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For our dear friend and colleague, John Freeman, who left us too early.
We miss you. And we thank you for all you taught us, especially to
always be true to who we are and to be kind and include everyone.
 Establishing Procedures 205
Monitoring Student Actions 206
Applying Consequences Consistently 207

Understanding and Responding to Behaviour in the Inclusive

Classroom 207

Managing Behaviour in the Inclusive Classroom 209

Increasing Appropriate Behaviour 210
Decreasing Undesirable Behaviour 210
Enhancing Self-Management 215
Positive Behavioural Supports and Classroom Management 218
Do Harsh Punishments Ensure Safe Schools? 219
Alternative Approaches to School Discipline 221

Summary 221
Key Terms 222
Challenges for Reviewing Chapter 7 222

Chapter 8 Using Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and

Differentiated Instruction (DI) 224
Introduction 227

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) 227

Universal Design (UD) in Architecture 227
Center for Applied Special Technology’s Model of UDL 228
Katz’s Three-Block Model of UDL 229

Using the ADAPT Strategy to Analyze and Differentiate

Teaching for Individuals and Groups 231
Step 1: Accounts of Students’ Strengths and Needs 232
Step 2: Demands of the Classroom on Students 233
Step 3: Adaptations 233
Step 4: Perspectives and Consequences 233
Step 5: Teach and Assess the Match 234

Choosing and Combining Strategies for

Differentiating 234
Teaching Through the Mismatch 234
Teaching Around the Mismatch 234
Teaching to Overcome the Mismatch 235
Examples and Non-Examples of DI 235
Analyzing Teaching: What You Can Adapt 235
Adapting Substance of Teaching 236
Adapting the Environment 237
Adapting Student Engagement 237

Differentiating Teaching of Listening, Reading, and

Writing 238
Building Listening Skills, Storytelling, and the Use of Environmental Print 238
Background to Differentiating Teaching of Reading 239
Differentiating to Promote Learning to Read: Phonological Processing and
Balanced Reading Programs 239
Teaching Phonics 240

CONTENTS xi
 Enhancing Fluency 240
Differentiating Reading to Learn 241
Teaching Vocabulary and Comprehension Strategies 243
Enhancing Written Expression and Facilitating Note-Taking 244

Differentiating Teaching of Mathematics 246

Number Sense 246
Computation 247
Problem Solving, Representation, Symbol Systems, and
Application 248

Differentiating Teaching in Content Areas: Science, Social

Studies and Literature, Visual Arts, Music, Drama, and
French 249
Differentiating Science 249
Differentiating Social Studies and Literature 250
Differentiating Visual Arts 253
Differentiating Music 253
Differentiating Drama 254
Differentiating French 254

Differentiating Homework 255

Summary 257
Key Terms 257
Challenges for Reviewing Chapter 8 258

Chapter 9 Differentiating Assessment and Using Assessment to

Differentiate Teaching 259
Introduction 261

Using the ADAPT Strategy for Assessment 261

Large-Scale Assessment in Canada 262

Comparison with the United States 265
Summary of Large-Scale Assessment in Canada 265

Classroom Assessment 266

Changing Conceptions of Classroom Assessment 266
Preparing Students and Parents for Equitable (but Not Necessarily the Same)
Assessment 271

Differentiating Classroom Assessment of Learning 272

Preparing Students for Classroom Tests 273
Adapting Classroom Tests During Test Construction 274
Adapting Administration of Classroom Tests 274
Adapting Scoring or Marking of Classroom Tests 276
Using Performance Assessments 277
Portfolios as Classroom Assessments 278
Adaptations and Alternatives to Report Card Marks 279

Summary 281
Key Terms 282
Challenges for Reviewing Chapter 9 282

xii CONTENTS
Chapter 10 Enhancing Social Relations 283
Introduction 285

The Importance of Social Development and Social Acceptance

to Inclusion 285
Perspectives of Exceptional Students and Their Teachers on Peer Relations 285
Perspectives of Peers on Social Relations with Exceptional Classmates 287

The Role of Friendship in Development of Well-Being 290

Elementary and Secondary Schools as Social

Environments 292
Informal Teaching: Climate and Role Models 293
Facilitating Friendships 293
Safe Schools 294
Schoolwide Approaches and Teachers’ Roles 297
Schoolwide Behaviour Management Systems 299

Using the ADAPT Strategy to Analyze Social Demands in

the Classroom: Peer Teaching, Co-operative Learning, and
Collaborative Learning 304
Peer Teaching 304
Using Co-operative and Collaborative Learning to Meet Academic and Social
Goals 305
Planning for Formal Teaching of Collaboration 305
Teaching Students to Collaborate and Co-operate 307
Challenges to Collaborative Learning 309

Summary 311
Key Terms 311
Challenges for Reviewing Chapter 10 311

Chapter 11 Enhancing Transitions for Children and Youth Identified as

Exceptional and those At-Risk 313
Introduction 316

The Importance of Transitions in the Lives of Children and

Youth 316

The Role of Advocacy and Self-Advocacy in Inclusive

Education and Transitions 317
Parent Advocacy 317
Self-Advocacy 318

Transitions During the School Day 320

Transition into School 321

Transition into Junior High School and into Secondary

School 323

Transition from School to Further Education and the

Workplace 324

CONTENTS xiii
 Helping Exceptional Students to Transition to College and University with a Focus
on Mental Health and Well-Being 324
Helping Exceptional and At-risk Students to Transition to Work 329

Career Development and Career Education for Exceptional

Individuals and Other Vulnerable Youth 330
Developing Self-Awareness and Career Awareness 330
Career Exploration 331
Why Career Development Is Critical to the Participation of Youth in the Labour
Market 332
Career Experience 333

Summary 334
Key Terms 335
Challenges for Reviewing Chapter 11 335

Conclusion Thriving as a Teacher 336

Succeeding as a Beginning Teacher 336

Being a Change Agent 337

Handling Stress and Staying Well 338

Focusing on Your Well-Being 340

Being a Teacher Who Makes a Difference 341

Glossary 343

References 355

Name Index 384

Subject Index 396

xiv CONTENTS
Preface
Preparing this edition of Inclusion of Learners with Exceptionalities in Canadian Schools
has been a new adventure. Nancy Hutchinson, who has worked on the five previous
additions alone, brought on a new co-author, Jacqueline Specht. Nancy has retired
from Queen’s University and is making the gradual movement to retire from the
book. Jacqueline was thrilled and honoured to be asked to work alongside some-
one whom she has admired for years for the integrity of her work. Jacqueline has
used many editions of the text while teaching and was up for an adventure. It has
been a humbling experience. During this process, we learned by doing background
research in areas with which we were less familiar; by discussing current issues
with colleagues, graduate students, parents, teacher candidates, and individuals with
exceptionalities. And, always, we learn by challenging our assumptions about teach-
ing children and adolescents. When we accept the challenges of teaching students
with exceptionalities in inclusive settings, we must be prepared to challenge assump-
tions about what they can and cannot do and to find new ways to help them reach
their potential. We hope this book will help you to challenge your assumptions and
to reflect critically on what it means to include ALL students in the classroom.
We are proud of Canadian approaches to inclusion and inclusive education.
However, inclusion is a journey and we must continue upon it in a global way.
Countries around the world are working towards inclusive educaton and look to
Canada’s commitment to inclusion as a model and an inspiration. Engaging in dia-
logue about the successes and failures that we see helps us to understand how best
to move forward. We are aware of the incredible challenges facing parents, educa-
tors, employers, and students in making inclusion a reality. We hope that this book
may serve as a research-based, practically-focused resource on inclusive education for
teacher educators and pre-service and in-service teachers.
We have tried to include many references to Canadians—individuals with excep-
tionalities, schools, educators, and educational researchers—including their locations
in the country. We believe it is critical that we know our history, stories, legislation,
and heroes. Perhaps we are too self-effacing—we have observed that Canadians are
among those least likely to be aware of how we lead by example in our field. We have
tried to point to the contributions of individuals such as Terry Fox and Rick Hansen,
heroes and leaders of advocacy for the disabled, and of organizations such as the Cana-
dian National Institute for the Blind, winner of national and international awards for
advocacy and service. We believe that Indigenous students, learners from diverse cul-
tures, and students at risk can benefit from inclusive environments, universal design for
learning, and differentiated teaching. We have tried to draw attention to significant
recent developments in Indigenous education especially in light of the Truth and Rec-
oncilliation Commission of Canada Call to Action. Whenever possible, we have given
Canadian examples and cited Canadian research. We hope that the extensive listings
of Canadian books, websites, and programs will help teacher candidates, teacher edu-
cators, and parents to locate our resources and our experts, of which there are many.

Perspective
For many years we have organized our pre-service and in-service teaching about
learners with exceptionalities around topics such as planning, classroom organization
xv
 and climate, and differentiating teaching and assessment—using a non-categorical
approach. We are reminded each year, as we work in the university and in schools
in our community, how much is expected of beginning teachers. If they are to
meet these expectations, we think they must begin, from the first lesson they plan,
by thinking about the range of strengths, needs, and interests of the individuals in
the class. The first question they need to ask is, “How do I use universal design
for learning and differentiated instruction to include all students?” Given the recent
emphasis on well-being, the second question they need to ask themselves is, “How
do I ensure that what I am doing contributes positively to my students’ mental health
and to my own well-being?” That is the perspective you will find in this book. We
have tried to focus on the kinds of information, skills, and strategies that recent
teacher candidates have reported they found both thought-provoking and practical,
and have included current information about mental health in every chapter. We
have tried to acknowledge the different opportunities in the elementary and second-
ary settings because, as children develop, certain needs change.

Organization
This textbook is informally divided into two main sections.
The first section provides fundamental background knowledge in the field of
exceptional education in Canada.
■■ Chapter 1 describes the current situation in Canada and provides a brief history of

how we came to be where we are. It also introduces universal design for learning and
differentiated instruction and includes a step-by-step strategy for adapting instruction,
called ADAPT, that will help teachers to meet the needs of exceptional students.
■■ Chapter 2 introduces the individual education plan, and describes the role of the

classroom teacher in the education of exceptional learners and the kinds of partner-
ships that teachers forge with parents, educational assistants, and other professionals.
■■ Chapter 3 focuses on students with learning and behaviour exceptionalities—that

is, teaching gifted students as well as students with learning disabilities, attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder, emotional and behaviour disabilities—and includes
discussion of school-based mental health.
■■ Students with intellectual disabilities (mild intellectual disabilities and develop-

mental disabilities) as well as students with autism spectrum disorder are the focus
of Chapter 4; the characteristics of these students and strategies to meet their
learning needs are discussed.
■■ Chapter 5 provides information about characteristics of and differentiated teach-

ing for students with communication exceptionalities (students with speech and
language disorders and students who are hard of hearing or deaf), physical excep-
tionalities (including vision loss, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, fetal alcohol syndrome,
and many other disabling conditions), and chronic health conditions (such as
diabetes, allergies, and asthma).
■■ Chapter 6 turns attention to equity and diversity. There are strategies for dif-

ferentiating teaching for Indigenous students; culturally diverse students; English

language learners; and students at risk for a variety of reasons, including poverty
and maltreatment.
The second section of the book presents the heart of any course on inclu-
sive practices: instructional approaches that emphasize teaching students effectively
regardless of exceptionality or other forms of diversity.

xvi P R E FA C E
 ■■ Chapter 7 focuses on the climate, organization, and management of inclusive
classrooms.
■■ Chapter 8 provides approaches to using universal design for learning and differen-
tiating teaching.
■■ Chapter 9 focuses on differentiating assessment. There are many examples repre-
senting a range of grades, exceptionalities, and teaching subjects.
■■ In Chapter 10, you will find information on enhancing social relations of excep-
tional students.
■■ Chapter 11 deals with the many transitions that challenge teachers of learners
with exceptionalities; these include transitions within the school day, the transi-
tion from early childhood education into school, and transitions between schools
and out of school into post-secondary education and the workplace.
■■ The Conclusion turns the focus from learners to those who teach them most
successfully and how they thrive on challenges and cope with stress in their
professional lives.

Features
This book offers the following features designed to help readers learn effectively:
■■ Chapter-opening vignettes serve as introductory cases to help readers relate the

chapter content to the real world of Canadian schools.

■■ Learner objectives at the beginning of each chapter point to key content within

that chapter.
■■ TED Talks and other video presentations are suggested that are related to the

main idea of the chapter.

■■ Key terms throughout the chapters appear in boldface type, and easy-to-

understand definitions often appear in the text and always appear in the Glossary
at the back of the book.
■■ Chapter summaries at the end of each chapter highlight important information in

the chapter.
■■ Margin notations are designed to stimulate critical reflection and to introduce

additional resources, including weblinks, that have been researched and tested for
quality and relevance.
■■ Focus boxes offer readers inspiring examples of Canadian schools, programs, and

educators that may serve as models.

■■ Theory and Research Highlights in Educational Psychology boxes provide a theoretical

grounding in the psychology that informs the education of exceptional students

and their inclusion in Canadian society.
■■ Challenges for Reviewing . . . features at the end of each chapter present review

questions to help students apply what they have learned in the chapter.
■■ Activities for Reviewing . . . with Your Peers features at the end of each chapter pres-

ent review questions for students to work on collaboratively with peers to apply
their learning.
■■ Annotated Bibliographies in each chapter provide brief descriptions of current resources

on school-based mental health resources relevant to the focus of the chapter.

■■ Canadian references throughout help students locate practical supports, resources,

research, curricula, people, and websites within the exceptional education com-
munity in Canada.

P R E FA C E xvii
 Highlights of This Edition
This edition has been updated to include new, cutting-edge information.
■■ Chapters 1, 8, and 9 are excellent resources for using universal design for learning

(UDL) and differentiated instruction (DI) and assessment to make classrooms wel-
coming and efficient for all learners.
■■ Chapters 3, 4, and 5 provide an extensive discussion of the spectrum of excep-

tionalities which many students experience. This discussion looks at chronic

illnesses, emotional exceptionalities, and mental health issues.
■■ Chapter 4 includes an extensive discussion of intellectual disabilities, provid-

ing in-depth information on mild and severe intellectual disabilities and autism
spectrum disorder (ASD), providing teachers with accurate descriptions of the
students’ needs, and tips for ways in which they can be successfully integrated into
classrooms settings. An added section on Functional Behavioural Assessment for
teachers will assist teachers in understanding the function of behaviour.
■■ Chapter 6 includes an extended section on education of Indigenous students and

about teaching for reconciliation in addition to a discussion of environmental

exceptionalities such as poverty, homelessness, and maltreatment.
■■ Chapter 11 focuses on transitions, one of the most challenging aspects of inclusive

education.
■■ Throughout, there is a focus on creating safe, functional environments to discour-

age bullying.
■■ NEW TEDx Talks and other video presentations are identified that are related to

the main idea of the chapter. Each short video is accompanied by a few questions
to think about in relation to the content.
■■ Throughout, there is a focus on the well-being of students and teachers; every

chapter includes one or two annotated bibliographies on school-based mental

health resources relevant to the topics in the chapter.

Acknowledgments
Many people have contributed to the completion of this project, so many that, out
of necessity, we will name only a few. First, thanks to our families—Jen, Deb, Jim,
and Sandy; Erich, Dylan, Meghan and Bette—for always supporting our need to
get the book done. To our outstanding graduate students, for their persistence in
locating elusive references and for their positive perspectives no matter how much
work was left to be done; and to our colleagues, for collaboration, stimulation, and
endless support. Specific to this edition, we thank the following instructors for their
comments and suggestions:
Jeffrey MacCormack, University of Lethbridge
Alexa Okrainec, Brandon University
Nancy Norman, University of the Fraser Valley
Jenn de Lugt, University of Regina
Laureen McIntyre, University of Saskatchewan
Mike MacDonald, University of Western Ontario
Glenda Christou, Queens University
Carla DiGiorgio, Cape Breton University
David Young, St. Francis Xavier University

xviii P R E FA C E
 Pat Harrison, University of Winnipeg
Beth Keyes, University of New Brunswick
Randy Hill, Brock University
Many, many library searches over the years of the editions of this textbook were
made easier by the generous work of Brenda Reed, an outstanding librarian in the
Queen’s Faculty of Education. Finally, many thanks to the professionals at Pearson
Canada—to Cliff Newman, who started Nancy on this odyssey two decades ago,
and to all the folks who have guided every edition since. For this edition—Nancy
and Jacqui say thank you to Katherine Goodes and Kimberley Veevers, for all your
work.
Finally, heartfelt thanks to thousands of parents, pre-service and in-service
teachers, and students–especially to those who have taken the time to contact Nancy
over the years with your suggestions and expressions of appreciation for the book.
You have been our teachers. We hope we have learned well and that this book does
justice to fine practice and your high ideals for including ALL students in Canadian
society and in Canadian classrooms.

Nancy L. Hutchinson
Queen’s University
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Jacqueline A. Specht
Western University
London, Ontario, Canada

P R E FA C E xix
 Introduction
So You Want to Be a Teacher
You may have heard educators in Canadian schools say, “I didn’t realize there would
be so many exceptional students in my classes.” Or “I wanted to teach English litera-
ture, not special education.” Allow us to begin talking directly with teachers, using
the second person “you”—so you want to be a teacher. One of the purposes of this
book is to help you become more knowledgeable about the realities of teaching
all your students. In Canada, early in the twenty-first century, being a classroom
teacher means you are certain to have students identified with exceptionalities in
your classes, and you may feel like a special education teacher some days—even if
you were hired to teach classes in advanced physics. This is because, as a country,
we have made a commitment to the inclusion and participation of persons with dis-
abilities in Canadian society. This commitment is expressed formally through federal
and provincial legislation and has been supported by many court decisions. Although
you and your teaching colleagues were not consulted individually about inclusion,
all Canadian citizens have repeatedly participated in this decision—through elec-
tions, public debates, polls, and research.
The polls and research studies suggest that Canadians support inclusion, but
individuals who must fulfil these expectations, whether they are employers or teach-
ers, report that they need guidance and support. They repeatedly express that, while
they want to treat everyone fairly, they simply don’t know enough about disabilities
and about the changes that must be made in schools, workplaces, and society.
Our intent in writing this book has been to help you and your fellow educators
to access the information you need to be confident and competent when you teach
in inclusive classrooms. Research has shown that when regular classroom teachers
use differentiated teaching practices within inclusive classes, the result is increased
achievement for typical students, low achievers, and students with disabilities. These
studies are cited throughout this book. The differentiated teaching practices used in
these studies included guided inquiry, group work, monitoring and facilitating student
thinking, and recursive opportunities for students to develop and refine investigative
processes. Actions that you can take to differentiate instruction include attending to
the dynamics of students working effectively with peers; conferencing with students
about how they are thinking and why they are making specific decisions; provid-
ing a variety of presentation and practise opportunities for students so they have
choices; and accepting multiple methods for students to show what they know. A
number of studies that you will learn about in upcoming chapters point to the same
conclusion: the teaching approaches used to increase the learning of students with
exceptionalities—universal design for learning and differentiated instruction—also
increase the learning of students who are low achievers, average achievers, or gifted.
These teaching approaches represent a paradigm shift, from educators’ belief
that “one size fits all,” to ensuring that variety and flexibility for diverse learners are
built into instructional design, delivery, and assessment. No one would say that such
approaches are without dilemmas or that we have all the research we need to inform
our teaching decisions. However, many researchers are focused intently on advanc-
ing our understanding of the issues associated with these approaches to teaching.

xx
You are joining the profession at an exciting time for advances in practice and in
research in the field of inclusion.

The Role of Classroom Teachers

As you have probably already deduced, schools and classroom teachers have a pivotal
role in the creation of an inclusive society. First, unlike other institutions, schools
are legally responsible for preparing children and adolescents with disabilities to par-
ticipate meaningfully as educated adults in a democratic society. This means that as
teachers we are expected to teach ALL children and adolescents knowledge and skills
in ways that are meaningful to them. In recent years, we have adopted policies in
every jurisdiction in Canada that reflect our commitment to carrying out this teach-
ing in regular classrooms alongside peers without exceptionalities whenever possible.
(This topic is explored fully in Chapter 1.) Second, schools have a legislated respon-
sibility to prepare all children and adolescents to participate in an inclusive society
and to accept individuals with disabilities as peers, co-workers, employees, employ-
ers, and so forth. This responsibility follows from one of the primary purposes of
public education: preparing citizens to live in the democratic society that we have
shaped, with its values, laws, and high expectations for participation. This means that
Canadian educators, educational researchers, and policy-makers have to direct their
efforts to understanding and reconciling these potentially conflicting responsibilities.
As the discussion below suggests, it is impossible to hold dialogues in Canada about
inclusive education without acknowledging and matching the extensive efforts of
other institutions to include persons with disabilities.
While teachers are central to the Canadian project of inclusion, it is important
for you as an individual teacher to remember that you are neither the cause of nor
the solution to all of the problems that arise in your classroom. You can come to
feel overwhelmed by guilt about your inability to be all things to all people. Crucial
to your survival is judicious and frequent use of the resources provided to support
classroom teachers and their students, the focus of much of this book. You also need
to think about your advancement as inseparable from the advancement of the collec-
tive of educators in your school, your school district, and your province or territory.
Both seeing yourself as part of a collective and learning to collaborate are essential to
your effectiveness and to your well-being as an inclusive educator.

The Place of Inclusion in

Canadian Society
In Canada, inclusive education is an issue within the context of Canadian society, not
just within the context of Canadian schools. In 1982, the Canadian constitution was
patriated from Britain. At that time, we adopted the Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms, which has influenced every aspect of our society. The Charter guarantees
rights for minorities and specifically names persons with disabilities. The Charter not
only guarantees rights but also specifies responsibilities of the Canadian government,
of provincial governments, and of institutions to ensure that these rights are attained
and maintained. This means that in Canada, inclusion is closely related to equity:
inclusion of exceptional persons follows from our commitment to equitable treat-
ment guaranteed in the Charter.

I N T RO D U C T I O N xxi
 Inclusive Schools
Inclusive schools are a natural part of inclusive society, and equitable treatment of
students regardless of ability is closely related to equitable treatment of students
regardless of gender, race, and so on. In Canada, if we choose to teach, we are choos-
ing to teach in inclusive settings.

Dilemmas in Inclusive Schools

We are sure you are aware that dilemmas are a constant and pressing feature of teach-
ers’ lives. Rarely do we get through a day, let alone a week, of inclusive teaching
without confronting some kind of a dilemma. Many of these may look, at first
analysis, like they only involve decisions about teaching methods. However, upon
critical examination, they frequently turn out to have implicit ethical dimensions.
Do you allow a student’s insensitive comment to a classmate to go unanswered?
How do you maintain your commitment to every student participating in hands-on
learning when some can only complete the activities with a lot of assistance? How
much differentiation of assessment is fair, and why is it easier for people to accept
these changes for students who are blind than for students with learning disabilities?
The reality is that we live on the horns of complex ethical dilemmas every day of our
teaching lives and that these dilemmas are only intensified by our commitment in
Canada to an inclusive society and inclusive classrooms.

Becoming a Teacher
Throughout this book you will hear the voices of students, their parents, and teach-
ers who are working together to enhance the learning experiences of students with
exceptionalities in regular classrooms. We hope that their words will strengthen and
inspire you to use all your available resources to meet the challenges of inclusive
teaching. Teaching is an awesome career. Welcome! We’ve been waiting for you.

xxii I N T RO D U C T I O N
 CHAPTER 1
Inclusive Education: The Canadian
Experience
LEARNER OBJECTIVES
After you have read this chapter,
you will be able to:
1. Describe the current state
of social inclusion in Cana-
dian society.
2. Describe the current state
of inclusive education for
students with exception-
alities in Canada.
3. Discuss the concepts of
universal design for learn-
ing (UDL), differentiated
instruction (DI), and prog-
ress monitoring, including
Racorn/Shutterstock
response to interven-
tion (RTI), and how they
are used in inclusive
education.
4. Trace highlights in the

G
development of inclusive
URJIT IS A BRIGHT AND ARTICULATE GIRL IN GRADE 3 WHO WAS IDENTIFIED AS
education in Canada.
GIFTED IN GRADE 1. On the first day of the social studies unit about Canada,
5. Describe briefly various
Gurjit answered all of Ms. Wang’s questions about the provinces. She asked exceptionalities that are
questions the teacher had not thought of, especially about Nunavut, which became identified across Canada.
a separate territory on 1 April 1999. In a bored voice, Gurjit asked how long they 6. Discuss what it means
would have to “do Canada.” Gurjit read reference books independently, surfed the to differentiate teaching
Internet on her family’s computer, and wrote pages while most of her classmates and classrooms to meet
penned a few sentences. Gurjit had already met the unit’s outcomes and needed a the needs of learners,
challenge. The next day, Ms. Wang assigned a province or territory to each group and describe the steps
of a strategy for adapting
of students. She challenged Gurjit to research the human and physical geography of
teaching to include learn-
Nunavut and to work closely with the small group who were focusing on the adja- ers with exceptionalities.
cent Northwest Territories. Gurjit found information about Nunavut on the Web, and
contributed many ideas to the small group about life in the Northwest Territories.
While the rest of the class prepared booklets about their provinces, Gurjit developed activities
for her classmates to complete at a centre on Nunavut, which remained available to the class
for the next two months.
BEN HAS A LEARNING DISABILITY THAT WAS IDENTIFIED IN GRADE 9. His grade 9 teachers said
he rarely handed in assignments or contributed to class discussions, but when he did speak he
had good ideas. Ben was often late for classes and forgot his books. His report card comments
included, “Could work harder” and “Ben is disorganized.” An assessment showed that Ben’s reading
comprehension was below grade level. He skipped over words he didn’t understand and could
not answer interpretive questions. At Ben’s request and with the approval of his teachers, Ben
transferred from the academic to the applied stream at the beginning of grade 10. The resource
teacher, who then began to work with Ben and his teachers, focused on organizational strategies.
She showed him how to use an agenda book to keep track of activities, classes, and assignments,
and how to break an assignment into parts and set a date for the completion of each part.
The resource teacher also taught Ben to use the RAP strategy—Read, Ask yourself questions,
Paraphrase—for comprehending one paragraph at a time. She encouraged Ben’s teachers to
make adaptations, that is, to differentiate their teaching. One teacher used a paired reading
strategy, another taught RAP to the entire class, and the chemistry teacher adopted occasional
open-book tests. Ben passed all his applied courses in grade 10 but says that the courses were
too easy. Now he wants to return to the academic stream.

1. Why are both Gurjit and Ben considered students with exceptionalities?

2. How common do you think it is to teach a student like Gurjit or Ben in your
classroom?

3. What should teachers be expected to do to meet the learning needs of students

like Gurjit and Ben?

4. What expectations might Gurjit have after engaging in the enriched experience about
Nunavut, while her classmates completed more traditional projects?

5. How do you think Ben’s teachers and parents should respond to his request to return
to the academic stream?
Introduction
As a classroom teacher, you will find students like Gurjit and Ben in every class you
teach, because learning disabilities and giftedness are common exceptionalities. Occa- WATCH: TEDx Talks for
Chapter 1
sionally, you will teach students with less common exceptionalities, perhaps students
who are deaf or blind. This book will prepare you to include all students in the life Disabling Segregation
and learning of your classroom. You will find that kids such as Gurjit and Ben are Dan Habib
like other students in most ways: first, they are children or adolescents; second, they https://www.youtube.com/
have exceptionalities. watch?v=izkN5vLbnw8

This chapter introduces you to the context in which we educate students with Dan has a son named Samuel
who has Cerebral Palsy. Lis-
exceptionalities: the current state of inclusion of persons with disabilities and of inclu-
ten as Dan discusses his jour-
sive education, policies across the country, and historical and legal roots. We discuss ney as a dad of a son with a
how instructors can help students to reach their potential, using universal design for disability and how his think-
learning and differentiated instruction. The chapter includes brief descriptions of ing on inclusion has changed
exceptionalities and closes by introducing a strategy for differentiating or adapting over his lifetime. What are
your thoughts on inclusion
teaching to include learners with exceptionalities: ADAPT.
versus segregation for people
with disabilities?
How I Fail at Being Disabled
Exceptional Education in Canada Susan Robinson
https://www.ted.com/talks/
In Canada, students with exceptionalities include both pupils who are gifted and those
susan_robinson_how_i_fail_
who have disabilities. These students are entitled to special education programming at_being_disabled
which is founded on the belief that all children can learn and reach their full potential Susan discusses the hidden
given opportunity, effective teaching, and appropriate resources (https://education. biases that exist surround-
alberta.ca/media/1626539/standardsforspecialeducation.pdf). Many provinces use two ing disability. Have you had
terms to describe these changes: accommodations (changes to how a student is taught) a time when you displayed
and modifications (changes to what a student is taught). Increasingly, to ensure inclu- such biases or saw someone
else do so? What changes
sion, teachers use universal design and plan proactively to meet the needs of all their
would result in education if
students, including those who need special education programming (Robinson, 2015). we did not have such biases?
Accommodations include alternative formats (e.g., Braille or audio books),
Under the Table: The
instructional strategies (e.g., use of interpreters, visual cues, cognitive strategy instruc- Importance of Presuming
tion), and changes to assessment (e.g., highlighting the important words in a question Competence
on a test). Modifications are changes made to the grade-level expectations (or out- Shelly Moore
comes) for a subject or course to meet a student’s learning needs. These changes to out- https://www.youtube.com/
comes draw on outcomes from a different grade level in the curriculum, or increase watch?v=AGptAXTV7m0
or decrease the number and complexity of the regular grade-level curriculum expec- Shelly provides an experience
she had as a new teacher
tations. Gifted grade 3 students may have modifications that include outcomes from
and how it taught her the
the grade 5 math curriculum. A third type of adaptations, alternative expectations, importance of not thinking
focus on the development of skills in areas not represented in the curriculum, such that a student could not do
as mobility training for students who are blind and anger management for students something. How might your
experiencing mental health challenges. teaching be different if you
You will need to become familiar with your provincial and school district docu- presume competence rather
than incompetence?
ments about exceptional students because, since Confederation, provinces have had the
authority to pass laws about education. These laws must be consistent with the Constitu-
tion Act, which contains the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (Government of
Canada, 1982; www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/rfc-dlc/ccrf-ccdl/index.html). The equality
rights that apply to education are contained in section 15(1): “Every individual is equal
before and under the law and has the right to the equal protection and equal benefit
of the law without discrimination and, in particular, without discrimination based on
race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability.”
C H A P T E R 1 I n clu s i v e E ducati o n : T he C a n adia n E x perie n ce 3
 @ Canada: Inclusive Society, Inclusive Schools
Web lin ks
SNOW (SPECIAL NEEDS
OPPORTUNITY WINDOWS):
EDUCATION, ACCESS, AND YOU
http://snow.idrc.ocad.ca
COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL
CHILDREN
www.cec.sped.org
PUBLIC HEALTH AGENCY OF CANADA
www.publichealth.gc.ca
@ was proclaimed the International Year of Disabled Persons, causing heightened aware-
Web lin ks
CANADIAN CHARTER OF RIGHTS
AND FREEDOMS
www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/
rfc-dlc/ccrf-ccdl
CANADIAN MUSEUM FOR HUMAN
RIGHTS TEACHER RESOURCES
https://humanrights.ca/search/
site/ctfdb
IMAGINEACTION: CANADIAN
TEACHERS’ FEDERATION
www.imagine-action.ca/hr-dp
Eric Hayes
Activists with intellectual disabilities at the People First Conference. In 1981, ument includes a vision: “Persons with dis-
people who were blind and people with physical disabilities and intellectual
disabilities held conferences and rallied on Parliament Hill demanding equality.
4 I N C L U S I O N O F L E A R N E R S W I T H E XC E P T I O N A L I T I E S I N C A N A D I A N S C H O O L S
Participating in all facets of society, including educational institutions, is a fundamen-
tal right of all Canadians. Many developments worldwide contributed to Canada’s
adoption of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982. For example, all
members of the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
in 1948. Education was one of the fundamental human rights listed in the Declara-
tion; however, there was no mention of people with disabilities. In 1975, the United
Nations declared that disabled persons had the same rights as other people (including
community living, education, work, voting, etc.) in the Declaration of the Rights of
Disabled Persons. The Canadian Human Rights Act of 1977 states that no one should
be discriminated against for reasons of physical or mental ability. Subsequently, 1981
ness of disabilities and enhancing the self-advocacy of people with disabilities. That
year, the Canadian parliament was debating the terms of the Canadian Charter of Rights
and Freedoms. When people with disabilities were not named in an early draft of the
Charter, they protested on Parliament Hill and got their story into the newspaper
headlines and Maclean’s magazine. The result was that when the Charter was passed,
Canada became one of the first countries to guarantee rights to people with disabili-
ties in its constitution.
The United Nations continued to champion the rights of persons with disabili-
ties, and in 1993 it adopted the Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities
for Persons with Disabilities, targeting eight areas for equal participation, including
education.
On 13 December 2006, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabili-
ties was adopted by the United Nations; it came into force on 3 April 2008, after it
had received its twentieth ratification. The United Nations has described the Conven-
tion as a paradigm shift in attitudes and approaches to persons with disabilities because
it views them as “subjects” with rights who are capable of claiming those rights and
making decisions for their lives based on their free and informed consent as well as
being active members of society. The Convention clarifies how all categories of rights
apply to persons with all types of disabilities and identifies areas where adaptations
have to be made so persons with disabilities
can exercise their rights. For more information
on the Convention, visit https://www.un.org/
development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-
the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html.
Canada’s policy on persons with disabili-
ties emphasizes inclusion. In 2013, the federal,
provincial, and territorial ministers responsible
for social services (except the minister from
Québec) released a document titled In Uni-
son: A Canadian Approach to Disability (on the
website of the Council of Canadians with Dis-
abilities; www.ccdonline.ca/en/socialpolicy/
poverty-citizenship/income-security-reform/
in-unison#sec-canadian-approach). The doc-
abilities participate as full citizens in all aspects
of Canadian society. The full participation of
persons with disabilities requires the commitment of all segments of society.” However,
our aspirations for inclusion still outstrip our accomplishments. And as educators, we
have an important role: schools prepare the next generation to honour our national
What do you think?
commitment to inclusion of persons with disabilities in all aspects of Canadian society.
As you read this text, search
for current news articles
The Current State of Inclusive Education on issues related to social
inclusion in Canadian
for Exceptional Students: Universal society. Discuss with your
peers the progress we have
Design for Learning and Differentiated made as a country and
what we can do in our role
Instruction as educators to advance
inclusion in Canada, so
It is challenging for us as educators to consider the implications of broad social all people are valued
movements for the policies and procedures that guide our work with learners with participants in our society.
exceptionalities. As you think about the expectations our society holds for inclusive
education, for students with disabilities and gifted students learning the same con-
tent as their typical peers, you may be asking yourself how this can be accomplished
effectively. It is clear that more research needs to be conducted in regular classrooms,
research that focuses on how to include students with exceptionalities successfully
while teaching all the other students. And you will experience dilemmas of practice
as you learn your role as an inclusive educator and have to make decisions about how
to teach. Inclusive education in our schools means that students who require special
education programming receive it, but rather than bringing the student to the ser-
vices, we bring the services to the student.
Three concepts that are receiving increasing attention will help you to ensure
“education for all.” This phrase served as the title of a 2005 report in Ontario that
introduced these three concepts to teachers. These concepts are universal design for
learning (UDL), differentiated instruction (DI), and progress monitoring (with one
specific form called response to intervention (RTI)).

Universal Design for Learning and

Differentiated Instruction
Universal design for learning (UDL) was inspired by work in architecture on
designing buildings, right from the start of the design process, that can be accessed
by all people, including those with physical disabilities. This eliminates the need for
retrofitting when a person with accessibility needs arrives; for example, the build-
ing already has ramps and wide doorways to accommodate wheelchairs. As it turns
out, wide doorways and ramps are advantageous for many people, not just for those
with physical disabilities. UDL involves a set of principles for developing curricu-
lum and teaching that give all students equal opportunity to learn. As per Burgstahler
and Chang (2009) and Katz (2012), here are eight guidelines for planning teaching
and activities that will be accessible for all:
1. Adopt practices that value diversity and inclusiveness to create a positive climate.
2. Communicate so everyone can understand to enhance interactions among students
and between students and the teacher.
3. Make the physical environment safe for everyone and its products available to all.
4. Communicate high expectations and provide a high level of support for all.
5. Vary instructional methods so learning is accessible in many ways.
C H A P T E R 1 I n c l u s i v e E d u cati o n : T he C a n a d ia n E x perie n ce 5

What do you think?
Read two of the following
Canadian resources and
contrast their perspectives
on disabilities. Think about
why we need a range of per-
spectives to fully understand
the experience of life with a
disability and to understand
how to ensure valued recog-
nition and social inclusion
for individuals with dis-
abilities. Talk with your peers
about your differing points
of view.
Tichkosky, T. (2011). The
question of access: Disability,
space, meaning. Toronto, ON:
University of Toronto Press.
Bendall, L. (2008). Raising
a kid with special needs: The
complete Canadian guide.
Toronto, ON: Key Porter
Books.
Prince, M.J. (2009). Absent
citizens: Disability politics and
policy in Canada. Toronto, ON:
University of Toronto Press
(Google eBook).
A Vision Paper Federal/
Provincial/Territorial Minis-
ters Responsible for Social
Services SP-113-10-98E.
(2013). In unison: A Cana-
dian approach to disability
issues. Retrieved at www.
ccdonline.ca/en/socialpo-
licy/poverty-citizenship/
income-security-reform/
in-unison#sec-canadian-
approach (website of
Council of Canadians with
Disabilities).
6 I N C L U S I O N O F L E A R N E R S W I T H E XC E P T I O N A L I T I E S I N C A N A D I A N S C H O O L S
6. Make course materials and technology engaging and flexible so they can be under-
stood by all.
7. Provide specific feedback frequently.
8. Assess student progress frequently and flexibly so everyone can show what they
know.
In her book Teaching to Diversity, Jennifer Katz of the University of British
Columbia (2012) considers UDL to be an overarching concept composed of three
main blocks that are all essential to making inclusion work. The most fundamental
block is social and emotional learning, which demands that we develop compassionate
learning communities. The role of teachers in social-emotional learning of students
is the theme of the annotated bibliography in Figure 1.1. Students’ social-emotional
well-being is the focus of Chapters 7 and 10 and a recurring theme in this book.
The second block is inclusive instructional practice, and is often called differentiated
instruction and differentiated assessment, which is the focus of Chapters 8 and 9.
The third block in Katz’s three-block model focuses on systems and structures, from
policy to planning teams. Many of these administrative aspects essential for inclusive
education have been introduced in this chapter and are elaborated in Chapter 2.
Rather than developing a unit and making changes after the fact for students with
exceptionalities, English language learners (ELL), or students from diverse cultures,
UDL encourages teachers to plan from the beginning to provide means and pedagogi-
cal materials that meet the needs of all students. Of the three blocks in Katz’s model,
the one that generally receives the most attention is block two, which she identifies
as inclusive instructional practice.
Differentiated instruction (DI) acknowledges that students differ in many
important ways that contribute to learning in our classrooms: interests, strengths, needs,
modalities on which they rely (especially students with vision or hearing loss), current
level of knowledge, level of functioning, ability to read fluently, ability to use visual arts
to express their understanding of the world, and many others. While UDL can be seen
to operate at the overarching level, DI helps teachers to make decisions at the student
level to address specific characteristics, experiences, backgrounds, skills, and difficulties.
The aspects of teaching that teachers can differentiate are often described as content,
process, and product (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2013; Tomlinson, 2017). You
will learn throughout this text about using such strategies as tiered assignments (created
at varying levels of difficulty), small-group instruction in which intensity is increased,
learning centres at which students can engage with a range of tasks, and varied pacing
(Chappuis, 2014). Katz (2012) describes planning for an entire school year and provides
many examples of how the three blocks, including the block on inclusive instructional
practices, can be used together to ensure that UDL is implemented effectively. Strat-
egies for making DI work in your classroom will be our focus in Chapter 8. As an
introduction, we offer the following ten principles that are often used to guide DI:
1. Use respectful tasks; consider the perspective of all students.
2. Make groupings flexible, purposeful, and short-term.
3. Use heterogeneous groupings.
4. Choose multi-level texts so everyone is reading something they understand.
5. Offer varied response formats that enable everyone to respond meaningfully and
offer choice.
6. Demonstrate how students can make connections between what they know and
what they are learning.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
would unquestionably be soon absorbed, while the ultimate result
might be the partition of all South America between the
various European Powers. …

"The people of the United States have learned in the school of

experience to what extent the relations of States to each
other depend not upon sentiment nor principle, but upon
selfish interest. They will not soon forget that, in their
hour of distress, all their anxieties and burdens were
aggravated by the possibility of demonstrations against their
national life on the part of Powers with whom they had long
maintained the most harmonious relations. They have yet in
mind that France seized upon the apparent opportunity of our
Civil War to set up a Monarchy in the adjoining State of
Mexico. They realize that, had France and Great Britain held
important South American possessions to work from and to
benefit, the temptation to destroy the predominance of the
Great Republic in this hemisphere by furthering its
dismemberment might have been irresistible. From that grave
peril they have been saved in the past, and may be saved again
in the future, through the operation of the sure but silent
force of the doctrine proclaimed by President Monroe. …

"There is, then, a doctrine of American public law, well

founded in principle and abundantly sanctioned by precedent,
which entitles and requires the United States to treat as an
injury to itself the forcible assumption by an European Power
of political control over an American State. The application
of the doctrine to the boundary dispute between Great Britain
and Venezuela remains to be made, and presents no real
difficulty. Though the dispute relates to a boundary-line,
yet, as it is between States, it necessarily imports political
control to be lost by one party and gained by the other. The
political control at stake, too, is of no mean importance, but
concerns a domain of great extent—the British claim, it will
be remembered, apparently expanding in two years some 33,000
square miles—and, if it also directly involves the command of
the mouth of the Orinoco, is of immense consequence in
connection with the whole river navigation of the interior of
South America. It has been intimated, indeed, that in respect
of these South American possessions, Great Britain is herself
an American State like any other, so that a controversy
between her and Venezuela is to be settled between themselves
as if it were between Venezuela and Brazil, or between
Venezuela and Colombia, and does not call for or justify
United States intervention. If this view be tenable at all,
the logical sequence is plain. Great Britain as a South
American State is to be entirely differentiated from Great
Britain generally; and if the boundary question cannot be
settled otherwise than by force, British Guiana with her own
independent resources, and not those of the British Empire,
should be left to settle the matter with Venezuela—an
arrangement which very possibly Venezuela might not object to.
But the proposition that an European Power with an American
dependency is for the purposes of the Monroe doctrine to be
classed not as an European but as an American State will not
admit of serious discussion. If it were to be adopted, the
Monroe doctrine would be too valueless to be worth asserting.
…

"The declaration of the Monroe Message—that existing Colonies

or dependencies of an European Power would not be interfered
with by the United States—means Colonies or dependencies then
existing with their limits as then existing. So it has been
invariably construed, and so it must continue to be construed,
unless it is to be deprived of all vital force. Great Britain
cannot be deemed a South American State within the purview of
the Monroe doctrine, nor, if she is appropriating Venezuelan
territory, is it material that she does so by advancing the
frontier of an old Colony instead of by the planting of a new
Colony. The difference is matter of form, and not of
substance, and the doctrine if pertinent in the one case must
be in the other also. It is not admitted, however, and
therefore cannot be assumed, that Great Britain is in fact
usurping dominion over Venezuelan territory. While Venezuela
charges such usurpation Great Britain denies it, and the
United States, until the merits are authoritatively
ascertained, can take sides with neither. But while this is
so—while the United States may not, under existing
circumstances at least, take upon itself to say which of the
two parties is right and which wrong—it is certainly within
its right to demand that the truth shall be ascertained. …

"It being clear, therefore, that the United States may

legitimately insist upon the merits of the boundary question
being determined, it is equally clear that there is but one
feasible mode of determining them, viz., peaceful arbitration.
The impracticability of any conventional adjustment has been
often and thoroughly demonstrated. Even more impossible of
consideration is an appeal to arms—a mode of settling national
pretensions unhappily not yet wholly obsolete. If, however, it
were not condemnable as a relic of barbarism and a crime in
itself, so one-sided a contest could not be invited nor even
accepted by Great Britain without distinct disparagement to
her character as a civilized State. Great Britain, however,
assumes no such attitude. On the contrary, she both admits
that there is a controversy, and that arbitration should be
resorted to for its adjustment. But, while up to that point
her attitude leaves nothing to be desired, its practical
effect is completely nullified by her insistence that the
submission shall cover but a part of the controversy—that, as
a condition of arbitrating her right to a part of the disputed
territory, the remainder shall be turned over to her. If it
were possible to point to a boundary which both parties had
ever agreed or assumed to be such either expressly or tacitly,
the demand that territory conceded by such line to British Guiana
should be held not to be in dispute might rest upon a
reasonable basis. But there is no such line. The territory
which Great Britain insists shall be ceded to her as a
condition of arbitrating her claim to other territory has
never been admitted to belong to her.
{687}
It has always and consistently been claimed by Venezuela. Upon
what principle—except her feebleness as a nation—is she to be
denied the right of having the claim heard and passed upon by
an impartial Tribunal? No reason or shadow of reason appears
in all the voluminous literature of the subject. …

"In these circumstances, the duty of the President appears to

him unmistakable and imperative. Great Britain's assertion of
title to the disputed territory, combined with her refusal to
have that title investigated, being a substantial
appropriation of the territory to her own use, not to protest
and give warning that the transaction will be regarded as
injurious to the interests of the people of the United States,
as well as oppressive in itself, would be to ignore an
established policy with which the honour and welfare of this
country are closely identified. While the measures necessary
or proper for the vindication of that policy are to be
determined by another branch of the Government, it is clearly
for the Executive to leave nothing undone which may tend to
render such determination unnecessary. You are instructed,
therefore, to present the foregoing views to Lord Salisbury by
reading to him this communication (leaving with him a copy
should he so desire), and to reinforce them by such pertinent
considerations as will doubtless occur to you. They call for a
definite decision upon the point whether Great Britain will
consent or will decline to submit the Venezuelan boundary
question in its entirety to impartial arbitration. It is the
earnest hope of the President that the conclusion will be on
the side of arbitration, and that Great Britain will add one
more to the conspicuous precedents she has already furnished
in favour of that wise and just mode of adjusting
international disputes. If he is to be disappointed in that
hope, however—a result not to be anticipated, and in his
judgment calculated to greatly embarrass the future relations
between this country and Great Britain—it is his wish to be
made acquainted with the fact at such early date as will
 enable him to lay the whole subject before Congress in his
next Annual Message."

Great Britain, Parliamentary Publications

(Papers by Command:
United States Number 1, 1896, pages 13-21).

VENEZUELA: A. D. 1895 (November).

The British Guiana boundary question.
Replies of Lord Salisbury to Secretary Olney.

The reply of Lord Salisbury was not written until the 26th of
November. It was then given in two despatches, bearing the
same date,—one devoted entirely to a discussion of "the Monroe
doctrine" and of the argument founded on it by Mr. Olney; the
other to a rehearsal of the Venezuela controversy from the
standpoint of the British government. In the communication
first mentioned he wrote:

"The contentions set forth by Mr. Olney in this part of his

despatch are represented by him as being an application of the
political maxims which are well known in American discussion
under the name of the Monroe doctrine. As far as I am aware,
this doctrine has never been before advanced on behalf of the
United States in any written communication addressed to the
Government of another nation; but it has been generally
adopted and assumed as true by many eminent writers and
politicians in the United States. It is said to have largely
influenced the Government of that country in the conduct of
its foreign affairs; though Mr. Clayton, who was Secretary of
State under President Taylor, expressly stated that that
Administration had in no way adopted it. But during the period
that has elapsed since the Message of President Monroe was
delivered in 1823, the doctrine has undergone a very notable
development, and the aspect which it now presents in the hands
of Mr. Olney differs widely from its character when it first
issued from the pen of its author. The two propositions which
in effect President Monroe laid down were, first, that America
was no longer to be looked upon as a field for European
colonization; and, secondly, that Europe must not attempt to
extend its political system to America, or to control the
political condition of any of the American communities who had
recently declared their independence. The dangers against
which President Monroe thought it right to guard were not as
imaginary as they would seem at the present day. … The system
of which he speaks, and of which he so resolutely deprecates
the application to the American Continent, was the system then
adopted by certain powerful States upon the Continent of
Europe of combining to prevent by force of arms the adoption
in other countries of political institutions which they
disliked, and to uphold by external pressure those which they
approved. … The dangers which were apprehended by President
Monroe have no relation to the state of things in which we
live at the present day. … It is intelligible that Mr. Olney
should invoke, in defence of the views on which he is now
insisting, an authority which enjoys so high a popularity with
his own fellow-countrymen. But the circumstances with which
President Monroe was dealing, and those to which the present
American Government is addressing itself, have very few
features in common. Great Britain is imposing no 'system' upon
Venezuela, and is not concerning herself in any way with the
nature of the political institutions under which the
Venezuelans may prefer to live. But the British Empire and the
Republic of Venezuela are neighbours, and they have differed
for some time past, and continue to differ, as to the line by
which their dominions are separated. It is a controversy with
which the United States have no apparent practical concern. It
is difficult, indeed, to see how it can materially affect any
State or community outside those primarily interested, except
perhaps other parts of Her Majesty's dominions, such as
Trinidad. The disputed frontier of Venezuela has nothing to do
with any of the questions dealt with by President Monroe. It is
not a question of the colonization by a European Power of any
portion of America. It is not a question of the imposition
 upon the communities of South America of any system of
government devised in Europe. It is simply the determination
of the frontier of a British possession which belonged to the
Throne of England long before the Republic of Venezuela came
into existence.

{688}

"But even if the interests of Venezuela were so far linked to

those of the United States as to give to the latter a 'locus
standi' in this controversy, their Government apparently have
not formed, and certainly do not express, any opinion upon the
actual merits of the dispute. The Government of the United States
do not say that Great Britain, or that Venezuela, is in the
right in the matters that are in issue. But they lay down that
the doctrine of President Monroe, when he opposed the
imposition of European systems, or the renewal of European
colonization, confers upon them the right of demanding that
when a European Power has a frontier difference with a South
American community, the European Power shall consent to refer
that controversy to arbitration; and Mr. Olney states that
unless Her Majesty's Government accede to this demand, it will
'greatly embarrass the future relations between Great Britain
and the United States.' Whatever may be the authority of the
doctrine laid down by President Monroe, there is nothing in
his language to show that he ever thought of claiming this
novel prerogative for the United States. … I will not now
enter into a discussion of the merits of this method of
terminating international differences. It has proved itself
valuable in many cases; but it is not free from defects, which
often operate as a serious drawback on its value. It is not
always easy to find an Arbitrator who is competent, and who,
at the same time, is wholly free from bias; and the task of
insuring compliance with the Award when it is made is not
exempt from difficulty. …

"In the remarks which I have made, I have argued on the theory
that the Monroe doctrine in itself is sound. I must not,
however, be understood as expressing any acceptance of it on
the part of Her Majesty's Government. It must always be
mentioned with respect, on account of the distinguished
statesman to whom it is due, and the great nation who have
generally adopted it. But international law is founded on the
general consent of nations; and no statesman, however eminent,
and no nation, however powerful, are competent to insert into
the code of international law a novel principle which was
never recognized before, and which has not since been accepted
by the Government of any other country. … Though the language
of President Monroe is directed to the attainment of objects
which most Englishmen would agree to be salutary, it is
impossible to admit that they have been inscribed by any
adequate authority in the code of international law; and the
danger which such admission would involve is sufficiently
exhibited both by the strange development which the doctrine
has received at Mr. Olney's hands, and the arguments by which
it is supported, in the despatch under reply. In defence of it
he says: 'That distance and 3,000 miles of intervening ocean
make any permanent political union between a European and an
American State unnatural and inexpedient will hardly be
denied. But physical and geographical considerations are the
least of the objections to such a union. Europe has a set of
primary interests which are peculiar to herself; America is
not interested in them, and ought not to be vexed or
complicated with them.' … The necessary meaning of these words
is that the union between Great Britain and Canada; between
Great Britain and Jamaica and Trinidad; between Great Britain
and British Honduras or British Guiana are 'inexpedient and
unnatural.' President Monroe disclaims any such inference from
his doctrine; but in this, as in other respects, Mr. Olney
develops it. He lays down that the inexpedient and unnatural
character of the union between a European and American State
is so obvious that it 'will hardly be denied.' Her Majesty's
Government are prepared emphatically to deny it on behalf of
both the British and American people who are subject to her
Crown."

In his second despatch, Lord Salisbury drew the conclusions of

his government from the facts as seen on the English side, and
announced its decision, in the following terms: "It will be
seen … that the Government of Great Britain have from the
first held the same view as to the extent of territory which
they are entitled to claim as a matter of right. It comprised
the coast-line up to the River Amacura, and the whole basin of
the Essequibo River and its tributaries. A portion of that
claim, however, they have always been willing to waive
altogether; in regard to another portion, they have been and
continue to be perfectly ready to submit the question of their
title to arbitration. As regards the rest, that which lies
within the so-called Schomburgk line, they do not consider
that the rights of Great Britain are open to question. Even
within that line they have, on various occasions, offered to
Venezuela considerable concessions as a matter of friendship
and conciliation, and for the purpose of securing an amicable
settlement of the dispute. If as time has gone on the
concessions thus offered diminished in extent, and have now
been withdrawn, this has been the necessary consequence of the
gradual spread over the country of British settlements, which
Her Majesty's Government cannot in justice to the inhabitants
offer to surrender to foreign rule, and the justice of such
withdrawal is amply borne out by the researches in the
national archives of Holland and Spain, which have furnished
further and more convincing evidence in support of the British
claims.

"Her Majesty's Government are sincerely desirous of being in

friendly relations with Venezuela, and certainly have no
design to seize territory that properly belongs to her, or
forcibly to extend sovereignty over any portion of her
population. They have, on the contrary, repeatedly expressed
their readiness to submit to arbitration the conflicting
claims of Great Britain and Venezuela to large tracts of
territory which from their auriferous nature are known to be
of almost untold value. But they cannot consent to entertain,
or to submit to the arbitration of another Power or of foreign
jurists, however eminent, claims based on the extravagant
pretensions of Spanish officials in the last century, and
involving the transfer of large numbers of British subjects,
who have for many years enjoyed the settled rule of a British
Colony, to a nation of different race and language, whose
political system is subject to frequent disturbance, and whose
institutions as yet too often afford very inadequate
protection to life and property. No issue of this description
has ever been involved in the questions which Great Britain
and the United States have consented to submit to arbitration,
and Her Majesty's Government are convinced that in similar
circumstances the Government of the United States would be
equally firm in declining to entertain proposals of such a
nature."
Great Britain, Papers by Command:
United States Number 1, 1896, pages 23-31.

{689}

VENEZUELA: A. D. 1895 (December).

Message of President Cleveland to the United States Congress
on the Guiana boundary dispute.

As the replies given by Lord Salisbury showed no disposition

on the part of the British government to submit its dispute
with Venezuela to arbitration, President Cleveland took the
subject in hand, and addressed to Congress, on the 17th of
December, 1895, a special Message which startled the world by
the peremptoriness of its tone.

"In my annual message addressed to the Congress on the 3d

instant," he said, "I called attention to the pending boundary
controversy between Great Britain and the Republic of
Venezuela and recited the substance of a representation made
by this Government to Her Britannic Majesty's Government
suggesting reasons why such dispute should be submitted to
arbitration for settlement and inquiring whether it would be
so submitted. The answer of the British Government, which was
then awaited, has since been received, and, together with the
dispatch to which it is a reply, is hereto appended. Such
reply is embodied in two communications addressed by the
British prime minister to Sir Julian Pauncefote, the British
ambassador at this capital. It will be seen that one of these
communications is devoted exclusively to observations upon the
Monroe doctrine, and claims that in the present instance a new
and strange extension and development of this doctrine is
insisted on by the United States; that the reasons justifying
an appeal to the doctrine enunciated by President Monroe are
generally inapplicable 'to the state of things in which we
live at the present day,' and especially inapplicable to a
controversy involving the boundary line between Great Britain
and Venezuela.

"Without attempting extended argument in reply to these

positions, it may not be amiss to suggest that the doctrine
upon which we stand is strong and sound, because its
enforcement is important to our peace and safety as a nation
and is essential to the integrity of our free institutions and
the tranquil maintenance of our distinctive form of
government. It was intended to apply to every stage of our
national life and can not become obsolete while our Republic
endures. If the balance of power is justly a cause for jealous
anxiety among the Governments of the Old World and a subject
for our absolute non-interference, none the less is an
observance of the Monroe doctrine of vital concern to our
people and their Government. Assuming, therefore, that we may
properly insist upon this doctrine without regard to 'the
state of things in which we live' or any changed conditions
here or elsewhere, it is not apparent why its application may
not be invoked in the present controversy. If a European power
by an extension of its boundaries takes possession of the
territory of one of our neighboring Republics against its will
and in derogation of its rights, it is difficult to see why to
that extent such European power does not thereby attempt to
extend its system of government to that portion of this
continent which is thus taken. This is the precise action
which President Monroe declared to be 'dangerous to our peace
and safety,' and it can make no difference whether the
European system is extended by an advance of frontier or
otherwise.

"It is also suggested in the British reply that we should not

seek to apply the Monroe doctrine to the pending dispute
because it does not embody any principle of international law
which 'is founded on the general consent of nations,' and that
'no statesman, however eminent, and no nation, however
powerful, are competent to insert into the code of
international law a novel principle which was never recognized
before and which has not since been accepted by the government
of any other country.' Practically the principle for which we
contend has peculiar, if not exclusive, relation to the United
States. It may not have been admitted in so many words to the
code of international law, but since in international councils
every nation is entitled to the rights belonging to it, if the
enforcement of the Monroe doctrine is something we may justly
claim, it has its place in the code of international law as
certainly and as securely as if it were specifically
mentioned; and when the United States is a suitor before the
high tribunal that administers international law the question
to be determined is whether or not we present claims which the
justice of that code of law can find to be right and valid.

"The Monroe doctrine finds its recognition in those principles

of international law which are based upon the theory that
every nation shall have its rights protected and its just
claims enforced. Of course this government is entirely
confident that under the sanction of this doctrine we have
clear rights and undoubted claims. Nor is this ignored in the
British reply. The prime minister, while not admitting that
the Monroe doctrine is applicable to present conditions,
states: 'In declaring that the United States would resist any
such enterprise if it was contemplated, President Monroe
adopted a policy which received the entire sympathy of the
English Government of that date.'

"He further declares: 'Though the language of President Monroe

is directed to the attainment of objects which most Englishmen
would agree to be salutary, it is impossible to admit that
they have been inscribed by any adequate authority in the code
of international law.'

"Again he says: 'They [Her Majesty's Government] fully concur

with the view which President Monroe apparently entertained,
that any disturbance of the existing territorial distribution
 in that hemisphere by any fresh acquisitions on the part of
any European State would be a highly inexpedient change.'

"In the belief that the doctrine for which we contend was
clear and definite, that it was founded upon substantial
considerations, and involved our safety and welfare, that it
was fully applicable to our present conditions and to the
state of the world's progress, and that it was directly
related to the pending controversy, and without any conviction
as to the final merits of the dispute, 'but anxious to learn
in a satisfactory and conclusive manner whether Great Britain
sought under a claim of boundary to extend her possessions on
this continent without right, or whether she merely sought
possession of territory fairly included within her lines of
ownership, this Government proposed to the Government of Great
Britain a resort to arbitration as the proper means of
settling the question, to the end that a vexatious boundary
dispute between the two contestants might be determined and
our exact standing and relation in respect to the controversy
might be made clear.
{690}
It will be seen from the correspondence herewith submitted
that this proposition has been declined by the British
Government upon grounds which in the circumstances seem to me
to be far from satisfactory. It is deeply disappointing that
such an appeal, actuated by the most friendly feelings toward
both nations directly concerned, addressed to the sense of
justice and to the magnanimity of one of the great powers of
the world, and touching its relations to one comparatively
weak and small, should have produced no better results.

"The course to be pursued by this Government in view of the

present condition does not appear to admit of serious doubt.
Having labored faithfully for many years to induce Great
Britain to submit this dispute to impartial arbitration, and
having been now finally apprised of her refusal to do so,
nothing remains but to accept the situation, to recognize its
plain requirements, and deal with it accordingly. Great
Britain's present proposition has never thus far been regarded
as admissible by Venezuela, though any adjustment of the
boundary which that country may deem for her advantage and may
enter into of her own free will can not of course be objected
to by the United States. Assuming, however, that the attitude
of Venezuela will remain unchanged, the dispute has reached
such a stage as to make it now incumbent upon the United
States to take measures to determine with sufficient certainty
for its justification what is the true divisional line between
the Republic of Venezuela and British Guiana. The inquiry to
that end should of course be conducted carefully and
judicially, and due weight should be given to all available
evidence, records, and facts in support of the claims of both
parties. In order that such an examination should be
prosecuted in a thorough and satisfactory manner, I suggest
that the Congress make an adequate appropriation for the
expenses of a commission, to be appointed by the Executive,
who shall make the necessary investigation and report upon the
matter with the least possible delay. When such report is made
and accepted it will, in my opinion, be the duty of the United
States to resist by every means in its power, as a willful
aggression upon its rights and interests, the appropriation by
Great Britain of any lands or the exercise of governmental
jurisdiction over any territory which after investigation we
have determined of right belongs to Venezuela.

"In making these recommendations I am fully alive to the

responsibility incurred and keenly realize all the
consequences that May follow. I am, nevertheless, firm in my
conviction that while it is a grievous thing to contemplate
the two great English-speaking peoples of the world as being
otherwise than friendly competitors in the onward march of
civilization and strenuous and worthy rivals in all the arts
of peace, there is no calamity which a great nation can invite
which equals that which follows a supine submission to wrong and
injustice and the consequent loss of national self-respect and
 honor, beneath which are shielded and defended a people's
safety and greatness."

United States, Message and Documents

(Abridgment, 1895-1896).

The recommendations of the President were acted upon with

remarkable unanimity and promptitude in Congress, a bill
authorizing the appointment of the proposed commission, and
appropriating $100,000 for the necessary expenditure, being
passed by the House on the day following the Message (December
17), and by the Senate on the 20th.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1895 (DECEMBER).

VENEZUELA: A. D. 1895-1896 (December-January).

Feeling in England and the United States
over the boundary dispute.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1895-1896 (DECEMBER-JANUARY).

VENEZUELA: A. D. 1896-1899.
Appointment of the United States Commission to investigate
the boundary question.
Reopening of negotiations between the United States
and Great Britain.
The solution of the main difficulty found.
Arbitration and its result.

The Commission authorized by the Congress of the United States

to investigate and report on the true divisional line between
British Guiana and Venezuela was named by the President of the
United States, on the 1st of January, as follows:
David J. Brewer, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court
of the United States;
Richard H. Alvey, Chief Justice of the Court of Appeals in
the District of Columbia;
Andrew D. White, ex-President of Cornell University,
and ex-Minister to Germany and Russia;
Daniel C. Gilman, President of Johns Hopkins University;
Frederick H. Coudert, of New York.

The Commission was organized on the 4th by the election of

Justice Brewer to be its President. Mr. S. Mallet Prevost was
subsequently appointed Secretary. One of the first proceedings
of the Commission was to address a letter to the Secretary of
State, suggesting a friendly intimation to the governments of
Great Britain and Venezuela that their assistance to it, in
procuring unpublished archives and the like evidence, would be
highly acceptable, and that "if either should deem it
appropriate to designate an agent or attorney, whose duty it
would be to see that no such proofs were omitted or
overlooked, the Commission would be grateful for such evidence
of good will." This overture was well received in England, and
had an excellent effect. It was responded to by Lord
Salisbury, with an assurance that Her Majesty's government
would readily place at the disposal of the President of the
United States any information at their command, and would
communicate advance copies of documents soon to be published
on the subject of the boundary line. Before the close of
January the Commission had organized its work, with several
experts engaged to assist on special lines. Professor Justin
Winsor, Librarian of Harvard University, had undertaken to
report on the early maps of the Guiana-Venezuela country.
Professor George L. Burr, of Cornell University, was making
ready to examine the Dutch archives in Holland, and Professor
J. Franklin Jameson, of Brown University, was enlisted for
other investigations.

Before these labors had gone far, however, the two

 governments, of Great Britain and the United States, were
induced to reopen a discussion of the possibility of an
arbitration of the dispute. On the 27th of February, Mr.
Bayard, the Ambassador of the United States at London,
conveyed to Lord Salisbury a proposal from his government
"that Her Majesty's Ambassador at Washington should be
empowered to discuss the question at that capital with the
Secretary of State," and that "a clear definition of the
'settlements' by individuals in the territory in dispute,
which it is understood Her Majesty's Government desire should
be excluded from the proposed submission to arbitration,
should be propounded."
{691}
Lord Salisbury assented so far as to telegraph, on the same
day, to Sir Julian Pauncefote: "I have agreed with the United
States' Ambassador that, in principle, the matter may be
discussed between the United States Government (acting as the
friend of Venezuela) and your Excellency." But, a few days
later (March 5), the British Premier and Foreign Secretary
gave a broader range to the discussion, by recalling a
correspondence that had taken place in the spring of 1895
between the then American Secretary of State, Mr. Gresham, and
the British Ambassador, in contemplation of a general system
of international arbitration for the adjustment of disputes
between the two governments. Reviving that project, Lord
Salisbury submitted the heads of a general arbitration treaty
between the United States and Great Britain, which became a
subject of discussion for some weeks, without offering much
promise of providing for the settlement of the Venezuela
dispute. In May, the correspondence returned to the latter
subject more definitely, Lord Salisbury writing (May 22):

"From the first our objection has been to subject to the

decision of an Arbiter, who, in the last resort, must, of
necessity, be a foreigner, the rights of British colonists who
have settled in territory which they had every ground for
believing to be British, and whose careers would be broken,
and their fortunes possibly ruined, by a decision that the
territory on which they have settled was subject to the
Venezuelan Republic. At the same time, we are very conscious
that the dispute between ourselves and the Republic of
Venezuela affects a large portion of land which is not under
settlement, and which could be disposed of without any
injustice to any portion of the colonial population. We are
very willing that the territory which is comprised within this
definition should be subjected to the results of an
arbitration, even though some portion of it should be found to
fall within the Schomburgk line." He proposed, accordingly,
the creation of a commission of four persons, for the
determination of the questions of fact involved, on whose
report the two governments of Great Britain and Venezuela
should endeavor to agree on a boundary line; failing which
agreement, a tribunal of arbitration should fix the line, on
the basis of facts reported by the Commission. "Provided
always that in fixing such line the Tribunal shall not have
power to include as the territory of Venezuela any territory
which was bona fide occupied by subjects of Great Britain on
the 1st January, 1887, or as the territory of Great Britain
any territory bona fide occupied by Venezuelans at the same
date."

Objections to this proposal, especially to its final

stipulation, were raised by the government of the United
States, and the negotiation looked unpromising again for a
time; but at length, on the 13th of July, Mr. Olney made a
suggestion which happily solved the one difficulty that had
been, from the beginning, a bar to agreement between the two
governments. "Can it be assumed," he asked, in a letter of
that date, "that Her Majesty's Government would submit to
unrestricted arbitration the whole of the territory in
dispute, provided it be a rule of the arbitration, embodied in
the arbitral agreement, that territory which has been in the
exclusive, notorious, and actual use and occupation of either
party for even two generations, or say for sixty years, shall
be held by the arbitrators to be the territory of such party?
In other words, will Her Majesty's Government assent to
unrestricted arbitration of all the territory in controversy,
with the period for the acquisition of title by prescription
fixed by agreement of the parties in advance at sixty years?"
Lord Salisbury assented to the principle thus suggested, but
proposed a shorter term of occupation than sixty years.
Finally the term of fifty years was accepted on both sides,
and from that point the arrangement of a Treaty of Arbitration
between Great Britain and Venezuela went smoothly on. The good
news that England and America were practically at the end of
their dispute was proclaimed by Lord Salisbury, on the 9th of
November, in a speech at the Lord Mayor's banquet, in London,
when he said: "You are aware that in the discussion had with
the United States on behalf of their friends in Venezuela, our
question has not been whether there should be arbitration, but
whether arbitration should have unrestricted application; and
we have always claimed that those who, apart from historic
right, had the right which attaches to established
settlements, should be excluded from arbitration. Our
difficulty for months has been to define the settled
districts; and the solution has, I think, come from the
suggestion of the government of the United States, that we
should treat our colonial empire as we treat individuals; that
the same lapse of time which protects the latter in civic life
from having their title questioned, should similarly protect
an English colony; but, beyond that, when a lapse could not be
claimed, there should be an examination of title, and all the
equity demanded in regard thereto should be granted. I do not
believe I am using unduly sanguine words when I declare my
belief that this has brought the controversy to an end."

On the 10th of November, the Secretary of the United States

Commission appointed to investigate the disputed boundary
published the following: "The statements of Lord Salisbury, as
reported in the morning papers, make it probable that the
boundary dispute now pending between Great Britain and Venezuela