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1
CHAPTER 7
REPEATED MEASURES DESIGNS
CHAPTER OUTLINE AND OBJECTIVES
I. Overview
II. Why Researchers Use Repeated Measures Designs
Researchers choose to use a repeated measures design in order to (1) conduct an experiment when
few participants are available, (2) conduct the experiment more efficiently, (3) increase the sensitivity of
the experiment, and (4) study changes in participants= behavior over time.
III. The Role of Practice Effects in Repeated Measures Designs
Repeated measures designs cannot be confounded by individual differences variables because the
same individuals participate in each condition (level) of the independent variable.
Participants’ performance in repeated measures designs may change across conditions simply
because of repeated testing (not because of the independent variable); these changes are called
practice effects.
Practice effects may threaten the internal validity of a repeated measures experiment when the
different conditions of the independent variable are presented in the same order to all participants.
The two types of repeated measures designs, complete and incomplete, differ in the specific ways they
control for practice effects.
A. Defining Practice Effects
B. Balancing Practice Effects in the Complete Design
Practice effects are balanced in complete designs within each participant using block
randomization or ABBA counterbalancing.
In block randomization, all of the conditions of the experiment (a block) are randomly ordered each
time they are presented.
In ABBA counterbalancing, a random sequence of all conditions is presented, followed by the

opposite of the sequence.
Block randomization is preferred over ABBA counterbalancing when practice effects are not linear,
or when participants’ performance can be affected by anticipation effects.
C. Balancing Practice Effects in the Incomplete Design
Practice effects are balanced across subjects in the incomplete design rather than for each subject,
as in the complete design.
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
2
The rule for balancing practice effects in the incomplete design is that each condition of the
experiment must be presented in each ordinal position (first, second, etc.) equally often.
The best method for balancing practice effects in the incomplete design with four or fewer
conditions is to use all possible orders of the conditions.
Two methods for selecting specific orders to use in an incomplete design are the Latin Square and
random starting order with rotation.
Whether using all possible orders or selected orders, participants should be randomly assigned to
the different sequences.
IV. Data Analysis of Repeated Measures Designs
A. Describing the Results
Data analysis for a complete design begins with computing a summary score (e.g., mean, median)
for each participant.
Descriptive statistics are used to summarize performance across all participants for each condition
of the independent variable.
B. Confirming What the Results Reveal
The general procedures and logic for null hypothesis testing and for confidence intervals for
repeated measures designs are similar to those used for random groups designs.
V. The Problem of Differential Transfer
Differential transfer occurs when the effects of one condition persist and influence performance in
subsequent conditions.
Variables that may lead to differential transfer should be tested using a random groups design because
differential transfer threatens the internal validity of repeated measures designs.
Differential transfer can be identified by comparing the results for the same independent variable when
tested in a repeated measures design and in a random groups design.
VI. Summary
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
These review questions appear in the textbook (without answers) at the end of Chapter 7, and can be used
for a homework assignment or exam preparation. Answers to these questions appear in italic.
1. Describe what is balanced in a random groups design and what is balanced in a repeated measures
design.
In a random groups design, random assignment of subjects to conditions is used to balance, or

3
average, individual differences variables across the conditions of the experiment. In a repeated
measures design, counterbalancing techniques are used to balance (average) practice effects
associated with repeated measurement across the conditions of the independent variable. (p. 220)
2. Briefly describe four reasons why researchers would choose to use a repeated measures design.
Four reasons researchers may choose to use a repeated measures design are: (1) only a small number
of participants is available; (2) convenience or efficiency; (3) repeated measures designs are generally
more sensitive; or (4) the area of research requires its use. (pp. 220-221)
3. Define sensitivity and explain why repeated measures designs are often more sensitive than random
groups designs.
Sensitivity refers to the likelihood in an experiment that the effect of an independent variable will be
detected when that variable does, indeed, have an effect. Sensitivity is increased to the extent that error
variation is reduced. One source of error variation is individual differences among the participants
across the conditions of an experiment. Because the same participants experience each condition in a
repeated measures design, there is less error variation than in a random groups design that has
different participants in each condition. In general, there is more variability between people (random
groups design) than there is within people (repeated measures design). (p. 221)
4. Distinguish between a complete design and an incomplete design for repeated measures designs.
In the complete repeated measures design, practice effects are balanced by administering the
conditions several times to each subject, using different orders each time, such that the results for each
subject are interpretable. In the incomplete repeated measures design, each condition is administered
to each subject only once, and the order of administering the conditions is varied across subjects such
that by combining the results for all subjects, practice effects are balanced and thus the results are
interpretable. (p. 224)
5. What options do researchers have in balancing practice effects in a repeated measures experiment
using a complete design?
The two techniques for balancing practice effects in the complete repeated measures design are block
randomization and ABBA counterbalancing. (p. 224)
6. Under what two circumstances would you recommend against the use of ABBA counterbalancing to
balance practice effects in a repeated measures experiment using a complete design?
The use of ABBA counterbalancing would not be recommended in a complete repeated measures
design if practice effects are nonlinear or if anticipation effects are likely. Anticipation effects occur
when a subject develops expectations for which condition should occur next. (pp. 227-228)
7. State the general rule for balancing practice effects in repeated measures experiments using an
incomplete design.
The general rule for balancing practice effects in the incomplete repeated measures design is that each
condition of the experiment must appear in each ordinal position equally often. (p. 230)
4
8. Briefly describe the techniques that researchers can use to balance practice effects in the repeated
measures experiments using an incomplete design. Identify which of these techniques is preferred and
explain why.
To balance practice effects in the incomplete repeated measures design researchers can use either all
possible orders or selected orders. The two techniques using selected orders are the Latin Square and
random starting order with rotation. The use of all possible orders is preferred because each condition
precedes and follows every other condition at each ordinal position. When the number of conditions
prohibits the use of all possible orders, a Latin Square design also generates orders of conditions such
that each condition precedes and follows every other condition. (pp. 230-232)
9. Explain why an additional initial step is required to summarize the data for an experiment involving a
complete repeated measures design.
Before summarizing and describing the results, researchers must compute a score for each
participant=s responses in each condition. Each participant is tested in each condition more than once
in a complete design, therefore a summary (e.g., mean, median) score for the each participant=s
average performance in each condition must be used in the final analysis. (p. 234)
10. Describe how researchers can determine if differential transfer has occurred in a repeated measures
experiment.
The best way to document differential transfer is to compare the results for the same independent
variable when tested using a random groups design and a repeated measures design. Differential
transfer cannot affect the results for the independent variable in a random groups design. If the results
for the independent variable differ in the two experiments, differential transfer is likely to be responsible
for producing the different outcome. Also, with sufficient numbers of participants in an incomplete
design, it’s possible to examine the results for the first ordinal position only, which represents an
independent groups design. If the results for the entire repeated measures design differ when
compared to the results for the first ordinal position, differential transfer is a possible problem (p. 238)
CHALLENGE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
These questions appear in the textbook at the end of Chapter 7, and can be used for a homework
assignment, in-class discussion, or exam preparation. Answers to these questions appear in italic below.
[Answer to Challenge Question 1 also appears in the text.]
1. The following problems represent different situations in the repeated measures designs in which
practice effects need to be balanced.
A. Consider a repeated measures experiment using a complete design involving one independent
variable. The independent variable in the experiment is task difficulty with three levels (Low,
Medium, and High). You are to prepare an order for administering the conditions of this experiment
so that the independent variable is balanced for practice effects. You are first to use block
randomization to balance practice effects and then to use ABBA counterbalancing to balance
practice effects. Each condition should appear twice in the order you prepare. (You can use the first
row of the random number table (Table A.1) in the Appendix to determine your two random orders
for block randomization.)
5
Assigning the values 1, 2, and 3 to the Low, Medium, and High conditions, respectively, and using
the first row of the random number table (Table A.1) in the Appendix beginning with the first number
in the row, the block-randomized sequence is: Low-High-Medium-Low-Medium-High. One possible
ABBA counterbalanced sequence is Low-Medium-High-High-Medium-Low
B. Consider a repeated measures experiment using an incomplete design. The independent variable
in the experiment is the font size in which a paragraph has been printed, and there are six levels (7,
8, 9, 10, 11, and 12). Present a table showing how you would determine the order of administering
the conditions to the first six participants of the experiment. Be sure that practice effects are
balanced for these participants.
Because there are six conditions, all possible orders are not feasible. Therefore, either a Latin
Square or a random starting order with rotation is needed to balance practice effects. A possible set
of sequences using rotation is
Position
Participant 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th
1 8 10 11 9 7 12
2 10 11 9 7 12 8
3 11 9 7 12 8 10
4 9 7 12 8 10 11
5 7 12 8 10 11 9
6 12 8 10 11 9 7
2. A student working as an intern at an advertising agency is assigned the task of evaluating people=s first
impressions of a new ad. The agency prepared four photos of a client=s product, a new model of car.
The car is pictured in four different scenes thought to highlight features of the car for potential
customers (e.g., parked near suburban home, traveling scenic highway). The intern decides to show
the four photos to people she selects randomly from shoppers at a mall. The persons selected are
offered five dollars to look at each photo and judge whether they think the photo would make a good ad
for this car. Each of the four photos is shown for 100 ms on a laptop screen and the participant uses the
number keys 1 through 5 to indicate preference (1 = not good at all to 5 = excellent ad for this car). The
participants are asked to make their first-impression judgments as quickly as they can after seeing each
photo. In addition to the ratings, the time to make each judgment is measured.
A. What design is being used to examine the effect of the different photos?
The incomplete repeated measures design is being used for the photo variable because each
person rates each of the four photos only once.
B. Prepare a Latin Square to balance practice effects across the conditions of this experiment. [Label
the photos A, B, C, and D.]
With the four photos labeled A, B, C, and D and using the Latin Square presented in Box 7.2, the
photos would be presented in the following orders:
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
B A C D
A D B C
D C A B
C B D A
6
C. Suppose the intern decides to use all possible orders to balance practice effects, and assigns one
participant to each of the 24 possible orders of the conditions. Consider only the first ordinal
position of this experiment (i.e., the first photo each participant saw). Which experimental design is
used when you look only at the first ordinal position across the 24 participants? How many
participants are in each of the four conditions?
The random groups design is included at the first ordinal position, provided that participants are
randomly assigned to orders. With 24 possible orders and 24 participants, 6 participants would be
assigned to each of the 4 conditions in the first ordinal position, with 48 participants there would 12
participants in each of the 4 conditions, etc.
D. Considering your answer to part C, how could the intern test whether differential transfer occurred
when all possible order are used to balance practice effects?
The researcher first could analyze the results for the four conditions at the first ordinal position; this
represents a random groups design rather than a repeated measures design because at the first
ordinal position participants have only experienced one condition (photo A, B, C, or D). Then the
researcher could analyze the overall results for the four conditions in the repeated measures
design. If the results for the four conditions differ for the repeated measures design compared to the
random groups design, differential transfer may have taken place.
3. The following table represents the order of administering the conditions to participants in a repeated
measures experiment using an incomplete design in which the independent variable was the difficulty
level of a children’s electronic puzzle game. Four-year old children used a tablet to play a game
requiring them to find hidden figures in three difficulty levels. The levels of difficulty were defined by the
size of the figures embedded in the pictures displayed on the screen: extremely small (ES), very small
(VS), and small (S). The dependent variable was the number of figures found by a child at each of the
three difficulty levels (maximum = 10). Six children were tested and the values in the table indicate the
number of figures found at each level of difficulty. Use this table to answer questions below.
Participant Order of Conditions

1 ES (2) VS (9) S (9)
2 VS (3) S (5) ES (7)
3 S (4) ES (3) VS (5)
4 ES (6) S (10) VS (8)
5 VS (7) ES (8) S (6)
6 S (8) VS (4) ES (4)
A. What method was used to balance practice effects in this experiment?
Practice effects were balanced for the independent variable of difficulty using all possible orders in
this incomplete repeated measures design.
B. Present the values you would use to describe the overall effect of the difficulty variable. Include a
verbal description of the effect along with the descriptive statistics that you use as a basis of your
description.
The descriptive statistic that would be used to describe the overall effect of the difficulty variable is
7
the mean number of embedded figures found in each of the three conditions. Each mean is
determined by averaging the 6 values for the respective conditions. The means are 7.0 for the small
condition; 6.0 for the very small condition; and 5.0 for the extremely small condition. The pattern of
means indicates that performance was best with small figures, intermediate with very small figures,
and poorest with extremely small embedded figures.
C. What claim would you make about the effect of the difficulty variable if the probability associated
with the F-test for the effect of the difficulty variable was p = .04?
Because the p value of .04 associated with the F-test for the effect of the difficulty variable is less
than the conventional level of significance of .05, we could make the claim that the effect of the
difficulty variable was statistically significant.
ISSUES AND PROBLEMS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION
1. Reading Research Critically
The following research summary and the accompanying questions could be used in class for
small-group discussion or as a homework assignment. The answers appear below. To facilitate
photocopying, the research summary and questions appear on subsequent pages.
Answers for Brightness and Affect
A. Identify the independent variables in this study and indicate whether an independent groups design
or a repeated measures design was used to manipulate the independent variables.
The researchers manipulated the affect of the words presented with two levels, positive and
negative. Because all participants viewed presentations of both types of words, this is a repeated
measures variable. The researchers also manipulated the font these words were presented using
two levels, bright and dark. All participants saw presentations of bright and dark words; thus, this is
a repeated measures variable. By combining these types of presentations we can say that
participants responded to four types of stimuli: positive-bright, positive-dark, negative-bright,
negative-dark.
Another way to conceptualize the independent variable is according to whether the stimuli were
matched or mismatched. This is also a repeated measures variable because participants
experienced both types of presentations.
B. The primary dependent variable in this research was participants’ reaction time for indicating
whether the presented words were positive or negative. Identify some features of the stimuli that
the researchers would need to control by holding conditions constant so that reaction time
measures would not by influenced by these potential confounding features.
There are several features of the positive and negative words the researchers would need to make
sure are equivalent through holding conditions constant. For example, the two types of words
should be, on average, the same length. If the negative words were longer, on average, than the
positive words, the response latencies for judging the words would be affected. Similarly, the
positive and negative words should be equivalent in terms of their difficulty, familiarity, and degree
to which they are positive or negative. In addition, the brightness and darkness of the presentations
should be controlled so that they are perceptually equivalent in their difference from the gray
8
background. Meier et al. used a gray scale in which the background was 50% gray and dark was
presented as black (0% gray scale) and bright was presented as white (100% gray scale).
C. Although procedures differed slightly across several experiments, we will consider procedures for
the experiments in which each of the 100 words was presented twice, once in dark font and once in
bright font, for a total of 200 trials. To simplify here, we will select 10 positive and 10 negative words
for a total of 40 trials (each word presented twice).
Clearly, if all the Amismatched@ stimuli were presented last in the 200 trials, response latencies
for these trials might be longer because of practice effects (i.e., fatigue, boredom).
Counterbalancing the trials is needed to average practice effects across the trials. Use the following
stimuli to generate a counterbalanced order of presentation. Be sure to present each word twice,
once in bright (B) and once in dark (D) font (e.g., love-B, love-D). Provide a rationale for the
counterbalancing procedure you selected.
A complete repeated measures design is appropriate because participants experience each

condition of the experiment more than once. Two options for counterbalancing in the complete
repeated measures design are block randomization and ABBA counterbalancing. It is possible that
participants could anticipate a sequence of responses (e.g., positive, negative, negative, positive),
so block randomization rather than ABBA counterbalancing is preferred.
Each block would comprise four presentations: positive-bright (PB), positive-dark (PD),
negative-bright (NB), negative-dark (ND). A random order for each block could be generated by
consulting a random numbers table. The following sequence was generated by using the top
several rows of the random numbers table and assigning the numbers 1-4 to the PB, PD, NB, ND
conditions, respectively.
1-4-3-2 PB-ND-NB-PD
1-4-2-3 PB-ND-PD-NB
2-1-3-4 PD-PB-NB-ND
3-2-1-4 NB-PD-PB-ND
2-3-4-1 PD-NB-ND-PB
1-4-3-2 PB-ND-NB-PD
4-1-3-2 ND-PB-NB-PD
2-3-4-1 PD-NB-ND-PB
1-2-4-3 PB-PD-ND-NB
4-3-2-1 ND-NB-PD-PB
The next step is to randomly assign the positive and negative words to be presented in each
font condition. Recall that each word is presented twice, once in bright font and once in dark font.
One method for randomly presenting the words is to use the random numbers table to generate a
random order of the positive words and a random order of the negative words. The following
sequences were generated using the initial two columns of the random numbers table and
assigning the numbers 0-9 to the ten words in each list. An additional provision was that all of the
words in each list were used once before a second presentation and that a word could not be in the
same ordinal position for the bright and dark lists. The random sequences were generated first for
the positive-affect words and then the negative-affect words.
Positive Affect Word Order Negative Affect Word Order

order for bright order for dark order for bright order for dark
1 candy baby devil ugly
9
2 dream love nasty bitter

3 kiss gentle ugly nasty
4 gentle dream liar cancer
5 pretty sleep bitter crime
6 wise neat cancer rude
7 sleep candy crime dead
8 neat kiss dead devil
9 baby wise rude cruel
10 love pretty cruel liar
These random orders are then combined to create a sequence of stimuli (with AB@ indicating bright
font and AD@ indicating dark font):
Block
1 candy-B, ugly-D, devil-B, baby-D
2 dream-B, bitter-D, love-D, nasty-B
3 gentle-D, kiss-B, ugly-B, nasty-D
4 liar-B, dream-D, gentle-B, cancer-D
5 sleep-D, bitter-B, crime-D, pretty-B
6 wise-B, rude-D, cancer-B, neat-D
7 dead-D, sleep-B, crime-B, candy-D
8 kiss-D, dead-B, devil-D, neat-B
9 baby-B, wise-D, cruel-D, rude-B
10 liar-D, cruel-B, pretty-D, love-B
10
Reading Research Critically
Read the following description of a research study to answer the questions that follow. This description is
based on an article by: Meier, B. P., Robinson, M. D., & Clore, G. L. (2004). Why good guys wear white:
Automatic inferences about stimulus valence based on brightness. Psychological Science, 15, 82-87.
Brightness and Affect
Numerous examples exist in culture that depict an association between brightness and affect. Light or
brightness is associated with Agood@ and darkness is associated with Aevil.@ In the movie Star Wars, for
example, Luke Skywalker and Princess Leia were dressed in white and Darth Vader was completely in
black. Across many religions, including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Zoroastrianism, an
association exists between light and God or goodness, and between darkness and Satan or evil.
Whether something is considered good or bad is referred to as an affective judgment. In contrast, our
experience of light and dark is a sensory perception. The focus of this research was to determine whether
people automatically judge brighter objects as good and darker objects as bad. To test this hypothesis,
participants in a series of experiments judged whether 100 words presented on a computer screen were
negative or positive. In a separate study, 50 of the words were rated as reflecting positive affect (e.g.,
candy, love, pretty, sleep), and 50 were rated as negative affect words (e.g., bitter, cancer, devil, rude).
Each word was presented one at a time on a gray background. The researchers manipulated whether the
words were presented in a bright font or a dark font. Thus, half of presentations of positive-affect words
were in bright font and half were in dark font. Similarly, half of the presentations of negative-affect words
were in dark font and half were in bright font. One dependent variable was the time it took participants to
respond whether the word on the screen was positive or negative.
The researchers were most interested in comparing participants= reaction times when the affect and font
brightness Amatched@ (e.g., love presented in a bright font and cancer presented in a dark font) and when
the affect and font brightness conflicted (e.g., love presented in a dark font and cancer presented in a bright
font). Their results indicated that when the affect and font of the word conflicted, participants took longer
and made more errors when judging whether the word was positive or negative, compared to when the
affect and font of the word matched.
To explain this finding, Meier et al. (2004) considered theories suggesting that conceptual thinking, such as
making an affective judgment, is automatically tied to physical perception. The researchers suggested that
people cannot judge the affect of a word (or any other object) without first automatically considering its
physical features, such as brightness. In their experiments, when the brightness conflicted with the correct
affective judgment, additional cognitive processing (i.e., time, attention, thought) was required for
participants to override their automatic association between brightness and affect in order to make the
correct judgment about whether the word was negative or positive. Meier et al. noted the applied
implications of their findings for racial stereotyping by stating, AIf there really is an automatic tendency to
relate stimulus color to stimulus valence, then people who are dark skinned may be at a disadvantage in
interpersonal relations... with prejudice perhaps a manifestation of this tendency@ (p. 86).
A. Identify the independent variables in this study and indicate whether an independent groups design or a
repeated measures design was used to manipulate the independent variables.
11
B. The primary dependent variable in this research was participants’ reaction time for indicating whether
the presented words were positive or negative. Identify some features of the stimuli that the researchers
would need to control by holding conditions constant so that reaction time measures would not by
influenced by these potential confounding features.
C. Although procedures differed slightly across several experiments, we will consider procedures for the
experiments in which each of the 100 words was presented twice, once in dark font and once in bright
font, for a total of 200 trials. To simplify here, we will select 10 positive and 10 negative words for a total
of 40 trials (each word presented twice).
Clearly, if all the Amismatched@ stimuli were presented last in the 200 trials, response latencies for
these trials might be longer because of practice effects (i.e., fatigue, boredom). Counterbalancing the
trials is needed to average practice effects across the trials. Use the following stimuli to generate a
counterbalanced order of presentation. Be sure to present each word twice, once in bright (B) and once
in dark (D) font (e.g., love-B, love-D). Provide a rationale for the counterbalancing procedure you
selected.
Positive Affect Words Negative Affect Words

baby bitter
candy cancer
dream crime
gentle cruel
kiss dead
love devil
neat liar
pretty nasty
sleep rude
wise ugly
12
2. More Challenges
These additional challenge questions (along with the concepts illustrated in each question) can be used for
class discussion or as possible test questions.
A. The pursuit rotor is a test of perceptual-motor coordination. It involves a turntable with a disk about
the size of a dime embedded in it. The participant is given a pointer and is asked to keep the pointer
on the disk while the turntable is rotating. The dependent variable is the percentage of time on each
trial that the participant keeps the pointer on the disk. Learning on this task is linearly related to
trials over many periods of practice, and the task generally takes a long time to master. A
researcher wants to study the influence of time of day on the performance on this task with four
different times (10 A.M., 2 P.M., 6 P.M., and 10 P.M.). The participants will receive a constant
number of trials under each of the four conditions, and participants will be tested in one condition
per day over four consecutive days.
(1) What design is being used for the time-of-day variable in this experiment?
The incomplete repeated measures design is being used for the time-of-day variable (10 A.M.,
2 P.M., 6 P.M., 10 P.M.) because each person participates in each time of day condition only
once.
(2) Prepare a Latin Square to balance practice effects across the conditions of the experiment.
Assign the following: A = 10 A.M., B = 2 P.M., C = 6 P.M., and D = 10 P.M.

Using the Latin Square displayed in Box 7.2, the conditions would be presented in the following
orders:
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

B A C D 2 pm 10 am 6 pm 10 pm
A D B C 10 am 10 pm 2 pm 6 pm
D C A B 10 pm 6 pm 10 am 2 pm
C B D A 6 pm 2 pm 10 pm 10 am
(3) The researcher decides to use all possible orders to balance practice effects. The researchers
assigns each participant to one of the 24 possible orders of the conditions. Which experimental
design is included when you look only at the first condition to which each participant was
assigned?
The random groups design is included at the first ordinal position, provided that participants are
randomly assigned to orders. With 24 possible orders and 24 participants, 6 participants would
be assigned to each of the 4 conditions, with 48 participants there would 12 participants in each
of the 4 conditions, etc.
(4) How could the researcher test whether differential transfer occurred when all possible orders
were used to balance practice effects?
The researcher first could analyze the results for the four conditions at the first ordinal position;
this represents a random groups design rather than a repeated measures design because at
the first ordinal position participants have only experienced one condition. Then the researcher
13
could analyze the overall results for the four conditions in the repeated measures design. If the
results for the four conditions differ for the repeated measures design compared to the random
groups design, differential transfer may have taken place.
B. An experimenter wanted to determine the effect of background brightness on people's ability to

detect a particular symbol in a complex pattern. He intended to manipulate brightness at four levels
(20, 40, 60, and 80 units of brightness), and he recognized that he could only present a particular
pattern slide once. Therefore, he prepared four different symbol slides (A, B, C, D). Because he
was tacking this experiment on the end of another experiment he decided to use the incomplete
repeated measures design to keep the length of the experiment to a minimum. The original
experiment to which the brightness experiment is to be tacked on required only sixteen participants,
and the experimenter therefore had to balance all three variables (brightness, symbol, and ordinal
position/practice) with only sixteen people. Prepare a table showing how you would administer the
conditions to the sixteen participants. Previous research shows that you need not be concerned
with differential transfer.
Using a Latin Square to balance practice effects for the four slides and using random starting
orders with rotation for the brightness variable we can use the following sequences to accomplish
the necessary balancing.

P# A B C D P# C A D B
1 20 40 60 80 9 20 40 60 80
2 40 60 80 20 10 40 60 80 20
3 60 80 20 40 11 60 80 20 40
4 80 20 40 60 12 80 20 40 60

P# B D A C P# D C B A
5 20 40 60 80 13 20 40 60 80
6 40 60 80 20 14 40 60 80 20
7 60 80 20 40 15 60 80 20 40
8 80 20 40 60 16 80 20 40 60
C. The following table presents the order of administering conditions in an incomplete repeated
measures design in which the independent variable was the dose of a drug manipulated at three
levels (0, 50, and 100 units). The values in parentheses represent the number of errors made by
each participant in each condition on a problem-solving task. Use this table to answer the questions
that follow.
Ordinal Position
Participant 1 2 3
1 0(2) 50(9) 100(9)
2 0(7) 100(5) 50(3)
3 50(5) 0(3) 100(4)
4 50(8) 100(10) 0(6)
5 100(6) 0(8) 50(7)
6 100(8) 50(4) 0(4)
14
(1) What method was used to balance practice effects for the drug variable?
All possible orders were used to balance practice effects for the drug variable.
(2) Compare the mean for the two values when the 50-unit dose followed the 0-unit dose with the
mean for the two values when the 50-unit dose followed the 100-unit dose to determine
whether there is evidence of differential transfer influencing performance in the 50-unit
condition.
Yes, there is some evidence of differential transfer. The mean for the two values when the
50-unit dose followed the 0-unit dose was 8 [(9+7)/2] and the mean for the two values when the
50-unit dose followed the 100-unit dose was 3.5 [(3+4)/2]. Of course, more than six participants
would need to be tested before differential transfer could be reliably assessed, but the
procedure for making the test would be the same as in this problem.
(3) Compare the means for the 0-, 50-, and 100-unit conditions at the first ordinal position (where a
random groups design is present) to the means for the three conditions over the whole
experiment (compute the means for each of the three conditions by averaging the six values for
each condition). Compare these two sets of means and decide whether they indicate that
differential transfer has affected performance in the experiment.
The means for the first ordinal position are: 0 unit = 4.5; 50 unit = 6.5; and 100 unit = 7.0. The
means for the experiment as a whole are: 0 unit = 5.0; 50 unit = 6.0 and 100 unit = 7.0. The
pattern of these two sets of means is similar suggesting that differential transfer did not affect
performance in this experiment. The focus in problems (2) and (3) is on the two procedures for
identifying differential transfer in the incomplete repeated measures design. As was true in part
(2), a larger experiment would be required before the results of these procedures could be
considered reliable, or before we would be concerned about discrepancies between the results
of the two procedures.
D. Cognitive psychologists make extensive use of the repeated measures design, especially when
reaction time is used as the dependent variable. Because participants can respond within a second
or two it is possible to use the complete repeated measures design to test participants on hundreds
of trials in an experiment of reasonable length. One illustrative area of this type of research in
cognitive psychology involves the relationship between cognition and brain processes. More
specifically, reaction time experiments have been used to explore differences in processing
between the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. One question researchers have explored is
whether information is processed more efficiently when it is presented to only one hemisphere at a
time or when it is presented to both hemispheres simultaneously.
A task commonly used in these experiments is a letter-matching task. In this task participants
see a display showing two letters and they are asked if the letters match. For example, the display
Aa would be a match and the display Ab would not be a match. The critical independent variable in
experiments comparing the processing efficiency of one hemisphere as compared to both
hemispheres is the position on the display of the presented letters. In the experiment we will be
describing for this problem, there were three different positions.
In the first condition both letters were presented only in the left visual field (unilateral left
condition) with one above and one below the middle of the screen.
In the second condition both letters were presented only in the right visual field (unilateral right
15
condition), again, one above and one below the middle of the screen.
In the third condition one letter was presented on either side of a central fixation point on the
screen (bilateral condition).
There are many factors that need to be controlled in conducting an experiment of this type. For
example, half the trials need to be match trials and half need to be no-match trials. The length of
time the letters are presented, the size of the letters, and the brightness of the letters also need to
be controlled. For this problem, however, we will ignore these important control considerations. We
will only be concerned with the three levels of the position variable. Twenty-five participants were
tested on 100 trials for each of the three conditions in a complete repeated measures design.
Practice effects were balanced for the position variable using block randomization.
The investigators expected to find that processing would be more efficient for the bilateral
condition than for the unilateral conditions. The name for this phenomenon is the bilateral
superiority effect and evidence for it is provided when participants’ reaction times are faster in the
bilateral condition than in the combined unilateral conditions. In this problem you will be following
the basic steps in testing for a bilateral superiority effect.
(1) The following table presents the reaction times (measured in milliseconds) for a subset of four
participants who had match trials for four blocks of the experiment. You are to use these data to
prepare a matrix showing each participant's performance in each of the three conditions. The
symbols in the table are B for bilateral, L for unilateral left, and R for unilateral right.
Block 1 2 3 4
P# B R L L B R L B R R L B
1 665 690 710 695 680 675 705 660 685 670 690 675
2 685 665 705 720 700 680 700 695 660 675 715 680
3 665 690 735 750 655 705 745 650 695 710 730 670
4 695 705 720 735 710 715 740 690 720 700 725 705
The matrix showing each participant=s performance in each condition is prepared by averaging
the four scores for each participant in each condition. For example, the first participant=s score
in the bilateral condition is the mean of the following four scores: 665, 680, 660, and 675. The
following table presents the entire matrix.
P# Bilateral Uni Right Uni Left

1 670 680 700
2 690 670 710
3 660 700 740
4 700 710 730
(2) Next, you are to use the matrix you prepared in Part (1) to compute the mean reaction times in
each of the three conditions for the subset of four participants.
The means in milliseconds for the three conditions are: 680 for the bilateral; 690 for the
unilateral right; and 720 for the unilateral left.
(3) Suppose an F-test for an analysis that compares the mean for the bilateral condition with the
16
mean of the two unilateral conditions (i.e., the mean of left and right) was statistically
significant. What would you claim about the bilateral superiority effect?
This F-test would indicate that the mean for the bilateral condition (680) and the mean of the
two means for the unilateral conditions [(690 + 720)/2 = 705] differ statistically. Because the
reaction time is lower in the bilateral condition, there is evidence in this experiment of a bilateral
superiority effect.
17
LEARNING BY DOING RESEARCH
A simple experiment involving repeated measures that would also be familiar to students is a Ataste test.@
These procedures could be used as a class demonstration or students could conduct this simple
experiment with friends as participants. Presented here are procedures that could be followed for
comparing two conditions, but it would be easy to expand the number of conditions depending on students’
research question. An advantage of the taste-test experiment is that students can appreciate the
complications associated with differential transfer in the repeated measures design.
Step 1: Students choose their research question. For example, students might ask, ACan people
distinguish between Coke and Diet Coke?@ (a third condition might test Coke Zero), or ACan people tell the
difference between Coke and Pepsi?@ (a third condition might test a generic product). Instead of Atell the
difference@ questions, students may choose a question relating to preference (e.g., ADo people prefer
Coke or Pepsi?@). Students may identify other products of interest for comparison.
Step 2: Define the dependent variable. To illustrate computational procedures using the repeated measures
design, students could use a rating scale for each taste sample. For example, for a research question
regarding whether people can distinguish between products, participants could rate the likelihood that each
product is Coke on a 1-10 scale. They would make the rating for each taste sample. If the research question
concerns preference, the dependent variable question could ask participants to use a rating scale anchored
by Ado not like at all@ to Alike very much@ for each taste sample.
Step 3: Decide what type of repeated measures design to use. Students should decide whether each
participant samples each product once (incomplete design) or more than once (complete design). Once this
decision is made, students should decide the method for balancing practice effects in their design.
Step 4: Design the procedure for recording participants= responses based on the dependent variable and
repeated measures design selected. Other decisions, such as how much of each product should be tasted,
how to keep participants (and experimenters) blind to condition, random assignment to orders of conditions,
and extraneous variables to hold constant, should be addressed.
Step 5: Tabulate the results, making sure to Aunwind@ the order of conditions and product condition (i.e.,
Aproduct A@ will appear in the 1st ordinal position and the 2nd ordinal position, etc.). Use descriptive
statistics to describe the findings, and inferential statistics as appropriate to the classroom situation.
Step 6: Address issues of differential transfer: Is it possible that sampling AProduct A@ first influences the
taste of AProduct B,@ and vice versa? A simple way to test for the possibility of differential transfer is to
compare the overall results for the repeated measures design with the results for just the first ordinal
position. Are ratings of the products different in the first ordinal position, in which no prior tasting could
influence participants= ratings, compared to the overall results?
Step 7: Students may be asked to write a brief report to describe their findings. In their report they should
describe their research question; the research design, including how the independent variable was
manipulated and counterbalancing procedures; the dependent variable; a summary of the results, including
descriptive and inferential statistics (as appropriate); a discussion of their test for differential transfer; and
their conclusions.
18
INSTRUCTOR=S LECTURE/DISCUSSION AIDS
The following pages outline content from Chapter 7 and may be used to facilitate lecture or discussion.
1. Repeated Measures Designs: This page describes the repeated measures design and the reasons
researchers use this design.
2. Practice Effects: This page illustrates the problem of practice effects using an example.
3. Balancing Practice Effects: This page introduces complete and incomplete repeated measures designs
for counterbalancing practice effects.
4-5. Complete Repeated Measures Design: These two pages describe the complete repeated measures
design, block randomization and ABBA counterbalancing.
6. Incomplete Repeated Measures Design: The incomplete design is differentiated from the complete
design on this page.
7-8. Counterbalancing in the Incomplete Design: Methods for counterbalancing, all possible orders and
selected orders (Latin square, random starting order with rotation) are described on these two pages.
9. Data Analysis for Repeated Measures Designs: This page identifies the additional step required when
participants complete the experimental conditions in the complete design.
10. The Problem of Differential Transfer: This page describes differential transfer.
11. Comparison of Two Designs: This page compares repeated measures designs and random groups
designs on two dimensions: independent variable and what is controlled through balancing.
19
Repeated Measures Designs
! Each individual participates in each condition of the experiment.
 Completes DV measure with each condition
 Hence, Arepeated measures@
! Also called Awithin-subject design@
 Entire experiment is completed Awithin@ each subject
! Advantages
 No need to balance individual differences across conditions of

experiment
 Fewer participants needed
 Convenient and efficient
 More sensitive design
! A sensitive experiment can detect the effect of an IV

even if the effect is small
! Error variation is reduced
! Variability due to individual differences is eliminated.
20
Practice Effects
! Main disadvantage of repeated measures designs
 People change as they are tested repeatedly.
! Performance may improve over time.

! People may become tired or bored as number of Atrials@ increases.
! Practice effects become a potential confounding variable if not controlled.
! Example
 Researcher tests 2 study methods, A and B, for participants’

comprehension of text passages
! Condition A: highlight text while studying, then take test.

! Condition B: Read text and create sample test questions and answers,
then take test.
 Suppose researchers tests all participants in condition A first, then B.
 Results show test scores are higher with Method A than Method B.
 Problem: Confounding of study method IV with order of presentation
! Can’t determine effect of IV

! Practice effects (boredom, fatigue) may explain poorer performance
for Method B.
21
Balancing Practice Effects
! Balance practice effects across conditions
! Counterbalance the order of conditions
 Half of the participants do Condition A first, then Condition B.
 The remaining participants do Condition B, then A.
! Distribute practice effects equally across conditions
 Practice effects aren’t eliminated.
 Balance, or average, practice effects across the conditions of

experiment.
! Two types of repeated measures designs
 Complete repeated measures design
 Incomplete repeated measures design
! Complete and incomplete designs differ in how practice effects are

counterbalanced.
22
Complete Repeated Measures Design
! Balance practice effects within each participant.
 Each participant experiences each condition several times.

 Each participant forms a Acomplete@ experiment.
 Use different orders each time.
 Best when each condition is brief

 e.g., simple judgments about stimuli
! Two methods for counterbalancing order of conditions
 Block randomization
 ABBA counterbalancing
! Block randomization
 ABlock@: all conditions of independent variable (e.g., A, B, C, D)
 Generate random order of block (e.g., ACBD)

 Participant completes condition A, then C, then B, then D
 Generate new random order each time participant completes

conditions of experiment
 Practice effects are averaged across the many presentations of

independent variable conditions
 Requires many presentations to balance (average) practice effects
23
Complete Repeated Measures Design, continued
! ABBA counterbalancing
 Present conditions only a few times to each participant
 Use one random sequence of conditions (e.g., DABC)
 Then the opposite of the sequence (CBAD).
 Repeat with new random sequence and its opposite, etc.
 Each condition has the same amount of practice effects.
! Do not use ABBA counterbalancing
When practice effects are nonlinear:
 linear practice effects: participants change in same way with each

presentation of a condition
 nonlinear practice effects: participants change dramatically with the
administration of a condition (e.g., Aaha@ experience)
 Creates confounding between practice effects and independent
variable
 Use block randomization instead
When anticipation effects can occur:
 Participants form expectations about which condition will appear next

in sequence.
 Responses may be influenced by expectations, not independent
24
variable.
 If anticipation effects are likely (e.g., conditions are predictable), use
block randomization.
25
Incomplete Repeated Measures Design
! Each participant experiences each condition once.
 Not many times, as in the complete design.
! Balance practice effects across participants (not within)
! General rule for balancing practice effects:
 Each condition must appear in each ordinal position (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.)
equally often.
! Two methods for balancing practice effects
 All possible orders
 Selected orders
26
Counterbalancing in the Incomplete Design
! All possible orders
 Use with 4 or fewer independent variable conditions
 2 conditions (A, B)  2 possible orders: AB, BA

Randomly assign half of participants to do condition A then B,
other half do condition B then A
 3 conditions (A, B, C)  6 possible orders:

ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA
Randomly assign participants to one of the 6 orders
 4 conditions (A, B, C, D)  24 possible orders
 Need at least 1 participant randomly assigned to each order.
! Selected orders
 Select particular orders of conditions to balance practice effects
 Two methods: Latin Square and Random Starting Order with Rotation
 Each IV condition appears in each ordinal position exactly once.
 Randomly assign each participant to one of the orders of conditions.
27
Selected Orders for Counterbalancing

in the Incomplete Design
! Latin square
Ordinal Position
st
1 2nd 3rd 4th
A B D C
B C A D
C D B A
D A C B
 Each condition appears in each ordinal position to balance practice
effects.
 Another advantage: Each condition precedes and follows every other
condition once (AB and BA, BC and CB, etc.).
 This helps to control for possible order effects.
! Random starting order with rotation
 Generate random order of conditions (e.g, ABCD)

 Rotation: Move each condition one position
Ordinal Position
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
A B C D
B C D A
C D A B
D A B C
28
 Each condition appears in each ordinal position.

 Possible order effects are not balanced.
Data Analysis for Repeated Measures Designs
! Complete repeated measures design requires one additional step.
 Compute a summary score (e.g., mean) for each participant for each
independent variable condition.
 This score represents each participant=s average performance in

each condition.
29
The Problem of Differential Transfer
! Do not use repeated measures designs when differential transfer is

possible.
 Effects of one condition persist and affect participants’ experience of

subsequent conditions.
 Use independent groups design instead.
 Assess whether differential transfer is a problem by comparing results

for repeated measures design and random groups design.
 Compare performance in 1st ordinal position to overall results.
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
A B D C
B C A D
C D B A
D A C B
 1st ordinal position represents a random groups design.
 Differential transfer may be a problem if performance in 1st ordinal

position differs from results for entire repeated measures design.
30
Comparison of Two Designs
! Differences between repeated measures design and independent

(random) groups design
! Compare how independent variable is manipulated
 Repeated measures: each participant experiences every condition of

the IV
 Independent (random) groups design: each participant experiences

only one condition of the IV
! Compare what is balanced across conditions in order to rule out

alternative explanations for findings (confoundings)
 Repeated measures: practice effects
 Independent (random) groups: individual differences
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ready to spring I gave a shout, “Look out,” and shot out over the
small figure and into the pool.
When I came up, blowing like a porpoise, the figure was standing
waist deep in water and waving thin excited arms abroad. I saw the
face. It was gaunt, fever-bright, and not like my lad’s as I had seen it
last, but it was Joey who stood there.
I lifted him up and he clasped my neck almost to strangulation,
wrapping his long legs around me, and I raced with him to the house.
Once inside I stripped him, seized a towel and rubbed his cold little
body until it glowed, and he laughed and cried and laughed again,
and clutched my neck and finally stammered:
“I got—got here! I come for my birthday—all the way from the East
alone.”
“Alone!”
“Yep! And I’m going to stay. Going to stay forever—Bell Brandon said
so. They’s a letter in my satchel for you.”
I hugged him to my breast.
“But what were you doing in the swimming hole, Joey?”
He looked at me, smiled his shrewd young smile, and said:
“Washing off the dust and—and tidying myself. Let’s see the cake,
now, Mr. David.”
“The cake?”
He nodded. “Hasn’t Wanza baked it yet?”
“Why, Joey lad, we haven’t any ready to-day! Can’t you
understand?”
His face grew blank, his eyes filled, and he shivered suddenly; he
seemed to shrivel in my arms, and he turned his head away from
me.
“What is it, Joey?”
“I—I—don’t anybody want me?”
“Want you?” I was aghast. “There, and there, and there,” I cried,
giving him a rapid succession of hugs. “Doesn’t this look as though I
wanted you?”
“Is Wanza sick?” There was something hopeful in his tone.
“No,” I said, “Wanza is very well, lad.”
Again that blank look, that delicate shiver.
“We’ll have a fire going in no time, lad, and a cake in the oven, and
the blue dishes on the table. And say the word and I’ll slap the
saddle on Buttons and ride post-haste to Wanza and tell her I have a
wonderful, wonderful surprise for her—that Joey has come back,
after we had given up hoping. I’ll bring her here—shall I, Joey?—to
help bake the cake. Oh, dear, dear lad!—” I cried, and broke down.
Such a shout as he gave. He had me by the neck and was clinging
to me like a wild young savage. “You didn’t get my letter—you didn’t,
you didn’t!”
“Did you write, Joey?”
“Yep, sure I wrote. Course I wrote. Soon as Bell Brandon told me I
belonged to you really and truly I wrote and I let Bell Brandon put a
letter in the envelope with mine. I put your name on the outside. I
printed Mr. David, as careful, and Bell Brandon watched me. She
made me write Dale on it, too. But when she wasn’t looking I rubbed
out the Dale part, and I mailed it myself on the corner. I told you to
spect me on my birthday, and Bell Brandon told you to meet me at
Spokane ’cause I was coming all alone from Chicago.”
Poor lad! Poor disappointed lad! He gave a strange, tired sigh, but
meeting my somber eyes, brightened. “I like traveling alone. Pooh!
I’d liever travel alone than—than anything. But when you didn’t meet
me at Roselake even, I thought—I thought p’r’aps you didn’t want
me! And when I got out of the stage at the meadow and cut across,
and peeked at the cabin and you wasn’t around, I was ’most sure
you didn’t want me. And then I saw how dirty I was, and I thought I’d
tidy up first before you saw me, anyhow.”
I went back to the river bank, sought for and found Joey’s traveling
bag and carried it to the house. Joey brought out of its depths a letter
and handed it to me. But I did not read it at once. I put my lad in a
big chair in the kitchen, and I built a fire in the stove and I set out
flour and sugar and molasses, all the while praying that Wanza
would appear. I laid the table in the front room with the best blue
china, and I got out the pressed glass comport; and I gathered
handfuls of syringa and honeysuckle, and brought them in the big
yellow pitcher to Joey, saying:
“You may arrange these, Joey, for the table.”
But to my surprise he took the flowers listlessly, and when I glanced
around after a few moments I saw that he had set the pitcher down
on the floor and was leaning back in the chair with closed eyes. I
went and stood at his side, but he did not open his eyes.
“Tired, Joey?”
He yawned. “Terrible tired, Mr. David.”
I looked at him irresolutely, then gathered him up in my arms.
“Come along, old fellow, lie down on your bed in the cedar room, and
sleep till supper’s ready,” I suggested.
His hand stroked my cheek with the old caress. He yawned again. I
lifted him and carried him to the cedar room and placed him on the
bed. I took off his shoes and drew the shawl-flower quilt over him. He
spoke then:
“Tell Wanza when she comes, to wake me first thing. I love Bell
Brandon—but I love Wanza best. I guess—I’ll—sleep pretty good—
with this dear old quilt over me—” his voice grew indistinct, he
stretched, blinked once or twice, closed his eyes, and snuggled
luxuriously into his pillows. I tiptoed from the room.
In the front room I sat down by the window, took Haidee’s letter from
my pocket and read it.
“I hope nothing will prevent you from meeting Joey in
Spokane,” I read. “I have heard nothing from you on that
point. But I am almost sure you received my letter telling
you of my illness and inability to travel, and asking you to
meet Joey on the fifth. I cannot but believe Bill Jobson’s
story—strange as it seems. My own little boy is gone
forever.
“When you receive this Joey will be with you—there in the
old place that he loves so dearly. And you—how you will
rejoice to have your lad again. Bless you both! David Dale,
I shall not visit Hidden Lake this summer,—I have learned
much in these past months. Do you not know your own
heart yet? I have read carefully, searchingly all the letters
you have written me this past winter, and I find Wanza,
Wanza, between the lines. She is the true mate for you—
can you not see this? Do you not feel it? Do you not know
you love her—as she loves you? I knew I should reach a
happy solution of our problem—given the much needed
perspective; and the solution is this—you love Wanza
Lyttle, and I care for you only as a dear, kind friend.
“No, I shall not visit Hidden Lake this year. Perhaps next
summer—but ‘To-morrow is a day too far to trust whate’er
the day be.’ I shall never forget Joey or you, or your
wonderful kindness and friendship. Good-bye, Mr. Fixing
Man,—or not good-bye! au revoir. Oh, all the good wishes
in the world I send to you and Joey—and Wanza.
“Judith Batterly.”
When I finished this letter I sat quietly, watching curiously a white
butterfly—a Pine White—skimming back and forth above a flowering
currant bush that grew close to the window. I found myself strangely
impassive. I said to myself that Haidee was mistaken about my
feeling for Wanza; but I experienced no sense of bereavement
because she had found that her own feeling for me was that of a
friend, merely. I was not even surprised. “I have Joey,” I kept
repeating over and over to myself, hugging this comfort to my breast.
There was a fear back of my exultation in the lad’s possession. A
fear that was strong enough to force the full significance of Haidee’s
communication into the background of my mind. Was my lad ill? Was
he really ill? I asked myself. He was thin, and his cheeks were
feverishly bright, and his voice sounded tired,—but, was he a sick
child?
I went back to the kitchen, looked at the ingredients set forth on the
table and then out of the window anxiously. If only Wanza would
come and a wonderful spice cake could be in the oven when Joey
awakened. If only— But here I broke off in my musings, for I heard a
strange sound from the cedar room.
I went as fast as my feet could carry me to the room where I had left
my boy. I found him lying, face downward on the floor, where he had
evidently fallen when he attempted to walk from his bed to the door. I
lifted him, turned his face to me, and examined it. It was flushed so
deep a red as to be almost purple. His eyes were open, but he did
not seem to see me, his lips were parted, the breath was hot on my
face. I placed him on the bed, and he murmured unintelligibly.
I knew then that my lad was ill, indeed, and when I heard a step
behind me and saw Wanza on the threshold, I ran and caught her
hand. “Thank God, you have come,” I exclaimed.
“They told me in Roselake Joey was back,” she cried, and brushed
past me to the bed.
I turned and went from the room. A few moments later she came to
me.
“What has she done to him? What has she done to him?” she burst
forth.
“She has done nothing, Wanza.”
“Why did you say, ‘Thank God’?” she cried, fiercely. “Do you think I
can save him? Mr. Dale, he is sick—he is very sick—he has pined
and pined—for a sight of you, and Jingles and Buttons. What do you
think he said just now?—raving as he is. ‘Will I go back soon, Bell
Brandon? No, thank you, I can’t eat—I guess I want Mr. David, and
Jingles and Buttons, and my own little cedar room.’ If he dies—David
Dale—if he dies!—”
“Please—please, Wanza—”
She looked into my face, her eyes were black with emotion.
“Saddle Buttons and go at once for a doctor! I’ll put Joey in a cold
pack while you’re gone; he’s burning with fever.”
“Practical, capable, ever ready to serve; lavish of her affection,
staunch in her friendship, ‘steel true,—blade straight,’—that is
Wanza,” I said to myself as I rode away.
The outcome of the doctor’s visit was that I sent for Mrs. Olds.
Wanza and I got through the night somehow, and the next day Mrs.
Olds came. I think this strange being entertained some slight
tenderness for Joey, for when she saw him lying among his pillows
with heavy-lidded eyes and fever-seared cheeks, she stooped and
touched his brow very gently with her lips. Joey recognized her when
she entered the room late at night in her heelless slippers and
flannel dressing-gown, and set her small clock on the shelf above
the bed. “Mrs. Olds,” he ordered distinctly, “take that clock out to the
kitchen.”
Taken by surprise, Mrs. Olds protested: “There, there, Joey, don’t
bother with me—that’s a good boy. Just close your eyes and go to
sleep again.”
“I don’t watch the clock! Mr. David says the Now is the thing. Take it
out! When the birds sing I’ll get up.”
But the birds sang and Joey did not awaken. He slept heavily all that
day. And when he aroused toward midnight he did not know me. The
following day he was worse, and that night I despaired. In his
delirium he said things that well nigh crazed me. His mutterings were
all of me, with an occasional reference to the collie and Buttons. “I
don’t like to leave Mr. David alone, so long,” he kept repeating. “I
’most know he wants me back again—I been his boy so long.”
Presently when he sobbed out shrilly: “I just got to go back to Mr.
David!” I arose precipitately, quitted the room and went out to the
bench in the Dingle.
But some one already was sitting there. I could see her in the light
from the room. A girl in a rose-colored dressing-gown with long
braids down her back, sat there, looking up at the star-filled sky
through the tree branches. I advanced and she made room for me at
her side. I sat down, too stunned, too grief stricken for words. We sat
there in silence. Presently her uneven breathing, her sobbing under-
breaths, disturbed me.
“Please—please, Wanza—don’t,” I begged.
“I’ve been praying,” she stammered.
“That is well, dear girl.”
“Praying that Joey will live.”
“It seems a small thing for God to grant—in his omnipotence. It is
everything in the world to me,” I murmured brokenly. “Why, girl, if my
boy lives I shall be the happiest man on God’s footstool! I shall be
immeasurably content. I shall ask nothing beside—nothing!”
She stirred. “Nothing, Mr. Dale—nothing?”
“Nothing.”
“Oh, Mr. Dale, you think so now—but you’ll be wanting her to come
back—you can’t help wanting that!”
“I am very sure I shall never ask for that, Wanza. Joey brought me a
letter. She is not coming back this year.”
“Not coming back?”
“She may never come again to Hidden Lake, Wanza. We may never
see her again.”
“But I don’t understand, David Dale!—oh, I thought some day you
would marry—you and she.”
Her voice was uneven and very low.
“Child,” I said gravely, “it is not to be. She cares for me only as a
friend. And I—”
“You love her—you know you do!”
She spoke passionately.
“Wanza,” I said thoughtfully, “it has been a long winter, hasn’t it?”
“Pretty long,” she answered, surprised.
“You have learned much this winter.”
“Yes, Mr. Dale.”
“And I have learned, too—without knowing it. I have learned very
gradually that I do not love Judith Batterly—so gradually, indeed, that
I did not realize until to-day the extent of my knowledge. She told me
in her letter it was so—then I knew.”
She sat very still, her head thrown back, her eyes on the sky. The
stirring leaves made shadows on her gown, the moonlight flicked
through the vines above her, and her hair glittered like gilt. Her eyes
were big and shining, and something on her cheek was shining, too.
“Praying—still, Wanza?” I whispered, after a time.
She put out her hand.
“Please, Wanza, say a prayer for me.”
“I am praying that what you told me is true.”
“It is true. Pray that I be forgiven for being a stupid, clumsy fellow,
unable to appreciate your true worth—” I stopped. I was being
carried on and I knew not where I desired to pause. I checked
myself, and bit my lip.
“I could not offer such a prayer,” I heard her say. “I am not worth
anything to anybody, Mr. Dale, except to Father. I am going to try,
though, to make myself all over—knowing you want me to improve,
and to show you I take your kindness to heart. I think I am improving
a little, don’t you? I don’t talk so loud, and I dress quieter—more
quietly—and I speak better. Can’t you see an improvement, Mr.
Dale?”
“Someway, Wanza,” I replied, speaking musingly, “I like you as you
are—as you have always been. It is only for your own sake that I
care to have you improve.” And as I said the words I realized that
this thought had been in the back of my mind for some time, and that
Wanza’s piquant utterances and lapses in English had never jarred
on me—that it was strictly true that it was only for Wanza’s own sake
I would have her changed.
“You like me as I am?”
The voice was incredulous.
“As well as I shall when you have finished your education, child.”
“As well?”
“Yes.”
“You won’t like me better then?”
“No, no better, Wanza.”
She rose and stood before me. The light from the open door of the
cedar room was on her face, and I saw hopelessness in her eyes,
and a tremulousness about her lovely child-mouth.
“You will never like me very, very much, then, I guess,” she said in a
low tone.
She did not give me a chance to respond to this, but turned and went
away through the cedars, and I sat still, saying over to myself: “Very,
very much.”
And as I said the words I thrilled; my blood seemed to surge into my
eyes and blind me. Something had me by the throat. It was a strange
moment. In that moment I had a glimpse of the truth—a white light
illumined my seeking, groping senses. Then it was gone. I was in
darkness again. But in that brief lightning space I had stood on the
brink of a revelation. In the weeks and months past, through the
blinding—the fervid—gleam of my feeling for Haidee I had seen
Wanza but obscurely—Wanza—tried day after day by homeliest
duties, and not found wanting; I had seen that she had her own
bookless lore as she had her own indisputable charm; I had known
that at times she swayed me; but I had never come so near to
knowing my heart as in that evanescent, stabbing, revealing,
moment.
As I sat there I felt a sudden sense of rest, almost of emancipation. I
was weary of cob-webbed dreams, sick of straining after the
unattainable. My thoughts reverted to life as it had been in the old
days before the coming of the wonder woman, to the days when
Joey and Wanza and I had managed to go through the tedium of our
hours placidly enough. I longed to take up the old, sane routine. I
was impatient with suffering that chafed and gnawed the heart-
strings.
I said to myself that all that was left of my former feeling for Haidee
was admiration, reverence for her goodness, and a wonder—she
was a dream woman—she would remain a dream woman always—
an elusive, charming personality, something too fine for the common
round of daylight duties. I thought of the poet’s lines:
“I love thee to the level of every day’s most quiet need, by
sun and candle light.”
Had I thought of Haidee so?
When I turned back to the cedar room, Mrs. Olds met me at the door
with a whispered, “Joey is lucid—he is asking for you.” I crossed
swiftly to the bed, knelt down and took my lad’s hand. He smiled at
me in his old way, but his eyes went past me to Mrs. Olds. His voice
was distinct as he ordered, “Go, get Wanza, Mrs. Olds, please.”
I heard Wanza’s step at that moment. She came softly forward and
crouched beside me. “I am here, Joey,” she said in her rich young
voice.
“That’s all right then! Wanza; if I don’t get well you got to marry Mr.
David.”
The troubled face bending down over the gray one on the pillow,
flamed. “Joey—dear!”
“Yes, Wanza,” pleadingly, “cause who’ll take care of him?”
I cleared my throat. “Come, lad, you will be well in a few days—up
and around in the woods, feeding the squirrels.”
“Yes—but if I ain’t!” Tender, wistful, questioning, his loyal brown eyes
sought Wanza’s. “You got to, Wanza. Say yes.”
The girl’s voice whimpered and broke. “I can’t!”
“Why, yes you can! They’s no one can cook like you, Wanza. Mr.
David can’t live here alone when he’s old—he can’t live here alone
no more—say you’ll come and take care of him. Why, you like the
birds and the squirrels—you know you do, Wanza—and you like Mr.
David, too. Will you, Wanza?” The soft wheedling accents wrung my
heart.
At the girl’s head-shake he whispered to me, “You ask her, Mr.
David.”
My hand groped for hers, closed over it, gripped it hard.
“If I ask her now—if she says yes, lad—it will be for your sake—all
for your sake, Joey.”
The big eyes were understanding. “Go on, ask her.”
“Will you, Wanza?”
She was weeping.
“Because Joey asks it—because it will ease his mind,” I heard her
choked voice stammer, “only because of that, Mr. Dale—only for
Joey’s sake as you say—I promise if—if you need me—” she came
to a dead stop.
“To marry me, Wanza.”
“For Joey’s sake, Mr. Dale.”
“There, Joey!” I shook up his pillow and laid him gently back. “It is all
settled, lad. Go to sleep now.”
“Kiss me, once, Mr. David.”
I kissed him.
“Kiss Wanza, now.”
Weariness was heavy in his eyes, his voice was quavering and
weak; and forgetting all else but his gratification, forgetting Mrs.
Olds, propriety, the consequences of so rash an act, I took Wanza in
my arms and kissed her lips, then stumbled blindly from the room.
CHAPTER XXVII
MY WONDER WOMAN
WHEN I saw Master Joey smiling at me wanly from his pillow the
next morning, his fever gone, his eyes without the abnormal
brightness of the previous two days, and heard his modest request
for cornmeal flapjacks to be stirred up forthwith in the old yellow
pitcher, my heart leaped into my throat for joy. I was so riotously
happy that I went outside to the Dingle, and almost burst my throat
with whistling a welcome to a lazuli-bunting, newly arrived from his
winter sojourn in the south land. He was so azure-blue on his head
and back, so tawny breasted, so clear a white on his underparts that
he seemed like some wondrous jewel dropped from Paradise into
the syringa thicket.
I had answered his “here, here—” until I was sure he understood the
cordiality of my welcome, when I heard a fluttering among the
serviceberry bushes and turned to see a sage thrasher fly out and
soar aloft to a hemlock tree. I whistled. He answered with a beautiful
song, and went on to imitate other birds’ songs, ending by emitting a
sound that was strangely like the wail of a naughty youngster. I
laughed outright, and it seemed to me he was attempting to imitate
my laughter as I walked away. The birds were coming back in
earnest. How glorious the early summer was! Was there ever such a
rose-gold morning? I was overflowing with happiness. But when on
my way to the spring I hailed Wanza, who was dipping water out of
the big barrel by the kitchen door, and received a delicately frigid
“good morning,” something rather strange came over me, my
glowing heart congealed, and I went out to the yew grove, and sat
down soberly on the railing of the small bridge that spanned the
narrow mountain stream.
I had no quarrel with Wanza for her averted face. But I had a feeling
that the blunder-god had unwarrantably interfered again, and a wish
to lift my affairs up off the knees of the gods once and for all and
swing them myself. I felt big enough to swing them, this morning.
Only—I did not exactly understand the state of my own mind, and
this was some slight detriment to clean swinging.
For one thing—after I had touched Wanza’s unwilling lips last night
at Joey’s bidding, I had sat on the edge of my bunk in the darkness
unable to forget the feeling of those warm lips against my own—
feeling myself revitalized—made new. What had happened to me
when I held the girl in my arms for that brief space? What was the
answer?
I sat in deep thought, starting when a water ouzel swooped suddenly
down past my face, and plunged into the water at my very feet. I
watched it emerge, perch on a boulder further down stream, and
spread its slaty wings to dry. The day was languorous, and very
sweet. One of those perfect days that come early in June when the
woods are flower-filled, and the trees full-leaved. The air was tangy
with smells, the honeysuckle and balm o’ Gilead dripped perfume,
the clover was bursting with sweetness, and the wild roses were
faintly odorous; all the “buds and bells” of June were dewy and
clean-scented. The nutty flavor of yarrow was in the air—Achillea
millefolium—the plant which Achilles is said to have used in an
ointment to heal his myrmidons wounded in the siege of Troy. I
marked this last flavor well, separating it from the others. “Poor
yarrow,” I said to myself, “content with spurious corners and waste
portions of the earth, what a splendid lesson of perseverance you
teach.” I thought of myself and of my struggle of the last eight years,
and compared myself with the weed. I had not been content with the
neglected corners of the earth; but I had honestly tried to make the
best of the corners; I had attempted to improve them, and in so
doing improve myself.
From that I came to Joey and the two women who had helped to
make the waste places bloom; and like Byron I had a sigh for Joey
and Wanza who loved me; and I had a tender smile for my dream
woman—Haidee. She had come when, steeped in idealism, I was all
prepared for the advent of the radiant creature who was to work a
metamorphosis in my life. She had come, and I had hailed her
Wonder Woman. It had been a psychological moment, and she had
appeared. And I had loved her—let me not cheat myself into any
contrary belief—surely I had loved her—surely; let me admit that. But
no—I need not admit even that, since it was not the truth—since she
knew it was not the truth. I had loved an ideal; not Judith Batterly,
indeed, but a vague dream woman.
“There is no wonder woman,” I said to myself, thoughtfully.
Restless with my cogitations, I rose, left the bridge, and went through
the yews to the workshop.
When in sight of the bed of clove pinks I pulled myself up smartly;
Wanza knelt there. I was not too far away to see the glitter of tears
on her cheeks; but in spite of the tears, she was smiling; her face
was downbent, rose-flushed, to the new buds, her hands were
clasped on her breast, she seemed lost in ecstatic revery, and on her
head rested delicately a nuthatch.
“What a wonderful way Wanza has with the birds,” I said to myself. I
turned this over in my mind. “I’ve long marked it,” I added. Presently
still watching her, I decided, “She is a rather wonderful child.”
I continued to watch her.
She began to croon a soft little song; she unclasped her hands and
held them out before her. A second nuthatch left the branch of a pine
tree nearby and descended to settle on her left hand. She gave an
indistinct gurgle of joy, and put her right hand over it.
“Why, she’s a wonder,” I said to myself, “a wonder—girl!” I hesitated,
and then exultantly I murmured: “A wonder woman!” and turned and
beat a hasty retreat to the cabin.
Arrived there I sat down rather breathlessly on the steps. I saw light
at last!
It was under the stars that night that I told Wanza of my discovery.
Joey was sleeping peacefully indoors, watched over by Mrs. Olds,
the doctor had just left, after assuring me that my lad would soon be
convalescent, and Wanza and I walked on the river bank.
“Wanza,” I said, “is that a russet-backed thrush singing?”
“I think so, Mr. Dale.”
“His notes are wonderfully liquid and round, aren’t they?” I gave a
sigh of pure happiness. “I feel like a ‘strong bird on pinions free,’
myself to-night. I feel emancipated—as though life were beginning all
over for me. I am in love with life, Wanza. I want to awake to-morrow
and begin life all over.”
“Do you, Mr. Dale?”
“Isn’t the world beautiful washed in this moonlight! The sky seems so
near—like a purple silk curtain strung with jewels. But it is quite dark
here beneath the pines, isn’t it, Wanza? I have to guess at the
flowers under our feet. There is white hawthorn nearby, I swear, and
the yellow violets are in the grass, and the wild forget-me-not, and I
smell the wild roses—”
“How you go on, Mr. Dale!”
“Wanza,” I said, “look up at the stars through the pine branches.”
“I like to watch them in the river.”
“Yes, but look up, Wanza.”
She looked as I bade her.
“The moonlight in your eyes is wonderful, child.”
“Please don’t, Mr. Dale.”
“Keep looking at the stars, Wanza—your face is like an angel’s seen
thus. Your hair is like silver starshine, your lips are flowers—you are
very wonderful—my breath fails me, Wanza. You are very wonderful
—a wonder woman—and I love you. Will you marry me?”
“Joey isn’t going to die, Mr. Dale.”
“I know it.”
She spoke with a sobbing breath: “Then why do you say this?”
“Because I love you with my whole soul.”
“Oh!”
“Turn your eyes to me, dear. Don’t look at the stars any more. Do
you love me?”
“Yes.”
“Then at last I shall be blessed—I shall have a wander-bride—a
wonder woman—some one who understands me, and whom I
understand, to share with me the coming in of day, the mystery of
the night and stars, the saneness of the moon—I shall have—
Wanza! Do you remember, child:
“‘Down the world with Marna!
That’s the life for me!
Wandering with the wandering wind,
Vagabond and unconfined!’
“Do you remember the song I sang to you in the woods one night?
There is another verse—listen!
“‘Marna of the far quest
After the divine!
Striving ever for some goal
Past the blunder-god’s control!
Dreaming of potential years
When no day shall dawn in fears!
That’s the Marna of my soul,
Wander-bride of mine!’”
The beautiful face was on my breast, the cornflower blue eyes were
raised to mine, the maize-colored hair was like a curtain about us,
shutting out the moonlight, the night, the world. I drew her closer,
closer still, silently, breathlessly, until I heard her give a shaken cry:
“It’s in your eyes—I can read it! You do love me, you do, you do!
David Dale! David Dale!”
After an interval, I said:

“I am writing another book, Wanza. I am sure it will sell. We will go
away from here, child—we can live where we choose—we will go
south to my old home. There is some property there that is mine.
You will love the old home, and the river with its red clay banks—my
childhood’s home. We will travel, too. Life seems very full, Wanza.”
“But we’ll always come back to Cedar Dale, won’t we, David Dale?
We’ll come back to Dad—dear Dad—he’ll always be waiting. And the
birds and the flowers—and the squirrels and woodsy things will be
waiting. And Joey will want to come.”
THE END
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:
Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been
standardized.
Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.
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CHAPTER OUTLINE AND OBJECTIVES

II. Why Researchers Use Repeated Measures Designs

III. The Role of Practice Effects in Repeated Measures Designs

A. Defining Practice Effects

B. Balancing Practice Effects in the Complete Design

In ABBA counterbalancing, a random sequence of all conditions is presented, followed by the

C. Balancing Practice Effects in the Incomplete Design

IV. Data Analysis of Repeated Measures Designs

A. Describing the Results

B. Confirming What the Results Reveal

V. The Problem of Differential Transfer

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

In a random groups design, random assignment of subjects to conditions is used to balance, or

CHALLENGE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Participant Order of Conditions

A. What method was used to balance practice effects in this experiment?

ISSUES AND PROBLEMS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION

1. Reading Research Critically

Answers for Brightness and Affect

A complete repeated measures design is appropriate because participants experience each

Positive Affect Word Order Negative Affect Word Order

2 dream love nasty bitter

Reading Research Critically

Brightness and Affect

Positive Affect Words Negative Affect Words

Assign the following: A = 10 A.M., B = 2 P.M., C = 6 P.M., and D = 10 P.M.

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

B. An experimenter wanted to determine the effect of background brightness on people's ability to

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

P# Bilateral Uni Right Uni Left

LEARNING BY DOING RESEARCH

INSTRUCTOR=S LECTURE/DISCUSSION AIDS

Repeated Measures Designs

! Each individual participates in each condition of the experiment.

 Completes DV measure with each condition

 Hence, Arepeated measures@

! Also called Awithin-subject design@

 Entire experiment is completed Awithin@ each subject

 No need to balance individual differences across conditions of

 Fewer participants needed

 Convenient and efficient

 More sensitive design

! A sensitive experiment can detect the effect of an IV

! Error variation is reduced

! Variability due to individual differences is eliminated.

! Main disadvantage of repeated measures designs

 People change as they are tested repeatedly.

! Performance may improve over time.

! Practice effects become a potential confounding variable if not controlled.

 Researcher tests 2 study methods, A and B, for participants’

! Condition A: highlight text while studying, then take test.

 Suppose researchers tests all participants in condition A first, then B.