the bottom of
his heart—for Kaunitz had an elfish spirit which made him delight in
awkward contretemps for others—suddenly spoke in a very cool, soft
voice: “Give Sir Gavin Hamilton a glass,” he said to a servant. “He
will join us, no doubt, in our homage to Lady Hamilton.”
All there fully expected to see Sir Gavin touch his sword as he
replied to Prince Kaunitz. So, indeed, he wished to do; but Lady
Hamilton’s steady glance held him as if by mesmeric power.
Mechanically and against his own volition he raised the glass
handed him by the servant to his lips and drank as the others did.
Then, quickly recovering himself, he threw the costly glass on the
floor, where it crashed into a hundred pieces, and, turning his back,
walked quickly out.
Whatever Lady Hamilton felt, she had managed to retain her self-
possession perfectly. Not so Gavin. He felt dazed and disconcerted,
and but for St. Arnaud’s tactful manner of getting him out of the room
would have showed the confusion which reigned in his soul. Prince
Kaunitz himself put Lady Hamilton into the carriage. Gavin entered
after her, and St. Arnaud, saying he wished a breath of air before
going to bed, followed on foot.
Once alone in the carriage with his mother, Gavin clasped her in
his arms, saying, “How proud I was of you! And how superior did you
appear to the wretch—”
“Hush,” replied Lady Hamilton in a strained voice; and suddenly
bursting into tears, she cried: “He was not always like this. I cannot,
cannot think that he was always bad. He was a gallant man and a
gentleman when I married him.”
Gavin remained silent, amazed and confounded at this revelation
of a woman’s secret tenderness, which could survive twenty years of
neglect, persecution, and unspeakable humiliation.
 CHAPTER VIII
The next morning, before nine o’clock, a messenger came from
the Empress Queen to St. Arnaud, commanding his immediate
presence at the imperial palace.
St. Arnaud reappeared at dusk in the evening. Gavin was sitting
by the window, listening with amusement to the stories Lady
Hamilton was telling, in her soft, pleasant voice, to the two little girls,
Freda and Gretchen.
“Make ready,” said St. Arnaud to Gavin as he came in, “to start
for Breslau with me to-morrow, at midnight, with a flag of truce to the
King of Prussia. I was sent for by the Empress Queen for that
purpose. All is settled. I was allowed to choose a brother officer to
accompany me, and I chose you.”
“A thousand, thousand thanks,” cried Gavin, who realized the
advantages of being sent upon such an expedition.
“I warn you, though,” continued St. Arnaud, warming himself by
the fire, as the little girls lighted the candles and Lady Hamilton and
Gavin hung breathless upon his words, “our mission will fail. The
King of Prussia has never been celebrated for his kindness to the
unfortunate, whether prisoners, whom he generally browbeats, no
matter how humble or how exalted their station, or officers of his own
who do not prove always equal to victory. The Prince of Severn, who
was taken prisoner while reconnoitring near Breslau last October,
wishes a letter conveyed to the King of Prussia, in winter quarters at
Breslau. The Prince, you must know, being an ally of Frederick’s,
fully expected steps to be taken at once to secure his release on
parole. But so far the King of Prussia has not written him a line, or
shown the slightest interest in the fate of one of his best friends and
generals. The poor Prince, tired with waiting, declares there must be
some misapprehension on the King’s part, and solicited the Empress
Queen to allow him to send a letter to the King at Breslau. She at
once agreed, for she is as kind to prisoners and considerate of their
feelings as Frederick is to the contrary. She, therefore, from the
goodness of her heart, consented to transmit the letter, but, as it
often is, there is sound political wisdom as well as generosity in her
action; because, if Frederick wishes to befriend his ally, the Prince
can be exchanged for a large number of Austrian prisoners, and if
his neglect is intentional, it will place Maria Theresa’s conduct in
shining contrast to her great enemy’s. The Emperor and Prince
Kaunitz saw this when they agreed to her generous proposal. The
Prince intimated a wish that I might be the officer sent—I was able to
show him a trifling kindness once some years ago—and the
Empress Queen assented with the utmost alacrity. Great and
magnanimous as she is, she is woman enough to be willing to let the
King of Prussia see us, his two prisoners, free and in good case. All
arrangements are made. I have letters and money and horses, and
we start on the stroke of midnight to-morrow. We shall probably be
gone two weeks, but if we are caught by the spring floods, we shall
be detained until they subside, for the Empress Queen and the King
of Prussia between them have scarcely left a bridge standing in
Silesia.”
Gavin was overjoyed at the prospect of an expedition of so much
interest; and his mother showed her sympathy with him by at once
beginning to talk over preparations. Gavin ran downstairs to
Madame Ziska, who was just arranging the lamp and fire, and
placing Kalenga with a book for the evening, before going to the
opera.
“I am charmed,” she cried, “although we shall be lonely without
you and Captain St. Arnaud. But you will have so much to tell us
when you get back! We shall be glad to take care of Lady Hamilton
while you are away. Luckily, I do not dance to-morrow night, so we
can spend the evening together.”
 The Empress Queen, with her usual liberality, which sometimes
exceeded her means, having provided them with a considerable sum
of money, next day they made comfortable arrangements for the
journey. Prince Kaunitz offered them a small but excellent travelling
chaise, which, being brought to the house, Lady Hamilton and
Madame Ziska proceeded to stock with comforts not likely to be
found on the road. By eight o’clock their preparations were complete,
and they sat down to a merry supper in Madame Ziska’s apartment.
“I shall miss you both more than I can say,” said Lady Hamilton,
“and I shall not go to the palace or accept any invitations until you
return. But that I will not mind. I shall amuse myself, if Madame Ziska
will permit, by teaching Freda and Gretchen English, and so the
weeks will pass more quickly.”
“I shall be only too grateful,” quickly replied Madame Ziska, who
saw the advantage of her two young daughters having the training of
a woman so highly educated and well bred as Lady Hamilton.
“And pray,” she continued, laughing, as they drew up to the table,
“to make my most respectful compliments to the King of Prussia, and
to tell him that his snuff-box was treated with the highest respect
wherever I showed it, and often got me accommodations at inns and
post-houses when it would have been otherwise impossible.
Likewise say to him, that I think my dancing has improved—the
Emperor has been pleased to say that the ballerina of the Queen of
the Naiads is the best thing yet done at the opera.”
St. Arnaud and Gavin faithfully promised all.
The evening sped rapidly away, all, even Kalenga, being in the
highest spirits. When the clock struck twelve, and the chaise was at
the door, Kalenga, raising himself in his wheeled chair, proposed the
health of the two departing ones, which was drank with enthusiasm.
Then followed affectionate farewells, Gavin running back from the
door for a last embrace from his mother, and soon they were
clattering off over the frozen roadway toward the gates of the city.
 As soon as they had passed the gates, and got into the open
country beyond, St. Arnaud, who was an experienced traveller,
settled himself to sleep; but Gavin, who had never made a journey in
a chaise before, was too excited to sleep. He compared his lot then
—an officer with a recognized position as a gentleman, regular,
though small pay, his mother with him, her position recognized, a
powerful friend in St. Arnaud, and other true friends in Madame
Ziska and her husband, the protection of a great and generous
sovereign like Maria Theresa—and the contemplation of these things
caused a wave of reverential gratitude to overwhelm his soul. A year
before he had been a private soldier, with all the hardships of a
private soldier’s lot in those times. He had been ragged and cold and
hungry; his fellow-soldiers, brave, honest fellows though they might
be, were rude and ignorant men, of coarse manners, and rarely
could any of them read or write. He recalled that he had not been
really unhappy during the time that he had trudged along, carrying a
musket—in fact, it gave him something like a shock to remember
that he had begun to like the life, and felt less and less the ambition
to rise to something better. Perhaps he would have risen in any
event, but, surely, the finding himself alone with St. Arnaud in a
freezing desert after Rosbach was the most fortunate circumstance
of his whole life. These thoughts crowded upon his mind, but after a
while the steady motion of the chaise made him drowsy, and he
slept.
Seven days were they on the journey, although they travelled as
fast as the state of the country would permit, and at noon on the
seventh day they came within sight of the towers and steeples of
Breslau, and met the Prussian outposts.
St. Arnaud, tying his white handkerchief to the point of his sword,
got out of the chaise, as did Gavin, and advanced toward the
Prussian sentinel. The officer of the guard was at once sent for, and
after a very short delay they were blindfolded and driven inside the
walls and fortifications.
 It was a tedious drive to the quarters courteously provided for
them, and both St. Arnaud and Gavin suspected that they were
being driven in a roundabout manner, to confuse their sense of
locality. Arrived at their quarters, the Prussian officer, Lieutenant
Bohlen, led them, into a room, and exacting the usual promises from
them that they would not leave the house without permission and an
escort, removed the handkerchiefs from their eyes. He then left, to
report their arrival at headquarters, after ordering dinner to be sent
them. The dinner was very good, and they were still at it when
Lieutenant Bohlen returned.
“The King will see you to-night after he has supped, and
meanwhile desires that you be made comfortable.”
Gavin spent a good part of the afternoon making a toilet for the
King of Prussia. He bathed and shaved, and put on clean linen from
top to toe, and his handsome white uniform and varnished boots.
“And I think,” he complacently remarked to St. Arnaud, “the King
will find me a different person from the great gaby he hauled out of
the closet. Oh, I shall never forgive myself for not knocking him down
—I could have done it so easily.”
St. Arnaud, too, had made an elaborate toilet, and as he
surveyed himself and Gavin, he rather wounded Gavin’s self-love by
saying:
“You and I are obliged to dress well. The King of Prussia is
shabbier than any captain in his army—but—he is the King of
Prussia, and he can afford to be shabby.”
About eight o’clock in the evening, another officer, Major Count
von Armfeld, appeared, and politely introducing himself as aide-de-
camp to his Majesty, requested them to go with him.
It was a beautiful moonlight night as the party emerged into one
of the quaintest and oldest streets of Breslau. They were near a
splendid bridge across the Oder, and the moon shone brightly on the
placid bosom of the river. Everywhere were the signs of military
occupation. Churches had been turned into barracks, public
buildings into arsenals, and nearly every house had officers billeted
in it.
After crossing the bridge, they entered a handsome street, at the
end of which was a large and splendid mansion. A couple of
sentinels were pacing before the door.
“That is where his Majesty lives,” said Von Armfeld. “It is called
the King’s House. It has a garden to it, in which the King takes
exercise.”
Von Armfeld giving the countersign, they entered the mansion,
and ascended a handsome staircase. The house seemed to be
buzzing like a beehive, all the rooms being lighted up, and officers at
work in them. At the end of a long corridor was a small door, before
which they stopped. Von Armfeld gave four peculiar raps on the
door; a voice said, “Come”—and St. Arnaud and Gavin found
themselves in the presence of the great Frederick. He was sitting by
the fire and was wrapped in an old military cape. His face was
cadaverous, his eyes sunken, and his whole appearance so
changed by ill health, that St. Arnaud and Gavin would have had
difficulty in recognizing him. But if they found recognition of the King
difficult, the King found recognition of them impossible. He looked at
them as if he had never seen them before, and motioning them to sit,
consulted a little memorandum before him.
“Captain St. Arnaud of Major-General Loudon’s corps and
companion, Sublieutenant Hamilton. I knew General Loudon. I might
have had his services when he returned from Russia, but I frankly
admit I saw not the man of genius under his unpromising exterior. At
the blockade of Prague, his patent as Major-General, sent him by the
Empress Queen, fell into the hands of some of my hussars. I had it
returned to him, and was pleased to serve so gallant an officer.”
St. Arnaud bowed at these praises of his commander, and after a
pause Frederick said negligently:
“Have you the Prince of Bevern’s letter?”
 St. Arnaud rose, and taking the Prince of Bevern’s letter from his
breast, handed it to Frederick, with another bow. It was a long letter,
and both St. Arnaud and Gavin watched the King closely as he read.
He had a speaking face, and as he read page after page of the letter
his countenance grew more sinister. St. Arnaud gave Gavin a slight
glance, which said plainly: “The Prince will get no help.”
After reading it over carefully, Frederick laid it down, and began
to speak on the topic, apparently, the farthest off, in more ways than
one, from Bevern’s letter that could be imagined.
“Did you ever study astronomy, Captain St. Arnaud?”
“Considerably, your Majesty. When I was at the College of St.
Omer’s in France—for I had some education before I joined the army
—I was much interested in it, and spent many nights at the
telescope.”
“I confess, I knew very little about the science. There is a garden
communicating with the one we have here, and in it is an
observatory with a fine telescope. I have been troubled with
sleeplessness this winter, and I have spent many hours, in
consequence, studying the planets. I have found it singularly
soothing. Nothing so reconciles one to the chances and changes of
this life as looking through a telescope. There one sees the infinite
smallness of triumphs; the utter nothingness of misfortunes.”
“True, your Majesty,” replied St. Arnaud, as composedly as if he
had come all the way from Vienna to discuss astronomy. “Of course,
the uppermost thought in every mind is whether those infinite worlds
are inhabited or not.”
“It is a thought too staggering to pursue very far. The first
conception of space is noble and exhilarating beyond expression.
But I believe that the strongest mind, fixed perpetually on the vast
possibilities of the solar system, would become unbalanced.
Astronomers do not become so, because they pursue the science
with exactness, and do not let imagination into the matter at all. But
for persons like you and me, who look at the myriads of worlds with