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MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.
Determine whether or not the given function is an exponential function.

1) y = 3x - 5
A) exponential
B) not exponential
Answer: B
2) y = x5
A) exponential
B) not exponential
Answer: B
3) y = 4 x
A) exponential
B) not exponential
Answer: A
4) y = x7 + 9x
A) exponential
B) not exponential
Answer: B
7 + 2x
5) y = ex
A) exponential
B) not exponential
Answer: A
6) y = 6xe
A) exponential
B) not exponential
Answer: B
Determine if the function is a growth exponential or a decay exponential.

7) y = 3 0.7x
A) Growth
B) Decay
Answer: A
8) y = 2 -1.3x
A) Growth
B) Decay
Answer: B
9) y = 9e-9x
A) Growth
B) Decay
Answer: B
1
10) y = 0.27x
A) Growth
B) Decay
Answer: B
Graph the function.

11) f(x) = 2 x
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
2
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: A
1 x
12) f(x) =
4
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
3
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: D
4
13) f(x) = -4 x
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
A)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
B)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
C)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
5
D)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Answer: D
14) f(x) = 4 -x
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
6
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: B
7
15) f(x) = 3e- x
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
A)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
B)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
C)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
8
D)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Answer: A
16) f(x) = 2 (x - 3)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
9
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: A
10
17) f(x) = 4 (x - 1) - 1
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
11
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: C
18) y = 5 (x - 4) + 2
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
12
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: B
13
19) f(x) = e3x - 3
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
A)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
B)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
C)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
14
D)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Answer: A
20) f(x) = 2 ∙ 0.74x

y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
A)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
15
B)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
C)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
D)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Answer: B
Match the equation with its graph.
16
21) y = -3 x
A)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
B)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
C)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
D)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
17
Answer: A
22) y = 2 -x
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
18
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: C
23) y = 4 (x - 3)
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
19
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: D
24) y = 2 x + 2
A)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
20
B)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
C)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
D)
y
5
4
3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Answer: A
21
25) y = 4 x + 5
A)
10 y
-10 -5 5 x
-5
-10
B)
10 y
-10 -5 5 x
-5
-10
C)
10 y
-10 -5 5 x
-5
-10
22
D)
10 y
-10 -5 5 x
-5
-10
Answer: B
1 x
26) y = ∙3
3
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
23
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: D
27) y = 2 ∙ 2 x
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
24
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: A
28) y = 4 (x + 4) + 1
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
25
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: D
Find the function value.

29) Let f(x) = 3x. Find f(2).
A) 8
B) 27
C) 6
D) 9
Answer: D
26
30) Let f(x) = 5x. Find f(-2).
1
A) -
10
1
B)
32
1
C)
25
D) -10
Answer: C
1 x
31) Let f(x) = . Find f(3).
6
1
A)
18
1
B)
729
C) 216
1
D)
216
Answer: D
1 x
32) Let f(x) = . Find f(-2).
6
1
A)
36
B) -12
C) 36
1
D) -
36
Answer: C
33) Let f(x) = 3(1 - x). Find f(3).

1
A)
6
B) -6
1
C)
9
D) 9
Answer: C
34) Let f(x) = e-x. Find f(3.9), rounded to four decimal places.
A) 49.4024
B) 0.0202
C) 10.6013
D) 1.4347
Answer: B
27
35) Let f(x) = e3x. Find f(-0.50), rounded to four decimal places.
A) -0.3502
B) 0.3502
C) 0.2231
D) -0.2231
Answer: C
36) Let f(x) = -1.7e-0.8x. Find f(-1.6), rounded to four decimal places.
A) 0.4727
B) -0.4727
C) -6.1143
D) 6.1143
Answer: C
Solve the problem.

37) In September 1998 the population of the country of West Goma in millions was modeled by f(x) = 17.5e0.0010x.
At the same time the population of East Goma in millions was modeled by g(x) = 13.7e0.0129x. In both formulas
x is the year, where x = 0 corresponds to September 1998. Assuming these trends continue, estimate the year
when the population of West Goma will equal the population of East Goma.
A) 2019
B) 1977
C) 21
D) 2016
Answer: A
38) In September 1998 the population of the country of West Goma in millions was modeled by f(x) = 17.8e0.0015x.
At the same time the population of East Goma in millions was modeled by g(x) = 13.2e0.0164x. In both formulas
x is the year, where x = 0 corresponds to September 1998. Assuming these trends continue, estimate what the
population will be when the populations are equal.
A) 1 million
B) 17 million
C) 18 million
D) 16 million
Answer: C
0.018t
39) The growth in the population of a certain rodent at a dump site fits the exponential function A(t)= 102e ,
where t is the number of years since 1965. Estimate the population in the year 2000.
A) 96
B) 104
C) 195
D) 192
Answer: D
28
40) The sales of a mature product (one which has passed its peak) will decline by the function S(t)= S0 e-at, where t
is time in years. Find the sales after 8 years if a = 0.18 and S0 = 48,500.
A) 58,065
B) 5746
C) 245,075
D) 11,491
Answer: D
41) The number of books in a small library increases according to the function B = 2700e0.05t, where t is measured
in years. How many books will the library have after 4 years?
A) 3298 books
B) 4279 books
C) 4345 books
D) 1887 books
Answer: A
42) The population of a small country increases according to the function B = 2,500,000e0.02t, where t is measured
in years. How many people will the country have after 3 years?
A) 2,654,591
B) 3,054,622
C) 2,870,384
D) 7,033,527
Answer: A
43) The number of acres in a landfill is given by the function B = 2900e-0.05t, where t is measured in years. How
many acres will the landfill have after 8 years? (Round to the nearest acre.)
A) 2657 acres
B) 1155 acres
C) 1154 acres
D) 1944 acres
Answer: D
1 t/3.1
44) The half-life of Titanium 45 is 3.1 hours. If the formula P(t) = gives the percent (as a decimal) remaining
2
after time t (in hours), sketch P versus t.
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
29
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: A
30
45) The amount of a certain radioactive isotope present at time t is given by A(t) = 400e-0.02664t grams, where t is
the time in years that the isotope decays. The initial amount present is 400 grams. How many grams remain
after 20 years? Round to the nearest hundredth.
A) 681.48 g
B) 234.78 g
C) 397.87 g
D) 379.25 g
Answer: B
46) A computer is purchased for $4100. Its value each year is about 75% of the value the preceding year. Its value, in
dollars, after t years is given by the exponential function V(t) = 4100(0.75)t. Find the value of the computer after
2 years.
A) $2306.25
B) $1297.27
C) $6150.00
D) $1729.69
Answer: A
SHORT ANSWER. Write the word or phrase that best completes each statement or answers the question.
Provide an appropriate response.

47) Explain why f(x) = 2 x is an exponential function but f(x) = x2 is not.
Answer: 2 x is an exponential function because the variable is in the exponent. In f(x) = x2 , the variable is not in the
exponent; this is a polynomial function.
48) Why can't y = 2 x have an x-intercept?

Answer: Because no value of x would make y = 0.
49) What are the domain and range for the equation y = 2 x?
A) Domain: (-∞, ∞); range: (-∞ , ∞)
B) Domain: (-∞, ∞); range: (0, ∞)
C) Domain: (0, ∞ ); range: (-∞, ∞)
D) (-∞, ∞); range: [0, ∞ )
Answer: B
50) Why is an exponential function one-to-one?

Answer: Answers will vary. A horizontal line will never intersect the graph of an exponential function more than
once.
51) With the exponential function f(x) = a x, why must a ≠ 1?

Answer: Answers will vary. (If allowed, the function would then be linear and not exponential.)
52) What is one ordered pair that is always on the graph of f(x) = a x?
Answer: (0, 1)
31
53) Explain how the graph of y = 4x - 3 + 2 can be obtained from the graph of y = 4x.
Answer: The graph is shifted 3 units to the right and 2 units up.
1 x
54) Explain how the graph of y = -5 can be obtained from the graph of y = 2 x.
2
Answer: The graph is reflected over the y-axis, stretched by a factor of 5 and then reflected over the x-axis.
55) Explain how the graph of y = -4 ∙ 3 x can be obtained from the graph of y = 3 x.
Answer: The graph is stretched by a factor of 4 and then reflected over the x-axis.
56) Give a definition for the following term: Exponential function .

Answer: A function defined by y = ax, where a > 0, a ≠ 1, and x is a real number. The constant b is called the base
of the function, and the variable x is the exponent.
1 x
57) What is the domain of the function y = ?
8
A) [0, ∞)
B) (-∞, 0)
C) (-∞, ∞)
D) (0, ∞)
Answer: C
1 x
58) What is the range of the function y = ?
5
A) (-∞, 0)
B) [0, ∞)
C) (0, ∞)
D) (-∞, ∞)
Answer: C
Write the logarithmic equation in exponential form.

59) log 3 9 = 2
A) 3 2 = 9
B) 9 2 = 3
C) 3 9 = 2
D) 2 3 = 9
Answer: A
60) log14 1 = 0
A) 140 = 1
B) 0 14 = 1
C) 1 14 = 0
D) 141 = 0
Answer: A
32
61) ln x = -7
A) No solution
B) x = ln -7
C) x = e7
D) x = e-7
Answer: D
62) log2 (8) = 3
A) 2 8 = 3
B) 3 2 = 8
C) 2 3 = 8
D) 8 3 = 2
Answer: C
63) log 10 0 = -10
A) 0 -10 = 10
B) 10-10 = 0
C) -1010 = 0
D) 0 10 = -10
Answer: B
64) log w Q = 19
A) w19 = Q
B) Qw = 19
C) Q19 = w
D) 19w = Q
Answer: A
65) y = log (2x)

A) y10 = 2x
B) 2x y = 10
C) 10 y = 2x
D) 102x = y
Answer: C
66) 2y = ln (-8x)
A) e2y = -8x
B) ey = - 4x
C) e-8x = 2y
D) -8x2y = e
Answer: A
33
Write in logarithmic form.
67) 6 3 = 216
A) log 6 3 = 216
B) log 3 216 = 6
C) log 216 6 = 3
D) log 6 216 = 3
Answer: D
68) 4 2 = 16
A) log 16 4 = 2
B) log 2 16 = 4
C) log 4 16 = 2
D) log 4 2 = 16
Answer: C
69) 103 = 1000

A) log 10 3 = 1000
B) log 10 1000 = 3
C) log 3 10 = 1000
D) log 3 1000 = 10
Answer: B
70) 10-5 = 0.00001

A) log 5 .10 = -5
B) log 10 0.00001 = -5
C) log 5 -5 = .10
D) log 10 -5 = 0.00001
Answer: B
71) p = 9 t
A) log9 p = t
B) log9 t = p
C) logt 9 = p
D) logp 9 = t
Answer: A
34
72) 9 7x = y
A) logy 9 = 7x
B) log9 y = 7x
C) log9 7x = y
D) logy 7x = 9
Answer: B
Evaluate the logarithm, if possible. Round the answer to four decimal places.
73) log 169
A) 2.2304
B) 5.1299
C) 2.2253
D) 2.2279
Answer: D
74) log 2.81

A) 1.0332
B) 0.4330
C) 0.4487
D) 0.4639
Answer: C
75) log 4508

A) 3.6540
B) 3.6530
C) 3.6549
D) 8.4136
Answer: A
76) log 0.0743

A) -1.1232
B) -2.5996
C) -1.1349
D) -1.1290
Answer: D
77) log 0.00474

A) -2.3152
B) -2.3242
C) -2.3335
D) -5.3517
Answer: B
78) ln 0.994
A) -0.0026
B) 0.0060
C) -0.0060
D) 0.0026
Answer: C
35
79) ln 0.000873
A) -3.0590
B) 7.0436
C) 3.0590
D) -7.0436
Answer: D
80) ln 5,500,000
A) 4.0073
B) 15.5203
C) 6.7404
D) 0.0642
Answer: B
81) log (-17)

A) Does not exist
B) 0.9843
C) 1.2304
D) 2.8332
Answer: A
Find the value of the logarithm without using a calculator.

1
82) log
7 7
A) 0
B) -1
C) 7
D) 1
Answer: B
1
83) log
9 81
A) 2
B) -2
C) -9
D) 9
Answer: B
1
84) log
9 729
A) -3
B) -81
C) 3
D) 81
Answer: A
36
85) log 8 32
5
A)
4
4
B)
3
3
C)
2
5
D)
3
Answer: D
86) log 10 100

A) 2
B) -3
C) -1
D) -2
Answer: A
87) log (0.001)

A) 0
B) -3
C) -1
D) -2
Answer: B
88) ln (l)
A) 0
B) 1
C) e
D) -1
Answer: A
89) ln e9
A) 9
B) e ln 9
1
C)
9
D) 1
Answer: A
Graph the function.
37
90) y = log2 x
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
38
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: C
91) f(x) = ln x
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
39
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: B
40
92) f(x) = log (x - 3)
5
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
41
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: C
93) f(x) = log (x + 4)

3
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
42
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: D
43
94) f(x) = log 2 x + 4
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
A)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
B)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
C)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
44
D)
y
6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
-6
Answer: B
95) f(x) = ln(x + 5)

y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
A)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
45
B)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
C)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
D)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
Answer: D
46
96) f(x) = -2 ln x
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
A)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
B)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
C)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
47
D)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
Answer: B
97) f(x) = ln x - 4
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
A)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
48
B)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
C)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
D)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
Answer: D
Find the inverse of the function.

98) f(x) = 5 x
A) f-1(x) = logx 5
B) f-1(x) = ln(5x)
C) f-1(x) = log5 x
D) f-1(x) = x5
Answer: C
49
99) f(x) = e-x + 2
A) f-1(x) = -ex - 2
B) f-1(x) = ln 2 - ln x
C) f-1(x) = -ln(x - 2)
1
D) f-1(x) = ex -
2
Answer: C
100) f(x) = e7x

A) f-1(x) = 7 ln x
1
B) f-1(x) = ln x
7
C) f-1(x) = -7 ln x
1
D) f-1(x) = ln x
7
Answer: D
101) f(x) = 9 x + 3
A) f-1(x) = log9 (x + 9)
B) f-1(x) = log9 (x + 3)
C) f-1(x) = log9 (x - 3)
D) f-1(x) = log9 (x - 9)
Answer: C
Use the properties of logarithms to evaluate the expression.

102) loga a 9
A) a 9
B) 1
C) 9
D) 9loga a
Answer: C
103) ln e8
A) 8 ln e
B) e8
C) 8
D) 1
Answer: C
log6 (2x)
104) 6
A) 1
B) 6
C) 6 2x
D) 2x
Answer: D
50
105) 10log t
A) 10t
B) 10t
C) t
D) 1
Answer: C
41
106) eln x
A) x41
41
B) ex
C) ln x41
D) x
Answer: A
107) log 10-12

A) 12 log 10
B) -12
C) 12
D) log -12
Answer: B
Solve.
108) Given log 2 = 0.3010 and log 3 = 0.4771, evaluate log 6.
A) 0.9542
B) 0.9030
C) 0.7781
D) 0.1436
Answer: C
109) Given log 2 = 0.3010 and log 3 = 0.4771, evaluate log 12 .

A) 0.5677
B) 0.2872
C) 1.2552
D) 1.0791
Answer: D
11
110) Given that loga 11 = 2.398 and loga5 = 1.609, evaluate loga .
5
A) -0.788
B) 0.789
C) 1.49
D) 4.007
Answer: B
51
111) Given that loga 6 = 0.778, and loga 5 = 0.699, find loga 62 .
A) 0.605
B) 0.544
C) 1.477
D) 1.556
Answer: D
Rewrite the expression as the sum and/or difference of logarithms, without using exponents. Simplify if possible.
5 x
112) log 17
y
A) log 17 (5 x) - log 17 y
1
B) log 17 y - log 17 5 - log 17 x
2
1
C) log 17 5 ∙ log 17 m ÷ log 17 y
2
1
D) log 17 5 + log 17 x - log 17 y
2
Answer: D
6
5
113) log 19
2
y x
A) 6 log 19 5 - 2 log 19 y - log 19 6
1
B) log 19 5 - 2 log 19 y - 2 log 19 x
6
C) log 19 5 - log 19 y - log 19 x
1
D) log 19 5 - 2 log 19 y - log 19 x
6
Answer: D
mn
114) log 17
8
1 1
A) log 17 m + log 17 n - log 17 8
2 2
1 1 1
B) log 17 m + log 17 n - log 17 8
2 2 2
1 1
C) log 17 mn - log 17 8
2 2
1 1 1
D) log 17 m ∙ log 17 n ÷ log 17 8
2 2 2
Answer: B
52
5 9
m n
115) log 2
k2
1 1
A) log 2 m + log 2 n - 2 log 2 k
5 9
5 9 1
B) log 2 m + log 2 n - log 2 k
2 2 2
C) 5 log 2 m + 9 log 2 n - 2 log 2 k
1 1
D) log 2 m ∙ log 2 n ÷ 2 log 2 k
5 9
Answer: A
x8 y7
116) log 2
5
A) (8 log 2 x)(7 log 2 y) - log 2 5
B) 8 log 2 x + 7 log 2 y - log 2 5
C) 8 log 2 x - 7 log 2 y - log 2 5
D) 8 log 2 x + 7 log 2 y + log 2 5
Answer: B
7 6x5
117) log n
z9
1 5 9
A) log n 6 - log n x - log n z
7 7 7
1 5 9
B) log n 6 + log n x - log n z
7 7 7
1 5 9
C) log n 6 + log n x + log n z
7 7 7
1
D) log n 6 + 5 log n x - 9 log n z
7
Answer: B
118) log a 8x3yz 5

A) 15 log a 8xyz
B) log a 8 - 3 log a x - log a y - 5 log a z
C) 8 + log a y + log a z 5
D) log a 8 + 3 log a x + log a y + 5 log a z
Answer: D
53
13
119) log 8
7
A) log 8 7 - log 8 13
B) log 4 13 - log 4 7
1
C) log 8 13 - log 8 7
2
D) log 8 13 + log 8 7
Answer: C
Rewrite as a single logarithm.

120) logx x + logx y
A) logx xy
B) logx (x + y)
x
C) logx
y
D) logx x ∙ logx y
Answer: A
121) 6 logq q - logq r
A) logq q6 ÷ logb r
q6
B) logq
r
6q
C) logq
r
D) logq (q6 - r)
Answer: B
122) (logt t - logt s) + 5 logt u

t
A) logt
u5 s
B) logt tu5 s
tu5
C) logt
s
5tu
D) logt
s
Answer: C
54
1 1 1
123) log2 x4 + log2 x4 - log2 x
2 4 6
A) log2 x9/2
B) log2 x17/6
7
C) log2 x8
6
D) log2 x7
Answer: B
4 1
124) 2 log b m - log b n + log b j - 4 log b k
5 6
4 1
A) log b ( 2 m - n + j - 4 k)
5 6
m2 k 4
B) log b
j 1/ 6 n 4/ 5
m 2 n 4/ 5
C) log b
j 1/ 6 k 4
m 2 j 1/ 6
D) log b
n 4/ 5 k4
Answer: D
125) 2 log 2 (2x + 5) + 6 log 2 (6x + 1)
(2x + 5)2
A) log 2
(6x + 1)6
B) log 2 (2x + 5)2(6x + 1)6
C) 12 log 2 (2x + 5)(6x + 1)
D) log 2 ((2x + 5)2 + (6x + 1)6 )
Answer: B
Solve the problem.

126) The sales of a new product (in items per month) can be approximated by S(x) = 325 + 200 log(3t + 1), where t
represents the number of months after the item first becomes available. Find the number of items sold per
month 3 months after the item first becomes available.
A) 4325 items per month
B) 725 items per month
C) 525 items per month
D) 2325 items per month
Answer: C
55
127) The sales of a new product (in items per month) can be approximated by S(x) = 400 + 300 log(3t + 1), where t
represents the number of months after the item first becomes available. Find the number of items sold per
month 33 months after the item first becomes available.
A) 1000 items per month
B) 6400 items per month
C) 120,000 items per month
D) 3400 items per month
Answer: A
128) The logarithmic function f(x) = -100 + 80 ln x models the number of visitors (in millions) to a certain country's
museums, where x is the number of years since the initial recording of the number of visitors. Use this function
to estimate the number of visitors in year 45. Round to the nearest tenth of a year.
A) 102.3 million visitors
B) 204.5 million visitors
C) 306.8 million visitors
D) 153.4 million visitors
Answer: B
129) The number of visitors to a tourist attraction (for the first few years after its opening) can be approximated by
V(x) = 50 + 10 log2 x, where x represents the number of months after the opening of the attraction. Find the
number of visitors 32 months after the opening of the attraction.
A) 100 visitors
B) 370 visitors
C) 55 visitors
D) 82 visitors
Answer: A
130) An animal species is introduced into a certain area. Its population is approximated by F(t) = 400 log (2t + 3),
where t represents the number of months since its introduction. Find the population of this species 6 months
after its introduction into the area. Round your answer to the nearest whole number.
A) 470 animals
B) 240 animals
C) 74 animals
D) 704 animals
Answer: A
131) Coyotes are one of the few species of North American animals with an expanding range. The future population
of coyotes in a region of Mississippi can be modeled by the equation P = 43 + 19 ln(14t + 1), where t is time in
years. Use the equation to determine when the population will reach 140. Round to the nearest tenth when
necessary.
A) 11.7 years
B) 12 years
C) 11.8 years
D) 9101.9 years
Answer: A
56
132) Wind speed varies in the first twenty meters above the ground. For a particular day, let f(x) = 1.7 ln x + 6.4
compute the wind speed x meters above the ground. What is the wind speed 9 meters above the ground?
Round your result to the nearest hundredth.
A) -2.66 meters per second
B) 8.60 meters per second
C) 9.56 meters per second
D) 10.14 meters per second
Answer: D
133) The logarithmic function f(x) = -200 + 88 ln x models the number of visitors (in millions) to U.S. museums from
1960 to 2010, where x is the number of years since 1960. Is this function increasing or decreasing?
A) decreasing
B) increasing
Answer: B
134) If $4900 is invested in an account earning 7% annual interest compounded continuously, then the number of
ln 2
years that it takes for the amount to grow to $9800 is n = . Find the number of years to the nearest tenth of a
0.07
year.
A) 7.9 yr
B) 14.9 yr
C) 11.9 yr
D) 9.9 yr
Answer: D
135) The number of quarters needed to double an investment when a lump sum is invested at 10%, compounded
ln 2
quarterly, is given by n = Find n, rounded to the nearest tenth.
ln 1.025
A) 33.1 quarters
B) 31.1 quarters
C) 28.1 quarters
D) 24.1 quarters
Answer: C
ln 2
quarterly, is given by n = . In how many years will the investment double, to the nearest tenth of a year?
ln 1.01
A) 69.7 yr
B) 17.4 yr
C) 8.7 yr
D) 34.8 yr
Answer: B
57
137) The number of periods needed to double an investment when a lump sum is invested at 11%, compounded
ln 2
semiannually, is given by n = . Find n, rounded to the nearest tenth.
ln 1.055
A) 17.9 periods
B) 15.9 periods
C) 8.9 periods
D) 12.9 periods
Answer: D
ln 2
semiannually, is given by n = . Find the number of years before the investment doubles in value, to the
ln 1.01
nearest tenth of a year.
A) 139.3 yr
B) 17.4 yr
C) 69.7 yr
D) 34.8 yr
Answer: D
139) The number of years t it takes for an investment to double if it earns r percent (as a decimal), compounded
ln 2
annually, is t = . How long will it take for prices in the economy to double at a 13% annual inflation
ln(1 + r)
rate? Round to the nearest year.
A) 23 yr
B) 5 yr
C) 9 yr
D) 6 yr
Answer: D
I
140) Use the formula R = log , where the magnitude of an earthquake on the Richter scale is based on I, the
I0
measurement of a seismic wave, and I0 , the measurement of a seismic wave of a level zero earthquake with the
same epicenter. An earthquake was recorded which was 2,511,886 times more powerful than a reference level
zero earthquake. What is the magnitude of this earthquake? (Round to the nearest tenth.)
A) 14.7
B) 0.6
C) 6.4
D) 5.4
Answer: C
58
I
141) Use the formula R = log , where the magnitude of an earthquake on the Richter scale is based on I, the
I0
measurement of a seismic wave, and I0 , the measurement of a seismic wave of a level zero earthquake with the
same epicenter. If an earthquake measured 5.3 on the Richter scale, what was the intensity of the earthquake?
(Round to whole number.)
A) 200
B) 158,489
C) 19,953
D) 199,526
Answer: D
142) An earthquake was recorded which was 2,511,886 times more powerful than a reference level zero earthquake.
I
What is the magnitude of this earthquake on the Richter scale? Intensity on the Richter scale is log .
I0
A) 14.7
B) 0.64
C) 6.4
D) 5.4
Answer: C
I
143) If an earthquake measured 6.1 on the Richter scale, what was the intensity of the earthquake? R = log .
I0
Round to the nearest whole number.
A) 125,893
B) 446
C) 1,258,925
D) 1,000,000
Answer: C
144) An earthquake was recorded as 106.5 times more powerful than a reference level zero earthquake. What was the
I
magnitude of this earthquake on the Richter scale? R = log .
I0
A) 15
B) 16.5
C) 6.5
D) 3.5
Answer: C
145) If an earthquake has an intensity of I, then its magnitude, as computed by the Richter Scale, is given by
I
R = log , where I0 is the intensity of a small, measurable earthquake. (Consider I0 = 1 for this question.) If
I0
one earthquake has a magnitude of 3.0 on the Richter scale and a second earthquake has a magnitude of 8.5 on
the Richter scale, how many times more intense (to the nearest whole number) is the second earthquake than the
first?
A) 2
B) 316,227,766,017
C) 681
D) 316,228
Answer: D
59
146) A certain noise measures 79 decibels. If the intensity is multiplied by 10, how many decibels will the new noise
I
measure? L = 10 log .
I0
A) 79 decibels
B) 89 decibels
C) 790 decibels
D) 80 decibels
Answer: B
The pH of a solution is given by the formula pH = -log H+ , where H+ is the concentration of hydrogen ions in moles
per liter in the solution. Use this formula to solve the problem.
147) Find the pH value of a sample of lake for which [H+ ] = 0.00000000305. Round to the nearest tenth.
A) 6.4
B) 8.5
C) 7.3
D) 10.1
Answer: B
148) The pH value of a substance is 5.42 . Find the hydrogen-ion concentration for this substance.
A) 0.2
B) 0.0000038
C) 1.7
D) 263,026.8
Answer: B
149) Lower levels of pH indicate a more acidic solution. If the pH of solution A is 4.2 and the pH of solution B is 6.9,
how much more acidic is solution A than solution B?
A) 0.00200 times as acidic
B) -0.0000630 times as acidic
C) 0.0000630 times as acidic
D) 501.2 times as acidic
Answer: D
Solve the equation.

150) 20 x = 54 Round to two decimal places.
A) 0.43
B) 1.99
C) 1.33
D) 0.75
Answer: C
151) 14 x = 24 Round to two decimal places.

A) 0.83
B) 1.71
C) 1.54
D) 1.20
Answer: D
60
152) 4 x = 19 Round to three decimal places.
A) 2.124
B) 4.750
C) 0.471
D) 1.558
Answer: A
153) 2 (x - 3) = 17 Round to three decimal places.

A) 5.140
B) 11.500
C) 7.087
D) 1.087
Answer: C
154) 4 (5x - 1) = 18 Round to three decimal places.

A) 0.501
B) 0.217
C) 1.100
D) 0.617
Answer: D
155) 2e(3x + 6) = 10 Round to three decimal places.

A) 2.536
B) -1.616
C) -1.464
D) 1.333
Answer: C
156) 3 7x = 3
A) 1
1
B)
7
C) 7
D) 3
Answer: B
157) 2 (12 - 3x) = 64

A) 2
B) -2
C) 32
D) 4
Answer: A
158) 4 (2x + 1) = 64
A) -1
B) 1
C) 16
D) 4
Answer: B
61
Use a change of base formula to evaluate the given logarithm. Approximate to three decimal places.
159) log 6 (16.58)
A) 0.638
B) 2.763
C) 1.220
D) 1.567
Answer: D
160) log (0.662)

8
A) -0.179
B) -5.041
C) 12.085
D) -0.198
Answer: D
Solve the equation. Give an exact solution.

161) log5 x = 3
A) 8
B) 15
C) 243
D) 125
Answer: D
162) log5 x = -3
A) -15
1
B)
125
C) 2
1
D)
243
Answer: B
163) 5 ln x = 8
A) e8/5
B) e3
e8
C)
5
D) 40e
Answer: A
164) 198 + 4 log x = 170

A) 10-7
B) no solution
C) -70
D) -107
Answer: A
62
165) log(x + 20) = 1
A) -10
B) 10
C) 20
D) 1
Answer: A
166) log (x - 9) = 1 - log x

A) -10, 1
B) 10
C) -10
D) -1, 10
Answer: B
167) ln(5x - 2) = ln 12 - ln(x - 6)

32
A)
5
32
B) 0,
5
6
C) 6,
5
D) no solution
Answer: A
168) log4 (x - 5) + log4 (x - 5) = 1

A) - 26, 26
B) 26
C) 7
D) -7, 7
Answer: C
169) ln x - ln(x - 4) = ln 4
A) no solution
16
B)
3
4 ln 4
C)
ln 4 - 1
D) 0
Answer: B
170) log(x + 10) - log(x + 4) = log x

A) 2
B) no solution
C) 6
D) 2, -5
Answer: A
63
171) log5 (x + 7) + log5 (x - 7) = 1
A) 5
246
B)
5
C) 54
D) 3 6
Answer: D
Solve the inequality.

172) 4 x > 16
A) x < 4
B) x > 3
C) x > 2
D) x < 1
Answer: C
173) 512x < 8

1
A) x < -
3
1
B) x <
3
C) x < 3
D) x < -3
Answer: B
Solve the problem.

q
174) The supply function for a certain car is given by p = 31(3 ) cars, where p dollars is the price per car and q is the
quantity of cars, in thousands, supplied at that price. What quantity will be supplied if the price is $67,797 per
car?
A) 6 thousand cars
B) 8 thousand cars
C) 7 thousand cars
D) 9 thousand cars
Answer: C
175) At the end of t years, the future value of an investment of $7000 in an account that pays 7% APR compounded
0.07 12t
monthly is S = 7000 1 + dollars. Assuming no withdrawals or additional deposits, how long will it take
12
for the investment to reach $21,000? Round to three decimal places.
A) 18.888 years
B) 12.592 years
C) 23.610 years
D) 15.740 years
Answer: D
64
176) The sales of a mature product (one which has passed its peak) will decline by the function S(t)= S0 e-at, where t
is time in years. Find the sales after 16 years if a = 0.19 and S0 = 81,600.
A) 1952 products
B) 98,675 products
C) 3903 products
D) 2,062,820 products
Answer: C
177) The sales of a new model of notebook computer are approximated by S(x) = 5000 - 12,000e-x/8 , where x
represents the number of months the computer has been on the market and S represents sales in thousands of
dollars. In how many months will the sales reach $1,500,000?
A) 17 months
B) 13 months
C) 20 months
D) 10 months
Answer: D
178) Prices in an economy with a 12% annual inflation rate can be modeled by P = pert, where r is the inflation rate, t
is the time in years, and p is the current price. How long will it take for prices in the economy to double at a
12% annual inflation rate?
A) 9.16 years
B) 5.78 years
C) 23.45 years
D) 6.78 years
Answer: B
179) Assume the cost of a car is $20,000. With continuous compounding in effect, the cost of the car will increase
according to the equation C = 20,000ert, where r is the annual inflation rate and t is the number of years. Find
the number of years it would take to double the cost of the car at an annual inflation rate of 5.9%. Round the
answer to the nearest hundredth.
A) 11.75 years
B) 179.60 years
C) 1.68 years
D) 167.86 years
Answer: A
180) The consumption of electricity can be modeled by C = Aert, where A is the current use, r is the rate at which the
use is increasing, and t is the number of years. Suppose the consumption of electricity grows at 6.8% per year.
Find the number of years before the use of electricity has tripled. Round the answer to the nearest hundredth.
A) 44.12 years
B) 0.16 year
C) 16.16 years
D) 1.62 years
Answer: C
65
181) An economist predicts that the buying power B(x) of a dollar x years from now will decrease according to the
formula B(x) = 0.61x. How much will today's dollar be worth in 7 years? Round the answer to the nearest cent.
A) $4.27
B) $0.03
C) $0.71
D) $3.28
Answer: B
182) The purchasing power of A dollars after t years of r% inflation is given by the model P = Ae-rt. Assume the
inflation rate is currently 6.6%. How long will it take for the purchasing power of $1.00 to be worth $0.67?
Round the answer to the nearest hundredth.
A) 0.06 year
B) 0.61 years
C) 6.07 years
D) 10.15 years
Answer: C
quarterly, is given by n = log1.025 2. Use the change of base formula to find n, rounded to the nearest tenth.
A) 24.1 quarters
B) 28.1 quarters
C) 31.1 quarters
D) 33.1 quarters
Answer: B
quarterly, is given by n = log1.025 2. In how many years will the investment double, to the nearest tenth of a
year?
A) 3.5 years
B) 28.1 years
C) 14.0 years
D) 7.0 years
Answer: D
semiannually, is given by n = log1.01 2. Use the change of base formula to find n, rounded to the nearest tenth.
A) 65.7 periods
B) 69.7 periods
C) 72.7 periods
D) 74.7 periods
Answer: B
semiannually, is given by n = log1.05 2. Find the number of years before the investment doubles in value, to the
A) 28.4 years
B) 3.6 years
C) 14.2 years
D) 7.1 years
Answer: D
66
187) If $1000 is invested at the end of each year in an annuity that pays 8%, compounded annually, the number of
years it takes for the future value to amount to $22,000 is given by t = log1.08 177. Use the change of base
formula to find the number of years until the future value is $22,000, to the nearest tenth of a year.
A) 72.3 years
B) 67.3 years
C) 65.0 years
D) 74.4 years
Answer: B
188) In the formula A(t) = A0 ekt, A is the amount of radioactive material remaining from an initial amount A0 at a
given time t, and k is a negative constant determined by the nature of the material. An artifact is discovered at a
certain site. If it has 59% of the carbon-14 it originally contained, what is the approximate age of the artifact?
Carbon-14 decays at the rate of 0.0125% annually. Round to the nearest year, if necessary.
A) 3280 years
B) 4720 years
C) 1833 years
D) 4221 years
Answer: D
189) In the formula A(t) = A0 ekt, A is the amount of radioactive material remaining from an initial amount A0 at a
given time t, and k is a negative constant determined by the nature of the material. A certain radioactive isotope
decays at a rate of 0.125% annually. Determine the half-life of this isotope, to the nearest year.
A) 241 years
B) 400 years
C) 6 years
D) 555 years
Answer: D
190) The decay of 514 mg of an isotope is given by A(t) = 514e-0.021t, where t is time in years. Find the amount left
after 63 years.
A) 137 mg
B) 69 mg
C) 503 mg
D) 134 mg
Answer: A
191) A certain radioactive isotope has a half-life of approximately 950 years. How many years to the nearest year
would be required for a given amount of this isotope to decay to 75% of that amount?
A) 394 years
B) 1900 years
C) 238 years
D) 319 years
Answer: A
67
192) An artifact is discovered at a certain site. If it has 78% of the carbon-14 it originally contained, what is the
approximate age of the artifact to the nearest year? Carbon-14 decays at the rate of 0.0125% annually. Round to
the nearest year, if necessary.
A) 6240 years
B) 1988 years
C) 863 years
D) 1760 years
Answer: B
193) A certain radioactive isotope decays at a rate of 0.275% annually. Determine the half-life of this isotope, to the
nearest year.
A) 109 years
B) 252 years
C) 3 years
D) 182 years
Answer: B
194) A sample of 200 grams of radioactive substance decays according to the function A(t) = 200e-0.031t, where t is
the time in years. How much of the substance will be left in the sample after 40 years? Round your answer to the
nearest whole gram.
A) 1 gram
B) 58 grams
C) 2465 grams
D) 0 grams
Answer: B
195) How long will it take a sample of radioactive substance to decay to half of its original amount, if it decays
according to the function A(t) = 650e-0.189t, where t is the time in years? Round your answer to the nearest
hundredth year.
A) 122.85 years
B) 34.27 years
C) 37.94 years
D) 3.67 years
Answer: D

196) Is the logarithm to the base 6 of 3 written as "log3 6" or"log6 3?"
Answer: log6 3
197) What is the domain of the function y = log6 x?

A) (-∞, ∞)
B) (0, ∞)
C) (6, ∞)
D) [0, ∞)
Answer: B
68
198) What is the range of the function y = log4 x?
A) (0, ∞)
B) [0, ∞)
C) (4, ∞)
D) (-∞, ∞)
Answer: D
199) Explain how this statement needs to be changed so that it is true: log3(8 + 8) = log3 8 + log3 8
Answer: Answers may vary, but the easiest alteration that would make this statement true is to change the plus
sign ("+") within the parentheses to a multiplication sign ("∙ "). The result is a true statement:
"log3 (8 ∙ 8) = log3 8 + log3 8
200) Explain why this sequence of steps is incorrect:

log3 64 = log3 (-8)(-8)
= log3 (-8) + log3 (-8)
Answer: The product rule for logarithms cannot be applied to the expression on the right side of the initial
equation. That is, logb xy = logb x + logb y applies only if x, y, and b are positive real numbers, where
b ≠ 1. Since b = 3, it is clearly a positive real number ≠ 1. However, x = y = -8, which is a negative number,
and thus the rule cannot be applied.
201) Explain the error in the following: log3 2 + log3 M = log3 (2 + M).
Answer: A sum of logarithms is not equal to a logarithm of a sum.
log3 2 + log3 M = log3 2M.
202) Explain the error in the following: log4 3y = log4 3 ∙ log4 y.

Answer: A logarithm of a product is not equal to a product of logarithms.
log4 3y = log4 3 + log4 y.
203) Explain the error in the following: log6 8 - log6 N = log6 (8 - N).
Answer: A difference of logarithms is not equal to the logarithm of the difference.
8
log6 8 - log6 N = log6
N
69
Solve the problem.

204) Find the exponential function that models the data in the table below.
x f(x)
-2 9
-1 13.5
0 20.25
1 30.375
2 45.5625
A) f(x) = 13.5 ∙ 1.5x
B) f(x) = 20.25 ∙ 1.5x
C) f(x) = 9 ∙ 0.5x
D) f(x) = 20.25 ∙ 1.33x
Answer: B
x f(x)
-2 22
-1 15.4
0 10.78
1 7.546
2 5.2822
A) f(x) = 10.78 ∙ 0.7x
B) f(x) = 15.4 ∙ 1.7x
C) f(x) = 10.78 ∙ 1.3x
D) f(x) = 22 ∙ 0.7x
Answer: A
x f(x)
-2 -45
-1 -27
0 -16.2
1 -9.72
2 -5.832
A) f(x) = -16.2 ∙ 0.6x
B) f(x) = -27 ∙ 1.6x
C) f(x) = 16.2 ∙ 1.4x
D) f(x) = - 45 ∙ 0.6x
Answer: A
70
207) Find the exponential function that models the data in the table below. Round the coefficients to the nearest
hundredth.
x 1 2 3 4 5
y 4.0 4.8 6.2 7.8 9.9
3.95
A) f(x) = + 4.45
1 + 511.07e-2x
3.95
B) f(x) =
1 + 510.08e-2x
C) f(x) = 3.33(1.20) x
D) f(x) = 3.11(1.26) x
Answer: D
208) Find the exponential function f that models this data. Round the coefficients to the nearest hundredth.
x 1 3 5 7
y 1.23 2.51 4.05 6.92
A) f(x) = (1.14)(0.85) x
B) f(x) = (1.33)(0.98) x
C) f(x) = (0.85)(1.14) x
D) f(x) = (0.98)(1.33) x
Answer: D
x 3 6 9 12
y 12.2 36.2 73.5 151
A) f(x) = (5.97)(1.32) x
B) f(x) = (1.63)(1.78) x
C) f(x) = (1.78)(1.63) x
D) f(x) = (1.32)(5.97) x
Answer: A
x 2 27 58 82
y 13.2 40.5 82.7 172
A) f(x) = (0.62)(7.58) x
B) f(x) = (7.58)(0.62) x
C) f(x) = (13.21)(1.03) x
D) f(x) = (14.21)(1.03) x
Answer: D
71
x 1 2 3 4
y 580 620 670 750
A) f(x) = (567.57)(0.17) x
B) f(x) = (0.17)(567.57) x
C) f(x) = (1.09)(527.34) x
D) f(x) = (527.34)(1.09) x
Answer: D
212) Find the logarithmic function that models the data in the table below.
x 1 2 3 4 5
y 1.3 4.9 6.8 8.0 9.2
A) f(x) = 1.39 + 4.86 ln x
B) f(x) = 4.86 + 1.39 ln x
C) f(x) = 1.29 + 5.19 ln x
D) f(x) = 1.39 + 4.86 log x
Answer: A
Find the exponential function that satisfies the given conditions.

213) Initial value = 36, increasing at a rate of 13% per year
A) f(t) = 36 ∙ 0.13t
B) f(t) = 13 ∙ 1.13t
C) f(t) = 36 ∙ 1.13t
D) f(t) = 36 ∙ 13t
Answer: C
214) Initial value = 55, decreasing at a rate of 0.46% per week

A) f(t) = 55 ∙ 1.46t
B) f(t) = 55 ∙ 0.9954t
C) f(t) = 0.46 ∙ 0.45t
D) f(t) = 55 ∙ 1.0046t
Answer: B
215) Initial population = 30,848, increasing at a rate of 3% per year

A) P(t) = 30,848 ∙ 0.03t
B) P(t) = 30,848 ∙ 1.03t
C) P(t) = 3 ∙ 30,848t
D) P(t) = 30,848 ∙ 3 t
Answer: B
72
216) Initial mass = 7 g, decreasing at a rate of 3.7% per day
A) m(t) = 7 ∙ 1.037t
B) m(t) = 7 ∙ 0.963t
C) m(t) = 3.7 ∙ 0.93t
D) m(t) = 7 ∙ 1.37t
Answer: B
Solve the problem.

217) Under ideal conditions, a population of rabbits has an exponential growth rate of 11.6% per day. Consider an
initial population of 400 rabbits. Find the exponential growth function.
A) P(t) = 400e0.116t
B) P(t) = 100e1.16t
C) P(t) = 40e0.116t
D) P(t) = 100e11.6t
Answer: A
218) Find an exponential function that models the data below and use it to predict about how many books will have
been read in the eighth grade.
Grade Number of Books Read

2 9
3 27
4 67
5 121
A) 500 books
B) 3000 books
C) 1883 books
D) 1000 books
Answer: C
219) Find an exponential function to model the data below and use it to predict about how many widgets will be
produced in 2019. Round to the nearest million widgets.
Number of Widgets
Years after 2010 Produced (in millions)
1 1.9
2 3.0
3 4.6
4 6.3
5 8.6
A) 60 million widgets
B) 11 million widgets
C) 41 million widgets
D) 20 million widgets
Answer: C
73
220) Find an exponential function to model the data below and use it to predict what income the company should
expect in its seventh year of operation. Round to the nearest tenth when necessary.
Annual Income
Years of Operation (in millions)
1 0.3
2 0.7
3 1.2
4 1.9
A) 12.8 million
B) 128 million
C) 1.83 million
D) 0.2 million
Answer: A
221) Estimate the y-value associated with x = 35 as predicted by the natural logarithmic regression equation for the
following data. Round to the nearest hundredth.
x y
10 1.51
20 2.88
30 3.71
40 4.36
A) 4.05
B) 3.75
C) 4.25
D) 3.55
Answer: A
222) Several years ago, a large city undertook a major effort to encourage carpooling in order to reduce traffic
congestion. The accompanying table shows the number of carpoolers, in thousands, from 2007 to 2012. Use
regression to obtain a function f(x) = a + b ln x that models the data, where x = 1 corresponds to 2007, x = 2 to
2008, and so on. Round the constants a and b to the nearest hundredth.
Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Carpoolers 3.9 8.1 10.3 11.8 12.6 13.2
A) f(x) = 4.22 + 5.25 ln x

B) f(x) = 4.33 + 5.17 ln x
C) f(x) = 4.29 + 5.14 ln x
D) f(x) = 4.40 + 5.32 ln x
Answer: A
model the wind speed x meters above the ground. What is the wind speed 8 meters above the ground? Round
results to the nearest hundredth.
A) 11.00 meters per second
B) 10.58 meters per second
C) 11.07 meters per second
D) -6.00 meters per second
Answer: A
74
model the wind speed x meters above the ground. At what height is the wind speed 9 meters per second?
Round results to the nearest hundredth.
A) 0.49 m
B) 0.58 m
C) 0.56 m
D) 1.79 m
Answer: D

225) Select an appropriate type of modeling function for the data shown in the graph. Choose from exponential,
logarithmic, and linear.
y
A) Linear
B) Logarithmic
C) Exponential
Answer: B
y
A) Linear
B) Logarithmic
C) Exponential
Answer: C
75
y
A) Logarithmic
B) Linear
C) Exponential
Answer: C
228) The following table has the inputs, x, and the outputs for three functions, f, g, and h. Test the percent change of
the outputs to determine which function is exactly exponential, which is approximately exponential, and
which is not exponential.
x f(x) g(x) h(x)

0 1 1.5 7
1 2 2.25 8
2 4 4 9
3 8 5 10
4 16 7.75 11
5 32 12 12
Answer: f(x) is exactly exponential, g(x) is approximately exponential, and h(x) is not exponential.
229) Does it appear that a linear model or an exponential model is the better fit for the data given in the table below?
Explain your choice.
x y
2 3
4 5.5
6 7.8
8 10.3
Answer: Since the first differences are close to being equal, a linear model will be a better fit than an exponential
model.
76
230) Does it appear that a linear model or an exponential model is the better fit for the data given in the table below?
Explain your choice.
x y
1 6
2 17
3 55
4 160
5 490
6 1450
Answer: Since the percent change of the outputs is fairly constant, an exponential model will be a better fit than a
linear model.
Evaluate. Round dollar amounts to the nearest cent and other answers to the nearest thousandth when necessary.
231) 130ert for t = 6 and r = 2%
A) $181.43
B) $146.57
C) $2611.12
D) $353.38
Answer: B
r kn
232) 1,000 1 + for n = 7, r = 5%, k = 2
k
A) $1407.10
B) $1412.97
C) $1378.51
D) $412.97
Answer: B
r kn
233) P 1 + for P = $1,000, n = 6, r = 7% k = 1
k
A) $1402.55
B) $1500.73
C) $500.73
D) $1605.78
Answer: B
r kn
234) P 1 + for P = $14,000, n = 12, r = 5%, k = 2
k
A) $25,141.99
B) $24,704.55
C) $25,322.16
D) $11,322.16
Answer: C
77
r kn
235) P 1 + for P = $480, n = 3, r = 5%, k = 4
k
A) $557.16
B) $550.28
C) $77.16
D) $555.66
Answer: A
r kn
236) P 1 + for P = $12,000, n = 6, r = 8%, k = 4
k
A) $18,922.79
B) $7301.25
C) $19,301.25
D) $19,042.49
Answer: C
1.06n - 1
237) 400 for n = 221
0.07
A) 223,643,904
B) 2,109,853,543
C) 210,985,354
D) 2,236,439,042
Answer: D
238) Find f(1) if

100 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
f(x) = 200 if 1 < x < 2
300 if 2 ≤ x < 3
400 if 3 ≤ x ≤ 4
A) 400
B) 300
C) 100
D) 200
Answer: C
Solve the problem.

239) Find the amount of money in an account after 12 years if $4100 is deposited at 6% annual interest compounded
quarterly.
A) $8378.26
B) $8250.01
C) $8408.08
D) $8334.46
Answer: A
78
semiannually.
A) $5067.52
B) $5021.86
C) $5048.97
D) $4970.09
Answer: B
monthly.
A) $3949.68
B) $3927.14
C) $3969.35
D) $3961.38
Answer: C
annually.
A) $3130.75
B) $3126.61
C) $3120.49
D) $3108.51
Answer: D
243) What will be the amount in an account with initial principal $9000 if interest is compounded continuously at an
annual rate of 7.25% for 7 years?
A) $14,950.20
B) $5066.20
C) $9676.74
D) $9000.00
Answer: A
244) An initial investment of $660 is appreciated for 11 years in an account that earns 1% interest, compounded
continuously. Find the amount of money in the account at the end of the period.
A) $39,516,933.46
B) $736.74
C) $722.81
D) $1650.62
Answer: B
245) June made an initial deposit of $4700 in an account for her son. Assuming an interest rate of 8% compounded
quarterly, how much will the account be worth in 12 years?
A) $12,159.23
B) $7710.85
C) $11,920.81
D) $12,047.53
Answer: A
79
246) Barbara knows that she will need to buy a new car in 2 years. The car will cost $15,000 by then. How much
should she invest now at 8%, compounded quarterly, so that she will have enough to buy a new car?
A) $11,907.48
B) $13,888.89
C) $12,802.36
D) $13,868.34
Answer: C
247) Southwest Dry Cleaners believes that it will need new equipment in 9 years. The equipment will cost $26,000.
What lump sum should be invested today at 12% compounded semiannually, to yield $26,000?
A) $15,440.52
B) $9108.94
C) $19,593.79
D) $15,212.33
Answer: B
248) Barry Newman's savings account has a balance of $1541. After 17 years, what will the amount of interest be at
6% compounded annually?
A) $2599.56
B) $924.60
C) $2608.56
D) $2613.56
Answer: C
249) Felipe Rivera's savings account has a balance of $2238. After 3 years what will the amount of interest be at 6%
compounded quarterly?
A) $67.14
B) $442.79
C) $428.79
D) $437.79
Answer: D
250) Sumi Kato's savings account has a balance of $3950. After 13 years, what will the amount of interest be at 5.5%
compounded annually?
A) $3972.81
B) $3978.81
C) $5135.00
D) $3961.81
Answer: A
251) Anwar invested $2500 at 4% compounded semiannually. In how many years will Anwar's investment have
tripled? Round your answer to the nearest tenth of a year.
A) 27.5 years
B) 4.2 years
C) 27.7 years
D) 3.5 years
Answer: C
80
252) $2500 is invested at 6% compounded quarterly. In how many years will the account have grown to $6000?
Round your answer to the nearest tenth of a year.
A) 18.5 years
B) 15.0 years
C) 1.2 years
D) 14.7 years
Answer: D
253) How long would it take $5000 to grow to $25,000 at 9% compounded continuously? Round your answer to the
A) 17.9 years
B) 18.4 years
C) 18.1 years
D) 19.4 years
Answer: A
254) You have money in an account at 5% interest, compounded weekly. To the nearest year, how long will it take
for your money to triple?
A) 31 years
B) 13 years
C) 22 years
D) 18 years
Answer: C
255) You have money in an account at 6% interest, compounded weekly. To the nearest year, how long will it take
for your money to double?
A) 16 years
B) 9 years
C) 7 years
D) 12 years
Answer: D
256) Use your graphing calculator to find how long it will take for $6600 invested at 5.85% per year compounded
daily to triple in value. Find the answer to the nearest year.
A) 2,502,126 years
B) 19 years
C) 0 years
D) 25,219 years
Answer: B
257) Assume the cost of a gallon of milk is $2.60. With continuous compounding, find the time it would take the cost
to be 4 times as much (to the nearest tenth of a year), at an annual inflation rate of 6%.
A) 8.5 years
B) 35.9 years
C) 0.1 year
D) 23.1 years
Answer: D
81

258) If interest is compounded monthly at 5% per year for 14 years, explain how to find the number of compounding
periods and the interest rate per compounding period.
Answer: The number of compounding periods is 14 times 12.
The interest rate per period is 5 divided by 12.
259) Using A = P(1 + rt), the future value formula for a simple interest investment, derive the formula for r, the rate
of simple interest.
A- P
Answer: r =
Pt
260) Using A = P(1 + rt), the future value formula for a simple interest investment, derive the formula for t, the time
(in years).
A-P
Answer: t =
Pr
Solve the problem.

261) Gretta wants to retire in 13 years. At that time she wants to be able to withdraw $12,500 at the end of each 6
months for 14 years. Assume that money can be deposited at 6% per year compounded semiannually. What
exact amount will Gretta need in 13 years?
A) $598,782.00
B) $234,551.37
C) $239,855.63
D) $229,087.88
Answer: B
262) Charles wants to retire in 17 years. At that time he wants to be able to withdraw $22,000 at the end of each year
for 19 years. Assume that money can be deposited at 12% per year compounded annually. What exact amount
will Charles need in 17 years?
A) $164,327.68
B) $162,047.16
C) $159,492.74
D) $204,619.58
Answer: B
263) Find the least amount that could be deposited in a bank account today at 12% compounded quarterly to allow
$650 withdrawals at the end of each quarter for 10 years.
A) $15,218.06
B) $28,308.73
C) $14,825.34
D) $15,024.60
Answer: D
82
264) Find the least amount that could be deposited in a bank account today at 8% compounded semiannually to
allow $1,875 withdrawals at the end of each 6 months for 12 years.
A) $29,291.40
B) $28,588.05
C) $65,161.95
D) $27,856.58
Answer: B
265) Find the present value of a loan with an annual interest rate of 6.3% and periodic payments of $749.94 for a term
of 8 years, with payments made and interest charged 12 times per year.
A) $101,587.38
B) $56,437.43
C) $112,874.87
D) $45,149.95
Answer: B
266) Find the present value of a loan with an annual interest rate of 6.5% and periodic payments of $1270.74 for a
term of 27 years, with payments made and interest charged 12 times per year.
A) $387,683.73
B) $193,841.87
C) $348,915.36
D) $155,073.49
Answer: B
267) Find the present value of a loan with an annual interest rate of 8.8% and periodic payments of $309.9 for a term
of 5 years, with payments made and interest charged 12 times per year.
A) $11,999.17
B) $29,997.93
C) $26,998.14
D) $14,998.97
Answer: D
83
268) A woman can sell her computer graphics company for $900,000 cash or for $100,000 plus $65,000 at the end of
each year for 4 years. (a) Find the present value of the annuity that is offered if money is worth 7% compounded
annually. (b) If she takes the $900,000, spends $100,000 of it, and invests the rest in a 4-year annuity at 7%
compounded annually, what size annuity payment will she receive at the end of each year? (c) Which is better,
taking the $100,000 and the annuity or taking the cash settlement?
A) (a) $297,227.79;
(b) $265,705.31;
(c) $100,000 plus the annuity has a larger present value than $900,000. She should take $100,000 plus the
annuity.
B) (a) $330,253.10;
(b) $295,228.12;
(c) $100,000 plus the annuity has a larger present value than $900,000. She should take $100,000 plus the
annuity.
C) (a) $220,168.73;
(b) $236,182.49;
(c) $100,000 plus the annuity has a smaller present value than $900,000. She should take the cash
settlement.
D) (a) $217,967.04;
(b) $206,659.68;
(c) $100,000 plus the annuity has a smaller present value than $900,000. She should take the cash
settlement.
Answer: C
269) A dentist can sell his practice for $1,100,000 cash or for $250,000 plus $270,000 at the end of each year for 4
years. (a) Find the present value of the annuity that is offered if money is worth 8% compounded annually. (b) If
she takes the $1,100,000, spends $250,000 of it, and invests the rest in a 4-year annuity at 8% compounded
annually, what size annuity payment will she receive at the end of each year? (c) Which is better, taking the
$250,000 and the annuity or taking the cash settlement?
A) (a) $992,644.41;
(b) $253,613.48;
(c) $250,000 plus the annuity has a larger present value than $1,100,000. She should take $250,000 plus
the annuity.
B) (a) $697,533.91;
(b) $255,726.92;
(c) $250,000 plus the annuity has a smaller present value than $1,100,000. She should take the $250,000
plus the annuity. She should take the cash settlement.
C) (a) $894,274.25;
(b) $256,632.68;
(c) $250,000 plus the annuity has a larger present value than $1,100,000. She should take $250,000 plus
the annuity.
D) (a) $581,278.26;
(b) $241,234.72;
(c) $250,000 plus the annuity has a smaller present value than $1,100,000. She should take the cash
settlement.
Answer: C
84
270) In order to purchase a home, a family borrows $45,000 at an annual interest rate of 9%, to be paid back over a 30
year period in equal monthly payments. What is their monthly payment?
A) $362.08
B) $377.64
C) $11.25
D) $337.50
Answer: A
271) In order to purchase a home, a family borrows $60,000 at an annual interest rate of 11%, to be paid back over a
30 year period in equal monthly payments. Find the total amount paid to the finance company for the life of the
loan. Round your answer the nearest dollar.
A) $199,461
B) $201,934
C) $205,702
D) $198,000
Answer: C
272) Tasha borrowed $11,000 to purchase a new car at an annual interest rate of 11%. She is to pay it back in equal
monthly payments over a 3 year period. What is her monthly payment?
A) $33.61
B) $360.13
C) $100.83
D) $421.06
Answer: B
273) Tasha borrowed $13,000 to purchase a new car at an annual interest rate of 9%. She is to pay it back in equal
monthly payments over a 5 year period. How much total interest will be paid over the period of the loan?
Round to the nearest dollar.
A) $3192
B) $4145
C) $1457
D) $98
Answer: A
274) A couple who wants to purchase a home with a price of $325,000 has $100,000 for a down payment. If they can
get a 25-year mortgage at 8% per year, paid on the unpaid balance, what is the total amount they will pay
before they own the house outright? How much interest will they pay over the life of the loan?
A) $520,977; $195,977
B) $852,520; $527,520
C) $620,977; $295,977
D) $752,520; $427,520
Answer: C

(1 + 0.06/4)x - 1
275) The function f(x) = 200 describes the future value of a certain annuity. What is the annual
0.06/4
interest rate?
Answer: 6%
85
(1 + 0.06/4)x - 1
276) The function f(x) = 200 describes the future value of a certain annuity. How many payments
0.06/4
per year are there?
Answer: There are four payments per year.
(1 + i)n - 1
277) Solve S = R for R.
i
i
Answer: R = S
(1 + i)n - 1
Evaluate the function. Round to two decimal places.

30
278) Evaluate when x = 4.
1 + 2e-x
A) 28.94
B) 57.88
C) 34.73
D) 23.15
Answer: A
64
279) Evaluate when x = 18.
1 + 0.2e-0.06x
A) 77.91
B) 41.95
C) 59.93
D) 149.82
Answer: C
t
280) Evaluate 900(0.05)0.3 for t = 0.
A) 1
B) 900
C) 45
D) 13.5
Answer: C
t
281) Evaluate 700(0.03)0.2 for t = 10.
A) 630.00
B) 840.00
C) 560.00
D) 700.00
Answer: D
Graph the function.
86
43
282) f(x) =
1 + 5e-x
y
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
A)
y
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
B)
y
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
87
C)
y
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
D)
y
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
Answer: D
430
283) f(x) =
1 + 10e-0.2x
y
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
10 20 30 40 x
88
A)
y
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
10 20 30 40 x
B)
y
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
10 20 30 40 x
C)
y
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
10 20 30 40 x
89
D)
y
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
10 20 30 40 x
Answer: C
x
284) f(x) = 120(0.02) 0.5
y
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5 10 15 20 x
A)
y
150
100
50
5 10 15 20 x
90
B)
y
150
100
50
5 10 15 20 x
C)
y
150
100
50
5 10 15 20 x
D)
y
150
100
50
10 20 30 40 x
Answer: B
91
x
285) f(x) = 3000(0.002)0.5
y
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
A)
y
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
B)
y
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
C)
y
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
92
D)
y
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
Answer: D
Solve the problem.

286) A pharmaceutical company introduces a new headache medication on the market. They advertise the product
on television and find that the percentage P of people who buy the product after t weeks satisfies the function
100%
P(t) = . What percentage buy the product after 16 weeks? Round to the nearest tenth of a percent
1 + 37e-0.13t
when necessary.
A) 17.8%
B) 14.2%
C) 19.6%
D) 21.3%
Answer: A
287) The natural resources of an island limit the growth of the population to a limiting value of 3423. The population
3423
of the island is given by the logistic equation P(t) = , where t is the number of years after 2010.
1 + 4.25e-0.31t
What would be the predicted population of the island in 2019?
A) 2443 people
B) 2714 people
C) 831 people
D) 2579 people
Answer: B
288) The natural resources of an island limit the growth of the population. The population of the island is given by
4943
the logistic equation P(t) = , where t is the number of years after 2010. What is the limiting value
1 + 3.96e-0.31t
of the population?
A) 1266 people
B) 997 people
C) 14 people
D) 4943 people
Answer: D
93
289) The number of employees of a company, N(t), who have heard a rumor t days after the rumor is started is given
268
by the logistic equation N(t) = . How many employees have heard the rumor 12 days after it is
1 + 51.6e-0.25t
started?
A) 68 employees
B) 7 employees
C) 60 employees
D) 75 employees
Answer: D
290) The number of students infected with the flu on a college campus after t days is modeled by the function
600
P(t) = . What was the initial number of infected students?
1 + 39e-0.3t
A) 600 students
B) 15 students
C) 30 students
D) 39 students
Answer: B
360
P(t) = . What is the maximum number of infected students possible?
1 + 39e-0.3t
A) 9 students
B) 360 students
C) 180 students
D) 720 students
Answer: B
600
P(t) = . When will the number of infected students be 300?
1 + 39e-0.3t
A) About 14 days
B) About 8 days
C) About 16 days
D) About 12 days
Answer: D
293) A pair of rabbits are introduced on a small island, and the population grows until the food supply and natural
200
enemies of the rabbits on the island limit the population. If the number of rabbits is N = , where t
1 + 75(2-0.7t)
is the number of years after the rabbits are introduced, how long does it take for the rabbit population to reach
100?
A) 9 years
B) 7 years
C) 11 years
D) 10 years
Answer: A
94
294) A company predicts that sales will increase rapidly after a new product is released, with the number of units
t
sold weekly modeled by N = 3000(0.1)0.5 , where t represents the number of weeks after the product is released.
How many units per week were sold at the beginning of the campaign?
A) 300 units
B) 360 units
C) 3000 units
D) 150 units
Answer: A
t
How many units per week were sold at the end of the first week of the campaign?
A) 5367 units
B) 3578 units
C) 4293 units
D) 2862 units
Answer: B
t
What is the expected upper limit on the number of units sold per week?
A) 9100 units
B) 8400 units
C) 7000 units
D) 1400 units
Answer: C
t
Use graphical or numerical methods to find the first week in which 2250 units were sold.
A) 7th week
B) 3rd week
C) 6th week
D) 5th week
Answer: D

a
298) Give an example of a situation in which a logistic function f(x) = would be a more appropriate model
1 + be-kx
than an exponential function f(x) = aekx. Explain why you think the logistic model would be more appropriate.
Answer: Population growth over a long period of time; The population growth may at first appear exponential
but in time may begin to slow down due to factors such as limited resources to support an exponentially
increasing population. (Answers will vary.)
95
c
299) Consider the logistic function f(x) = , where b > 0. What is the limiting value of this function?
1 + ae-bx
Answer: The limiting value of the function is c.
c
300) Consider the logistic function f(x) = , where b > 0. Is this function increasing or decreasing?
1 + ae-bx
Answer: The function is increasing.
c
301) Consider the logistic function f(x) = , where b < 0. Is this function increasing or decreasing?
1 + ae-bx
Answer: The function is decreasing.
c
302) Consider the logistic function f(x) = , where b > 0. What is the initial value of this function?
1 + ae-bx
c
Answer: The initial value of the function is , assuming a ≠ -1.
1+a
t
303) Consider the Gompertz function N = CaR , where 0 < R < 1. What is the limiting value of this function?
Answer: The limiting value of the function is C.
t
304) Consider the Gompertz function N = CaR , where 0 < R < 1. What is the initial value of this function?
Answer: The initial value of the function is Ca.
96
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areas of excess. When these areas are extreme and close to each
other, the resulting zonation will be marked; when they are
moderate, particularly if they are widely separated, the zones
produced are obscure. Asymmetry of a habitat or a region practically
does not exist. Central areas of excess and deficiency may be very
large and in consequence fail to seem symmetrical, or the space
between them so great that the symmetry is not conspicuous, but
they are everywhere present, acting as foci for the intervening areas.
The response of vegetation to habitat is so intimate that
physiographic symmetry everywhere produces vegetational
symmetry, which finds its ready expression in plant zones. The
reaction of vegetation upon habitat causes biological symmetry,
typical of growth zones and light zones. From these facts it is clear
that zonation will be regularly characteristic of the vegetative
covering. The zonal arrangement of formations is usually very
evident; the zones of a formation are often obscured, or, where the
latter occupies a uniform central area of excess or deficiency, they
are rudimentary or lacking, as in shallow ponds. Zones are frequently
imperfect, though rarely entirely absent in new soils, such as talus.
They are rendered obscure in several ways. In the initial stages of a
succession, as well as in the transitions between the various stages,
the plant population is so scattered, so transient, or so dense as to
respond not at all to a degree of symmetry which produces marked
zonation in later formations. The alternation of conspicuous species
not only causes great interruption of zones, but often also completely
conceals the zonation of other species, such as the grasses, which,
though of more importance in the formation, have a lower habit of
growth. Furthermore, the ecotones of one factor may run at right
angles to those of another, and the resulting series of zones mutually
obscure each other. Finally, such a physiographic feature as a hill
may have its symmetry interrupted by ridges or ravines, which
deflect the zones downward or upward, or cause them to disappear
altogether, while the shallows or depths of a pond or lake may have
the same effect. An entire absence of zones, i. e., azonation, is
exceptional in vegetation. Almost all cases that seem to exhibit it may
be shown by careful examination to arise in one of the several ways
indicated above.
KINDS OF ZONATION
337. Two kinds of zonation are distinguished with reference to the

direction in which the controlling factor changes. When this is
horizontal, as with water-content and temperature, zonation will be
lateral; when it is vertical, as in the case of light, the zonation is
vertical. There exists an intimate connection between the two in
forests, where the secondary layer of small trees and shrubs is
continuous with a belt of trees and shrubs around the central
nucleus, and the lower layers of bushes and herbaceous plants with
similar zones still further out. This connection doubtless arises from
the fact that conditions are unfavorable to the facies, outside of the
nucleus as well as beneath it. Floristically, each layer and its
corresponding zone are distinct, as the one consists of shade, the
other of sun species. Lateral zonation is radial when the habitat or
physiographic feature is more or less circular in form, and it is
bilateral, when the latter is elongated or linear. Vertical zonation is
unilateral.
338. Radial zonation is regularly characteristic of elevations
and depressions. From the form of the earth, it reaches its larger
expression in the girdles of vegetation corresponding to the zones of
temperature. The zones of mountain peaks are likewise due largely to
temperature, though humidity is a very important factor also.
Mountain zones are normally quite perfect. The zonation of islands,
hills, etc., is due to water-content. In the former, the zones are
usually quite regular and complete; in the latter, they are often
incomplete or obscured. Prairies and steppes are not zoned as units,
but are complexes of more or less zonal hills and ridges. Ponds,
lakes, and seas regularly exhibit complete zones, except in those
shallow ponds where the depth is so slight that what is ordinarily a
marginal zone is able to extend over the entire bottom. The line
between an elevation and a depression, i. e., the edge of the water
level, is the most sharply defined of all ecotones. It separates two
series of zones, each of which constitutes a formation. One of these is
regularly hydrophytic, the other is usually mesophytic. The line
between the two can rarely be drawn at the water’s edge, as this is
not a constant, owing to waves, tides, or periodical rise and fall.
There is in consequence a more or less variable transition zone of
amphibious plants, which are, however, to be referred to the
hydrophytic formation. Nearly all forest formations serve as a center
about which are arranged several somewhat complete zones. As a
rule, these merge into a single heterogeneous zone of thickets.
339. Bilateral zonation differs from radial only in as much as it
deals with linear elevations and depressions instead of circular ones.
With this difference, the zones of ranges and ridges correspond
exactly to those of peaks and hills, while the same relation is evident
between the zones of streams, and of lakes and ponds. The ecotones
are identical except as to form; they are linear in the one and circular
in the other. Incompleteness is more frequently found in bilateral
zonation, though this is a question of distance or extent, rather than
one of symmetry.
340. Vertical zonation is peculiar in that there is no primary
ecotone present, on either side of which zones arrange themselves
with reference to the factor concerned. This arises from the fact that
the controlling factor is light, which impinges upon the habitat in
such manner as to shade out in but one direction, i. e., downward.
Vertical zones appear in bodies of water, on account of the
absorption of light by the water. In a general way, it is possible to
distinguish bottom, plancton, and surface zones, consisting almost
wholly of algae. There is little question that minor zones exist,
especially in lakes and seas, but these await further investigation.
The most characteristic vertical zones occur in forests, where the
primary layer of trees acts as a screen. The density of this screen
determines the number of zones found beneath it. In extreme cases
the foliage is so dense that the light beneath is insufficient even for
mosses and lichens. As a rule, however, there will be one or more
zones present. In an ordinary deciduous forest, the layers below the
facies are five or six in number: (1) a secondary layer of small trees
and shrubs, (2) a tertiary layer of bushes, (3) an upper herbaceous
layer of tall herbs, (4) a middle herbaceous layer, (5) a lower
herbaceous layer, (6) a ground layer of mosses, lichens, other fungi,
and algae. The upper layers are often discontinuous, the lower ones
are more and more continuous. As a forest becomes denser, its layers
disappear from the upper downward, the ground layer always being
the last to disappear because of its ability to grow in very diffuse
light. A vertically zoned formation shows a complex series of
reactions. The primary layer determines the amount of heat, light,
water, wind, etc., for the subordinate layers in general. Each of these
layers then further determines the amount for those below it, the
ground layer being subject in some degree to the control of every
layer above it. This accounts probably for the definiteness and
permanence of this layer. The degree to which the lower layers
influence the upper by reacting upon the habitat is not known. It is
evident that this influence must be considerable by virtue of their
control of the water supply in the upper soil strata, by virtue of their
transpiration, their decomposition, etc.
The ecotone between two formations is never a sharp line, but it is
an area of varying width. The edge of this area which is contiguous to
one formation marks the limit for species of the other. Both
formations disappear in this transition zone, but in opposite
directions. The overlapping which produces such zones arises from
the fact that the physical factors tend to approach each other at the
line of contact between formations, and that many species are more
or less adjustable to conditions not too dissimilar.
341. Vegetation zones. As a fundamental expression of
progressive change in the amount of heat and water, zonation is the
most important feature of vegetation. It constitutes the sole basis for
the division of continental as well as insular vegetation. The
continent of North America furnishes striking proof of the truth of
this. Conforming to the gradual decrease of temperature and water-
content northward, three primary belts of vegetation stretch across
the continent from east to west. These are forest, grassland, and
polar desert. The first is further divided into the secondary zones of
broad-leaved evergreen, deciduous, and needle-leaved forests. At
right angles to this temperature-water symmetry lies a symmetry due
to water alone, in accordance with which forest belts touch the
oceans, but give way in the interior to grasslands, and these to
deserts. It is at once evident that the mutual interruption of these
two series of zones has produced the primary features of North
America vegetation, i. e., tropical forests where heat and water are
excessive, deserts where either is unusually deficient, grassland when
one is low, the other moderate, and deciduous and coniferous
forests, where the water-content is as least moderate and the
temperature not too low. Such a simple yet fundamental division has
been modified, however, by the disturbing effect which three
continental mountain systems have had upon humidity and upon
temperature symmetry. The two are intimately interwoven. The
lowering of temperature due to altitude produces the precipitation of
the wind-borne moisture upon those slopes which look toward the
quarter from which the prevailing winds blow. A mountain range
thus makes an abrupt change in the symmetry, and renders
impossible the gradual change from forest to grassland and desert.
The Appalachian system is not sufficiently high to produce a
pronounced effect, and forests extend far beyond it into the interior
before passing into prairies and plains. On the other hand, the
influence of the Rocky mountains and the Sierra Nevada is very
marked. The latter rise to a great height relatively near the coast, and
condense upon their western slopes nearly all of the moisture
brought from the Pacific. The Rocky mountains have the same effect
upon the much drier winds that blow from the east, and the two
systems in consequence enclose a parched desert. This series of
major zones thus becomes, starting at the east, forest, grassland,
desert, and forest, instead of the more symmetrical series, forest,
grassland, desert, grassland, forest, which would prevail were it not
for these barriers. This actual series of major zones undergoes
further interruption by the action of these mountain systems in
deflecting northern isotherms far to the south. This action is greatest
in the high ranges, the Rocky mountains and the Sierras, and least in
the lower Appalachians. Its result is to carry the polar deserts of the
north far southward along the crests of the mountains, and to extend
the boreal coniferous forests much further south along their slopes.
In the Appalachians, this means no more than the extension of a long
tongue of conifers into the mass of deciduous forests, and the
occasional appearance of an isolated peak. In the western ranges, it
produces two symmetrical series of minor mountain zones, forest,
alpine grassland or desert, and forest, to say nothing of the foot-hill
and timber-line zones of thicket.
There seems to be no good reason for distinguishing the zones of
mountains as regions. The term itself is inapplicable, as it has no
reference to zonation, and is used much more frequently as a term of
general application. Its use tends to obscure also the essential
identity of the so-called vertical zones of mountains with the major
continental zones, an identity which can not be insisted upon too
strongly. For the sake of clearness, it is important to distinguish all
belts of vegetation as zones, though it is evident that these are not all
of the same rank. The following division of the vegetation of North
America is based upon the fundamental principles of continental
symmetry and the community of continental and mountain zones.
I. Polar-niveal zone—zona polari-nivalis

II. Arctic-alpine zone—zona arctici-alpina
Arctic province—provincia arctica

Alpine province—provincia alpina
III. Boreal-subalpine zone—zona boreali-subalpina
Alaska province—provincia alaskana

Cordilleran province—provincia cordillerana
Ontario province—provincia ontariensis
IV. Temperate zone—zona temperata
Atlantic province—provincia atlantica

Appalachian province—provincia appalachiana
Nebraska province—provincia nebraskensis
Utah province—provincia utahensis
Coast province—provincia litoralis
Pacific province—provincia pacifica
V. Subtropical zone—zona subtropicalis
Florida province—provincia floridana

Mexican province—provincia mexicana
VI. Tropical zone—zona tropicalis
Antilles province—provincia antilleana

Andean province—provincia andeana
ALTERNATION
342. Concept. The term alternation is used to designate that
phenomenon of vegetation, in which a formation recurs at different
places in a region, or a species at separate points in a formation.
Although it is a fundamental feature of vegetation, it has been
recognized but recently.[41]
Alternation is the response of vegetation to the heterogeneity of
the surface of the earth. It is in sharp contrast to zonation, inasmuch
as it is directly caused by asymmetry in the topography. In
consequence, it deals with the subdivisions of zones, arising from
physical differences within the symmetrical area. It deals with
vegetation areas of every rank below that of major zone, with the
habitat and geographical areas of species, and, in a certain way, with
the correspondence of vicarious genera. The breaking up of
vegetation into formations is a striking example of alternation. The
same phenomenon occurs in every formation, producing consocies
and minor plant groups, and everywhere giving variation to its
surface and structure. The essential idea involved in this principle is
the recurrence of like formations, consocies, or groups, which are
more or less separated by formations, consocies, or groups differing
from them. It is an exact expression of the primary law of association
that heterogeneity of structure varies directly as the extent and
complexity of the habitat, or the series of habitats. Vegetation is
made up of what are superficially homogeneous formations, but
upon analysis these are seen to contain consocies. The latter, though
more uniform than formations, break up into groups, each of which
still shows a characteristic heterogeneity arising from the varying
number and arrangement of its constituent species.
343. Causes. The primary cause of alternation is physical
asymmetry, which is everywhere present within the symmetrical
areas which produce zones. This is influenced so strongly, however,
by migration and plant competition (phyteris) that the consideration
of this subject will gain in clearness if these are treated as separate
causes. The essential relation between them must not be lost sight of,
however. Migration carries disseminules into all, or only some of the
different areas of a formation, or into different formations, with little
respect to the physical nature of these. The physical character of
these asymmetrical areas determines that some of these plants shall
be established in one series of places, and some in another, while the
competition between the individuals in the various areas determines
the numerical value of each species as well as its persistence. These
three causes are invariably present in the production of alternating
areas, and originally, i. e., in new or denuded soils, the sequence is
constant, viz., migration, ecesis in asymmetrical areas, and
competition.
With respect to the different portions of an asymmetrical area,
migration will have one of three effects: (1) it will carry disseminules
into both favorable and unfavorable areas, (2) into favorable ones
only, or (3) into unfavorable ones alone. From the radial nature of
migration, the first case is far the most frequent; it is typical of
sporostrotes, and the highly specialized spermatostrotes and
carpostrotes. The effect of migration is uniform here, and alternation
arises in consequence of the selective power of ecesis. It is evident
that migration does not have an even indirect effect, when the
disseminules are carried into none but unfavorable situations. Where
the movement is into favorable places alone, alternation is the
immediate result. The intermittent operation of migration and the
presence of barriers are responsible for the absence of plants in
situations favorable to them, and in consequence bring about a
certain alternation between corresponding species.
The selective operation of physical factors upon the disseminules
carried into the different parts of an asymmetrical area is the usual
cause of alternation. Asymmetry alone is universal within the more
conspicuous structures termed zones, down to the smallest areas
which a group of plants can occupy. The difference between
contiguous areas, particularly within the same habitat, is often small.
It sometimes seems inefficient in the initial stages of a succession
when a single species is present, but even in extreme cases its effect
will be recognizable in the size and density of the individuals.
Asymmetry is clearly evident in vegetation where two symmetrical
series cross each other, or when a symmetry is interrupted by
barrier-like elevations or depressions. Within formations, it arises
from differences, often very slight, in slope, exposure, elevation, from
irregularities of surface, differences in soil structure, or composition,
in the amount of cover, and in the reactions of the living plants. At
the last point, it is in direct connection with plant competition.
344. Competition. Much uncertainty, as well as diversity of
opinion, seems still to exist in regard to the precise nature of the
competition between plants that occupy the same area. It has long
been admitted that the phrase, “struggle for existence,” is true of this
relation only in the most figurative sense, but the feeling still prevails
that, since plants live in associations, there must be something
mysterious and vitalistic in their relation. No one has been able to
discover anything of this nature, but nevertheless the impression
remains. Such a direct relation exists only between parasites,
epiphytes, and lianes, and the plants which serve to nourish or
support them. In the case of plants growing on the same stratum,
actual competition between plant and plant does not occur. One
individual can affect another only in as much as it changes the
physical factors that influence the latter. Competition is a question of
the reaction of a plant upon the physical factors which encompass it,
and of the effect of these modified factors upon the adjacent plants.
In the exact sense, two plants do not compete with each other as long
as the water-content and nutrition, the heat and light are in excess of
the needs of both. The moment, however, that the roots of one enter
the area from which the other draws its water supply, or the foliage
of one begins to overshade the leaves of the other, the reaction of the
former modifies unfavorably the factors controlling the latter, and
competition is at once initiated. The same relation exists throughout
the process; the stronger, taller, the more branched, or the better
rooted plant reacts upon the habitat, and the latter immediately
exerts an unfavorable effect upon the weaker, shorter, less branched,
or more poorly rooted plant. This action of plant upon habitat and of
habitat upon plant is cumulative, however. An increase in the leaf
surface of a plant not merely reduces the amount of light and heat
available for the plant near it or beneath it, but it also renders
necessary the absorption of more water and other nutritive material,
and correspondingly decreases the amount available. The inevitable
result is that the successful individual prospers more and more,
while the less successful one loses ground in the same degree. As a
consequence, the latter disappears entirely, or it is handicapped to
such an extent that it fails to produce seeds, or these are reduced in
number or vitality.
Competition in vegetation furnishes few instances as simple as the
above, but this will serve to make clear the simplest case of ordinary
competition, i. e., that in which the individuals belong to a single
species. The various individuals of one species which grow together
in a patch show relatively slight differences, in height, width, leaf
expanse, or root surface. Still, some will have the largest surfaces for
the impact of water, heat, and light, while others will have the
smallest; the majority, perhaps, will occupy different places between
the extremes. The former will receive more than their share of one or
more factors. The reaction thus produced will operate upon the
plants subject to it inversely as the amount of surface impinged
upon. The usual expression of such competition is seen in the great
variation in height, branching, etc., of the different individuals, and
in the inability of many to produce flowers. This is particularly true
of annuals, and of perennials of the same generation. In the
competition between parents and offspring of the same perennial
species, the former usually have so much the advantage that the
younger plants are often unable to thrive or even germinate, and
disappear, leaving a free space beneath and about the stronger
parents. This illustrates the primary law of competition, viz., that this
is closest when the individuals are most similar. Similar individuals
make nearly the same demands upon the habitat, and adjust
themselves least readily to their mutual reactions. The more unlike
plants are, the greater the difference in their needs, and some are
able to adjust themselves to the reactions of others with little or no
disadvantage.
In accordance with the above principles, the competition is closer
between species of like form than between those that are dissimilar.
This similarity must be one of vegetation or habitat form, not one of
systematic position. The latter is in fact of no significance, except
where there is a certain correspondence between the two. Leaf, stem,
and root characters determine the outcome, and those species most
alike in these features will be in close competition, regardless of their
taxonomic similarity or dissimilarity. This is as conclusive of the
competition between the species of the same genus as it is between
those belonging to genera of widely separated families. From this
may be deduced a second principle of competition, viz., the closeness
of the competition between the individuals of different species varies
directly with their similarity in vegetation or habitat form. This
principle is of primary importance in the competition which arises
between occupants and invaders in the different stages of succession.
Those invading species that show the greatest resemblance to
occupants in leaf, stem, and root form experience the greatest
difficulty in establishing themselves. The species, on the contrary,
which are so unlike the occupants that they come in at a clear
advantage or disadvantage, establish themselves readily, in the one
case as a result of the reaction, in the other by taking a subordinate
position. This principle lies at the base of the changes in succession
which give a peculiar stamp to each stage. A reaction sufficient to
bring about the disappearance of one stage can be produced only by
the entrance of invaders so different in form as to materially or
entirely change the impress of the formation. Stabilization results
when the entrance of invaders of such form as to exert an efficient
reaction is no longer possible. In forests, while many vegetation
forms can still enter, none of these produce a reaction sufficient to
place the trees at a disadvantage, and the ultimate forest stage,
though it may change in composition, can not be displaced by
another.
It is obvious that the vegetation forms and habitat forms of
associated species are of fundamental importance in determining the
course and result of competition. Identity of vegetation form
regularly produces close competition, and the consequent numerical
reduction or disappearance of one or more species. Dissimilarity, on
the other hand, tends to eliminate competition, and to preserve the
advantage of the superior form. Species of trees compete sharply
with each other when found together; the same is true of shrubs, or
rosettes, etc. The relation of the shrubs to the trees, or of the rosettes
to the shrubs of a formation is one of subordination rather than of
competition. The matter of height and width often enters here also to
such a degree that the tallest herbs compete with the bushes and
shrubs, and rosettes with mats or grasses. The amount and
disposition of the leaf surface are decisive factors in the competition
between species of the same vegetation form, in so far as this is
governed by light. In those plants in which the leaves are usually
erect, notably the grasses and sedges, the competition between the
aerial parts is relatively slight, and the result is determined by the
reactions of the underground stems and roots.
The position of the competing individuals is of the greatest
importance. The distance between the plants affects directly the
degree of competition, while their arrangement, whether in groups
according to species or singly, exerts a marked influence by
determining that the contest shall be between like forms, or unlike
forms. Position is controlled primarily by the relation existing
between seed-production and dissemination. It is of course
influenced in large measure by the initial position taken by the
invaders into a nudate area, but this is itself a result of the same
phenomena. The individuals of species with great seed-production
and little or no mobility usually occur in dense stands. In these, the
competition is fierce, for the two reasons of similarity and density,
and the result is that the plants fall far below the normal in height
and width. This is an extreme example of the group arrangement.
When the seed-production is small, the mobility may be great or
little without seriously affecting the result. The individuals of a
species of this kind will be scattered among those of other species,
and the closeness of competition will depend largely upon the
similarity existing between the two. The arrangement in such cases is
sparse. A species with great seed-production and great mobility
usually shows both kinds of arrangement, the position of the
individuals and the competition between them varying accordingly.
This is due to the intermittent action of distributing agents, making it
possible for the seeds to fall directly to the ground during the times
that winds, etc., are absent. The three types of arrangement indicated
above are termed gregarious, copious, and gregario-copious. They
furnish the basis for the investigation of abundance which deals
essentially with the number and arrangement of the individuals of
competing species. The effect of distance, i. e., the interval between
individuals, upon competition is fundamental. The competition
increases as the interval diminishes, and the reverse.
The view here advanced, i. e., that competition is purely physical in
nature, renders untenable the current conceptions of vegetation
pressure, occupation, etc. Masses of vegetation are thought to force
the weaker species toward the edge, thus initiating an outward or
forward pressure. As has been shown above, no such phenomenon
occurs in vegetation. This movement is nothing but simple
migration, followed by ecesis, and has no connection with “weaker”
species, or the development of a vital pressure. The direction taken
by the migrating disseminules is essentially indeterminate.
Migration seems to be outward, or away from the mass, merely
because the ecesis is greater at the edge, where the increased
dissimilarity between plant forms diminishes the competition. The
actual movement is outward, but it takes place through the normal
operation of competition. In this connection, it should be pointed out
that the common view that plants require room is inexact, if not
erroneous. This is difficult of proof, as it is impossible to distinguish
room as such from the factors normally present, light, heat, water,
and nutrient salts, but it seems obvious that the available amounts of
these will determine the space occupied by a plant, irrespective of the
room adjacent plants may allow it. The explanation of competition
upon physical grounds likewise invalidates the view that plants
possess spheres of influence other than the areas within which they
exert a demonstrable reaction upon the physical factors present.
Competition plays a very important role in alternation. It produces
minor examples of alternation in the physical units of an
asymmetrical series. Its greatest influence, however, is exerted in
modifying the effects of asymmetry. The reaction of occupants
emphasizes or reduces the effect of asymmetry, and has a
corresponding action upon alternation. This result of competition is
typical of succession, in which the sequence of stages arises from the
interaction of occupant and invader.
345. Kinds of alternation. Alternation involves two ideas, viz.,
the alternation of different species or formations with each other,
and the alternation of the same species or formation in similar but
separate situations. This is the evident result of asymmetry, in
response to which contiguous areas are dissimilar and remote ones
often similar. Individuals of the same species or examples of the
same formation may be said to alternate between two or more
similar situations, while different species or formations are said to
alternate with each other, occurring usually in situations different in
character. From the nature of alternation, the two phenomena are
invariably found together.
It is possible to distinguish three kinds of alternation: (1) of a
formation, consocies, layer, facies, or species in similar situations;
(2) of similar or corresponding formations, species, etc., in similar
situations; (3) of facies and other species with respect to number.
The last two are merely variations of the first, arising out of slight
differences in the physical factors of the alternating areas, the
adjacent flora, or the course of competition. The alternation of
different examples of the same formation is a significant feature of
greatly diversified areas, such as mountains. It is naturally much less
characteristic of lands physiographically more uniform. A xerophytic
formation will alternate from ridge to ridge, a mesophytic formation
between the intermediate valleys; aquatic vegetation will alternate
from pond to pond, or stream to stream. The appearance of new or
denuded soils upon which successions establish themselves is the
most important cause of the alternation of formations. The
weathering of rocks in different areas of the same region produces in
each a sequence of similar or identical formations. The same
statement is true in general of other causes of succession, such as
erosion, flooding, burning, cultivation, etc., wherever they operate
upon areas physically similar and surrounded by the same type of
vegetation. The areas of more or less heterogeneous formations
characterized by major physical differences are occupied by
consocies. In an extensive formation, the same consocies alternates
from one to another of these areas that are similar. When the
formation is interrupted and occurs here and there in separate
examples, a consocies often alternates from one to another of these.
A consocies regularly derives its character from the fact that one or
more of the facies of the formation is more intimately connected with
certain areas of the latter than with others. This explains why the
alternations of consocies and facies are usually identical. Layers
sometimes alternate between different examples of the same forest
or thicket formation, when they are suppressed in some by the
diffuseness of the light.
The alternation of species is a typical feature of formations; it is
absent only in those rare cases where the latter consist of a single
species. The areas of a habitat which show minor physical or
historical (i. e., competitive) differences are occupied by groups of
individuals belonging to one or more species responsive to these
differences. Each of these groups will recur in all areas essentially
similar, the intervals being occupied of course by slightly different
groups. Such groups are constituted by gregarious or copious species
of restricted adjustability. Sparse plants likewise alternate, but they
necessarily play a much less conspicuous part. In habitats not too
heterogeneous, a large number of species are sufficiently adjustable
to the slight differences so that they occur throughout the formation.
Often, to be sure, they show a characteristic response, expressed in
the size or number. This is illustrated by the facies and many of the
principal species of the prairie formation. Festuca, Koelera,
Panicum, and Andropogon occur throughout, except in the moist
ravines which are practically meadows. Astragalus, Psoralea,
Erigeron, and Aster grow everywhere on slopes and crests, but they
are much more abundant in certain situations. Other plants,
Lomatium, Meriolix, Anemone, Pentstemon, etc., recur in similar or
identical situations upon different hills. Lomatium alternates
between sandy or sandstone crests, Meriolix and Pentstemon occur
together upon dry upper slopes, while Anemone alternates between
dry slopes and crests.
Owing to the accidents of migration and competition, similar areas
within a habitat are not occupied by the same species, or group of
species. A species found in one area will be replaced in another by a
different one of the same or a different genus. The controlling factors
of the area render imperative an essential identity of vegetation and
habitat form, though in systematic position the plants may be very
diverse. Such genera and species may be termed corresponding. The
relation between such plants is essentially alternation; it should,
perhaps, be distinguished from alternation proper as corresponsive.
The prairie formation furnishes a good example of this on exposed
sandy crests, upon which Lomatium, Comandra, and Pentstemon
alternate. Formations exhibit a similar correspondence.
Fig. 74. Numerical alternation of Pinus and Pseudotsuga upon east and west
slopes.
All species that alternate show a variation in abundance from one

area to another. Frequently, the difference is slight, and may be
ignored, except in determining abundance. Very often, however, the
variation is so great that a facies may be reduced, numerically, to the
rank of a principal species, or one of the latter to a secondary species.
This phenomenon is distinguished as numerical alternation. It arises
from the fact that the similar areas are sufficiently different to affect
the abundance, without producing complete suppression. It is
probable that this result is due almost entirely to competition.
Astragalus crassicarpus grows on all the slopes of the prairie
formation, but on some it has the abundance of a facies, while on
others it is represented by a few scattered individuals. This difference
is much more striking in separate examples of the same formation,
particularly when a normal facies is reduced to the numerical value
of a secondary species. This is a matter of great importance in the
study of formations, for it has doubtless often resulted in mistaking a
consocies for a formation.
Alternation furnishes the logical basis for what may be called
comparative phytogeography. The latter is of much broader scope
than the old subject of geographical distribution, for it treats not only
of the distribution of formations and associations as well as of
species, but it also seeks to explain this by means of principles drawn
from the relation between habitat and vegetation. When the latter
come to be fully based upon physical factor investigations, and upon
the effects of migration and competition as shown in alternation, the
comparative study of formations will represent the highest type of
phytogeographical activity.
THE FORMATION IN DETAIL
346. The rank of the formation. There have been as many
different opinions in regard to the application of the term formation
as there are concerning the group which is to be called a species. In
taxonomy, however, the concept of the species is purely arbitrary,
and agreement can not be hoped for. In vegetation, on the contrary,
the connection between formation and habitat is so close that any
application of the term to a division greater or smaller than the
habitat is both illogical and unfortunate. As effect and cause, it is
inevitable that the unit of the vegetative covering, the formation,
should correspond to the unit of the earth’s surface, the habitat. This
places the formation upon a basis which can be accurately
determined. It is imperative, however, to have a clear understanding
of what constitutes the difference between habitats. A society is in
entire correspondence with the physical factors of its area, and the
same is true of the vegetation of a province. Nevertheless, many
societies usually occur in a single habitat, and a province contains
many habitats. The final test of a habitat is an efficient difference in
one or more of the direct factors, water-content, humidity, and light,
by virtue of which the plant covering differs in structure and in
species from the areas contiguous to it. A balsam-spruce forest shows
within itself certain differences of physical factors and of structure.
The water-content will range from 20–25 per cent, and the light
from .02–.003. One portion may consist chiefly of Pseudotsuga
mucronata, another of Picea engelmannii, and a third of Picea
parryana, or these species may be intermingled. If, however, this
forest is compared with the gravel slide, which touches it on one side,
and the meadow thicket, which meets it on another, the physical
factors and the species both demonstrate that it is the forest, and not
its parts, which corresponds to a distinct physical entity, the habitat.
This test of a formation is superfluous in a great many cases, where
the physiognomy of the contiguous areas is conclusive evidence of
their difference. It is evident also that remote regions which are
floristically distinct, such as the prairies and the steppes, may
possess areas physically almost identical and yet be covered by
different formations. This point is further discussed under
classification.
The existing confusion in the matter of formations is due to two
causes. The first arises from the fact that much ecological work has
been hasty. Little or no attention has been given to development, and
in consequence rudimentary and transitory stages of succession have
often been described as formations. Mixed areas in particular have
caused trouble. In the second place, there has been a marked
tendency to minimize the need of thoroughness and training by
calling every slightly different area a formation. A failure to recognize
the primary value of alternation has also contributed materially to
this. Alternating facies, and principal species, when separated from
each other, have often been mistaken for formations. This is a danger
that must be fully appreciated and guarded against. In practically all
regions, the same formation is represented by numerous scattered
areas, all showing greater or less differences arising from alternation.
This is especially true of thickly populated regions where virgin areas
are rare. The fact that twenty-five miles intervene to-day between
two small stretches of primitive prairie is permitted to unduly
emphasize their differences. It requires the study of a number of
such examples to counteract this tendency, and to cause one to see
clearly that they must have been at one time merely so many bits of
the prairie formation.
In this connection, the lichen and moss groups which are found on
rocks constitute an interesting problem. It is clear that Peltigera and
Cladonia, which grow on the forest floor, and Evernia, Ramalina,
and Physcia, which are found on the trees, are merely constituent
species of the forest formation. The same is true of Cladonia,
Urceolaria, and Parmelia, which are found among the sedges and
grasses of alpine meadows. The physical conditions are essentially
those of the formation, and the lichens themselves are more or less
peculiar to it. This is particularly true of the forest, in which the two
strata, bark and moist shaded soil, are present because of the trees.
In the case of granitic rocks, the circumstances are very different.
The species of lichens found on the rocks are not peculiar to the
formation, but they also occur elsewhere. In the forest, Parmelia,
Placodium, Physcia, Rinodina, Urceolaria, Lecanora, Lecidea, etc.,
occur on the rocks. In the alpine meadows, the rock groups are

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Determine whether or not the given function is an exponential function.

Determine if the function is a growth exponential or a decay exponential.

Graph the function.

20) f(x) = 2 ∙ 0.74x

Match the equation with its graph.

Find the function value.

33) Let f(x) = 3(1 - x). Find f(3).

Solve the problem.

Provide an appropriate response.

48) Why can't y = 2 x have an x-intercept?

50) Why is an exponential function one-to-one?

51) With the exponential function f(x) = a x, why must a ≠ 1?

56) Give a definition for the following term: Exponential function .

Write the logarithmic equation in exponential form.

62) log2 (8) = 3

63) log 10 0 = -10

65) y = log (2x)

69) 103 = 1000

70) 10-5 = 0.00001

74) log 2.81

75) log 4508

76) log 0.0743

77) log 0.00474

81) log (-17)

Find the value of the logarithm without using a calculator.

86) log 10 100

87) log (0.001)

Graph the function.

93) f(x) = log (x + 4)

95) f(x) = ln(x + 5)

Find the inverse of the function.

100) f(x) = e7x

Use the properties of logarithms to evaluate the expression.

107) log 10-12

109) Given log 2 = 0.3010 and log 3 = 0.4771, evaluate log 12 .

118) log a 8x3yz 5

Rewrite as a single logarithm.

121) 6 logq q - logq r

122) (logt t - logt s) + 5 logt u

125) 2 log 2 (2x + 5) + 6 log 2 (6x + 1)

D) log 2 ((2x + 5)2 + (6x + 1)6 )

Solve the problem.

Solve the equation.

151) 14 x = 24 Round to two decimal places.

153) 2 (x - 3) = 17 Round to three decimal places.

154) 4 (5x - 1) = 18 Round to three decimal places.

155) 2e(3x + 6) = 10 Round to three decimal places.

157) 2 (12 - 3x) = 64