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(Ebook PDF) (Ebook PDF) Beginning Algebra 8th Edition by Richard N. Aufmann All Chapter
(Ebook PDF) (Ebook PDF) Beginning Algebra 8th Edition by Richard N. Aufmann All Chapter
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CONTENTS v
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vi CONTENTS
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CONTENTS vii
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
viii CONTENTS
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CONTENTS ix
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
x CONTENTS
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface
Digital Vision
Among the many questions we ask when we begin the process of revising a textbook, the
most important is, “How can we improve the learning experience for the student?” We find
answers to this question in a variety of ways, but most commonly by talking to students and
instructors and evaluating the written feedback we receive from our customers. As we set out
to create the eighth edition of Beginning Algebra, bearing in mind the feedback we received,
our ultimate goal was to increase our focus on the student.
In the eighth edition, as in previous editions, popular features such as “Take Note” and
“Point of Interest” have been retained. We have also retained the worked Examples and
accompanying Problems, with complete worked-out solutions to the Problems given at the
back of the textbook. New to this edition is the “Focus on Success” feature that appears at
the beginning of each chapter. “Focus on Success” offers practical tips for improving study
habits and performance on tests and exams.
Also new to the eighth edition are “How It’s Used” boxes. These boxes present real-
world scenarios that demonstrate the utility of selected concepts from the text. New “Focus
On” examples offer detailed instruction on solving a variety of problems. “In the News” ex-
ercises are new application exercises appearing in many of the exercise sets. These exercises
are based on newsworthy data and facts and are drawn from current events. The definition/
key concept boxes have been enhanced in this edition; they now include examples to show
how the general case translates to specific cases.
We trust that the new and enhanced features of the eighth edition will help students to
engage more successfully with the content. By narrowing the gap between the concrete and
the abstract, between the real world and the theoretical, students should more plainly see that
mastering the skills and topics presented is well within their reach and well worth the effort.
Organizational Changes
We have made the following organizational changes, based on the feedback we received, in
order to improve the effectiveness of the textbook and enhance the student’s learning experience.
PREFACE xi
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xii PREFACE
• Chapter 3 has been reorganized. Section 3.1 of the previous edition, Introduction to
Equations, has been separated into two sections as suggested by reviewers. Now
students will have the opportunity to master the skill of solving equations of the form
ax 5 b in Section 3.1 before they solve the percent problems and uniform motion
problems that require this skill in Section 3.2.
3.1 Introduction to Equations
3.2 Applications of Equations of the Form ax 5 b
3.3 General Equations
3.4 Inequalities
The eighth edition contains expanded coverage of solving an equation by clearing
denominators, including more exercises on this concept in the Section 3.3 exercise
set. In Section 3.3, students are now warned that clearing denominators is a method
of solving equations and that the process is never applied to expressions.
• Chapter 4 has been reorganized. Objective 4.2.2 of the previous edition, Coin and
stamp problems, has been deleted. Objective 4.2.1 of the previous edition, Consecutive
integer problems, has been incorporated into the new Objective 4.1.1, Translate a
sentence into an equation and solve.
4.1 Translating Sentences into Equations
4.2 Geometry Problems
4.3 Markup and Discount Problems
4.4 Investment Problems
4.5 Mixture Problems
4.6 Uniform Motion Problems
4.7 Inequalities
• Section 5.3, Slopes of Straight Lines, now includes the topic of perpendicular lines
in the rectangular coordinate system. Also in Section 5.3, the approach to graphing
equations using the slope and y-intercept has changed so that students are instructed
first to move up or down from the y-intercept, and then to move right or left to plot a
second point.
• Section 8.4 of the previous edition, Special Factoring, has been separated into two
sections. Section 8.4 now covers factoring the difference of two squares and perfect
square trinomials, and Section 8.5 is devoted solely to factoring polynomials
completely using the techniques introduced in the first four sections.
8.1 Common Factors
8.2 Factoring Polynomials of the Form x2 1 bx 1 c
8.3 Factoring Polynomials of the Form ax2 1 bx 1 c
8.4 Special Factoring
8.5 Factoring Polynomials Completely
8.6 Solving Equations
• A new section on variation has been added to Chapter 9. Section 9.6, Variation, covers
direct variation and inverse variation.
9.1 Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions
9.2 Expressing Fractions in Terms of the LCD
9.3 Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expressions
9.4 Complex Fractions
9.5 Equations Containing Fractions
9.6 Variation
9.7 Literal Equations
9.8 Application Problems
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
PREFACE xiii
Solving Equations
3
CHAPTER
NEW! FOCUS ON SUCCESS appears at the start
of each Chapter Opener. These tips are designed and Inequalities
to help you make the most of the text and your
time as you progress through the course and
prepare for tests and exams. Focus on Success
Digital Vision
Are you making attending class a priority? Remember that to be successful, you must attend class. You
need to be in class to hear your instructor’s explanations and instructions, as well as to ask questions
when something is unclear. Most students who miss a class fall behind and then find it very difficult to
Each Chapter Opener outlines the learning catch up. (See Class Time, page AIM-5.)
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in
78702_Ch08_349-394.indd 381
whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
9/13/11 3:49 PM
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xiv PREFACE
x5
3
2
Problems are based on the Examples. They are paired
Check 2x 1 x 5 6
2
2x2 1 x 5 6
3 2 3
2a b 1 6 21222 2 1 1222 6
so that you can easily refer to the steps in the Example
2 2
9
2a b 1
4
3
2
6 2#422 6 as you work through the accompanying Problem.
9 3
1 6 822 6
2 2
656 656
E l 1 ill h i l di l i d i i b f i
exercise at the end of the section. By following the
prompts, you can immediately apply the techniques
presented in the worked Examples to homework exercises.
SECTION 8.6
Problem 1
2x2 2 50 5 0 • A quadratic equation Complete WORKED-OUT SOLUTIONS to the
2 1x2 2 252 5 0 • Factor out 2.
x2 2 25 5 0 • Divide each side by 2.
Problems are found in an appendix at the back of
1x 1 52 1x 2 52 5 0 • Factor. the text. Compare your solution with the one given
x1550 x 2 5 5 0 • Set each factor equal to zero. in the appendix to obtain immediate feedback and
x 5 25 x55 reinforcement of the concept(s) you are studying.
The solutions are 25 and 5.
78702_Ch08_349-394.indd 382 9/13/11 3:49 PM
Beginning Algebra contains a WIDE VARIETY OF EXERCISES that promote skill building,
skill maintenance, concept development, critical thinking, and problem solving.
x
guided practice and test your understanding of 4. The value of the function 5 123, 32 , 122, 22 , 121, 12 , 10, 02 6 at 22 is ? . –4 –2 0
–2
2 4
everyday world. They are based on information finishing times of the top eight finishers in the Manhattan Island Swim. Write a rela-
tion in which the first coordinate is the age of a swimmer and the second coordinate is
Swim. Swimmers begin at
Battery Park City–South Cove
and swim a 28.5-mile course
the swimmer’s finishing time. Is the relation a function?
around Manhattan Island.
culled from popular media sources, including Ages (in years) 35 45 38 24 47 51 35 48
The 35-year-old first-place
finisher swam the distance in
7 h, 30 min, and 15 s.
newspapers, magazines, and the Internet. Time (in hours) 7.50 7.58 7.63 7.78 7.80 7.86 7.89 7.92
Source: www.nycswim.org
8. Health The table at the right shows the United States Department of Agriculture Daily Saturated Fat
limit on saturated fat intake, in grams. Write a relation in which the first coordinate is Calories (in grams)
a person’s daily Calorie intake and the second coordinate is the limit on saturated fat
THINK ABOUT IT exercises promote conceptual intake. Is the relation a function?
1600
2000
18
20
understanding. Completing these exercises will For Exercises 9 and 10, use the following sets. Set A is the set of all dates of the year
2200
2500
24
25
({January 1, January 2, January 3, . . .}). Set B is the set of all the people in the world.
deepen your understanding of the concept being 9. A relation has domain A and range B. Each ordered pair in the relation is of the
form (date, person born on that date). Is this relation a function?
2800 31
addressed. 10. A relation has domain B and range A. Each ordered pair in the relation is of the
form (person, birth date of that person). Is this relation a function?
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
PREFACE xv
110. Given f 1x2 5 !2x 2 1, find each of the following. Write your answer in simplest
world information to answer questions and solve form.
a. f 112 b. f 152 c. f 1142
problems.
78702_Ch10_465-502.indd 472 9/13/11 4:03 PM
x x x x
in groups. –4 –2 0
–2
2 4 –4 –2 0
–2
2 4 –4 –2 0
–2
2 4 –4 –2 0
–2
2 4
–4 –4 –4 –4
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xvi PREFACE
Beginning Algebra addresses a broad range of study styles by offering a WIDE VARIETY
OF TOOLS FOR REVIEW.
reference and a page reference to show you A solution of an equation is a number that,
when substituted for the variable, results in a
[3.1.1, p. 90] 1 is the solution of the equation
6x 2 4 5 2 because 6 112 2 4 5 2 is a
true equation. true equation.
where in the chapter the concept was introduced. To solve an equation means to find a solution [3.1.2, p. 91] The equation x 5 29 is in the form
of the equation. The goal is to rewrite the variable 5 constant. The constant, 29, is
equation in the form variable 5 constant,
An example demonstrating the concept is also because the constant is the solution.
the solution of the equation.
The solution set of an inequality is a set [3.4.1, p. 123] The solution set of 8x 2 1 $ 5x 1 23 is
of numbers, each element of which, when x $ 8 because every number greater than
substituted for the variable, results in a true or equal to 8, when substituted for the
inequality. variable, results in a true inequality.
In the CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISES, the order 136 CHAPTER 3 Solving Equations and Inequalities
23. 0.5 is what percent of 3? 24. Solve and graph the solution set of 2 1 x , 22.
25. Solve and graph the solution set of 5x # 210. 26. Solve: 6x 1 312x 2 12 5 227
1 2 3
27. Solve: a 2 5 28. Solve: a 5 12
6 3 5
29. Solve: 32 5 9x 2 4 2 3x 30. Solve: 243x 1 31x 2 52 4 5 318x 1 202
3
11. Solve: 2 x 5 5 12. Solve: 6x 2 312 2 3x2 5 412x 2 72
that is similar to the given test question. 78702_Ch03_089-140.indd 136
8
9/13/11 3:47 PM
13. Solve: 6 2 215x 2 82 5 3x 2 4 14. Solve: 9 2 312x 2 52 5 12 1 5x
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
PREFACE xvii
with Chapter 2), help you maintain the skills 3. Simplify: 412 2 3x2 2 51x 2 42 4. Solve: 2x 2
2
3
5
7
3
5. Solve: 3x 2 23x 2 312 2 3x2 4 5 x 2 6 6. Write 623% as a fraction.
you learned previously. The ANSWERS include 7. Use the roster method to write the set of natural numbers 8. Given D 5 5223, 218, 24, 0, 56, which elements of
less than 9. set D are greater than 216?
references to the section objectives upon which 9. Solve: 8a 2 3 $ 5a 2 6 10. Solve 4x 2 5y 5 15 for y.
11. Find the ordered-pair solution of y 5 3x 2 1 that cor- 12. Find the slope of the line that contains the points whose
the exercises are based. responds to x 5 22. coordinates are 12, 32 and 122, 32 .
13. Find the x- and y-intercepts for 5x 1 2y 5 20. 14. Find the equation of the line that contains the point whose
coordinates are 13, 22 and has slope 21.
1
15. Graph: y 5 x 1 2 16. Graph: 3x 1 y 5 2
2
are based. 2
7. Simplify: 6x 2 124y2 2 123x2 1 2y 8. Multiply: 1215z2 a2 b
5
2
9. Simplify: 2235 2 312x 2 72 2 2x4 10. Solve: 20 5 2 x
5
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xviii PREFACE
PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES The problem- EXAMPLE 2 During a recent year, nearly 1.2 million dogs or litters were
solving approach used throughout the text registered with the American Kennel Club. The most popular
breed was the Labrador retriever, with 172,841 registered. What
percent of the registrations were Labrador retrievers? Round to the
emphasizes the importance of a well-defined nearest tenth of a percent. (Source: American Kennel Club)
strategy. Model strategies are presented as Strategy To find the percent, solve the basic percent equation using
B 5 1.2 million 5 1,200,000 and A 5 172,841. The percent is
guides for you to follow as you attempt the unknown.
Solution PB 5 A
parallel Problem that accompanies each P11,200,0002 5 172,841 • B 5 1,200,000; A 5 172,841
P11,200,0002 172,841 • Divide each side of the equation by
5
numbered Example. 1,200,000 1,200,000 1,200,000.
P < 0.144
P < 14.4% • Rewrite the decimal as a percent.
Approximately 14.4% of the registrations were Labrador retrievers.
78702_Ch01_001-056.indd 26
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
PREFACE xix
Instructor Resources matched exactly to the problems you assign in class. For
PRINT SUPPLEMENTS more information, visit www.cengage.com/solutionbuilder.
Annotated Instructor’s Edition (ISBN: 978-1-111-98944-6) Enhanced WebAssign® (ISBN: 978-0-538-73810-1)
The Annotated Instructor’s Edition features answers to all Exclusively from Cengage Learning, Enhanced WebAssign
of the problems in the text, as well as an appendix denoting combines the exceptional mathematics content that you
those problems that can be found in Enhanced WebAssign. know and love with the most powerful online homework
Instructor’s Solutions Manual (ISBN: 978-1-133-11223-5) solution, WebAssign. Enhanced WebAssign engages stu-
Author: Rhoda Oden, Gadsden State Community College dents with immediate feedback and rich tutorial content.
The Instructor’s Solutions Manual provides worked-out Interactive eBooks help students develop a deeper conceptual
solutions to all of the problems in the text. understanding of their subject matter. Online assignments
Instructor’s Resource Binder with Appendix can be built by selecting from thousands of text-specific
(ISBN: 978-1-133-11248-8) problems. Assignments can be supplemented with problems
Author: Maria H. Andersen, Muskegon Community College, with from any Cengage Learning textbook.
Appendices by Richard N. Aufmann, Palomar College, and Joanne S. Enhanced WebAssign: Start Smart Guide for Students
Lockwood, Nashua Community College (ISBN: 978-0-495-38479-3)
Each section of the main text is discussed in uniquely Author: Brooks/Cole
designed Teaching Guides that contain tips, examples, The Enhanced WebAssign Student Start Smart Guide
activities, worksheets, overheads, assessments, and helps students get up and running quickly with Enhanced
solutions to all worksheets and activities. WebAssign so that they can study smarter and improve
their performance in class.
ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTS Printed Access Card for CourseMate with eBook
Text-Specific Videos (ISBN: 978-1-133-51019-2)
Author: Dana Mosely Instant Access Card for CourseMate with eBook
These text-specific instructional videos provide students (ISBN: 978-1-133-51018-5)
with visual reinforcement of concepts and explanations. Complement your text and course content with study and
The videos contain easy-to-understand language along with practice materials. Cengage Learning’s Developmental Math-
detailed examples and sample problems. A flexible format ematics CourseMate brings course concepts to life
offers versatility. Topics can be accessed quickly, and lec- with interactive learning, study, and exam preparation tools
tures can be catered to self-paced, online, or hybrid courses. that support the printed textbook. Watch student comprehen-
Closed captioning is provided for the hearing impaired. sion soar as your class works with the printed textbook and
These videos are available through Enhanced WebAssign the textbook-specific website. Developmental Mathematics
and CourseMate. CourseMate goes beyond the book to deliver what you need!
PowerLecture with Diploma® (ISBN: 978-1-133-11367-6)
This CD-ROM provides you with dynamic media tools for Student Resources
teaching. You can create, deliver, and customize tests (both
print and online) in minutes with Diploma’s Computer- PRINT SUPPLEMENTS
ized Testing featuring algorithmic equations. The Solution Student Solutions Manual
(ISBN: 978-1-133-11224-2)
Builder’s online solutions manual easily builds solution
Author: Rhoda Oden, Gadsden State
sets for homework or exams. Practice Sheets, First-Day-of- Community College To get access, visit
Class PowerPoint® lecture slides, art and figures from the Go beyond the answers—and
CengageBrain.com
book, and a test bank in electronic format are also included improve your grade! This
on this CD-ROM. manual provides worked-out, step-by-step solutions to the
Syllabus Creator (Included on the PowerLecture) odd-numbered problems in the text. The Student Solutions
Authors: Richard N. Aufmann and Joanne S. Lockwood
Manual gives you the information you need to truly
NEW! Easily write, edit, and update your syllabus with
understand how the problems are solved.
the Aufmann/Lockwood Syllabus Creator. This software
Student Workbook (ISBN: 978-1-133-11227-3)
program enables you to create your new syllabus in several Author: Maria H. Andersen, Muskegon Community College
easy steps: first select the required course objectives; then Get a head start. The Student Workbook contains assess-
add your contact information, course information, student ments, activities, and worksheets for classroom discussions,
expectations, grading policy, dates and location of your in-class activities, and group work.
course, and course outline. You now have your syllabus!
AIM for Success Student Practice Sheets (ISBN: 978-1-133-11226-6)
Solution Builder Author: Christine S. Verity
This online instructor database offers complete worked AIM for Success Student Practice Sheets provide additional
solutions to all exercises in the text, allowing you to create practice problems to help you learn the material.
customized, secure solutions printouts (in PDF format)
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xx PREFACE
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the people who have reviewed the seventh edition and pro-
vided many valuable suggestions.
Maria T. Alzugaray Rodriguez, Suffolk County Community College
Sheila Anderson, Housatonic Community College
Edie Carter, Amarillo College
Kamesh Casukhela, The Ohio State University at Lima
Jacqui Fields, Wake Technical Community College
Julie Fisher, Austin Community College
Shelly Hansen, Mesa State College, Western Colorado Community College
Gayathri Kambhampati, Cloud County Community College–Geary Campus
Brian Karasek, South Mountain Community College
Linda Kuroski, Erie Community College City Campus
Larry Musolino, Lehigh Carbon Community College
Angela Stabley, Portland Community College
Rose Toering, Kilian Community College
Edward Watkins, Florida State College at Jacksonville
Annette Wiesner, University of Wisconsin–Parkside
Special thanks go to Jean Bermingham for copyediting the manuscript and proofreading the
pages, to Rhoda Oden for preparing the solutions manuals, and to Lauri Semarne for her
work in ensuring the accuracy of the text. We would also like to thank the many people at
Cengage Learning who worked to guide the manuscript for the eighth edition from develop-
ment through production.
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPTER
AIM for Success
A
Focus on Success
Digital Vision
This important chapter describes study skills that are used by students who have been successful in
this course. Chapter A covers a wide range of topics that focus on what you need to do to succeed
in this class. It includes a complete guide to the textbook and how to use its features to become a
successful student.
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
AIM-2 AIM FOR SUCCESS
GET READY
We are committed to your success in learning mathematics and have developed many tools
and resources to support you along the way.
Of course, we have no idea what you just wrote, but experience has shown us that many
of you wrote something along the lines of “I have to take it to graduate” or “It is a pre-
requisite to another course I have to take” or “It is required for my major.” Those reasons
are perfectly fine. Every teacher has had to take courses that were not directly related to
his or her major.
One reason you may have listed is that math skills are important in order to be successful
in your chosen career. That is certainly an important reason. Here are some other reasons.
• Math is a skill that applies across careers, which is certainly a benefit in our world of
changing job requirements. A good foundation in math may enable you to more easily
make a career change.
• Math can help you learn critical thinking skills, an attribute all employers want.
• Math can help you see relationships between ideas and identify patterns.
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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künstlichen Ursprungs, überall begegnen wir Milben, ihre
Leibesgestalt oft in wunderbarer Weise dem Aufenthaltsort
anpassend und ihre Lebensgewohnheiten einrichtend nach den
Bedingungen, die derselbe bietet.
Bei der immer noch vorhandenen sehr unvollständigen Kenntnis
auch unserer heimatlichen Milben ist es noch nicht möglich
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schon einige grössere Verwandtschaftskreise aus dem Schwarm der
überhaupt hierhergehörigen Tiere ab. So bilden die soeben schon
erwähnten Panzermilben, denen jeder Sammler am häufigsten im
Moose begegnet, einen in sich völlig abgeschlossenen Stamm. Sie
sind reine Landbewohner, und wenn man auch in jüngster Zeit im
Meere einige Vertreter gefunden haben will, so ist das doch mit
Vorsicht aufzunehmen. Ebenso stellen die Gamasidae, diejenigen
Milben, zu welchen die auf den Dungkäfern so häufig scharenweise
anzutreffenden braunen Acariden gehören, eine wohl
abgeschlossene Gruppe dar. So vielgestaltig aber auch die
Wohnstätten derselben sind, in das Wasser ist doch keins davon
hinabgestiegen. Zwar hat man einen ihrer Vertreter in den wohl
gewiss mit Wasser stets und reichlich bespülten Nasengängen einer
Seehundsart aufgefunden, auch haben eifrige Naturforscher unter
den durch die Flutwelle regelmässig überspülten Steinen des
Seestrandes einige Gamasiden entdeckt, aber wirkliche Wassertiere
haben wir damit doch nicht vor uns. Nicht besser steht es mit den
zahllosen Geschlechtern der die Haut und die Federn der Vögel oder
die Haare der kleinen Säugetiere bevölkernden Milben (Sarcoptidae)
oder denjenigen, welche dem grossen Stamm der durch die
Mehlmilbe gekennzeichneten Acariden (Tyroglyphidae) angehören.
Wenn sie auch meist der Feuchtigkeit als einer notwendigen
Voraussetzung ihres Lebens bedürfen, so sind sie doch niemals
Bewohner unserer Teiche und Flüsse geworden. Einzig und allein
diejenige Gruppe unter den Milben, denen ich die allgemeine
Bezeichnung Vorderatmer gegeben habe, weil sie ihre beiden
kleinen Luftlöcher ganz vorn an dem kegelförmig hervorspringenden
Mundabschnitt führen, bietet uns Beispiele von auch dem Leben im
Wasser angepassten Milben dar. Diese Vorderatmer werden am
besten durch die so häufig in unseren Gärten am Fusse der
Obstbäume anzutreffende Samtmilbe (Trombidium fuliginosum)
veranschaulicht. Trombidiumartige Milben also sind es, welche in
grosser Zahl die süssen Gewässer, nur mit wenigen Arten die See
bewohnen.
Eine Naturgeschichte dieser Hydrachniden muss vor allen
Dingen ein Bild der äusserlich wahrnehmbaren Gestalt entwerfen
und so mag sich denn zunächst darauf die Aufmerksamkeit richten.
Ein Zug mit dem Fangnetz durch das klare Wasser eines Teiches
fördert in der Regel ausser zahlreichen kleinen Krustern auch
manche undurchsichtige und durchsichtige Hydrachnide zutage. Wir
entnehmen eine Milbe der letzteren Sorte, es ist eine Piona
flavescens, und betrachten sie, nachdem sie in ein Uhrgläschen
übergeführt ist, zunächst mit der Lupe.
Fig. 1.
Piona flavescens, von der Seite gesehen.
Der rundliche Rumpf ist, wie wir bald bemerken, ungeteilt, oben
hochgewölbt, unten abgeflacht, so wie Fig. 1 es zeigt. Bei den
meisten Hydrachniden hat er diese Gestalt, nur ausnahmsweise
treffen wir einen flachen Rumpf, einen stark in die Länge gezogenen,
oder einen durch besondere Anhänge am hinteren Rande
ausgezeichneten. Der vorderen Hälfte der Unterfläche entspringen
die acht Füsse.
Wie schlank und zierlich sind diese hellen völlig durchsichtigen
Füsschen, die das Tier oft in ganzer Länge von sich streckt und so
eine Zeit lang still und unbeweglich liegen bleibt, um mit einem
plötzlichen Ruck eine Strecke fortzueilen. Wieder liegt es still da und
fängt nach einer kurzen Ruhe an langsam auf dem Grunde
fortzukriechen. Jetzt eilt es wieder, sich wie im Wirbel
überschlagend, in hastiger Bewegung eine Strecke fort, um bald zu
ruhen, bald langsam im Wasser zu wandeln.
Betrachten wir die einzelnen Füsse noch genauer, so fallen
besonders an den hinteren Paaren lange, seidenglänzende
Haarborsten auf, welche gedrängt stehen und leicht beweglich sind.
Die zahlreichsten bemerken wir am vorletzten und drittletzten Gliede
der beiden hinteren Fusspaare. Es sind dies die für unsere
Süsswassermilben ganz besonders charakteristischen
Schwimmborsten, und von ihrer Anzahl, ihrer Breite und Stellung
hängt zum grossen Teil die Gewandtheit und Schnelligkeit ab, mit
der sich die Tierchen im Wasser bewegen. Als Regel können wir
annehmen, dass bei den erwachsenen Milben die vorderen Füsse
nur wenige, die hinteren dagegen zahlreiche Schwimmborsten
führen, und dass wiederum an jedem Fusse, der überhaupt welche
besitzt, das vorletzte Glied die meisten, die dem Körper näheren
Glieder immer weniger solche Borsten tragen. Ausnahmen von
dieser Regel sind allerdings beobachtet. So bemerkt man, dass bei
einer der grössten einheimischen Arten, einer der schnellsten und
gewandtesten Schwimmerinnen, Eylaïs extendens, welche als
tiefrote Jägerin die Wasser durcheilt, das vierte Fusspaar gar keine
Schwimmborsten besitzt. Das Tier hat sich daher gewöhnt, den
letzten Fuss jeder Körperseite beim Schwimmen ruhig nach hinten
gestreckt zu tragen. Diese Haltung giebt ein untrügliches
Erkennungsmittel für die soeben namhaft gemachte, in unseren
stillstehenden Gewässern häufigere Milbe ab. Einigen Wassermilben
fehlen die Schwimmborsten sogar gänzlich. Sie sind dadurch
gezwungen, eine durchaus kriechende Lebensweise zu führen, und
leben meist im Schlamme verborgen.
Wie wenig übrigens der Besitz oder Mangel von
Schwimmborsten eine Verwandtschaft zwischen manchen in diesem
einen Punkte übereinstimmenden Milben mit sich bringt, beweisen
zwei Gattungen, deren Vertretern die Schwimmborsten fehlen,
nämlich Bradybates und Limnochares (die Tiefschreiter und
Schlammfreunde). Diese Milben sind in ihrer ganzen Erscheinung
ausserordentlich verschieden von einander. Erstere möchte wohl als
das Urbild einer, der Lebensweise im Wasser angepassten
Samtmilbe angesehen werden können, so vollständig wiederholt sie
Zug um Zug die Gestalt dieser Landmilbe. Ganz anders bietet sich
Limnochares dem Beobachter dar. Ein unförmlicher linsengrosser
roter Klumpen, welcher mühsam von den auffallend kurzen dünnen
Füssen fortgeschleppt wird und das langgezogene schnabelförmige
Mundstück beim Zurückziehen ganz in sich aufzunehmen vermag,
ist sie ganz darauf angewiesen, dass die Tragkraft des Wassers ihre
Muskeln bei der Fortbewegung ihres Leibes unterstützt.
Hervorgehoben mag noch werden, dass das
Schwimmborstensystem am ausgebildetsten bei den Hartmilben des
süssen Wassers, den Hartschwimmern, deren hervorstechendste
Gattung Arrenurus (Hartschwanz) ist, gefunden wird. Hier zeigt jeder
der beiden Hinterfüsse eine doppelte Reihe solcher Borsten.
Steht es nun auch gewiss fest, dass die Schwimmfertigkeit durch
die Schwimmborsten wesentlich bedingt ist, so beweist doch die
Beobachtung derjenigen Milben, welche die tiefen Regionen des
Genfersees bewohnen, dass damit die Frage nach den Gründen des
Schwimmens noch nicht ganz erledigt ist. Dort im Genfersee, und
vermutlich auch in anderen sehr tiefen Seen der Schweiz, hat Prof.
F o r e l in den tiefsten Schichten eine Hydrachnide gefunden, welche
sich trotz aller vorhandenen Schwimmborsten nicht imstande zeigt,
den Boden zu verlassen und schwimmend die Oberfläche zu
erreichen. Wird eine solche Milbe in ein noch so flaches Gefäss
gethan, so vermag sie nur auf dem Boden zu kriechen. Wird ihr,
wenn man sie an die Oberfläche gezogen hat, der
Unterstützungspunkt genommen, so sinkt sie trotz allen
Fussbewegungen, die sie ausführt, doch auf den Boden zurück.
Offenbar hat sie sich unter dem Einfluss des bereits erheblichen
Wasserdrucks auf dem Boden des Genfersees entwöhnt, von ihren
Schwimmborsten einen richtigen Gebrauch zu machen, sie hat ihre
Füsse niemals im Schwimmen geübt und hat so, trotz den
vorhandenen Schwimmborsten, die zum Schwimmen notwendigen
kräftigen Bewegungen dauernd verlernt. Es scheint also auch ein
richtiger Gebrauch der sonst zum Schwimmen hinreichend
ausgerüsteten Füsse vorausgesetzt werden zu müssen, damit die
Schwimmborsten eine dem Wasser hinreichenden Widerstand
entgegensetzende Fläche bilden und so die Fortbewegung bewirken
können.
Wir wenden uns nun wieder der Gestalt unserer Piona zu.
Während die gewölbte Oberseite derselben dem beobachtenden
Blick ausser den deutlich wahrnehmbaren dunklen Augenpunkten
wenig bietet, wird er, nachdem man die Milbe auf den Rücken gelegt
hat, bei Betrachtung der Unterseite von einigen besonderen
Organen gefesselt.
Auf der Bauchfläche bemerkt man nämlich vier von einander
getrennt stehende härtere Hautplatten, und an jeder sind zwei Füsse
eingelenkt[I]. Bei näherer Betrachtung ergiebt es sich, dass jede der
Platten aus zwei mit einander verschmolzenen Plättchen
zusammengesetzt ist und dass jedes der acht Plättchen die
Gelenkhöhle für das Hüftglied je eines der acht Füsse trägt. Wir
nennen die Plättchen die Hüftplatten der Füsse oder die Epimeren.
Unsere Piona flavescens lässt erkennen, dass die Hüftplatten für die
beiden vierten Füsse, rechts und links, die umfangreichsten sind.
Das ist nicht immer der Fall. Überhaupt finden wir in der Ausbildung
und gegenseitigen Gruppierung dieser Epimeren eine so
ausserordentliche Mannigfaltigkeit, dass nicht mit Unrecht die
hieraus sich ergebenden Unterschiede zur schärferen Trennung der
Gattungen verwendet worden sind.
Fig. 2.
a Arrenurus calcarator. b Arrenurus caudatus. c Arrenurus albator.