Full Download PDF of Innovations in Fermentation and Phytopharmaceutical Technologies 1st Edition - Ebook PDF All Chapter

Innovations in Fermentation and
Phytopharmaceutical Technologies 1st

Edition- eBook PDF
Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/innovations-in-fermentation-and-phytopharmaceut
ical-technologies-ebook-pdf/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Innovations in Thermochemical Technologies for Biofuel

Processing 1st Edition Sonil Nanda - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/innovations-in-thermochemical-
technologies-for-biofuel-processing-ebook-pdf/
Advances in Supercapacitor and Supercapattery:

Innovations in Energy Storage Devices 1st Edition -
eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/advances-in-supercapacitor-and-
supercapattery-innovations-in-energy-storage-devices-ebook-pdf/
Biomass, Biofuels, Biochemicals : Microbial

Fermentation of Biowastes 1st edition - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/biomass-biofuels-biochemicals-
microbial-fermentation-of-biowastes-ebook-pdf/
Emerging Technologies in Engineering 1st edition -

eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/emerging-technologies-in-
engineering-ebook-pdf/
Handbook of Innovations in CNS Regenerative Medicine
1st Edition António Salgado (Editor) - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/handbook-of-innovations-in-cns-
regenerative-medicine-ebook-pdf/
Modern Treatment Strategies for Marine Pollution:

Recent Innovations 1st Edition - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/modern-treatment-strategies-for-
marine-pollution-recent-innovations-ebook-pdf/
Emerging Technologies in Environmental Bioremediation

1st Edition Maulin P. Shah - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/emerging-technologies-in-
environmental-bioremediation-ebook-pdf/
Microscopy Methods in Nanomaterials Characterization. A

volume in Micro and Nano Technologies 1st Edition
Edition Sabu Thomas - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/microscopy-methods-in-
nanomaterials-characterization-a-volume-in-micro-and-nano-
technologies-ebook-pdf/
Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products:

Recent Trends, Innovations and Sustainability
Challenges 1st Edition- eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/valorization-of-agri-food-
wastes-and-by-products-recent-trends-innovations-and-
sustainability-challenges-ebook-pdf/
INNOVATIONS IN
FERMENTATION AND
PHYTOPHARMACEUTICAL
TECHNOLOGIES
INNOVATIONS IN
FERMENTATION AND
PHYTOPHARMACEUTICAL
TECHNOLOGIES
Edited by
HRUDAYANATH THATOI
Department of Biotechnology, Maharaja Sriram Chandra
Bhanja Deo University, Baripada, Odisha, India
SONALI MOHAPATRA
Department of Biotechnology, Odisha University
of Technology and Research (Formerly College of
Engineering and Technology), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
SWAGAT KUMAR DAS

Department of Biotechnology, Odisha University
of Technology and Research (Formerly College of
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further
information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such
as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-12-821877-8
For information on all Elsevier publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher: Susan Dennis

Acquisitions Editor: Anita Koch
Editorial Project Manager: Emily Thomson
Production Project Manager: Kumar Anbazhagan
Cover Designer: Mark Rogers
Typeset by STRAIVE, India

Contents
Contributors xiii
PART A Concepts of reactor designing

1. Photo bioreactors for production of biodiesel from algae:
A short review 3
Bikash Chandra Behera, Harisankar Dey, Riya Jalan,
Rashmi Ranjan Mishra, and Sonali Mohapatra
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Methods of biodiesel production from algae using PBR 4
1.3 Conclusion 11
References 11
2. Mixing and agitation in photobioreactors 13

Paulo Cesar de Souza Kirnev, Luciana Porto de Souza Vandenberghe,
Carlos Ricardo Soccol, and Júlio Cesar de Carvalho
2.1 Introduction 14
2.2 Mixing and agitation—Basic concepts 16
2.3 Mechanical agitation and mixing 18
2.4 Pneumatic agitation and mixing 23
2.5 Shear sensitivity of microalgal cells 27
2.6 Conclusion 30
References 30
3. Membrane reactors for mammalian cell culture 37

Dibyajyoti Samantaray and Swagat Kumar Das
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Membrane bioreactor taxonomy 38
3.3 Differential aspects of membrane bioreactors over other reactors
used in cell culture 39
3.4 Membrane bioreactors offer varying operations and modalities 39
3.5 Membrane bioreactors: Presenting numerous opportunities in
mammalian cell product manufacturing 42
v
vi Contents
3.6 Conclusion 43
References 43
4. Advances in fermentative systems for the production

of ethanol from lignocellulosic biomass 47
M. Láinez, J.A. García-Bejar, G. Flores-Cosío, E.J. Herrera-López,
and L. Amaya-Delgado
4.1 Lignocellulosic ethanol production process 47
4.2 Fermentation systems 50
4.3 Factors that affect alcoholic fermentation 60
4.4 Innovative strategies to improve ethanol productivity 61
4.5 Modeling, instrumentation, and process control strategies 66
4.6 Ethanol production at commercial scale 68
4.7 Conclusions 70
References 70
5. Liquid extraction with immobilized liquids for product

recovery from fermentation broths 75
Alan D. Perez, Angelo Go
€ssi, Wolfgang Riedl, Boelo Schuur,
and Javier Fontalvo
5.1 Introduction 75
5.2 Considerations for liquid extraction techniques to recover products from
fermentation broths 82
5.3 Liquid membranes in microchannels 84
5.4 Membrane-assisted extraction 93
5.5 Conclusions and outlook 100
References 102
PART B Upstream processes in bioprocessing of food,

phytopharmaceuticals, and biofuels
6. Recent advancements in the extraction of phytoconstituents
from herbal sources 109
Deepak Pradhan, Prativa Biswasroy, Goutam Rath, and Goutam Ghosh
6.1 Introduction 109

6.2 Recent advances in extraction techniques 113
6.3 Conclusion 122
References 123
Contents vii
7. Emerging biosensor technology and its potential

application in food 127
Deepak Kumar Verma, Mamta Thakur, Soubhagya Tripathy,
Balaram Mohapatra, Smita Singh, Ami R. Patel, Alok Kumar Gupta,
Mónica L. Chávez-González, Prem Prakash Srivastav, Jos
e Sandoval-Cortes,
and Cristóbal N. Aguilar
7.2 Potential application in food industry 131
7.3 Major industrial challenges and suggestions for food analysis 140
7.4 Future outlooks: Research development and further
directions 144
7.5 Concluding remarks 152
References 152
8. Current trends in green processing: Improvements

of food product 165
Gauri Singhal, Priya Singh, Anjani Sihag, and Nidhi Srivastava

8.2 Concepts and strategies of green physical processing 166
8.3 Green physical techniques and their applications in food
improvement 167
8.4 Conclusion 177
References 177
9. Phytochemicals and their nanoformulation in sustained

drug delivery and therapy 181
Upasana Kapoor-Narula and Nibedita Lenka
9.1 Lifestyle, metabolism, and disease link 181

9.2 Conventional therapeutic intervention and limitations 182
9.3 Phytochemicals as drug adjuvants and natural sources
for therapeutic intervention 182
9.4 Types of phytochemicals and their use 183
9.5 Bioavailability of phytochemicals 187
9.6 Targeted therapy: The importance and requisites 188
9.7 Carriers for drug targeting 190
9.8 Diseases and nanodrug delivery of phytochemicals 202
9.9 SWOT analysis of phytochemical conjugated NPs 211
9.10 Conclusion 211
References 212
viii Contents
10. Biohydrogen evolution in microbial electrolysis cell,

a novel electrofermentation technology:
Influence of reactor design 221
Pooja Dange, Ankit Kumar, Nishit Savla, Santimoy Khilari, Subhasish Dutta,
Piyush K. Gupta, Krishna Kumar Pandey, Abhilasha S. Mathuriya, Kanupriya,
Sharad Agarwal, and Soumya Pandit
10.2 Microbial electrolysis cell 229
10.3 Challenges of EF at the industrial level 236
10.4 Future outlook 239
10.5 Conclusion 239
References 240
PART C Downstream processes in bioprocessing of food,

phytopharmaceuticals, and biofuels
11. Mechanism, regulation, and inhibition of alkaloids in cancer
therapy targeting JAK/STAT pathway 247
Sankhadip Bose, Sabyasachi Banerjee, Deepak Kumar Verma, Mamta Thakur,
Smita Singh, Mónica L. Chávez González, and Cristóbal N. Aguilar
11.2 Structure of JAKs and STATs 249
11.3 Mechanisms of action of JAK/STAT signaling pathway 253
11.4 Role in development of cell division 257
11.5 Coordination between JAK and STAT 258
11.6 Regulations 258
11.7 Alkaloids targeting JAK/STAT pathway inhibition 261
References 267
12. Biological production of xylitol: A process development

approach 271
Ashish Prabhu

12.2 Xylitol and its potential application 273
12.3 Chemical route of xylitol production 274
12.4 Biological formation of xylitol 275
12.5 Microorganism used for xylitol production 276
12.6 Strain engineering strategy for xylitol production 278
12.7 Factors affecting xylitol production 281
12.8 Bioreactor operation and cell recycling 283
Contents ix
12.9 Downstream processing of xylitol 284

12.10 Conclusion 285
Competing interests 286
References 286
13. Production of methyl ethyl ketone applying process

intensification strategies 295
Eduardo Sánchez-Ramírez, Gabriel Contreras-Zarazua,
Ana Gabriela Romero-García, Brenda Huerta-Rosas,
Juan Jose Quiroz-Ramirez, and Juan Gabriel Segovia-Hernández
13.2 Cases of study 300
13.3 Methodology to design the intensified alternatives 301
13.4 Performance evaluation indices 304
13.5 Results 306
13.6 Conclusions 311
References 312
14. Microbial xylanases, their structural characteristics, and

industrial applications: A biotechnological advancement 315
Manish Paul and Hrudayanath Thatoi
14.2 Lignocellulolytic enzymes 316
14.3 Lignocellulolytic microorganisms 317
14.4 Xylanase 322
14.5 Application of xylanase 326
14.6 Isolation and screening of xylanolytic bacteria 327
14.7 Growth profile analysis 329
14.8 Biochemical identification 329
14.9 Enzyme assay for determination of xylanase activity 330
14.10 Optimization strategy for production of bacterial xylanase
enzyme 330
14.11 In silico study 331
References 334
15. Advances in fermented foods and therapeutics 341

Pankaj Taneja, Samuel Shiferaw Biresaw, Neetu KumraTaneja,
Saurabh Kumar Jha, Belay Zeleke, Saumya Srivastava, Mayank Taneja,
and Sahdeo Prasad
x Contents
15.2 Human evolution and nutrition 342

15.3 Fermented foods on society perspective 343
15.4 Health benefits of fermented foods and beverages 345
15.5 Potential benefits and risks of fermentation 346
15.6 The role of gut microbiota 347
15.7 Gut microbiota, fermented foods, and beverages 349
Acknowledgments 352
Conflict of interest statement 352
References 352
PART D By-product utilization for production

of value-added products
16. Wine waste as a potential source of bioactive compounds 361
Daisy Amaya-Chantaca, Adriana C. Flores-Gallegos, Anna Iliná,
Cristóbal N. Aguilar, Deepak Kumar Verma, Deepika Baranwal,
and Mónica L. Chávez-González

16.2 Grape composition 362
16.3 Grape waste 365
16.4 Common uses of grape waste 367
16.5 Bioactive compounds in wine waste 367
16.6 Solid and submerged fermentation 372
Acknowledgments 375
References 375
17. Agro-industrial wastes for production of single-cell

protein (SCP) 381
Rocío del Carmen Carranza-Mendez, Leonardo Sepúlveda-Torre,
Rodolfo Ramos-González, Deepak Kumar Verma, Deepika Baranwal,
Cristóbal N. Aguilar, and Mónica L. Chávez-González

17.2 Single-cell protein 382
17.3 SCP production from agro-industrial wastes 386
17.4 Factors affecting the SCP process 390
17.5 Advantages and disadvantages of SCP 393
Acknowledgments 393
References 394
Contents xi
18. β-Glucan production through bioconversion of sugarcane

bagasse by Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus niger 397
Gemilang Lara Utama, Mega Oktaviani Kurniawan, Yana Cahyana,
and Roostita Lobo Balia

18.2 Materials and methods 399
18.3 Results and discussion 401
18.4 Conclusion 411
Acknowledgments 411
Ethics approval and consent to participate 412
Consent for publication 412
Availability of data and materials 412
Competing interests 412
Funding 412
Authors’ contributions 412
References 412
19. Value-added product development from food scraps 417

Vartika Verma, Lavisha Rao, Sunanda Joshi, Monika Choudhary,
and Nidhi Srivastava
19.2 Food waste as a renewable sourced material 419
19.3 Application of waste materials in the development of value-added
product lines 419
19.4 Some of the other value-added products from food waste 426
References 430
Further reading 435
20. Evaluation of various possibilities of underutilized fish

processing biomass as a value-added product:
A waste-to-wealth approach 437
Supriya Dash, Shyamalini Shyamasuta, and Pratik Dash
20.2 Fish processing biomass 438
20.3 Bioactive compounds present in fish biomass and their utilization 441
20.4 Bioactive compounds from fish 445
20.5 Conclusion 452
References 453
Further reading 455
xii Contents
21. Value-added products from industrial wastes of

phytopharmaceutical industries 457
Md Nur Kabidul Azam, Tushar Ahmed Shishir, Amia Khandker,
and Md Nazmul Hasan

21.2 Drug and medicine in modern phytopharmaceutical
approaches 461
21.3 Phytopharmaceutical wastes 462
21.4 Value-added products from phytopharmaceuticals 463
21.5 Biomass 465
21.6 Bioethanol 469
21.7 Enzyme production 470
21.8 Composting 474
21.9 Organic fertilizer 475
21.10 Fish and poultry feed 476
21.11 Microbial conversion 476
References 480
Index 491
Contributors
Sharad Agarwal
School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Cristóbal N. Aguilar
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research Department, School of
Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico
Daisy Amaya-Chantaca
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research Department; Nano-
bioscience Group, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Saltillo,
Coahuila, Mexico
L. Amaya-Delgado
Industrial Biotechnology Unit, Center for Research and Assistance in Technology and
Design of the State of Jalisco, A.C., Zapopan, Jalisco, Mexico
Md Nur Kabidul Azam
Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Department of Genetic Engineering and
Biotechnology, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore; Department of
Biotechnology, TechB Nutrigenomics, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Roostita Lobo Balia
Veterinary Study Program, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung; Faculty
of Animal Husbandry, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang, Indonesia
Sabyasachi Banerjee
Gupta College of Technological Sciences, Asansol, West Bengal, India
Deepika Baranwal
Department of Home Science, Arya Mahila Post Graduate College, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Bikash Chandra Behera
School of Biological Sciences, NISER, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Samuel Shiferaw Biresaw
Department of Biotechnology, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Prativa Biswasroy
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be University),
Bhuabaneswar, Odisha, India
Sankhadip Bose
Bengal School of Technology, A College of Pharmacy, Hooghly, West Bengal, India
Yana Cahyana
Faculty of Agro-Industrial Technology, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang, Indonesia
xiii
xiv Contributors
Mónica L. Chávez-González
Nanobioscience Group; Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research
Department, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila,
Mexico
Monika Choudhary
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, Rajasthan,
India
Gabriel Contreras-Zarazua
Departamento de Ingenierı́a Quı́mica, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
Pooja Dange
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Swagat Kumar Das
Department of Biotechnology, Odisha University of Technology and Research (Formerly
College of Engineering and Technology), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Pratik Dash
Supriya Dash
Júlio Cesar de Carvalho
Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Paraná, ACF
Centro Politecnico, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
Paulo Cesar de Souza Kirnev
Luciana Porto de Souza Vandenberghe
Rocı́o del Carmen Carranza-Mendez
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research Department;
Nanobioscience Group, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Saltillo,
Coahuila, Mexico
Harisankar Dey
P.G. Department of Botany, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Centenary College,
Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Subhasish Dutta
Chemical Engineering Division, Center of Innovative and Applied Bioprocessing (CIAB),
Mohali, Punjab, India
G. Flores-Cosı́o
Contributors xv
Adriana C. Flores-Gallegos
Javier Fontalvo
Laboratory of Process Intensification and Hybrid Systems, Faculty of Engineering and
Architecture, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Campus La Nubia, Manizales, Colombia
J.A. Garcı́a-Bejar
Goutam Ghosh
Angelo G€ ossi
University of Twente, Faculty of Science and Technology, Sustainable Process Technology
Group, Enschede, The Netherlands; University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern
Switzerland, School of Life Sciences, Institute for Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Muttenz,
Switzerland
Alok Kumar Gupta
Division of Postharvest Management, ICAR-Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture
(Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India), Lucknow, Uttar
Pradesh, India
Piyush K. Gupta
India
Md Nazmul Hasan
Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Department of Genetic Engineering and
Biotechnology, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh
E.J. Herrera-López
Brenda Huerta-Rosas
Anna Iliná
Coahuila, Mexico
Riya Jalan
Department of Biotechnology, MITS School of Biotechnology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Saurabh Kumar Jha
Sunanda Joshi
India
xvi Contributors
Kanupriya
India
Upasana Kapoor-Narula
National Centre for Cell Science, Pune, India
Amia Khandker
Department of Biotechnology, TechB Nutrigenomics, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Santimoy Khilari
Department of Chemistry, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
Ankit Kumar
India
Neetu KumraTaneja
Department of Microbiology, National Institute of Food Technology and Entrepreneurship
and Management, Sonipat, Haryana, India
Mega Oktaviani Kurniawan
Faculty of Agro-Industrial Technology, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang, Indonesia
M. Láinez
Nibedita Lenka
National Centre for Cell Science, Pune, India
Abhilasha S. Mathuriya
CRZ and Industry-III, Environmental Impact Assessment Division, Ministry of Environ-
ment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, New Delhi, India
Rashmi Ranjan Mishra
Balaram Mohapatra
Department of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
Bombay, Maharashtra, India
Sonali Mohapatra
Krishna Kumar Pandey
Department of Physics, School of Basic Sciences and Research, Sharda University, Greater
Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Soumya Pandit
India
Contributors xvii
Ami R. Patel
Division of Dairy Microbiology, Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy & Food Technology-
MIDFT, Mehsana, Gujarat, India
Manish Paul
Department of Biotechnology, Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University, Baripada,
Odisha, India
Alan D. Perez
Group, Enschede, The Netherlands; Laboratory of Process Intensification and Hybrid Sys-
tems, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Campus
La Nubia, Manizales, Colombia; University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern
Switzerland, School of Life Sciences, Institute for Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Muttenz,
Switzerland
Ashish Prabhu
Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology Warangal, Warangal,
Telangana, India
Deepak Pradhan
Sahdeo Prasad
Department of Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, Texas Tech University of Health
Science Center, Abilene, TX, United States
Juan Jose Quiroz-Ramirez
CONACyT-CIATEC A.C Centro de Innovación Aplicada en Tecnologı́as Competitivas,
León, Mexico
Rodolfo Ramos-González
Coahuila, Mexico
Lavisha Rao
India
Goutam Rath
Wolfgang Riedl
University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, School of Life Sciences,
Institute for Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Muttenz, Switzerland
Ana Gabriela Romero-Garcı́a
xviii Contributors
Dibyajyoti Samantaray
Eduardo Sánchez-Ramı́rez
Jose Sandoval-Cortes
Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Coahuila,
Saltillo, Mexico
Nishit Savla
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Boelo Schuur
Group, Enschede, The Netherlands
Juan Gabriel Segovia-Hernández
Leonardo Sepúlveda-Torre
Tushar Ahmed Shishir
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Shyamalini Shyamasuta
Anjani Sihag
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith, Tonk, Rajasthan, India
Priya Singh
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith, Tonk, Rajasthan, India
Smita Singh
Department of Life Sciences (Food Technology), Graphic Era (Deemed to be) University,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Gauri Singhal
Department of Biotechnology, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Sanskriti University,
Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India
Carlos Ricardo Soccol
Prem Prakash Srivastav
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Contributors xix
Nidhi Srivastava
Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research
(NIPER), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Saumya Srivastava
Mayank Taneja
Netaji Subhash Institute of Technology, Dwarka, Delhi, India
Pankaj Taneja
Mamta Thakur
Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering
and Technology, Longowal, Punjab, India
Hrudayanath Thatoi
Department of Biotechnology, Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University, Baripada,
Odisha, India
Soubhagya Tripathy
Gemilang Lara Utama
Faculty of Agro-Industrial Technology, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang; Centre for
Environment and Sustainability Science, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung, Indonesia
Deepak Kumar Verma
Vartika Verma
India
Belay Zeleke
This page intentionally left blank
PART A
Concepts of reactor
designing
CHAPTER 1
Photo bioreactors for production

of biodiesel from algae: A short
review
Bikash Chandra Beheraa, Harisankar Deyb, Riya Jalanc,
Rashmi Ranjan Mishrac, and Sonali Mohapatrad
a
School of Biological Sciences, NISER, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
b
P.G. Department of Botany, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Centenary College, Kolkata,
West Bengal, India
c
d
Department of Biotechnology, Odisha University of Technology and Research (Formerly College of
1.1 Introduction
Algae use light and carbon dioxide to grow in aquatic environments. There are
two types of algae: macro- and microalgae. Due to excessive oil content and
higher biomass production capability in various environments, microalgae
are considered an asset for biofuel production. In recent years, microalgae as
an alternative biofuel feedstock has attracted the interest of researchers, entre-
preneurs, and the general public (ElMekawy et al., 2014). Algal biomass con-
tains three main components: carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids/natural oils
(Fig. 1.1). The natural oil made by microalgae is in the form of tricylglycerol.
Microalgae are therefore the exclusive focus in the algae-to-biodiesel arena.
The large-scale production of microalgal biomass is generally carried out
through cheap and simple open pond technologies. However, there are
some disadvantages with this method such as chance of contamination,
water evaporation, low gas-liquid mass transfer rate, low mixing rate, and
poor temperature control (Chisti, 2007). To overcome such disadvantages,
numerous closed photo bioreactors (PBR) have recently been designed.
This technology is very cost-effective for algal biomass production. It pro-
vides a close environment that can protect the culture from contamination.
Through PBR technologies, different favorable growth conditions such as
pH, temperature, O2, etc., required for microalgal growth can be controlled
more accurately (Tredici et al., 2010).
Innovations in Fermentation and Phytopharmaceutical Technologies Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821877-8.00008-7 All rights reserved. 3
4 Innovations in fermentation and phytopharmaceutical technologies
Fig. 1.1 Different metabolic pathways in microalgae for the synthesis of proteins,
nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, and H2 that are related to biofuel production
(Beer et al., 2009).
Hence, this review aims to elucidate the use of closed PBRs for biodiesel
production using microalgae biomass. Factors affecting biodiesel production
such as different lipid extraction methods and biodiesel detection techniques
are also described in detail.
1.2 Methods of biodiesel production from algae using PBR

1.2.1 Tubular photo bioreactors
Tubular photo bioreactors (TPBRs) are made from glass or plastic tubes
oriented horizontally or vertically (Fig. 1.2). TPBRs are supplied from a
central utility installation with sensors, pumps, respective nutrients, and
CO2 supply. In a horizontal TPBR, the tubes are arranged in multiple ori-
entations such as horizontal, inclined, spiral, helicoidal, and their variations.
Both types of TPBR (horizontal and vertical) differ according to the length
of the tube, flow velocity, rate of circulation in the system, configuration of
the light receiver, etc. In a TPBR, the tubes used have diameters between
Photo bioreactors for production of biodiesel from algae 5
Fig. 1.2 (A) Design of a tubular photo bioreactor (Tanwar et al., 2010). (B) Three-
dimensional diagram of a tubular photo bioreactor (Bahadar, 2014).
10 and 60 mm, with lengths according to the height of the TPBR designed.
The use of such tubes helps in achieving a high surface-to-volume ratio
(above 100/m), which is one of the main advantages of this design
(Posten, 2009). However, due to huge energy requirements and the greater
cost of investment (particularly for mixing and cooling), their use is very rare
in industries.
1.2.1.1 Stirred tank photo bioreactors

In stirred tank photo bioreactors (STPBRs), agitation is carried out mechan-
ically with the help of impellers of different sizes and shapes. Several
works are performed through these such as aeration, proper mixing and
Motor
Baffle
Agitator
Fig. 1.3 Schematic diagram of a stirred tank photo bioreactor (Gupta et al., 2015).
homogenization of the growth culture, and the heat transfer of the growth
medium (Fig. 1.3). In this bioreactor, foam breakers are installed to prevent
foaming, CO2 bubblers are fitted at the bottom of the tank to provide a car-
bon source, and CO2 concentration baffles are used to reduce the intensity.
Light sources are provided externally by illumination with fluorescent
lamps. Due to the effective stirring mechanism, the light dispersion rate is
very high in STPBRs, which leads to a lower incidence of dark zones inside
the reactor and higher biomass productivity. However, the low surface-to-
volume ratio of STPBRs reduces the light-harvesting efficiency of the photo
bioreactor.
1.2.1.2 Bubble column photo bioreactors

In contrast to STPBRs, in bubble column photo bioreactors (BCPBRs)
(Fig. 1.4), agitation and mixing are done by gas sparging, which depends
on the behavior of the bubbles released from the sparger (Doran, 2013).
In BCPBRs, because light is provided externally, the photosynthetic effi-
ciency greatly depends on the gas flow rate, which depends on the light
Air Bubble
Air Sparger
CO2 and Air Supply

Fig. 1.4 Schematic diagram of a bubble column photo bioreactor (Gupta et al., 2015).
and dark cycles (flashing light effect) as the liquid is circulated regularly from
the central dark zone to the external photic zone at a higher gas flow rate. In
comparison to other bioreactors, BCPBRs are cylindrical vessels with a
height greater than twice the diameter. BCPBRs have several merits such
as low cost, effective mass and heat transfer, higher surface-to-volume ratio,
effective O2 release, and residual gas mixture (Fig. 1.4). Mixing and mass
transfer of CO2 are carried out by a sparger through bubbling the gas
mixture.
1.2.1.3 Airlift photo bioreactor

Airlift photo bioreactors (APBRs) are a type of bioreactor in which the bio-
reactor vessel is connected with two interconnecting zones or tubes. In riser
tubes, the gas mixture is sparged whereas the other tube, known as a down
comer, does not receive the gas (Fig. 1.5). It occurs in two loop forms (inter-
nal and external). A draft tube or split cylinder is used to separate the two
regions in the internal loop reactor. The internal loop reactor is further mod-
ified into an internal loop concentric tube reactor and an internal loop split
airlift reactor. The riser and down comer are separated by two different tubes
Gas output Gas output
Gas input Gas input

Fig. 1.5 Schematic diagram of an airlift photo bioreactor (Singh and Sharma, 2012).
in the external loop reactor and the sparger is used in the riser tube for mix-
ing by bubbling the gas. The upward movement of the gas from the sparger
inside the riser decreases the density of the riser, making the liquid move
upward. The gas leaves the liquid in the disengagement zone. The quantity
of gas that does not disengage in the disengagement zone gets trapped by
liquid moving downward in the down comer.
1.2.2 Methods of algal inoculum preparation for PBRs

There are various methods for preparation of algal inoculum. For instance,
algal inoculums can be cultured in a freshly prepared BG-11 liquid medium
and then incubated at a temperature of 28 2°C with illumination of 30–35
μmol photons m 2 s 1. Consequently, white continuous light can be given
in a shaker incubator and after 30–45 days the micro algal culture can be
transferred to the respective PBR, in which the microalgae can grow under
optimum controlled conditions. Before the inoculation process, the photo
bioreactor and algal culture medium are sterilized by surface sterilization and
autoclave, respectively, for 15 min (Pinho et al., 2017). There are different
parameters such as luminosity, aeration, pH, temperature, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, proper mixing, and nutrient uptake that are controlled in the
PBR for better productivity. For optimum microalgal productivity in a
PBR, light is the main limiting factor. If the light intensity changes, then
the productivity will be changed accordingly. During the incubation period
for algal mass cultivation or biomass development, direct light is obtained
from the light chamber of a PBR. Luminosity is achieved by means of
fluorescent lamps and aeration is obtained by continuous air injection using

the compressor. The growth and development of microalgal species depends
upon the optimal temperature, which ranges from 15°C to 26°C and is mea-
sured by a sensor coupled to the reactor (Znad et al., 2012). pH is a main
parameter for algal growth. Most microalgal species favor neutral to slightly
alkaline pH, whereas marine species prefer alkaline pH, that is, from 7.8 to
8.6, or sometimes more. Microalgal species such as Spirulina platensis can
even tolerate a pH level up to 9–10. The CO2 concentration is also another
important parameter for algal biomass productivity. With the increase in
CO2 concentration, the productivity increases. However, with the increase
in concentration the pH of the media drops down to a level that can affect
the micro algal physiology adversely (Kumar et al., 2011). Thus, the value of
the pH in culture condition has to be maintained in proper time intervals by
injecting acid/alkaline solutions into the closed system of the reactor
through sterilized hoses, avoiding contamination of the culture medium.
1.2.3 Harvesting
The common harvesting methods include sedimentation, flocculation, cen-
trifugation, filtration, and ultrafiltration. The choice of suitable harvesting
method depends on the algal species, growth medium, desired end product,
and production cost benefit. After cultivation, harvesting is done by separat-
ing the supernatant from the biomass. The separated biomass is dried by
several methods such as spray drying, drum drying, freeze drying, and sun
drying. After harvesting, the algal biomass must be dried as it has a tendency
to spoil after only a few hours in a hot climate (Mondal et al., 2017).
1.2.4 Extraction of the lipids in the biomass

For the proper extraction of lipids from a microalgal biomass, organic sol-
vents such as 96% of ethanol or hexane or a hexane-ethanol mixture are gen-
erally advised (Mondal et al., 2017). This is because organic solvent has less
reactivity with lipids and can be directly applied to wet feedstock. However,
the limitation of this technique is that it is very slow and requires a large
amount of solvents. On the other hand, some advanced extraction tech-
niques such as supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, ultrasonic-assisted
extraction, osmotic shock, solvent extraction, and enzymatic extraction
are also available for oil extraction from a microalgae biomass.
1.2.5 Conversion of microalgal oils into biofuels

The microalgae accumulate lipids in the form of triglycerides (TAG) that is
further transformed to fatty acid alkyl esters by trans-esterification reaction.
The composition of lipid feedstocks is 90%–98% triglycerides followed by
small amounts of monoglycerides, diglycerides and free fatty acids of about
1%–5% (by weight). Also, very small amounts of phospholipids, phospha-
tides, tocopherols, carotenes, sulfur compounds, and traces of water mole-
cules are also found (Bozbas, 2008). As triglycerides have a higher fatty acid
content and no phosphate, they function as energy reserves that are more
desirable than phospholipids and glycolipids for biodiesel production
(Mata et al., 2010). Transesterification is a multiple step reaction that
includes three reversible steps in series, where triglycerides are converted
into diglycerides followed by diglycerides into monoglycerides and finally
monoglycerides into esters (biodiesel) and glycerol (byproduct). The overall
transesterification reaction is described in Fig. 1.6.
The extraction of lipids from the microalgal biomass is acidified by the
addition of hydrochloric acid and water; it refluxes at under 80°C for 8 h
(Pinho et al., 2017). The materials are washed several times with distilled
water until the pH level is 5. The esterification is carried out by mixing
the algal oil or by adding acidified biosolid oil, sulfuric acid, and methanol
while keeping the mixture under reflux at 80°C for 4 h. The reactions are
repeated several times until the yield in fatty acid methyl esters is greater than
95%. The yield quantified by following fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) is
determined by the final composition of the sample through high perfor-
mance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Pinho et al., 2017). The reactions
are also followed up by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), 1H
nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR), and Gas Chromatography-Mass
Spectroscopy (GC-MS). The compounds were identified tentatively after
Fig. 1.6 Transesterification of triglycerides extracted from algal oil into biodiesel
(Hossain and Salleh, 2008).
comparison by the mass spectra of the National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST) 11 mass spectral library with a percent similarity of
80% or greater (Pinho et al., 2017).
1.3 Conclusion
In recent years, microalgal species have become the most attractive alterna-
tive fuel source to replace fossil fuel. Although different photo bioreactors
have been designed and developed for the cost-effective production of algal
biomass, much research is still needed to solve the observed limitations.
A super bioreactor should meet the characteristics of proper mixing, light
distribution, temperature control, and maintaining CO2 concentration.
Hence, it may be concluded that substantial investment in the development
of this technology and technical expertise in this area are still required before
biofuel can become a reality.
References
Bahadar, A., 2014. Production of Biodiesel Using Heterogeneous Catalyst and Super Critical
Fluid Extraction (Ph.D. thesis). National University of Sciences & Technology, Pakistan.
Beer, L., Boyd, E., Peter, J., Posewitz, M., 2009. Engineering algae for bio hydrogen and
biofuel production. Biotechnology 20, 264–271.
Bozbas, K., 2008. Biodiesel as an alternative motor fuel: production and policies in the Euro-
pean Union. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 12, 542–552.
Chisti, Y., 2007. Biodiesel from microalgae. Biotechnol. Adv. 25, 294–306.
Doran, P.M., 2013. Bioprocess Engineering Principles. vol. 14 Academic Press, New York,
pp. 751–852.
ElMekawy, A., Hegab, H.M., Vanbroekhoven, K., Pant, D., 2014. Techno productive
potential of photosynthetic microbial fuel cells through different configurations. Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 39, 617–627.
Gupta, P.L., Lee, S.M., Choi, H.J., 2015. A mini review: photobioreactors for large scale
algal cultivation. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 31, 1409–1417.
Hossain, S., Salleh, A., 2008. Biodiesel fuel production from algae as renewable energy. Am.
J. Biochem. Biotechnol. 4 (3), 250–254.
Kumar, K., Dasgupta, C.N., Nayak, B., Lindblad, P., Das, D., 2011. Development of suitable
photo bioreactors for CO2 sequestration addressing global warming using green algae and
cyanobacteria. Bioresour. Technol. 102, 4945–4953.
Mata, T.M., Martins, A.A., Caetano, N.S., 2010. Microalgae for biodiesel production and
other applications: a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14, 217–232.
Mondal, M., Goswami, S., Ghosh, A., Oinam, G., Tiwari, O.N., Das, P., Gayen, K.,
Mandal, M.K., Halder, G.N., 2017. Production of biodiesel from microalgae through
biological carbon capture: a review. 3 Biotech 7, 99.
Pinho, D.M., Oliveira, R.S., Dos Santos, V.M.L., Marques Welington, F., Pinto, A.C.,
Rezendeb, M.J.C., Suarez, P.A.Z., 2017. Evaluating the potential of biodiesel produc-
tion through microalgae farming in photobioreactor and high rate ponds from wastewa-
ter treatment. J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 28 (12), 2429–2437.
Posten, C., 2009. Design principles of photo-bioreactors for cultivation of microalgae. Eng.
Life Sci. 9, 165–177.
Singh, R.N., Sharma, S., 2012. Development of suitable photobioreactor for algae
production—a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 16, 2347–2353.
Tanwar, D., Khatri, K.K., Ajayata, Sharma, D., Soni, S.L., Mathur, Y.P., 2010.
Microalgae—a second generation biofuel. In: Bernard, J.K. (Ed.), Fuel Efficiency. Nova
Science Publishers, Inc, pp. 1–21.
Tredici, M.R., Chini Zittelli, G., Rodolfi, L., 2010. Photobioreactors. In: Flickinger, M.C.,
Anderson, S. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Industrial Biotechnology: Bioprocess, Biosepara-
tion, and Cell Technology. vol. 6. Wiley, Hoboken, pp. 3821–3838.
Znad, H., Naderi, G., Ang, H.M., Tade, M.O., 2012. CO2 biomitigation and biofuel pro-
duction using microalgae: photobioreactors developments and future directions. In:
Nawaz, Z. (Ed.), Advances in Chemical Engineering. InTech, pp. 230–244. Available
from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/advances-in-chemical-engineering/co2-
biomitigation-and-biofuel-productionusing-microalgae-photobioreactors-
developments-and-future-d.
CHAPTER 2
Mixing and agitation

in photobioreactors
Paulo Cesar de Souza Kirnev, Luciana Porto de Souza Vandenberghe,
Carlos Ricardo Soccol, and Júlio Cesar de Carvalho
Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Paraná, ACF Centro
Politecnico, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
Nomenclature
A cross-sectional area (m2)
C constant of empirical
CS solubility (ppm)
D diameter of bioreactor, vessel, or column (m)
Da rotor/impeller diameters (m)
db bubble diameter (m)
dL local diameter (m)
Dp (%) percentage of cell damage (%)
F pump frequency
g gravitational constant (9.81 m s2)
H liquid height (m)
hD height of gas-liquid dispersion (m)
K consistency index (Pa sn)
K0 solubility constant (mol L1 atm1)
KB friction loss coefficient for column top
ki impeller-dependent constant
kL mass transfer coefficient (m s1)
kLa volumetric oxygen mass transfer coefficient (s1)
KT friction loss coefficient for column bottom
L height of dispersion (m)
Li initial length of the algal filaments (μm)
n flow index in a power-law model ()
N stirrer speed (s1)
Nd number of passes
Np power number
P power input (W)
Q volume flow rate of gas (m3 s1)
QS sparged gas flow rate (m3)
T stirrer diameter (m).
t temp (s)
tm mixing time (s)
U superficial velocity (m s1)
V volume of the liquid in the vessel (m3)
Innovations in Fermentation and Phytopharmaceutical Technologies Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821877-8.00005-1 All rights reserved. 13
V∞ terminal rise velocity

Vg volume of the gas (m3)
VS superficial gas velocity (m s1)
W width of the impeller blade (m)
ΔH height difference between the transmitters (m)
ΔP static pressure drop (Pa)
Greek letters
α parameter
γ shear rate (s1)
ε energy dissipation rate (W kg1)
λ characteristic material time (s)
μ viscosity (Pa s)
μa apparent viscosity according to the Ostwald-de Waele model (Pa s)
ν cinematic viscosity (m2 s1)
ρ density (kg m3)
σ interfacial tension (N m1)
τ shear stress (Pa)
υs solid volume fraction
ϕ gas holdup ()
ϕL volume fractions of liquid phases ()
ϕs volume fractions of solid phases ()
Superindices
av average
d the downcomer
G gas
Gr gas rising
L liquid
r the riser
2.1 Introduction
Agitation is necessary for high-productivity microalgal cultures. In a static
culture, two situations can be observed: (1) cells deposit on the bottom of
the photobioreactor, or (2) cells accumulate close to the air-culture inter-
face. These conditions limit productivity due to mutual shading, exhaustion
of carbon dioxide (CO2), and an increase in the concentration of oxygen
(O2), thus causing photo-oxidation, among other problems. Agitation
improves mass transfer (supply of CO2 and removal of O2), homogeneous
distribution of nutrients and temperature, and exposure to light throughout
cell suspension.
Mixing and agitation in photobioreactors 15
Three agitation systems are possible: mechanical, pneumatic, or both.

In mechanical agitation, the fluid is moved by a set of internal (impellers)
or external (pumps) accessories. In pneumatic systems, fluid movement is
promoted by gas bubbles generated by spargers or perforated tubes.
Because the density of the bubbles is much lower than that of the liquid,
the bubbles rise, transmitting kinetic energy to the liquid. The injection
of gas may be necessary even in the presence of mechanical agitation, as it
improves gas-liquid exchanges (mass transport). In a microalgal culture,
CO2 must be transferred from the gas into the liquid, and the dissolved
O2 (from photosynthesis) must be removed from the liquid to the gaseous
phase. In this process, the mass transfer is controlled by the resistances that
the system can impose, which can be translated as the volumetric mass
transfer coefficient (kLa).
In microalgae cultivation, mixing and agitation are important aspects of
photobioreactor development and throughout cultivation (Lee and Palsson,
1994). In other words, the mixing and agitation system guarantees a high cell
concentration, maintains cell suspension, eliminates thermal stratification,
promotes homogeneity of nutrients, and allows better gas exchange (mass
transfer) in addition to reducing the degree of mutual shading and decreasing
the likelihood of photo-inhibition (Gudin and Chaumont, 1991; Javanmar-
dian and Palsson, 1991; Lee and Palsson, 1994; Suh and Lee, 2003; Ugwu
et al., 2008). When agitation is not adequate, sedimentation can occur (in
the static condition, the sedimentation speed can vary between 0.1 and
2.6 cm h1 (Patyna et al., 2018)), and deposited cells may die and decom-
pose, reducing yield and product quality (Gudin and Chaumont, 1991;
Suh and Lee, 2003).
However, with very vigorous agitation, high shear rates in the system
are observed and damage to cells may occur, although these effects
depend on the characteristics of each species. Morphological and physi-
ological characteristics are responsible for resistance to shear (Acien
Fernández et al., 2013; Molina Grima et al., 2000). By applying an
increasing rate of shear to a culture, it is possible to see an improvement
in the photosynthetic activity of the cell. However, in a given condition,
a sudden drop in photosynthesis occurs, that is, by reaching the maximum
tolerance to shear and exceeding this maximum rate, physical damage to
cells can be observed. This chapter briefly discusses the physicochemical
aspects of mixing and agitation, relevant for small-scale tank reactors and
larger systems, using impellers or paddle wheels.
2.2 Mixing and agitation—Basic concepts

Agitation is the process of mixing two or more phases to allow or improve
heat and mass transfer. In photobioreactors, agitation promotes the homog-
enization of solid (microalgae), liquid (culture medium), and gas (usually air)
phases (Shah, 2012).
In microalgae cultures, gas-liquid transport is critical, as it provides the
culture with the carbon source necessary for photosynthesis. It is influenced
by three main effects: pressure, temperature, and solutes. Henry’s law
describes the effect of pressure on solubility: The solubility of a gas in a liquid
is directly proportional to the pressure of that gas above the surface of the
solution.
Temperature has an important effect on gas solubility. The higher the
temperature, the lower the gas solubility. Solutes have more complex effects
on solubility and gas diffusion (Ophardt, 2003). However, maintaining spe-
cific temperatures and nutrient requirements is essential in microalgae cul-
tivation, leaving no room for tweaking gas solubility; therefore, controlling
agitation and aeration are often the only tools to enhance gas transport.
Considering the variations in temperature, partial pressure, and salinity,
many authors propose correlations to estimate the maximum concentration
of gas solubilized in a liquid. Two such correlations, for oxygen and carbon
dioxide, are:
Oxygen—considering a gas with 20.9% oxygen (Truesdale et al., 1955):
CS, O2 ¼ 14:161
0:3943T + 0:007714T 0:00006467T
2

3
S 0:0841 0:00256T + 0:0000374T 2

(2.1)
Carbon dioxide—calculation of the solubility constant as a function of
the temperature and salinity of the medium (Weiss, 1974):
h 2 i
100 T T T
58:0931 + 90:5069 T + 22:294 100 + S 0:0277660:025888 100 + 0:0050578 100
K0 ¼ e
(2.2)
CS, CO2 ¼ MM CO2 Ko pCO2 (2.3)
2.2.1 Diffusional mass transport

Gas mass transport to the cell occurs in three phases: gaseous, liquid, and
solid. After distribution of the bubbles in the liquid phase, the gas particles
migrate into the liquid, crossing the gas-liquid interface mainly due to the
effect of partial pressure. In the bubble’s interaction with the liquid, internal
pressure increases, forcing solubilization. The dissolved gas molecules are
transferred to the liquid-solid interface (e.g., a cell surface) and then absorbed
after diffusion (Garcia-Ochoa and Gomez, 2009).
The gas transfer rate is low, governed by diffusion. This phenomenon
can be described by Fick’s law. The gas flow is given by a specific diffusion
constant for the gas in the liquid and is influenced by a driving force (var-
iation of gas concentration in the liquid) in a unidirectional trajectory.
Through some considerations, it is possible to express the gas flow in the
gas accumulation rate correlating to how much is added to the system
(gas transfer rate, GTR) and how much is consumed by the microorganism
(gas consumption or uptake rate, GUR). The GUR depends on the specific
rate of gas consumption and the concentration of biomass. GTR is due to
the volumetric mass transfer coefficient (kLa) and a gas concentration gradi-
ent (Garcia-Ochoa and Gomez, 2009).
The kLa is one of the most important parameters in gas-liquid mass
transfer, with dimensional and dimensionless equations found in the lit-
erature for the volumetric mass transfer coefficient as a function of differ-
ent variables. However, there are discrepancies between the estimated
and empirical values of kLa, related to the strong influence of the type
of equipment geometry and the system’s physicochemical properties
(Garcia-Ochoa and Gomez, 1998, 2004, 2009). Some of these equations
are presented for each type of photobioreactor and are shown below:
Stirred tank (Schl€ uter and Deckwer, 1992)
1=3 " #0:62 " #0:23

ν P=V Q ν 1=3
kL a 2 ¼C (2.4)
g ρðνg4 Þ1=3 V g2
Bubble columns and airlifts (Suh et al., 1991)

0:2 2 3 0:62
kL aD2 ρgD2 ρ gD μ 0:5 Vs 0:5 1
¼ 0:018
DL σ μ 2 ρDL gD 1 + 0:12ðNl =τÞ
(2.5)
General (Linek et al., 2005)

P=V 1=4 DL 1=2
kL ¼ 0:448 (2.6)
ρ ν
2.3 Mechanical agitation and mixing

Agitated tank photobioreactors (Fig. 2.1A) are vessels with a system that
converts mechanical energy into kinetic energy to move a fluid. During this
process, they lose energy as heat.
2.3.1 Types of impellers

The type of fluid movement is defined by the shape of the impeller (stirrer):
axial flow generated by currents parallel to the impeller axis, and radial flow,
generated by currents in the tangential or radial direction. The three main
types of impellers are propellers, blades, and turbines (McCabe et al., 1993).
Propellers are high-speed and axial flow impellers for low-viscosity liq-
uids that operate between 1150 and 1750 rpm (revolutions per minute) and
small diameters, or 400–800 rpm when featuring larger diameters. The
blades of these impellers cut through the flow vigorously, generating highly
turbulent flows. These agitators are indicated for vessels that operate with
large volumes (McCabe et al., 1993).
The straight blade impellers (Fig. 2.1B) are suitable for a wide viscosity range
(103 to 50Pas) and generally operate at speeds between 20 and 150rpm. These
Motor
a) d) Impeller
Bubble
Baffle
Impeller
Sparger
b) c) e)
Flat-Blade Impeller Rushton Impeller Paddle Wheels
Fig. 2.1 Stirred tank, raceway photobioreactor, and three main impellers used in
microalgae culture.
impellers create preferentially radial flows, and when operated at high speeds, dis-
placing the fluid also at high speed, create a vortex that promotes little mixing
(McCabe et al., 1993; Menegalli and Ortega, 2012).
Turbines (Fig. 2.1C) are effective in a wide viscosity range. In low-viscosity
liquids, the turbines generate strong currents that persist throughout the vessel,
moving all stagnant regions. Near the impeller, there is a zone of fast currents,
high turbulence, and intense shear. The flow is preferably radial and tangential.
The tangential components induce vortex and swirling, which must be inter-
rupted by deflectors or diffuser rings for the mixing to be more effective
(McCabe et al., 1993).
The typical impellers discussed for closed systems are used not only for
microalgae cultivation but for most biotechnological processes involving
microorganisms. However, for open microalgal systems, mixing and stirring
are commonly promoted by a set of blades arranged perpendicular to the liq-
uid, known as paddle wheels (Fig. 2.1E). This device is considered the most
efficient for tanks, ponds, raceways (Fig. 2.1D), and other open systems. They
are operated to reach liquid velocity between 15 and 30 cm s1. Paddlewheels
are found in various configurations: flat, zigzagged, back-curved, and
forward-curved. Each configuration directly impacts the power consumed
to stir the liquid, requiring different predictive models (Chiaramonti et al.,
2013; Li et al., 2014).
2.3.2 Power consumption

An important consideration in designing a mechanically agitated photobior-
eactor is the energy required to drive the impeller (McCabe et al., 1993).
This energy input (or volumetric energy input) is one of the most important
engineering and scaling criteria for agitated photobioreactors, as it is related
to most unit operations such as mixing, gas dispersion, gas-liquid mass trans-
fer, heat transfer, and suspension of solids (Kaiser et al., 2017; Zlokarnik,
2001). Also, the energy input is associated with hydrodynamic stress, which
can affect cell growth and/or the productivity of microorganisms and shear-
sensitive products (Chalmers, 1996; Cherry and Papoutsakis, 1986; Kaiser
et al., 2017). This energy is commonly known as the power number and
is the relationship between the resistance force and the inertia force
(Kars-jordan and Hiltunen, 2007).
One of the quickest ways to visualize the power that the impeller needs is
to plot the power number (Eq. 2.7) versus the Reynolds number (Eq. 2.8)
(Fig. 2.2) (Cercell, 2020).
Fig. 2.2 Power number. Note: (1) Disk and blades W/D ¼ 1/5; (2) vertical blades
W/D ¼ 1/5; (3) curved blade W/D ¼ 1/8; (4) pitched blade W/D ¼ 1/8. (Based on
Couper, J.R., Penney, W.R., Fair, J.R., Wallas, S.M., 2005. Chemical Process Equipment:
Selection and Design. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2011-0-08248-0.)
P ¼ Np N 3 ρL D5 (2.7)
ρL ND2
Reimpeller ¼ (2.8)
μ
The calculations to determine the power required by impellers are for a
system without aeration; for microalgal production, there is a need for gas
injection to supply a carbon source. When aeration power is considered,
a 50% drop in the required agitation power is generally observed. This
reduction in energy consumption is due to the change in the wake regions
behind the gas dispersion impeller blades, which decreases the drag force and
the effective density of the two-phase gas-liquid system (Lueske et al., 2015).
PG
0:5 (2.9)
P
Without a draft tube, valid for volumes up to 50 m3 and gas surface veloc-
ity up to 0.053 m s1 (Hughmark, 1980).
0:2
Pg Qg 0:25 N 2 Da
¼ 0:1 (2.10)
P N V g W V 0:67
With a draft tube, where a, b, c, and d are constant in the draft tube and
correspond to 2.6, 335.0, 2.0, and 0.5, respectively (Lueske et al., 2015).

Pg 1 1
¼ c d + 1 d (2.11)
P Qg a
a+ b
N D3a
2.3.3 Mixing, flow patterns, and dispersion of gas

2.3.3.1 Bubble formation and gas holdup
The impeller movement cuts through the fluid, generating cavities. When
gas is fed into the system, gas coming from the sparger together with a part
of the recirculating gas is dragged into the cavities, in which a vortexing
process occurs, giving rise to bubbles. In bubble formation, it is desired that
they have an ideal diameter, as in this condition, the mass transfer is max-
imized. The size of the bubbles is determined by the characteristic of the
agitator, gas flow, and liquid properties, such as ionic strength, surface
tension, and viscosity. In addition to affecting the bubble diameter, the liq-
uid properties also influence stability—whether or not it allows coales-
cence. This phenomenon consists of grouping smaller bubbles into
larger bubbles, which makes it challenging to transfer mass (BIOTOL
Project et al., 1992; Brauer, 1979; Warmoeskerken et al., 1984).
The volumetric fraction of gas in the liquid is called gas holdup, another
characteristic of gas dispersion and an essential factor to characterize the effi-
ciency of the gas-liquid mass transfer. Gas holdup is different from foam: gas
holdup is characterized by the movement of more or less free bubbles in the
liquid phase in volumes of less than 50%. More or less stagnant bubbles char-
acterize foam, with a very high gas volume, easily exceeding even 80% of the
total volume (BIOTOL Project et al., 1992; Brauer, 1979).
The gas holdup (ϕ) can be estimated by varying the equation of Kudre-
wizki and Rabe (1986) (Garcia-Ochoa and Gomez, 2004).
1=15
VS N 2=5 T 4=15 ρL 1=5
2=3
ϕ ρL ρL
¼ 0:819 (2.12)
1ϕ g 1=3 σ ρG ρG ρG
2.3.3.2 Flow patterns

The flow pattern in an agitated tank system is dependent on the geometry
of the impeller, the agitation speed, and the gas flow. The following con-
ditions can be found (Fig. 2.3): (A) Low speed and very high gas flow;
(B) low rotation and high gas flow; (C) moderate rotation and moderate
Motor
Baffle
Impeller
Bubble
Sparger
a) b) c) d)
Fig. 2.3 Flow patterns on mechanical agitation.
gas flow; and (D) high rotation and low gas flow. From these conditions,
three situations can be considered: impeller flooding (A), impeller loading
without gas (B and C), and impeller loading with gas (D) (BIOTOL Pro-
ject et al., 1992).
When the agitation is operated at low speed and high gas flow, the impel-
ler remains immersed in the liquid and surrounded by the gas. There is also
little external dispersion of bubbles toward the vessel wall, which makes the
liquid movement weak because the “gas cover” prevents the impeller from
effectively pumping, compromising mixing and mass transfer (Doran, 2013;
Nienow, 1977).
In cases B and C, low to moderate rotation and moderate to high gas
flow, the gas dominates the flow pattern due to the impeller being loaded
with liquid and surrounded by gas, with poor mixing and mass transfer
efficiency, although more significant than in case A. In the last condition
(D), high rotation and low gas flow, the impeller is loaded by the gas,
which provides a homogeneous distribution of the gas on the liquid
phase, that is, the ideal mixing condition and mass transfer (Doran,
2013; Nienow, 1977).
2.3.3.3 Mixing time

Mixing is an indispensable process for the cultivation of microalgae, as it
defines the environment in photobioreactors. Productivity depends on con-
tinuous modifications of the medium, so the big problem is establishing an
ideal hydrodynamic regime. The mixing time provides valuable information
about the flow and the mixture inside the equipment, and can be used in
scaling-up considerations. The mixing time (tm) indicates the time required
for the fluid composition to reach a specified level of homogeneity after add-
ing a marker pulse at a single point in the photobioreactor (Hadjiev
et al., 2006).
Mixing systems generally estimate the mixing time for turbulent condi-
tions, which are more effective for homogenization and mass transfer. The
mixing time can be determined with 95% reliability for a stirring system with
an impeller, regardless of the type of configuration (Xie et al., 2014) by the
following expression:
1 1
2 P 3 Da 3
tm ¼ 5:9 T 3 (2.13)
ρV T
When the system is aerated, there are some correlations where the geom-
etry of the photobioreactor and the gas flow is linked (Ascanio, 2015):
0 1
13 1 2 4 1
aH + T T 6 W Qs 12@N Da A 15
Ntm ¼ 20:41 2 (2.14)
T Da Da NV gW V 3
2.4 Pneumatic agitation and mixing

In pneumatic photobioreactors (Fig. 2.4), the main characteristic is given by
the agitation promoted by the gas injection. The supply of gas besides agi-
tation has the purpose of supplying the carbon source (carbon dioxide) for
the culture of microalgae.
2.4.1 Sparger types

The purpose of a sparger is to uniformly distribute bubbles in an appropriate
size; it is commonly located at the bottom of the photobioreactor. The sparger
system is critical and must be designed to consider many elements such as bub-
ble size distribution, maximum airflow, coalescence, uniformity of the mix-
ture, incrustations, and wear resistance, among others (Flint and Burstein,
2000). It is also known that the design of the gas sparger highly influences
the flow regime transitions in the bubble column. Gas spargers generating bub-
bles smaller than 1 mm can maintain stable homogeneous flow regimes with
high values of surface gas velocity (Al-Oufi et al., 2010, 2011; Anastasiou
et al., 2013; Besagni et al., 2018a,b; Mudde et al., 2009; Passos et al., 2015).
On the other hand, a sparger that produces bubbles with diameters greater than
1 mm must be operated at low gas speeds. Otherwise, a homogeneous regime
may not be established, and the transition/heterogeneous regime may occur
(Besagni et al., 2018b; Ruzicka et al., 2001).
Fig. 2.4 Types of pneumatically agitated photobioreactors.
The determination of volumetric power assists in the design and oper-

ation of the photobioreactor. Chisti (1989) proposed a correlation to deter-
mine the volumetric power described as (Hernández-Melchor et al., 2017):
P ρL gUG
¼ (2.15)
V Ad
1+
Ar
2.4.2 Mixing, flow patterns, and dispersion of gas in aerated

bubble columns and airlifts
2.4.2.1 Flow patterns
Three main types of regimes govern mixing, flow profile, and gas dispersion:
homogeneous (Fig. 2.5A), slug flow (Fig. 2.5B), and heterogeneous
(Fig. 2.5C). These are classified and maintained according to the superficial
gas velocity. The bubbling flow regime or homogeneous regime is obtained
at low surface gas velocities (<5 cm s1), thus generating small uniform bub-
bles with a smooth mixture (Hyndman et al., 1997; Kantarci et al., 2005;
Pandit and Doshi, 2005; Schumpe and Grund, 1986). In this regime, there
is no coalescence or rupture of the bubbles; that is, the regime is almost
entirely dictated by the design of the sparger and the system properties
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
damned nigger!" The boxer hauled back and hit him in the mouth
and he dropped to the pavement.
We hurried away to the restaurant. We sat around, the poor woman
among us, endeavoring to woo the spirit of celebration. But we were
all wet. The boxer said: "I guess they don't want no colored in this
damned white man's country." He dropped his head down on the
table and sobbed like a child. And I thought that that was his
knockout.
I thought, too, of Bernard Shaw's asking why I did not choose
pugilism instead of poetry for a profession. He no doubt imagined
that it would be easier for a black man to win success at boxing than
at writing in a white world. But looking at life through an African
telescope I could not see such a great difference in the choice. For,
according to British sporting rules, no Negro boxer can compete for a
championship in the land of cricket, and only Negroes who are
British subjects are given a chance to fight. These regulations have
nothing to do with the science of boxing or the Negro's fitness to
participate. They are made merely to discourage boxers who are
black and of African descent.
Perhaps the black poet has more potential scope than the pugilist.
The literary censors of London have not yet decreed that no book by
a Negro should be published in Britain—not yet!
VII
A Job in London
YET London was not wholly Hell, for it was possible for me to
compose poetry some of the time. No place can be altogether a
God-forsaken Sahara or swamp in which a man is able to discipline
and compose his emotions into self-expression. In London I wrote
"Flame-heart."
So much I have forgotten in ten years,
So much in ten brief years! I have forgot
What time the purple apples come to juice,
And what month brings the shy forget-me-not.
I have forgot the special, startling season
Of the pimento's flowering and fruiting;
What time of year the ground doves brown the fields
And fill the noonday with their curious fluting.
I have forgotten much, but still remember
The poinsettia's red, blood-red in warm December.
I still recall the honey-fever grass,

But cannot recollect the high days when
We rooted them out of the ping-wing path
To stop the mad bees in the rabbit pen.
I often try to think in what sweet month
The languid painted ladies used to dapple
The yellow by-road mazing from the main,
Sweet with the golden threads of the rose-apple.
I have forgotten—strange—but quite remember
The poinsettia's red, blood-red in warm December.
What weeks, what months, what time of the mild year

We cheated school to have our fling at tops?
What days our wine-thrilled bodies pulsed with joy
Feasting upon blackberries in the copse?
Oh some I know! I have embalmed the days,
Even the sacred moments when we played,
All innocent of passion, uncorrupt,
At noon and evening in the flame-heart's shade.
We were so happy, happy, I remember,
Beneath the poinsettia's red in warm December.
And then I became acquainted with Sylvia Pankhurst. It happened
thus. The Daily Herald, the organ of British organized labor and of
the Christian radicals, had created a national sensation by starting a
campaign against the French employment of black troops in the
subjection of Germany.
The headlines were harrowing:
"Black Scourge in Europe," "Black Peril on the Rhine," "Brutes in
French Uniform," "Sexual Horrors Let Loose by France," "Black
Menace of 40,000 Troops," "Appeal to the Women of Europe."
The instigator of the campaign was the muckraker E.D. Morel,
whose pen had been more honorably employed in the exposure of
Belgian atrocities in the Congo. Associated with him was a male
"expert" who produced certain "facts" about the physiological
peculiarities of African sex, which only a prurient-minded white man
could find.
Behind the smoke screen of the Daily Herald campaign there were a
few significant facts. There was great labor unrest in the industrial
region of the Rhineland. The Communists had seized important
plants. The junkers were opposing the Communists. The Social-
Democratic government was impotent. The French marched in an
army. The horror of German air raids and submarine warfare was still
fresh in the mind of the British public. And it was not easy to work up
and arouse the notorious moral righteousness of the English in favor
of the Germans and against the French. Searching for a propaganda
issue, the Christian radicals found the colored troops in the
Rhineland. Poor black billy goat.
I wrote a letter to George Lansbury, the editor of the Daily Herald,
and pointed out that his black-scourge articles would be effective in
stirring up more prejudice against Negroes. I thought it was the duty
of his paper as a radical organ to enlighten its readers about the real
reasons why the English considered colored troops undesirable in
Europe, instead of appealing indirectly to illogical emotional
prejudices. Lansbury did not print my letter, but sent me a private
note saying that he was not personally prejudiced against Negroes. I
had no reason to think that Lansbury was personally prejudiced. The
previous summer, when colored men were assaulted by organized
bands of whites in the English ports and their bedding and furniture
hurled into the streets and burned, Lansbury had energetically
denounced the action. But I didn't consider the matter a personal
issue. It was the public attitude of the Daily Herald that had aroused
me. An English friend advised me to send the letter to Sylvia
Pankhurst, who was very critical of the policies of the Daily Herald. I
did, and Sylvia Pankhurst promptly printed my letter in her weekly,
the Workers' Dreadnought.
Maybe I was not civilized enough to understand why the sex of the
black race should be put on exhibition to persuade the English
people to decide which white gang should control the coal and iron
of the Ruhr. However, it is necessary to face the fact that prejudices,
however unreasonable they may be, are real—individual, national
and racial prejudices. My experience of the English convinced me
that prejudice against Negroes had become almost congenital
among them. I think the Anglo-Saxon mind becomes morbid when it
turns on the sex life of colored people. Perhaps a psychologist might
be able to explain why.
Sylvia Pankhurst must have liked the style of my letter, for she wrote
asking me to call at her printing office in Fleet Street. I found a plain
little Queen-Victoria sized woman with plenty of long unruly bronze-
like hair. There was no distinction about her clothes, and on the
whole she was very undistinguished. But her eyes were fiery, even a
little fanatic, with a glint of shrewdness.
She said she wanted me to do some work for the Workers'
Dreadnought. Perhaps I could dig up something along the London
docks from the colored as well as the white seamen and write from a
point of view which would be fresh and different. Also I was assigned
to read the foreign newspapers from America, India, Australia, and
other parts of the British Empire, and mark the items which might
interest Dreadnought readers. In this work I was assisted by one
Comrade Vie. Comrade Vie read the foreign-language papers,
mainly French and German.
The opportunity to practice a little practical journalism was not to be
missed. A little more schooling, a few more lessons—learning
something from everything—keeping the best in my mind for future
creative work.
The association with Pankhurst put me in the nest of extreme
radicalism in London. The other male-controlled radical groups were
quite hostile to the Pankhurst group and its rather hysterical
militancy. And the group was perhaps more piquant than important.
But Pankhurst herself had a personality as picturesque and
passionate as any radical in London. She had left the suffragette
legion for the working-class movement, when she discovered that
the leading ladies of the legion were not interested in the condition of
working women.
And in the labor movement she was always jabbing her hat pin into
the hides of the smug and slack labor leaders. Her weekly might
have been called the Dread Wasp. And wherever imperialism got
drunk and went wild among native peoples, the Pankhurst paper
would be on the job. She was one of the first leaders in England to
stand up for Soviet Russia. And in 1918 she started the Russian
Information Bureau, which remained for a long time the only source
of authentic news from Russia.
Comrade Vie was a very young foreigner with a bare bland innocent
face. He read and spoke several languages. I did not know his
nationality and refrained from asking. For the Pankhurst
organization, though small, was revolutionary, and from experience
the militant suffragettes knew a lot about conspiracy. However, I
suspected that Comrade Vie was a foreign revolutionist. The
Pankhurst secretary, a romantic middle-class young woman, had
hinted to me that Comrade Vie was more important than he
appeared to be.
Comrade Vie wrote also and we often compared articles. I criticized
his English and he criticized my point of view, showing me how I
could be more effectively radical.
Soon after I became associated with the Workers' Dreadnought, a
sawmill strike broke out in London. Most of the sawmills were in the
East End, where also the publishing office of the Dreadnought was
located. One mill was directly opposite the Dreadnought office. I was
assigned to do an article on the strike. A few of the sawmill workers
were sympathetic to the Dreadnought organization, and one of the
younger of them volunteered to take me round.
There were some sixty sawmills in London, one of the most
important of which was either owned or partly controlled by George
Lansbury, Labor Member of Parliament and managing editor of the
Daily Herald. Some of the strikers informed me that the Lansbury mill
had in its employ some workers who were not members of the
sawmill union and who were not striking. Technically, such workers
were scabs. The strikers thought it would make an excellent story for
the militant Dreadnought. So did I.
The name of Lansbury was symbolic of all that was simon-pure,
pious and self-righteous in the British Labor movement. As the boss
of the Daily Herald, he stood at the center like an old bearded angel
of picturesque honesty, with his right arm around the neck of the big
trade-union leaders and Parliamentarians and his left waving to the
Independent Labor partyites and all the radical Left. Like a little cat
up against a big dog, the Workers' Dreadnought was always spitting
at the Daily Herald.
I thought the story would give the Dreadnought some more fire to
spit. Here was my chance for getting even with the Daily Herald for
its black-scourge-in-Europe campaign. Comrade Vie helped me put
some ginger into my article. When I showed the article to Miss
Smyth, the upper-middle-class person who was Pankhurst's aid, she
gasped and said: "But this is a scoop." Her gentle-lady poker face
was lit as she read.
Finally the article reached Sylvia Pankhurst. She summoned me and
said: "Your article is excellent but I'm so sorry we cannot print it."
"Why?" I asked. "Because," said she, "we owe Lansbury twenty
pounds. Besides, I have borrowed paper from the Daily Herald to
print the Dreadnought. I can't print that."
It is possible that Miss Pankhurst acted more from a feeling of
personal loyalty. Although Lansbury was centrist and she was
extreme leftist, they were personal friends, ever since they had been
associated in the suffrage cause. And after all, one might concede
that there are items which the capitalist press does not consider fit to
print for capitalist reasons, and items which the radical press does
not consider fit to print for radical reasons.
That summer Sylvia Pankhurst made the underground trip to Russia
to attend the Second Congress of the Third International.
Early in September, 1920, I was sent down to Portsmouth to report
the Trades Union Congress for the Dreadnought. There were
gathered at the Congress some of the leaders who later became
members of the British Labor Government: J.H. Thomas, J.R.
Clynes, Arthur Henderson, A.A. Purcell, Herbert Morrison, Frank
Hodges, and Margaret Bonfield. The most picturesque personage of
them all was Frank Hodges, the secretary of the Miners' Federation,
who in his style and manner appeared like a representative of the
nobility. I mentioned this to A.J. Cook, who was a minor official of the
Federation, and he informed me that Hodges was always hunting
foxes with the lords.
At the press table I met Scott Nearing, who, after listening to clever
speeches by the labor leaders, whispered to me that England would
soon be the theater of the next revolution. The speeches were warm;
Labor was feeling its strength in those times. Even J.H. Thomas was
red, at least in the face, about Winston Churchill, who had declared
that "Labor was not fit to govern."
As a Dreadnought reporter, I had been instructed to pay little
attention to the official leaders, but to seek out any significant rank-
and-filers and play them up in my story. I was taken up by delegates
from the Rhondda Valley in South Wales, which was the extreme
leftist element of the Miners' Federation. One of them, A.J. Cook,
was exceptionally friendly and gave me interesting information about
the British Labor movement. He was very proud that it was the most
powerful in the world and included every class of worker. He said he
believed the labor movement was the only hope for Negroes
because they were in the lowest economic group. He pointed out
that J.R. Clynes' General Union of Workers consisted of the lowest
class of people (domestic servants and porters and hotel workers)
and yet it was extremely important in the councils of the Trades
Union Congress.
At that time I could not imagine Cook becoming a very influential
official. He was extremely loquacious, but his ideas were an odd mix-
up of liberal sentiment and socialist thought, and sentimental to an
extreme. He was also a parson, and divided his time between
preaching and the pit. However, the radical miners told me they were
going to push Cook forward to take the place of Hodges, whom they
could no longer stomach. And sure enough, in a few brief years
Cook became the radical secretary of the Miners' Federation.
But the labor official at the Congress who carried me away with him
was Robert Smillie, the president of the Miners' Federation. Crystal
Eastman had given me a note to him and he had said a few wise
words to me about the necessity of colored labor being organized,
especially in the vast European colonies, for the betterment of its
own living standard and to protect that of white organized labor.
Smillie was like a powerful ash which had forced itself up, coaxing
nourishment out of infertile soil, and towering over saplings and
shrubs. His face and voice were so terribly full of conviction that in
comparison the colleagues around him appeared theatrical. When
he stood forth to speak the audience was shot through with
excitement, and subdued. He compelled you to think along his line
whether or not you agreed with him. I remember his passionate
speech for real democracy in the Congress, advocating proportional
representation and pointing out that on vital issues the united Miners'
Federation was often outvoted by a nondescript conglomeration like
J.R. Clynes' General Union of Workers for example. You felt that
Smillie had convinced the Congress, but when the vote was taken it
went against him.
I wrote my article on the Trades Union Congress around Smillie
because his personality and address were more significant in my
opinion than any rank-and-filer's. It was featured on the front page of
the Dreadnought. But when Pankhurst returned from Russia, she
sharply reproved me for it, saying that it wasn't the policy of the
Dreadnought to praise the official labor leaders, but to criticize them.
Naturally, I resented the criticism, especially as Pankhurst had
suppressed my article on Lansbury.
Just before leaving for the Trade Union Congress I was introduced to
a young English sailor named Springhall. He was a splendid chap.
He had been put into the British navy as a boy and had developed
into a fine man, not merely physically, but intellectually. Springhall
was a constant reader of the Dreadnought and other social
propaganda literature and he said that other men on his ship were
eager for more stuff about the international workers' movement. At
that time there was a widespread discontent and desire for better
wages among the rank and file of the navy. Springhall came to the
Dreadnought publishing office in the Old Ford Road and we gave
him many copies of the Dreadnought. The Dreadnought was legally
on sale on the newsstands, so he had the legal right to take as many
as he desired. Before he left he promised to send me some navy
news for the paper.
When I returned to London I found a letter from the young sailor,
Springhall, with some interesting items for the paper and the
information that he was sending an article. The article arrived in a
few days and it was a splendid piece of precious information. But its
contents were so important and of such a nature that I put it away
and waited for Pankhurst to return and pass it.
Pankhurst returned late in September. I turned over Springhall's
document to her. She was enthusiastic, edited the document, and
decided to give it the front page. We used a nom de plume and a
fictitious name for a battleship. Only Pankhurst and myself knew who
the author was. The intelligence of the stuff was so extraordinary that
she did not want to risk having the youth's identity discovered by the
authorities. And she thought he could serve the social cause more
excellently by remaining at his post.
A couple of days after the issue appeared, the Dreadnought office
was raided by the police. I was just going out, leaving the little room
on the top floor where I always worked, when I met Pankhurst's
private secretary coming upstairs. She whispered that Scotland Yard
was downstairs. Immediately I thought of Springhall's article and I
returned to my room, where I had the original under a blotter. Quickly
I folded it and stuck it in my sock. Going down, I met a detective
coming up. They had turned Pankhurst's office upside down and
descended to the press-room, without finding what they were looking
for.
"And what are you?" the detective asked.
"Nothing, Sir," I said, with a big black grin. Chuckling, he let me pass.
(I learned afterward that he was the ace of Scotland Yard.) I walked
out of that building and into another, and entering a water closet I
tore up the original article, dropped it in, and pulled the chain. When I
got home to the Bow Road that evening I found another detective
waiting for me. He was very polite and I was more so. With alacrity I
showed him all my papers, but he found nothing but lyrics.
Pankhurst was arrested and charged with attempting to incite
dissatisfaction among His Majesty's Forces. She was released on
bail and given time to straighten out her affairs before she came up
for trial. She received many messages of sympathy and among them
was a brief telegram from Bernard Shaw asking: "Why did you let
them get you?"
Pankhurst's arrest was the beginning of a drive against the Reds.
For weeks the big press had carried on a campaign against Red
propaganda and alien agitators and Bolshevik gold in Britain. Liberal
intellectuals like Bertrand Russell and Mrs. Snowden had visited
Russia, and labor men like Robert Williams and George Lansbury.
There was an organized labor and liberal demand to end the
Russian blockade. And when the press broadcast the fact that
$325,000 of Bolshevik capital had been offered to the Daily Herald, it
must have struck Scotland Yard like a bomb.
Within a week of Pankhurst's arrest, Comrade Vie was seized just as
he was leaving England to go abroad. He was arrested as he was
departing from the house of a member of Parliament who was a
Communist sympathizer. The police announced that he was a
Bolshevik courier. They discovered on his person letters from
Pankhurst to Lenin, Zinoviev and other members of the Bolshevik
Politbureau; also notes in cipher, documents of information about the
armed forces, the important industrial centers, and Ireland, a manual
for officers of the future British Red army and statements about the
distribution of money. Comrade Vie was even more important than I
had suspected.
One evening when I got back home from Fleet Street I was surprised
to find Springhall, the sailor, there. He had come up to London to see
Pankhurst. He said his ship was leaving England and he would like
to talk to her. He was on one of the crack battleships. I begged him
for God's sake to leave at once, that he could not see Pankhurst,
who had been enjoined from political activity by the court and was
undoubtedly under police surveillance. Also, as editor of the
Dreadnought, she had taken the full responsibility for his article, and
her difficult situation in the movement would be made worse if the
police should get him too.
Springhall returned to his ship. But he was bold with youthful zeal
and extremely incautious. I remember his actively participating in his
uniform in the grand demonstration in Trafalgar Square for the
hunger-striking and dying mayor of Cork. And he marched with the
crowds upon the prison and fought with the police and got severely
beaten up. He wanted to quit the navy, believing that he could be a
better agitator outside. But his friends on the outside thought that he
could be of more importance at his post. Anyway he must have
acted indiscreetly and created suspicion against himself, for when
his ship arrived at its next port, he was summarily dismissed.
However, his revolutionary ardor did not handicap him in being
clever enough to maneuver his dismissal and steer clear of a court-
martial. A few years after he visited Russia, and later I was informed
that he subsequently became an active leader of the British
Communist Youth Movement.
Comrade Vie was convicted under the simple charge of alien non-
registration. He was sentenced to six months' imprisonment and to
pay the costs of his trial and deportation. Upon his release,
Pankhurst's secretary followed him to Russia, where they were
married. Apparently it was his preoccupation with his love affair that
enabled the detectives to trap Comrade Vie. Three years later I saw
them again in Moscow, but he did not seem to be importantly
employed.
VIII
Regarding Reactionary Criticism
MY little brown book of verse, Spring in New Hampshire, appeared
in the midst of the radical troubles in the fall of 1920. I had not
neglected the feeling of poetry, even while I was listening to Marxian
expositions at the International Club and had become involved in
radical activities. A little action was a nice stimulant for another lyric.
C.K. Ogden, the author of Basic English and The Foundation of
Esthetics, besides steering me round the picture galleries and being
otherwise kind, had published a set of my verses in his Cambridge
Magazine. Later he got me a publisher.
But I was so anxious about leaving London for America that I hardly
felt the excitement I should about the first book I had done since I left
Jamaica. The Pankhurst group had been disrupted by the police
raids. Many of the members were acquainted with Comrade Vie, but
unaware of his real identity. His unexpected arrest and the
disclosures of the police that he was a Bolshevik agent had started
lots of rubberneck gossip. Some asserted that Comrade Vie had
been deliberately betrayed. And members accused other members
of being spies and traitors. A dissident group, headed by Edgar
Whitehead, the secretary of the organization, desired to bring
Pankhurst herself to a private trial and I also had to give an
accounting of my activities.
One evening, when I visited the International Club the secretary
showed me an anonymous letter he had received, accusing me also
of being a spy. I declare that I felt sick and was seized with a crazy
craving to get quickly out of that atmosphere and far away from
London. But I had used up all of my return fare. All I had received
from the Dreadnought was payment for my board. The organization
was always in need of money.
My little book had brought me no money. I hadn't been banking on it.
I had stopped writing for the Negro World because it had not paid for
contributions. An English friend, and I.W.W. who had lived in
America (I think he had been deported thence), undertook to find a
group of friends to put up the fare to get me back there.
While I was hotly preparing my departure, Sylvia Pankhurst was
sentenced to six months' imprisonment. Pankhurst was a good
agitator and fighter, but she wasn't a leader. She possessed the
magnetism to attract people to her organization, but she did not have
the power to hold them. I remember a few of them: William
Gallacher, Saklatvala (the Indian M.P.), A.J. Cook, who became the
secretary of the Miners' Federation, and that very brilliant and
talented writing couple, Eden and Cedar Paul. And I was informed
that before my time there had been others even more brilliant among
the Left literary and artistic set. I remember saying to Springhall that
it was a pity the organization was too small for him. It was a one-
woman show, not broad-based enough to play a decisive rôle in the
labor movement.
At last, when I was safely fixed in my third-class bunk, I had time to
read and ponder over the English reviews of my book. If it is difficult
to ascertain the real attitude of the common people of any country
regarding certain ideas and things, it should be easy enough to find
out that of the élite by writing a book. The reviews will reveal more or
less the mind of the better classes.
In most of the reviews of my poems there was a flippant note, either
open or veiled, at the idea of a Negro writing poetry. After reading
them I could understand better why Bernard Shaw had asked me
why I did not go in for pugilism instead of poetry. I think I got as
much amusement out of reading them from my own angle as the
reviewers had in writing from theirs.
But more than all there was one that deserves special mention. It
was the review published in the Spectator, the property, I think, of
the Strachey family, and the organ of the Tory intellectuals. There
can be little doubt that the London Spectator represents the opinion
of that English group, which, because of its wealth and power, its
facilities for and standards of high education, and its domination of
most of the universe, either directly or indirectly, is the most superior
in the world.
Said the Spectator critic: "Spring in New Hampshire is extrinsically
as well as intrinsically interesting. It is written by a man who is a
pure-blooded Negro.... Perhaps the ordinary reader's first impulse in
realizing that the book is by an American Negro is to inquire into its
good taste. Not until we are satisfied that his work does not overstep
the barriers which a not quite explicable but deep instinct in us is
ever alive to maintain can we judge it with genuine fairness. Mr.
Claude McKay never offends our sensibilities. His love poetry is
clear of the hint which would put our racial instinct against him,
whether we would or not."
So there it bobbed up again. As it was among the élite of the class-
conscious working class, so it was among the aristocracy of the
upper class: the bugaboo of sex—the African's sex, whether he is a
poet or pugilist.
Why should a Negro's love poetry be offensive to the white man,
who prides himself on being modern and civilized? Now it seems to
me that if the white man is really more civilized than the colored (be
the color black, brown or yellow), then the white man should take
Negro poetry and pugilism in his stride, just as he takes Negro labor
in Africa and fattens on it.
If the critic of the organ of British aristocracy had used his facilities
for education and knowledge and tolerance (which the average black
student has not) to familiarize himself with the history and derivations
of poetry he might have concluded that the love poetry of a Negro
might be in better taste than the gory poetry of a civilized British
barbarian like Rudyard Kipling.
It seems to me that every European white lover of lyric and amatory
poetry should be informed that one of the greatest, if not the
greatest, poets of love, was a Negro named Antar. And that
European or white man's love poetry today probably owes much of
its inspiration to Antar, who was the son of a Negro woman and an
Arabian chieftain.
One of the big surprises of my living in North Africa was the
discovery that even the illiterate Moor is acquainted with the history
and the poetry of Antar. Often in the Arab cafés (which I haunted like
a loco, because of the native music), when I was especially
enthralled by the phrasing of a song, I was informed that it was an
Antari (a song from Antar). When I was introduced as a poet there
was not a suspicion of surprise among the natives. Instead I was
surprised by their flattering remarks: "A poet! Mezziane! Mezziane!
Our greatest poet, Antar, was a Negro."
W.A. Clouston, who writes with authority on Arabian poetry, says: "It
is far from impossible that the famous romance of Antar produced
the model for the earliest of the romances of chivalry." Certainly it
was the Arabian poets who, upon the Arab conquest of Spain,
introduced lyric feeling into the rude and barbaric accents of the
Europeans. The troubadours of southern Europe stem directly from
the Arabian poets. The Arab poets and musicians were the original
troubadours. And happily they exist today exactly as they did thirteen
centuries ago, wherever Moslem culture holds sway.
Says Sismondi, the famous scholar: "It is from them that we have
derived that intoxication of love, that tenderness and delicacy of
sentiment and that reverential awe of woman, by turns slaves and
divinities, which have operated so powerfully on our chivalrous
feelings."
But it should not be necessary for me in this place to attempt to
enlighten the English gentlemen. I am not a scholar and this book is
not scholarly. The English gentleman has the means and the
material to educate himself that no Negro has. If he does not make
the proper use of them it must be because he is spoiled by his
modern civilization. The story of Antar was translated from the
Arabian into English way back in 1820, and by an Englishman
named Terrick Hamilton.
Antar is as great in Arabian literature as Homer in Greek. Said the
founder of Islam: "I have never heard an Arab described whom I
should like to have seen so much as Antar." In the universal white
system of education the white school boy learns about Homer and
Virgil and their works, even if he does not read Greek and Latin. He
learns nothing of Antar, although it is possible that European poetry
derives more from Antar than from Homer. Yet the white child is so
rich in its heritage that it may not be such a great loss to him if he
grows up in ignorance of the story and poetry of Antar. The Negro
child, born into an inferior position in the overwhelming white world,
is in a different category. He should know something of the Antar
who was born a slave, who fought for his liberation, who loved so
profoundly passionately and chastely that his love inspired and
uplifted him to be one of the poets of the Arabian pleiades.
Behold the sport of passion in my noble person!
But I have thanked my forebearance, applauded my resolution.
And the slave has been elevated above his master;
For I have concealed my passion and kept my secret,
I will not leave a word for the railers, and I will not ease the hearts
of my enemies by the violation of my honor.
I have borne the evils of fortune, till I have discovered its secret
meaning ...
I have met every peril in my bosom,
And the world can cast no reproach on me for my complexion:
My blackness has not diminished my glory.
My mother is Zebeeda,
I disavow not her name and I am Antar,
But I am not vainglorious ...
Her dark complexion sparkles like a sabre in the shades of night
And her shape is like the well-formed spear....
To me these verses of Antar written more than twelve centuries ago
are more modern and full of meaning for a Negro than is Homer.
Perhaps if black and mulatto children knew more of the story and the
poetry of Antar, we might have better Negro poets. But in our Negro
schools and colleges we learn a lot of Homer and nothing of Antar.
PART THREE
NEW YORK HORIZON
IX
Back in Harlem
LIKE fixed massed sentinels guarding the approaches to the great
metropolis, again the pyramids of New York in their Egyptian majesty
dazzled my sight like a miracle of might and took my breath like the
banging music of Wagner assaulting one's spirit and rushing it
skyward with the pride and power of an eagle.
The feeling of the dirty steerage passage across the Atlantic was
swept away in the immense wonder of clean, vertical heaven-
challenging lines, a glory to the grandeur of space.
Oh, I wished that it were possible to know New York in that way only
—as a masterpiece wrought for the illumination of the sight, a
splendor lifting aloft and shedding its radiance like a searchlight,
making one big and great with feeling. Oh, that I should never draw
nearer to descend into its precipitous gorges, where visions are
broken and shattered and one becomes one of a million, average,
ordinary, insignificant.
At last the ship was moored and I came down to the pavement. Ellis
Island: doctors peered in my eyes, officials scrutinized my passport,
and the gates were thrown open.
The elevated swung me up to Harlem. At first I felt a little fear and
trembling, like a stray hound scenting out new territory. But soon I
was stirred by familiar voices and the shapes of houses and saloons,
and I was inflated with confidence. A wave of thrills flooded the
arteries of my being, and I felt as if I had undergone initiation as a
member of my tribe. And I was happy. Yes, it was a rare sensation
again to be just one black among many. It was good to be lost in the
shadows of Harlem again. It was an adventure to loiter down Fifth
and Lenox avenues and promenade along Seventh Avenue.
Spareribs and corn pone, fried chicken and corn fritters and sweet
potatoes were like honey to my palate.
There was a room for me in the old house on One Hundred Thirty-
first Street, but there was no trace of Manda. I could locate none of
my close railroad friends. But I found Sanina. Sanina was an
attractive quadroon from Jamaica who could pass as white. Before
prohibition she presided over a buffet flat. Now she animated a cosy
speakeasy. Her rendezvous on upper Seventh Avenue, with its pink
curtains and spreads, created an artificial rose-garden effect. It was
always humming like a beehive with brown butterflies and flames of
all ages from the West Indies and from the South.
Sanina infatuated them all. She possessed the cunning and
fascination of a serpent, and more charm than beauty. Her clients
idolized her with a loyalty and respect that were rare. I was never
quite sure what was the secret of her success. For although she was
charming, she was ruthless in her affairs. I felt a congeniality and
sweet nostalgia in her company, for we had grown up together from
kindergarten. Underneath all of her shrewd New York getting-byness
there was discernible the green bloom of West Indian naïveté. Yet
her poise was a marvel and kept her there floating like an
imperishable block of butter on the crest of the dark heaving wave of
Harlem. Sanina always stirred me to remember her dominating
octoroon grandmother (who was also my godmother) who beat her
hard white father in a duel they fought over the disposal of her body.
But that is a West Indian tale.... I think that some of Sanina's success
came from her selectiveness. Although there were many lovers
mixing up their loving around her, she kept herself exclusively for the
lover of her choice.
I passed ten days of purely voluptuous relaxation. My fifty dollars
were spent and Sanina was feeding me. I was uncomfortable. I
began feeling intellectual again. I wrote to my friend, Max Eastman,
that I had returned to New York. My letter arrived at precisely the
right moment. The continuation of The Liberator had become a
problem. Max Eastman had recently resigned the editorship in order
to devote more time to creative writing. Crystal Eastman also was
retiring from the management to rest and write a book on feminism.
Floyd Dell had just published his successful novel, Moon Calf, and
was occupied with the writing of another book.
Max Eastman invited me to Croton over the week-end to discuss the
situation. He proposed to resume the editorship again if I could
manage the sub-editing that Floyd Dell did formerly. I responded with
my hand and my head and my heart. Thus I became associate editor
of The Liberator. My experience with the Dreadnought in London
was of great service to me now.
The times were auspicious for the magazine. About the time that I
was installed it received a windfall of $11,000 from the government,
which was I believe a refund on mailing privileges that had been
denied the magazine during the war.
Soon after taking on my job I called on Frank Harris, I took along an
autographed copy of Spring in New Hampshire, the book of verses
that I had published in London. The first thing Frank Harris asked
was if I had seen Bernard Shaw. I told him all about my visit and
Shaw's cathedral sermon. Harris said that perhaps Shaw was getting
religion at last and might die a good Catholic. Harris was not as well-
poised as when I first met him. Pearson's Magazine was not making
money, and he was in debt and threatened with suspension of
publication. He said he desired to return to Europe where he could
find leisure to write, that he was sick and tired of the editor business.
He did not congratulate me on my new job. The incident between
him and The Liberator was still a rancor in his mind. He wasn't a
man who forgot hurts easily.
But he was pleased that I had put over the publication of a book of
poems in London. "It's a hard, mean city for any kind of genius," he
said, "and that's an achievement for you." He looked through the little
brown-covered book. Then he ran his finger down the table of
contents closely scrutinizing. I noticed his aggressive brow become
heavier and scowling. Suddenly he roared: "Where is the poem?"
"Which one?" I asked with a bland countenance, as if I didn't know
which he meant.
"You know which," he growled. "That fighting poem, 'If We Must Die.'
Why isn't it printed here?"
I was ashamed. My face was scorched with fire. I stammered: "I was
advised to keep it out."
"You are a bloody traitor to your race, sir!" Frank Harris shouted. "A
damned traitor to your own integrity. That's what the English and
civilization have done to your people. Emasculated them. Deprived
them of their guts. Better you were a head-hunting, blood-drinking
cannibal of the jungle than a civilized coward. You were bolder in
America. The English make obscene sycophants of their subject
peoples. I am Irish and I know. But we Irish have guts the English
cannot rip out of us. I'm ashamed of you, sir. It's a good thing you got
out of England. It is no place for a genius to live."
Frank Harris's words cut like a whip into my hide, and I was glad to
get out of his uncomfortable presence. Yet I felt relieved after his
castigation. The excision of the poem had been like a nerve cut out
of me, leaving a wound which would not heal. And it hurt more every
time I saw the damned book of verse. I resolved to plug hard for the
publication of an American edition, which would include the omitted
poem. "A traitor," Frank Harris had said, "a traitor to my race." But I
felt worse for being a traitor to myself. For if a man is not faithful to
his own individuality, he cannot be loyal to anything.
I soon became acquainted and friendly with The Liberator
collaborators and sympathizers: Art Young, Boardman Robinson,
Stuart Davis, John Barber, Adolph Dehn, Hugo Gellert, Ivan Opfer,
Maurice Becker, Maurice Sterne, Arturo Giovanitti, Roger Baldwin,
Louis Untermeyer, Mary Heaton Vorse, Lydia Gibson, Cornelia
Barnes, Genevieve Taggard. William Gropper and Michael Gold
became contributing editors at the same time that I joined The
Liberator staff.
The Liberator was frequently honored by visitors, many of them

women, some beautiful and some strange. Of course they all wanted

Full Download PDF of Innovations in Fermentation and Phytopharmaceutical Technologies 1st Edition - Ebook PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Full Download PDF of Innovations in Fermentation and Phytopharmaceutical Technologies 1st Edition - Ebook PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Innovations in Fermentation and

Phytopharmaceutical Technologies 1st

Innovations in Thermochemical Technologies for Biofuel

Advances in Supercapacitor and Supercapattery:

Biomass, Biofuels, Biochemicals : Microbial

Emerging Technologies in Engineering 1st edition -

Modern Treatment Strategies for Marine Pollution:

Emerging Technologies in Environmental Bioremediation

Microscopy Methods in Nanomaterials Characterization. A

Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products:

SWAGAT KUMAR DAS

For information on all Elsevier publications

Publisher: Susan Dennis

Typeset by STRAIVE, India

PART A Concepts of reactor designing

2. Mixing and agitation in photobioreactors 13

3. Membrane reactors for mammalian cell culture 37

4. Advances in fermentative systems for the production

5. Liquid extraction with immobilized liquids for product

PART B Upstream processes in bioprocessing of food,

6.1 Introduction 109

7. Emerging biosensor technology and its potential

8. Current trends in green processing: Improvements

8.1 Introduction 165

9. Phytochemicals and their nanoformulation in sustained

9.1 Lifestyle, metabolism, and disease link 181

10. Biohydrogen evolution in microbial electrolysis cell,

PART C Downstream processes in bioprocessing of food,

12. Biological production of xylitol: A process development

12.1 Introduction 271

12.9 Downstream processing of xylitol 284

13. Production of methyl ethyl ketone applying process

14. Microbial xylanases, their structural characteristics, and

15. Advances in fermented foods and therapeutics 341

15.2 Human evolution and nutrition 342

PART D By-product utilization for production

16.1 Introduction 361

17. Agro-industrial wastes for production of single-cell

17.1 Introduction 381

18. β-Glucan production through bioconversion of sugarcane

18.1 Introduction 398

19. Value-added product development from food scraps 417

20. Evaluation of various possibilities of underutilized fish

21. Value-added products from industrial wastes of

21.1 Introduction 457

Photo bioreactors for production

Innovations in Fermentation and Phytopharmaceutical Technologies Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc.

1.2 Methods of biodiesel production from algae using PBR

1.2.1.1 Stirred tank photo bioreactors

1.2.1.2 Bubble column photo bioreactors

CO2 and Air Supply

1.2.1.3 Airlift photo bioreactor

Gas output Gas output

Gas input Gas input

1.2.2 Methods of algal inoculum preparation for PBRs

fluorescent lamps and aeration is obtained by continuous air injection using

1.2.4 Extraction of the lipids in the biomass

1.2.5 Conversion of microalgal oils into biofuels

comparison by the mass spectra of the National Institute of Standards and

Mixing and agitation

Innovations in Fermentation and Phytopharmaceutical Technologies Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc.

V∞ terminal rise velocity

Three agitation systems are possible: mechanical, pneumatic, or both.

1=3 " #0:62 " #0:23