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 Complete Solutions Manual
to Accompany

Understanding Basic Statistics

EIGHTH EDITION

Charles Brase
© Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

Regis University,
Denver, CO

Corrinne Brase
Arapahoe Community College
Littleton, CO

Prepared by

Melissa M. Sovak
California University of Pennsylvania, California, PA

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

 © 2019 Cengage Learning
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Contents

Chapter 1: Getting Started ............................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2: Organizing Data ............................................................................................................. 6

Chapter 3: Averages and Variation ................................................................................................ 31

Chapter 4: Correlation and Regression .......................................................................................... 53

Chapter 5: Elementary Probability Theory .................................................................................... 75

Chapter 6: The Binomial Probability Distribution and Related Topics ......................................... 97

Chapter 7: Normal Curves and Sampling Distributions .............................................................. 122

Chapter 8: Estimation .................................................................................................................. 152

Chapter 9: Hypothesis Testing ..................................................................................................... 175

Chapter 10: Inferences about Differences .................................................................................... 208

Chapter 11: Additional Topics Using Inference .......................................................................... 245

Chapter 1: Getting Started

1.
NOT FOR SALE
Section 1.1

Individuals are people or objects included in the study, while a variable is a characteristic of the individual that
is measured or observed.

2. Nominal data are always qualitative.

3. A parameter is a numerical measure that describes a population. A statistic is a numerical value that describes
a sample.

4. If the population does not change, the values of the parameters will not change. Thus, for a fixed population,
parameter values are constant. If we take three samples of the same size from a population, the values of the
sample statistics will almost surely differ.

5. (a) These numerical assignments are at the nominal level. There is no apparent ordering in the responses.
(b) These numerical assignments are at the ordinal level. There is an increasing relationship from worst to
best levels of service. These assignments are not at the interval or ratio level. The distances between
numerical responses are not meaningful. The ratios are also not meaningful.

6. Lucy’s observations do not apply to all adults; they apply only to her friends. Since the sample is not random,
we cannot draw any conclusions about a larger group using this data.

7. (a) Meal ordered at fast-food restaurants.

(b) Qualitative
(c) Response for all U.S. adult fast-food consumers.

8. (a) Miles per gallon.

(b) Quantitative.
(c) All new small hybrid cars.

9. (a) Nitrogen concentration (milligrams of nitrogen per liter of water).

(b) Quantitative.
(c) Nitrogen concentration in the entire lake.

10. (a) Number of ferromagnetic artifacts per 100 square meters.

(b) Quantitative.
(c) The number of ferromagnetic artifacts per each distinct 100-square-meter plot in the Tara region.

11. (a) Ratio. (b) Interval. (c) Nominal. (d) Ordinal. (e) Ratio. (f) Ratio.

12. (a) Ordinal. (b) Ratio. (c) Nominal. (d) Interval. (e) Ratio. (f) Nominal.

13. (a) Nominal. (b) Ratio. (c) Interval. (d) Ordinal. (e) Ratio. (f) Interval.

14. Form B is better. Statistical methods can be applied to the ordinal data obtained from Form B but not to the
open-response answers obtained from Form A.

NOT FOR SALE

15. (a) Answers vary. Ideally, weigh the packs in pounds using a digital scale that has tenths of pounds for
accuracy.
(b) Some students may refuse to have their backpacks weighed.
(c) Informing students before class may cause students to remove items before class.

1
Section 1.2

1.

2.
NOT FOR SALE
In stratified samples, we select a random sample from each stratum. In cluster sampling, we randomly select
clusters to be included, and then each member of the cluster is sampled.

In simple random samples, every sample of size n has an equal chance of being selected. In a systematic
sample, the only possible samples are those including every kth member of the population with respect to the
random starting position.

3. Sampling error is the difference between the value of the population parameter and the value of the sample
statistic that stems from the random selection process. The term is being used incorrectly here. Certainly larger
boxes of cereal will cost more than smaller boxes of cereal.

4. The sample frame consists of students who use the college recreation center. No, some students may not use
the recreation center.

5. No, even though the sample is random, some students younger than 18 or older than 20 may not have been
included in the sample.

6. No, a random sample could include only music majors.

7. (a) Stratified.
(b) No, because each pooled sample would have 100 season ticket holders from men’s basketball games and
100 for women’s basketball games. Samples, for example, with 125 ticket holders for men’s basketball games
and 75 for women’s games are not possible.

8. (a) Yes. Every student has a 50% chance of being selected.

(b) It is not possible based on this method of selecting students. Since every sample of size 20 is not possible,
this is not a simple random sample.
(c) Assign numbers 1, 2, …, 40 to the students and use a random-digits table or a computer package to draw
random numbers.

9. Simply use a random digits table or a computer package to randomly select four students from the class.
(a) Answers vary. Perhaps they are excellent students who make an effort to get to class early.
(b) Answers vary. Perhaps they are busy students who are never on time to class.
(c) Answers vary. Perhaps students in the back row are introverted.
(d) Answers vary. Perhaps taller students are healthier.

10. (a) Students who are absent from class on Monday cannot be included in the sample.
(b) Home-schooled students, drop out students, or homeless students cannot be included in the sample.

11. Answers vary. 12. Answers vary. 13. Answers vary.

14. Answers vary. One possibility is to use 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 to indicate heads, and 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 to indicate tails.

15. (a) Yes, it is appropriate, as a number can repeat itself once it has occurred. The outcome on the fourth roll
is 2.
(b) We will most certainly not get the same sequence of outcomes. The process is random.

NOT FOR SALE

16. Answers vary. We do expect at least one match on birthdays on over 50% of the times we run this experiment.

17. Answers vary. Use single digits on the table to determine the placement of correct answers.

18. Answers vary. The test key would be a random arrangement of True and False responses.

2
19. (a) Simple random sampling. Every sample of size n from the population has an equal chance of being

NOT FOR SALE

selected, and every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
(b) Cluster sampling. The state, Hawaii, is divided into ZIP Codes. Then, within each of the 10 selected ZIP
Codes, all businesses are surveyed.
(c) Convenience sampling. This technique uses results or data that are conveniently and readily obtained.
(d) Systematic sampling. Every fiftieth business is included in the sample.
(e) Stratified sampling. The population was divided into strata based on business type. Then a simple
random sample was drawn from each stratum.

20. (a) Stratified sampling. The population was divided into strata (four categories of length of hospital stay),
and then a simple random sample was drawn from each stratum.
(b) Simple random sampling.
(c) Cluster sampling. There are five geographic regions, and some facilities from each region are selected
randomly. Then, for each selected facility, all patients on the discharge list are surveyed to create the
patient satisfaction profiles.
(d) Systematic sampling. Every 500th patient is included in the sample.
(e) Convenience sampling.

Section 1.3
1. Answers vary. People with higher incomes will likely have high-speed Internet access, which will lead to
spending more time online. Spending more time online might lead to spending less time watching TV. Thus,
spending less time watching TV cannot be attributed solely to high income or high-speed internet access.

2. A double-blind procedure would entail neither the patients nor those administering the treatments knowing
which patients received which treatments. This process should eliminate potential bias from the treatment
administrators and from patient psychology regarding benefits of the drug.

3. No, respondents do not constitute a random sample from the community for several reasons, for instance, the
sample frame includes only those at a farmer’s market, Jill might not have approached people with large dogs
or those who were busy, and participation was voluntary. Jill’s T-shirt may have influenced respondents.

4. No, the pooled sample had a fixed number of students from each block.

5. (a) No, those aged 18 – 29 in 2006 became aged 20 – 31 in 2008. The study is looking at the same
generation.
(b) 1977 to 1988, inclusive.

6. By 2020, the Echo generation will be aged 32-43, and their perception of items as necessities or luxuries
might have changed by then.

7. (a) This is an observational study. The data collection method did not influence the outcome.
(b) This is an experiment. A treatment was imposed on the sheep in order to prevent heartworm.
(c) This is an experiment. The restrictions on fishing possibly led to a change in the length of trout in the
river.
(d) This is an observational study. The data was collected without influencing the turtles.

8. (a) Sampling. (b) Simulation. (c) Census. (d) Experiment.

NOT FOR SALE

9. (a) Use randomization to select ten calves to inoculate with the vaccine. After a period of time, test all calves
for the infection. No placebo is being used.
(b) Use randomization to select nine schools to visit. After ten weeks, survey students in all 18 schools for
their views on police officers. No placebo is being used.
(c) Use randomization to select 40 subjects to use the skin patch. A placebo is used for the other 35 subjects.
At the end of the trial, survey all 75 subjects about their smoking habits.

3
 NOT FOR SALE
10. (a) No. “Over the last few years” could mean 2 years, 3 years, 7 years, etc. A more precise phrase is, “Over
the past 5 years.”
(b) Yes. If a respondent is first asked, “Have you ever run a stop sign,” chances are that their response to the
question, “Should fines be doubled,” will change. Those who run stop signs probably don’t want the fine
to double.
(c) Answers vary.

11. Based on the information, scheme A will be better because the blocks are similar. The plots bordering the river
should be similar, and the plots away from the river should be similar.

Chapter Review Problems

1. If a numerical measure describes an aspect of a sample, it is a statistic.

2. If a variable describes an individual by placing the individual in a category or group, the variable is qualitative.

3. If data consists of names, label, or categories with no implied criteria by which the data can be ordered from
smallest to largest, the highest level of measurement for the data is nominal.

4. If it makes sense to say that one data measurement in a data set is twice that of another measurement in the set,
the highest level of measurement for the data is ratio.

5. If every sample of size n has an equal chance of being selected, this is a simple random sample.

6. If a treatment is applied to subjects or objects in a study in order to observe a possible change in the variable of
interest, the study is an experiment.

7. Using a random-number table to select numbers for a Sudoku puzzle would be very inefficient. It would be
much better to look at existing numbers that meet the puzzle’s requirements and eliminate numbers that don’t
work.

8. Alisha’s study has a few problems and results will be anecdotal. For instance, it’s not clear that the puzzles she
wants to download are all of the same difficulty level. Her friends willing to participate will likely have
different levels of experience with the puzzles. Her friends are also volunteers and the self-timing may lead
to some inaccurate measurements.

9. (a) Stratified.
(b) Students on your campus with work-study jobs.
(c) Number of hours scheduled to work each week; Quantitative; Ratio.
(d) Applicability to future employment goals, as measured by the scale given; Qualitative; Ordinal.
(e) Statistic.
(f) The nonresponse rate is 60%, and yes, this could introduce bias into the results. Answers vary.
(g) No, since the students were only drawn from one campus, then the results of the study would only
generalize to that campus, if the data were collected using randomization.

10. The implied population is all the listeners (or even all the voters). The variable is the voting preference of a
caller. There is probably bias in the selection of the sample because those with the strongest opinions are most
likely to call in.

NOT FOR SALE

11. Using the random-number table, pick seven digits at random. Digits 0, 1, and 2 can correspond to “Yes,” and
digits 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 can correspond to “No.” This will effectively simulate a random draw from a
population with 30% TIVO owners.

12. (a) Cluster. (b) Convenience. (c) Systematic. (d) Simple random. (e) Stratified.

4
13. (a) This was an observational study because the researchers did not apply a treatment.

NOT FOR SALE

(b) This was an experiment because the two groups were given different tests and the results were compared.

14. (a) Randomly select 500 donors to receive the literature and 500 donors to receive the phone call. After the
donation collection period, compare the percentage who donated from each of the two treatment groups.
A placebo is not being used.
(b) Randomly select the 43 adults to be given the treatment gel and the 42 adults to receive the placebo gel.
After the treatment period, compare the whiteness of the two groups. To make this double blind, neither
the treatment administrators nor would the patients would know which gel the patients are receiving.
(c) Before assigning donors to the literature or the phone call, first block them into the three age groups. In
each age group, half would receive the literature and half would receive the phone call. Compare the
amounts received within each block.

15. Answers vary. Some items, such as age and grade point average, might be sensitive information. You could
ask the class to design a data form that can be filled out anonymously. Other issues to discuss involve the
accuracy and honesty of responses.

16. No response required.

17. (a) This is an experiment; the treatment was the amount of light given to the colonies.
(b) The control group is the colony exposed to normal light, while the treatment group is the exposed to
continuous light.
(c) The number of fireflies living at the end of 72 hours.
(d) Ratio.

NOT FOR SALE

5
Chapter 2: Organizing Data

1.
NOT FOR SALE
Section 2.1
Class limits are possible data values, and they specify the span of data values that fall within a class. Class
boundaries are not possible data values; they are values halfway between the upper class limit of one class and
the lower class limit of the next class.

2. Each data value must fall into one class. Data values above 50 do not have a class.

3. The classes overlap. A data value such as 20 falls into two classes.

4. These class widths are 11.

82 − 20
5. =
Width ≈ 8.86 , so round up to 9. The class limits are 20 – 28, 29 – 37, 38 – 46, 47 – 55, 56 – 64,
7
65 – 73, 74 – 82.

120 − 10
6. =
Width = 22 , so round up to 23. The class limits are 10 – 32, 33 – 55, 56 – 78, 79 – 101,
5
102 – 124.

7. (a) The distribution is most likely skewed right, with many short times and only a few long wait times.
(b) A bimodal distribution might exist if there are different wait times during busy versus slow periods.
During the morning rush, many long wait times might occur, but during the slow afternoon, most wait
times will be very short.

8. The data set consists of the numbers 1 up through 100, with each value occurring once. The histogram will be
uniform.

9. (a) Yes.
(b)
Histogram of Highway mpg

12

10

8
Frequency

0
16.5 20.5 24.5 28.5 32.5 36.5 40.5
Highway mpg

NOT FOR SALE

6
10. (a)

NOT FOR SALE

(b) Yes. Yes.

(c)

11. (a) The range of data seem to fall between 7 and 13 with the bulk of the data between 8 and 12.

(b) All three histograms are somewhat mound-shaped with the top of the mound between 9.5 and 10.5. In all
three histograms the bulk of the data fall between 8 and 12.

12. (a) Graph (i) midpoint: 5; graph (ii) midpoint: 4; graph (iii) midpoint: 2.

(b) Graph (i) 0-17; Graph (ii) 1-16; Graph (iii) 0-28.

(c) Graph (iii) is most clearly skewed right; Graph (ii) is somewhat skewed right; Graph (i) is barely skewed
right.

(d) No, each random sample of same size froma population is equally likely to be drawn. Sample (iii) most
clearly reflects the properties of the population. Sample (ii) reflects the properties fairly well, but
sample(i) seems to differ more from the described population.

13. (a) Because there are 50 data values, divide each cumulative frequency by 50 and convert to a percent.

(b) 35 states.

(c) 6 states.

NOT FOR SALE

(d) 2%

14. (a) Graph (i).

(b) Graph (iii)

7
 (c) Graph (iii)

NOT FOR SALE

15. (a) Class width = 25

(b)

Class Relative Cumulative

Class Limits Midpoints Frequency
Boundaries Frequency Frequency
236–260 235.5–260.5 248 4 0.07 4
261–285 260.5–285.5 273 9 0.16 13
286–310 285.5–310.5 298 25 0.44 38
311–335 310.5–335.5 323 16 0.28 54
336–360 335.5–360.5 348 3 0.05 57

(c)
Histogram of Finish Times
25

20
Frequency

15

10

0
236.0 260.5 285.5 310.5 335.5 360.0
Finish Times

(d)
Histogram of Finish Times
50

40
Relative Frequency

30

20

10

0
236.0 260.5 285.5 310.5 335.5 360.0
Finish Times

(e) This distribution is slightly skewed to the left but fairly mound-shaped, symmetric.

NOT FOR SALE

8
 (f)

NOT FOR SALE

(g) Answers vary.

16. (a) Class width = 11

(b)
Class Class Relative Cumulative
Midpoint Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency Frequency
45–55 44.5–55.5 50 3 0.0429 3
56–66 55.5–66.5 61 7 0.8714 10
67–77 66.5–77.5 72 22 0.3143 32
78–88 77.5–88.5 83 26 0.3714 58
89–99 88.5–99.5 94 9 0.1286 67
100–110 99.5–110.5 105 3 0.0429 70

(c)
Histogram of GLUCOSE

25

20
Frequency

15

10

0
44.5 55.5 66.5 77.5 88.5 99.5 110.5
GLUCOSE

(d)
Histogram of GLUCOSE
40

30
Relative Frequency

NOT FOR SALE

20

10

0
44.5 55.5 66.5 77.5 88.5 99.5 110.5
GLUCOSE

9
 NOT FOR SALE
(e) Approximately mound-shaped, symmetric.

(f)

80
60
40
20 Series1
0

(g) Answers vary.

17. (a) Class width = 12

(b)
Class Class Relative Cumulative
Midpoint Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency Frequency
1–12 0.5–12.5 6.5 6 0.14 6
13–24 12.5–24.5 18.5 10 0.24 16
25–36 24.5–36.5 30.5 5 0.12 21
37–48 36.5–48.5 42.5 13 0.31 34
49–60 48.5–60.5 54.5 8 0.19 42

(c)
Histogram of Time Until Recurrence
14

12

10
Frequency

0
0.5 12.5 24.5 36.5 48.5 60.5
Time Until Recurrence

NOT FOR SALE

10
 (d)

NOT FOR SALE

Histogram of Time Until Recurrence
35

30

25
Relative Frequency

20

15

10

0
0.5 12.5 24.5 36.5 48.5 60.5
Time Until Recurrence

(e) The distribution is bimodal.

(f)
80
60
40
20 Series1

(g) Answers vary.

18. (a) Class width = 28.

(b)
Class Class Relative
Midpoint Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
10–37 9.5–37.5 23.5 7 7
38–65 37.5–65.5 51.5 25 32
66–93 65.5–93.5 79.5 26 58
94–121 93.5–121.5 107.5 9 67
122–149 121.5–149.5 135.5 5 72
150–177 149.5–177.5 163.5 0 72
178–205 177.5–205.5 191.5 1 73

(c)
Histogram of Depth

25

20
Frequency

NOT FOR SALE

15

10

0
9.5 37.5 65.5 93.5 121.5 149.5 177.5 205.5
Depth

11
 (d)

NOT FOR SALE

Histogram of Depth
40

Relative Frequency 30

20

10

0
9.5 37.5 65.5 93.5 121.5 149.5 177.5 205.5
Depth

(e) This distribution is skewed right with a possible outlier.

(f)

80

60

40
Series1
20

0
37.5
65.5
93.5
121.5
149.5
177.5
9.5

(g) Answers vary.

19. (a) Class width = 11

(b)

Class Class Relative Cumulative

Midpoint Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency Frequency
26–36 26.5–36.5 31 4 0.08 4
37–47 36.5–47.5 42 21 0.42 25
48–58 47.5–58.5 53 22 0.44 47
59–69 59.5–69.5 64 1 0.02 48
70–80 69.5–80.5 75 2 0.04 50

NOT FOR SALE

12
 (c)

NOT FOR SALE

Histogram of College Enrollment
25

20

15
Frequency

10

0
26.5 36.5 47.5 58.5 69.5 80.5
C2

(d)
Histogram of College Enrollment
50

40

30
Percent

20

10

0
25.5 36.5 47.5 58.5 69.5 80.5
C2

(e) This distribution is skewed right.

(f)

60

40
Series
20 1
0
26.5
36.5
47.5
59.5
69.5

(g) Answers vary.

20. (a) Class width = 6

NOT FOR SALE

(b)
Class Class Relative Cumulative
Midpoint Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency Frequency
0–5 0.5–5.5 2.5 13 0.24 13
6–11 5.5–11.5 8.5 15 0.27 28
12–17 11.5–17.5 14.5 11 0.20 39

13
 18–23 17.5–23.5 20.5 3 0.05 42

NOT FOR SALE

24–29 23.5–29.5 26.5 6 0.11 48
30–35 29.5–35.5 32.5 4 0.07 52
36–41 35.5–41.5 38.5 2 0.04 54
42–47 41.5–47.5 44.5 1 0.02 55

(c)
Histogram of Three-Syllable Words
16

14

12

10
Frequency

0
-0.5 5.5 11.5 17.5 23.5 29.5 35.5 41.5 47.5
Three-Syllable Words

(d)
Histogram of Three-Syllable Words
30

25
Relative Frequency

20

15

10

0
-0.5 5.5 11.5 17.5 23.5 29.5 35.5 41.5 47.5
Three-Syllable Words

(e) The distribution is skewed right.

(f)

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(g) Answers vary.

21. (a) Multiply each value by 100.

14
 NOT FOR SALE
(b)
Class Limits Class Boundaries Midpoint Frequency
46–85 45.5–85.5 65.5 4
86–125 85.5–125.5 105.5 5
126–165 125.5–165.5 145.5 10
166–205 165.5–205.5 185.5 5
206–245 205.5–245.5 225.5 5
246–285 245.5–285.5 265.5 3

Histogram of Tonnes

10

8
Frequency

0
0.455 0.855 1.255 1.655 2.055 2.455 2.855

(c)
Class Limits Class Boundaries Midpoint Frequency
0.46–0.85 0.455–0.855 0. 655 4
0.86–1.25 0.855–1.255 1.055 5
1.26–1.65 1.255–1.655 1.455 10
1.66–2.05 1.655–2.055 1.855 5
2.06–2.45 2.055–2.455 2.255 5
2.46–2.85 2.455–2.855 2.655 3

22. (a) Multiply each value by 1000.

(b)
Class Limits Class Boundaries Midpoint Frequency

107–149 106.5–149.5 128 3

150–192 149.5–192.5 171 4

193–235 192.5–235.5 214 3

236–278 235.5–278.5 257 10

NOT FOR SALE 279–321 278.5–321.5 300 6

15
 Histogram of Average

NOT FOR SALE

10

Frequency

0
0.1065 0.1495 0.1925 0.2355 0.2785 0.3215

(c)
Class Limits Class Boundaries Midpoint Frequency

0.107–0.149 0.1065–0.1495 0.128 3

0.150–0.192 0.1495–0.1925 0.171 4

0.193–0.235 0.1925–0.2355 0.214 3

0.236–0.278 0.2355–0.2785 0.257 10

0.279–0.321 0.2785–0.3215 0.300 6

23. (a) 1

(b) About 5/51 = 0.098 = 9.8%

(c) 650 to 750

24.
Dotplot of Finish Times

234 252 270 288 306 324 342 360

Finish Times

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The dotplot shows some of the characteristics of the histogram, such as more dot density from 280 to 340, for
instance, that corresponds roughly to the histogram bars of heights 25 and 16. However, the dotplot and
histogram are somewhat difficult to compare because the dotplot can be thought of as a histogram with one
value, the class mark (i.e., the data value), per class. Because the definitions of the classes (and therefore the
class widths) differ, it is difficult to compare the two figures.

16
25.

NOT FOR SALE

Dotplot of Months

0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56
Months

The dotplot shows some of the characteristics of the histogram, such as the concentration of most of the data in
two peaks, one from 13 to 24 and another from 37 to 48. However, the dotplot and histogram are somewhat
difficult to compare because the dotplot can be thought of as a histogram with one value, the class mark (i.e.,
the data value), per class. Because the definitions of the classes (and therefore the class widths) differ, it is
difficult to compare the two figures.

Section 2.2
1. (a) Yes, since the percentages total more than 100%.
(b) No. In a circle graph, the percentages must total 100%.
(c) Yes. The graph is organized from most frequently selected to least frequently selected.

2. This is not proper because the bars differ in both length and width.

3. A Pareto chart because it shows the five conditions in their order of importance to employees.

4. A time-series graph because the pattern of stock prices over time is more relevant than just the frequency of a
specific range of closing prices.

5.
Bar Graph for Income vs Education
90000
80000
70000
60000
Income

50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
de at
e e e e e ee e e
Gr
a
du gr gr gr gr
h ra De De De De
9t l G te lo
r er ra
l
o ia he st o
ho oc c M
a ct
Sc As
s Ba Do
gh
Hi

6. (a) 45% of the 18 – 34 year olds and approximately 30% of the 45 – 54 year olds said “Influential”. Perhaps

NOT FOR SALE

the vertical scales should be labeled similarly.

17
 (b)

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Cluster Bar Chart of Advertising Influence by Age

60

50

40
Percentage

30

20

10

0
18 to 34 45 to 54 18 to 34 45 to 54
Influential Not Influential

7.
Pareto Chart of Metric Tons vs Fish Species
80

70

60

50
Metric Tons

40

30

20

10

0
Walleye Pollock Pacific Cod Flatfish Rockfish Sablefish

8. (a)
Pareto Chart of Number of Spearheads vs River
35

30
Number of Spearheads

25

20

15

10

0
Shannon Bann Erne Barrow Blackwater

(b)
Pie Chart of Number of Spearheads

Barrow
15.7% Bann
21.3%

NOT FOR SALE

Blackwater
9.0%

Shannon
37.1%
Erne
16.9%

18
9.

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Pie Chart of Hiding Places

Under Bed
23.0%

Bathtub
6.0%

Freezer
3.0%
Closet
68.0%

10.
Pie Chart of Professor Activities

Consulting
6.0%
College Service
11.0%

Community Service
11.0%
Teaching
51.0%

Professional Growth
5.0%

Research
16.0%

11. (a)
Pareto Chart of Crime Rate vs. Crime Type

900
800
Crime Rate Per 100,000

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
ry t t r
la ef ul er
y pe de
rg Th sa bb Ra ur
Bu e As Ro M
e icl
us V eh
Ho or
ot
M

(b) Yes, but the graph would take into account only these particular crimes and would not indicate if multiple
crimes occurred during the same incident.

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19
12. (a)

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Pareto Chart of Complaints
25

20
Percent Complaint
15

10

0
in
g al ff ow te
at gn tO Sl ra
ilg Si Cu o de
rn To si
Ta g
on
Tu Be
in
iv
e c
No In
Dr rs
s he
er
th Ot
O

(b) Since the percentages do not add to 100%, a circle graph cannot be used. If we create an “other” category
and assume that all other respondents fit this category, then a circle could be created.

13.

Time Series Plot of Elevation

3820

3815

3810
Elevation

3805

3800

3795

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Year

14.
Time Series Plot of Height
65

60

55

50
Height

45

40

35

30

25
0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0
Age

15. (a) The size of the donut hole is smaller on the rightmost graph. To correct the situation, simply make all
donuts exactly the same size, with the radii of the respective holes the same size as well. Data labels
showing the percentages for each response would also be useful.

NOT FOR SALE

(b) The college graduates answered “no” more frequently than those with a high school education or less.

16. (a) Worry that the technologies cause too much distraction and are dangerous.

(b) The Matures.

20
 (c) Gen X.

Section 2.3
1. NOT FOR SALE
(a) The smallest value is 47 and the largest value is 97, so we need stems 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Use the tens
digit as the stem and the ones digit as the leaf.

Longevity of Cowboys

4 7 = 47 years
4 7
5 2788
6 16688
7 02233567
8 44456679
9 011237

(b) Yes, these cowboys certainly lived long lives, as evidenced by the high frequency of leaves for stems 7,
8, and 9 (i.e., 70-, 80-, and 90-year-olds).

2. The largest value is 91 (percent of wetlands lost) and the smallest value is 9 (percent), which is coded as 09.
We need stems 0 to 9. Use the tens digit as the stem and the ones digit as the leaf. The percentages are
concentrated from 20% to 50%. These data are fairly symmetric, perhaps slightly skewed right. There is a gap
showing that none of the lower 48 states has lost from 10% to 19% of its wetlands.

Percent of Wetlands Lost

4 0 = 40%
0 9
1
2 034778
3 01355567889
4 22666899
5 0002246699
6 07
7 234
8 15779
9 01

3. The longest average length of stay is 11.1 days in North Dakota, and the shortest is 5.2 days in Utah. We need
stems from 5 to 11. Use the digit(s) to the left of the decimal point as the stem and the digit to the right as the
leaf.

Average Length of Hospital Stay

5 2 = 5.2 days
5 235567
6 0246677888899

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7 00000011122233334455668
8 457
9 469
10 03
11 1

The distribution is skewed right.

21
4. Number of Hospitals per State

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0 8 = 8 hospitals
0 8 15
1 12569 16 2
2 177 17 5
3 578 18
4 127 19 3
5 1239 20 9
6 168 21
7 1 22 7
8 8 23 16
9 0268
10 127 42 1
11 3379 43
12 239 44 0
13 336
14 8

Texas and California have the highest number of hospitals, 421 and 440, respectively. Both states have large
populations and large areas. The four largest states by area are Alaska, Texas, California, and Montana.

5. (a) The longest time during earlier period is 23 minutes (i.e., 2:23), and the shortest time is 9 minutes (2:09).
We need stems 0, 1, and 2. We’ll use the tens digit as the stem and the ones digit as the leaf, placing
leaves 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 on the first stem and leaves 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 on the second stem.

Minutes Beyond 2 Hours (Earlier Period)

0 9 = 9 minutes past 2 hours

0 99
1 002334
1 55667889
2 0233

(b) The longest time during the recent period was 14 (2:14) and the shortest was 7 (2:07), so we’ll need
stems 0 and 1 only.

Minutes Beyond 2 Hours (Recent Period)

7 = 7 minutes past 2 hours

0 777888899999999
1 00114

(c) There were eight times under 2:15 during the earlier period, and there were 20 times under 2:15 during
the recent period.

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22
6. (a) The largest (worst) score in the first round was 75; the smallest (best) score was 65. We need stems 6 and

NOT FOR SALE

7. Leaves 0–4 go on the first stem, and leaves 5−9 belong on the second stem.

First-Round Scores

6 5 = score of 65
6 5677
7 011111111112223333444
7 5555555

(b) The largest score in the fourth round was 74, and the smallest was 68. Here we need stems 6 and 7.

Fourth-Round Scores

6 8 = score of 68
6 899999
7 00001111111122222233333444

(c) Scores are lower in the fourth round. In the first round, both the low and high scores were more extreme
than in the fourth round.

7. The largest value in the data is 29.8 mg of tar per cigarette smoked, and the smallest value is 1.0. We will need
stems from 1 to 29, and we will use the numbers to the right of the decimal point as the leaves.

Milligrams of Tar per Cigarette

1 0 = 1.0 mg tar
1 0
2
3
4 15
5
6
7 38
8 068
9 0
10
11 4
12 048
13 7
14 159
15 0128
16 06
17 0
.
.
.
29 8

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23
8. The largest value in the data set is 23.5 mg of carbon monoxide per cigarette smoked, and the smallest is 1.5.

NOT FOR SALE

We need stems from 1 to 23, and we’ll use the numbers to the right of the decimal point as leaves.

Milligrams of Carbon Monoxide

1 5 = 1.5 mg CO
1 5
2
3
4 9
5 4
6
7
8 5
9 05
10 0226
11
12 36
13 069
14 49
15 049
16 36
17 5
18 5
.
.
.
23 5

9. The largest value in the data set is 2.03 mg of nicotine per cigarette smoked. The smallest value is 0.13. We
will need stems 0, 1, and 2. We will use the number to the left of the decimal point as the stem and the first
number to the right of the decimal point as the leaf. The number 2 placed to the right of the decimal point (the
hundredths digit) will be truncated (not rounded).

Milligrams of Nicotine per Cigarette

0 1 = 0.1 milligram
0 144
0 566677788999
1 000000012
1
2 0

10. (a) For Site I, the least depth is 25 cm, and the greatest depth is 110 cm. For Site II, the least depth is 20 cm,
and the greatest depth is 125 cm.
(b) The Site I depth distribution is fairly symmetric, centered near 70 cm. Site II is fairly uniform in shape
except that there is a huge gap with no artifacts from 70 to 100 cm.
(c) It would appear that Site II probably was unoccupied during the time period associated with 70 to 100
cm.

NOT FOR SALE

Chapter Review Problems
1. Histogram matches statement (ii); Relative frequency graph matches statement (iii); Ogive matches statement
(i).

24
2. Quantitative data can be shown in a histogram.

NOT FOR SALE

3. Both qualitative and quantitative data can be shown in a bar graph.

4. A stem-and-leaf plot shows each data value in order from smallest to largest.

5. If a histogram is skewed left, more of the data falls on the right side.

6. Data are plotted in a time series at regular intervals over time.

7. (a) Bar graphs, Pareto charts, pie charts

(b) All, but quantitative data must be categorized to use a bar graph, Pareto chart, or pie chart.

8. A time-series graph because a change over time is most relevant

9. Any large gaps between bars or stems might indicate potential outliers.

10. Dotplots and stem-and-leaf displays both show every data value. Stem-and-leaf plots group the data with the
same stem, whereas dotplots only group the data with identical values.

11. (a) Figure 2-1(a) (in the text) is essentially a bar graph with a “horizontal” axis showing years and a
“vertical” axis showing miles per gallon. However, in depicting the data as a highway and showing them
in perspective, the ability to correctly compare bar heights visually has been lost. For example,
determining what would appear to be the bar heights by measuring from the white line on the road to the
edge of the road along a line drawn from the year to its mpg value, we get the bar height for 1983 to be
approximately ⅞ inch and the bar height for 1985 to be approximately 1⅜ inches (i.e., 11/8 inches).
Taking the ratio of the given bar heights, we see that the bar for 1985 should be 27.5
26
≈ 1.06 times the
11
11
length of the 1983 bar. However, the measurements show a ratio of 8
7
= ≈ 1.60; i.e., the 1985 bar is
8
7
(visually) 1.6 times the length of the 1983 bar. Also, the years are evenly spaced numerically, but the
figure shows the more recent years to be more widely spaced owing to the use of perspective.

(b) Figure 2-1(b) is a time-series graph showing the years on the x axis and miles per gallon on the y axis.
Everything is to scale and not distorted visually by the use of perspective. It is easy to see the mpg
standards for each year, and you also can see how fuel economy standards for new cars have changed
over the 8 years shown (i.e., a steep increase in the early years and a leveling off in the later years).

12. (a) We estimate the 1980 prison population at approximately 140 prisoners per 100,000 and the 1997
population at approximately 440 prisoners per 100,000 people.

(b) The number of inmates per 100,000 increased every year.

444
(c) The population 266,574,000 is 2,665.74 × 100,000, and 444 per 100,000 is .
100, 000
444
So × (2,665.74×100,000) ≈ 1,183,589 prisoners.
100, 000

The projected 2020 population is 323,724,000, or 3,237.24 × 100,000.

NOT FOR SALE

444
So × (3,237.24 × 100,000) ≈ 1,437,335 prisoners.
100, 000

25
13. Owing to rounding, the percentages are slightly different from those in the text.

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Pie Chart of Tax Return Difficulties

Unknown
10.1%
Calculation
8.1%

IRS Jargon
Correct Form 43.4%
10.1%

Deductions
28.3%

14. (a) Since the ages are two-digit numbers, use the ten’s digit as the stem and the one’s digit as the leaf.

Age of DUI Arrests

1 6 = 16 years
1 68
2 01122234456667779
3 00112344556789
4 0013567799
5 13568
6 34
64 − 16
(b) The largest age is 64 and the smallest is 16, so the class width for seven classes is ≈ 6.86; use 7.
7
The lower class limit for the first class is 16; the lower class limit for the second class is 16 + 7 = 23. The
total number of data points is 50, so calculate the relative frequency by dividing the class frequency by
50.

Age Distribution of DUI Arrests

Class Class Relative Cumulative

Midpoint Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency Frequency
16–22 15.5–22.5 19 8 0.16 8
23–29 22.5–29.5 26 11 0.22 19
30–36 29.5–36.5 33 11 0.22 30
37–43 36.5–43.5 40 7 0.14 37
44–50 43.5–50.5 47 6 0.12 43
51–57 50.5–57.5 54 4 0.08 47
58–64 57.5–64.5 61 3 0.06 50

The class boundaries are the average of the upper class limit of the next class. The midpoint is the
average of the class limits for that class.

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26
 (c)

NOT FOR SALE

Histogram of Age
12

10

8
Frequency

0
15.5 22.5 29.5 36.5 43.5 50.5 57.5 64.5
Age

(d)

Histogram of Age
25

20

15
Percent

10

0
15.5 22.5 29.5 36.5 43.5 50.5 57.5 64.5
C3

(e) The distribution is skewed right.

(f)
80
60
40
20 Series1
0

(g) Answers vary.

15. (a) Since the circumferences are two- and three-digit numbers, use the hundred's and ten’s digit as the stem
and the one’s digit as the leaf.
Circumference (in mm)

10 6 = 106 years
6 9
7 5

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8 34
9 0116999
10 01223555666888899
11 01223344455677777
12 00022223459
13 8
14 22

27
(b) The largest value is 142 mm, and the smallest value is 69. For seven classes, we need a class width of

NOT FOR SALE

142 − 69
≈ 10.4; use 11. The lower class limit of the first class is 69, and the lower class limit of the
7
second class is 69 + 11 = 80.

The class boundaries are the average of the upper class limit of one class and the lower class limit of the
next higher class. The midpoint is the average of the class limits for that class. There are 60 data values
total, so the relative frequency is the class frequency divided by 60.

Class Class Relative Cumulative

Midpoint Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency Frequency
69–79 68.5–79.5 74 2 0.03 2
80–90 79.5–90.5 85 3 0.05 5
91–101 90.5–101.5 96 8 0.13 13
102–112 101.5–112.5 107 19 0.32 32
113–123 112.5–123.5 118 22 0.37 54
124–134 123.5–134.5 129 3 0.05 57
135–145 134.5–145.5 140 3 0.05 60

(c)
Histogram of Circumference
25

20

15
Frequency

10

0
68.5 79.5 90.5 101.5 112.5 123.5 134.5 145.5
Circumference

(d)
Histogram of Circumference
40

30
Relative Frequency

20

10

0
68.5 79.5 90.5 101.5 112.5 123.5 134.5 145.5
Circumference

(e) This distribution is skewed left.

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28
 (f)

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100

50
Series1
0
68.5
79.5
90.5
101.5
112.5
123.5
134.5
(g) Answers vary.

16. (a) General torts occur most frequently.

Pareto Chart of Filings vs Type

200

150
Filings (1000s)

100

50

0
Torts Contracts Asbestos Other Product All Other

(b)
Pie Chart of Filings

All Other
Other Product 5.2%
9.4% Contracts
26.4%

Asbestos
12.1%

Torts
47.0%

17. (a) To determine the decade that contained the most samples, count both rows (if shown) of leaves; recall
that leaves 0–4 belong on the first line and leaves 5–9 belong on the second line when two lines per stem
are used. The greatest number of leaves is found on stem 124, i.e., the 1240s (the 40s decade in the
1200s), with 40 samples.
(b) The number of samples with tree-ring dates 1200 to 1239 A.D. is 28 + 3 + 19 + 25 = 75.
(c) The dates of the longest interval with no sample values are 1204 through 1211 A.D. This might mean that
for these 8 years, the pueblo was unoccupied (thus no new or repaired structures), or that the population
remained stable (no new structures needed), or that, say, weather conditions were favorable those years,

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so existing structures didn’t need repair. If relatively few new structures were built or repaired during this
period, their tree rings might have been missed during sample selection.

18. (a) It appears that the percentage of adults who consider using a cell phone while driving to be dangerous
increases as age increases.

29
(b) In each age category except the oldest group, a smaller percentage of people say they never use a cell

NOT FOR SALE

phone while driving than the percentage of people who say cell use while driving is very dangerous. If
people do not use a cell phone or do not drive, they may perceive that using a cell phone while driving is
dangerous than people who do use cell phones while driving. The differing survey populations make it
difficult to draw conclusions about inconsistencies in behavior and opinion.

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30
 Chapter 3: Averages and Variation

Section 3.1

1.
NOT FOR SALE
The middle value is the median. The most frequent value is the mode. The mean takes all values into account.

2. The symbol for the sample mean is x and the symbol for the population mean is μ.

3. First add up all the data values, then divide by the number of data.

4. First, arrange the data in order from smallest to largest.

8+ 2+7+ 2+6
5. =
The mean is x = 5 . The median is 6. The mode is 2.
5

10 + 12 + 20 + 15 + 20
=
6. The mean is x = 15.4 . The median is 15. The mode is 20.
5

8+ 2+7+ 2+6+5 5+6

=
7. The mean is x = 5 . The median is = 5.5 . The mode is 2.
6 2
8. (a) Yes, the sum of the data increases, causing the mean to increase.

(b) No, changing extreme data values does not affect the median.

(c) Yes, depending on which data value occurs most frequently after the data are changed.

9. (a) No, the sum of the data does not change.

(b) No, changing extreme data values does not change the median.

(c) Yes, depending on which data value occurs most frequently after the data are changed.

10. False. The median is the mean of the two middle values of a data set if there is an even number of
observations. If the two middle values are the same, the median will equal a value in the data set.

11. For a mound-shaped symmetrical data set, the values of the mean, median, and mode will all be approximately
equal.

12. (a) Mean, median, and mode (if it exists).

(b) Mode (if it exists).
(c) Mean, median, and mode (if it exists).

2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 5 19
13. (a) The mode is 5. The median is 4. The mean is =
x = = 3.8 .
5 5

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(b) Only the mode.
(c) All three make sense.
(d) The mode and the median.

70
14. (a) ∑ x = 5 (10 ) = 50; 50 + 20 = 70; New x =
6
≈ 11.67 .

31
 520
∑ x= 50 (10 ) = 500; 500 + 20 = 520; New x = ≈ 10.20 .

NOT FOR SALE

(b)
51
(c) Set A has fewer observations, so adding this new value affects the mean more significantly.

15. The supervisor is correct when expressing concern since at least half of the evaluations had the employee
ranked as poor or unacceptable. There should also be concern because the employee evaluations are very
inconsistent.

2 + 2 + 3 + 6 + 10
16. (a) The mode is 2. The median is =
3. The mean is x = 4.6 .
5
(b) Adding 5 to each value increases each measure of center by 5. Thus, the mode is 7, the median is 8, and
the mean is 9.6.
(c) In general, adding a constant to each value in a data set will add the same quantity to the mode, median,
and mean.
2 + 2 + 3 + 6 + 10
17. (a) The mode is 2. The median is =
3. The mean is x = 4.6 .
5
(b) Multiplying each value by 5 multiplies each measure of center by 5. Thus, the mode is 10, the median is
15, and the mean is 23.
(c) In general, multiplying each value in a data set by a constant will multiply each measure of center by the
same constant.
(d) The mode is 177.8 cm. The median is 172.72 cm. The mean is 180.34 cm.

18. (a) The mean would increase but the median would stay the same. The mean would increase because it is
based on the sum of all the values. The median would not change because the middle value did not
change.
(b) The mean would decrease but the median would not change.
(c) The mean and median would both decrease.

146 + 152 +  + 144

19. The mean is ≈ 167.3° F. For the median, first order the data set smallest to largest. Then
14
168 + 174
take the mean of the two middle values: = 171° F. The mode is 178° F.
2

13 + 10 +  + 8
=
20. The mean is x ≈ 6.2 . For the median, first order the data set smallest to largest. Then
18
5+7
take the mean of the two middle values: = 6 . The mode is 7.
2

21. First, organize the data from smallest to largest. Then compute the mean, median, and mode.

Upper Canyon 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 4 6 9

Lower Canyon 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 6 7 8 13 14

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1+1+ + 9
=
(a) The mean is x ≈ 3.27 . The median is in the middle position, 3. The mode is 3.
11

32
 0 + 0 +  + 14
(b) = ≈ 4.21 . The median is the mean of the two middle values,

NOT FOR SALE

The mean is x
14
2+2
= 2 . The mode is 1.
2
(c) The mean is greater for Lower Canyon but the median and mode are less.
(d) 5% of 14 is 0.7, which rounds to 1. So eliminate the smallest and largest value from the data set and
0 + 1 +  + 13
=
compute the mean of the remaining 12 values. The trimmed mean is x ≈ 3.75 . This
12
value is closer to the mean from Upper Canyon.

24 + 23 +  + 29 25 + 26
=
22. (a) The mean is x ≈ 26.3 years. The median is = 25.5 years. The mode
40 2
is 25 years.
(b) Since there might be one high outlier (37), the median is probably the best measure of center. Even so
the three values are fairly close.

89 + 50 +  + 130 65 + 68
=
23. (a) The mean is x = $136.15 . The median is = $66.50 . The mode is
20 2
$60.
(b) 5% of 20 data values is 1, so we remove the smallest and largest values and recalculate the mean. The
2183
trimmed mean=
is x ≈ $121.28 . Since there are large outliers, the trimmed mean may be a
18
more accurate measure of center than the mean.
(c) The median is probably the best value to report, but the travel agent should also inform the clients about
the high outliers as well.

24. The weighted average is

∑=
xw 10 ( 5 ) + 20 ( 3) + 30 ( 2 ) 170
= = 17 .
∑w 5+3+ 2 10

25. The weighted average is

∑=
xw 10 ( 2 ) + 20 ( 3) + 30 ( 5 ) 230
= = 23 .
∑w 2+3+5 10

=
26. The weighted average is
∑ xw 92=
( 25% ) + 81( 22.5% ) + 93 ( 22.5% ) + 85 ( 30% ) 87.65% .
∑w 25% + 22.5% + 22.5% + 30%

=
27. The weighted average is
∑ xw 9 ( 2 ) + 7 ( 3) + 6 (1) + 10 ( 4 )
= 8.5 .
∑w 2 + 3 +1+ 4

28. (a) The weighted average is

∑ xw 64.1( 38% ) + 75.8 ( 47% ) + 23.9 ( 7% ) + 68.2 ( 8% )

NOT FOR SALE

≈ 67.1 mg/l .
∑w 38% + 47% + 7% + 8%
(b) Based on these measurements, the amount of chlorine compound is too high.

33
 2
≈ 66.67 mph.

NOT FOR SALE

29. The harmonic mean is
1 1
+
60 75
5
30. The geometric mean is √1.10 × 1.12 × 1.148 × 1.038 × 1.06 ≈ 1.09247. This is the average growth factor.

Section 3.2
1. The mean is associated with the standard deviation.

2. The standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

3. Yes. When computing the sample standard deviation, divide by n −1. When computing the population
standard deviation, divide by N.
4. The sample standard deviation is s . The population standard deviation is σ.

5. (a) The range is 6−2 =4.

( 2 − 4) + (3 − 4) + ( 4 − 4) + (5 − 4) + ( 6 − 4)
2 2 2 2 2

(b) s ≈ 1.58 .
5 −1

( 2 − 4) + (3 − 4) + ( 4 − 4) + (5 − 4) + ( 6 − 4)
2 2 2 2 2

(c) σ ≈ 1.41 .
5

6. (a) The range is 5 − 1 =4 .

(1 − 3) + ( 2 − 3) + ( 3 − 3) + ( 4 − 3) + ( 5 − 3)
2 2 2 2 2

(b) s ≈ 1.58 .
5 −1

(1 − 3) + ( 2 − 3) + ( 3 − 3) + ( 4 − 3) + ( 5 − 3)
2 2 2 2 2

(c) σ ≈ 1.41 .
5

7. s will always be larger than σ. The denominator for

For a data set in which not all the data values are equal,
the sample standard deviation is n − 1 , which is smaller than n , resulting in a larger sample standard
deviation.

8. For a smaller n, the difference between s and σ will be greater. Thus, the difference between s and σ will be
greater if n is 20 versus if n is 50.

9. (a) Data set (i) has the smallest standards deviation, followed by (ii), and then (iii).
(b) The data change between data sets (i) and (ii) increased by the squared difference sum ∑ ( x − x )2 by 10,

NOT FOR SALE

whereas the data change between data sets (ii) and (iii) increased the squared difference sum ∑ ( x − x ) 2
by only 6.

34
 ∑(x − x )
2

NOT FOR SALE

=
10. (a) s ≈ 3.61 .
n −1
(b) Adding a constant to each data value does not change the standard deviation. Thus, s ≈ 3.61 .
(c) Shifting all data in a data set by a constant does not change the standard deviation.

∑(x − x )
2

=
11. (a) s ≈ 3.61 .
n −1

∑ ( x − x ) ≈ 18.05 .
2

=
(b) s
n −1
(c) Multiplying each value in a data set by a constant multiplies the standard deviation by that constant.
(d) You can simply multiply the standard deviation by 1.6. Thus, the new standard deviation is
3.1(1.6 ) = 4.96 km.

12. (a) No – a value of 80 is two standard deviations above the mean.

80 − 70
(b) Yes – a value of 80 is now ≈ 3.33 standard deviations above the mean.
3
13. (a) The range is 30 − 15 =
15 .
(b) Use a calculator.

(∑ x)
2
1102
∑x 2
− 2568 −
=
(c) s
2
= n = 5 =
37 . Then, s 37 ≈ 6.08 .
n −1 5 −1

( 23 − 22 ) + (17 − 22 ) + (15 − 22 ) + ( 30 − 22 ) + ( 25 − 22=

)
2 2 2 2 2
110 148
(d) =
x = 22 ; =
s2 = 37 .
5 5 −1 4

(e) To calculate the population standard deviation, divide by 5 instead of 5 − 1 =4 . Therefore,

148
σ2
= =
= 29.6 , and σ 29.6 ≈ 5.44 .
5

s 3
14. (a) CV= = = 20% .
x 15
(b) A 75% Chebyshev interval corresponds to ±2 standard deviations. Therefore, the interval will be:
15 ± 2 s = 15 ± 2 ( 3) = 15 ± 6 = ( 9, 21) .

σ 2
15. (a) CV= = = 10% .
µ 20
±3

NOT FOR SALE

(b) An 88.9% Chebyshev interval corresponds to standard deviations. Therefore, the interval will be:
20 ± 3σ = 20 ± 3 ( 2 ) = 20 ± 6 = (14, 26 ) .

16. (a) ∑x= 11 + 0 +  + ( −21) = 103

35
 ∑ x = 11 + 0 +  + ( −21) = 4607
2 2 2 2

NOT FOR SALE

∑ y = 10 + ( −2 ) +  + ( −10 ) = 90
∑ y = 10 + ( −2 ) +  + ( −10 ) = 2258
2 2 2 2

(∑ x)
2
1032
103 ∑ x
n
4607 − 2
−
10 ≈ 394.0 , s ≈ 394.0 ≈ 19.85 .
(b) For x,=
x = = 10.3 , s 2 =
10 n −1 10 − 1

(∑ y)
2
902
90 ∑y n
2258 − 2
−
10 ≈ 160.8 , s ≈ 160.8 ≈ 12.68 .
y =
For y, = = 9 , s2 =
10 n −1 10 − 1

(c) For x, 10.3 ± 2 (19.85) =( −29.4,50 ) .

For y, 9 ± 2 (12.68 ) =
( −16.36,34.36 ) .
For both funds, the interval captures at least 75% of the returns falling inside the intervals given.
19.85 12.68
(d) For x,=
CV = 192.7% , and for y,=
CV = 140.9% . The balanced fund has lower
10.3 9
risk.

17. (a) The range is 7.89 − 0.02 =

7.87 .
(b) Use a calculator.
( Σx ) 2 (62.11) 2
Σx 62.11 Σx 2 − n 164.23 − 50
(c) =
x = ≈ 1.24 , s 2 =
= ≈ 1.78 , s ≈ 1.78 ≈ 1.33 .
n 50 n −1 50 − 1
1.33
(d) =
CV ≈ 107.3% . The standard deviation of the time to failure is just slightly larger than the
1.24
average time to failure.

x x2 y y2

13.20 174.24 11.85 140.42

5.60 31.36 15.25 232.56

19.80 392.04 21.30 453.69

15.05 226.50 17.30 299.29

NOT FOR SALE

21.40 457.96 27.50 756.25

17.25 297.56 10.35 107.12

27.45 753.50 14.90 222.01

36
18. (a) 16.95 287.30 48.70 2371.69

NOT FOR SALE

23.90 571.21 25.40 645.16

32.40 1049.76 25.95 673.40

40.75 1660.56 57.60 3317.76

5.10 26.01 34.35 1179.92

17.75 315.06 38.80 1505.44

28.35 803.72 41.00 1681.00

31.25 976.56

Σx =284.95 Σx 2 =
7046.80 Σy =421.5 Σy 2 =
14,562.27

( Σx ) 2 (284.95) 2
Σx 284.95 Σx 2 − n 7046.80 −
(b) Grid E: =
x = = =
20.35 , s 2 = 14
≈ 96=
, s =
s2 96 ≈ 9.80
n 14 n −1 14 − 1

( Σy ) 2 (421.5)2
Σy 421.5 Σy 2 − n 14,562.27 −
Grid H: =
y = == 28.1 , s 2 = 15
≈ 194=
, s =
s2 194 ≈ 13.93
n 15 n −1 15 − 1

(c) x − 2=
s 20.35 − 2(9.80)= 0.75
x + 2=
s 20.35 + 2(9.80)= 39.95
For Grid E, at least 75% of the data fall in the interval 0.75–39.95.

y − 2 s = 28.1 − 2(13.93) = 0.24

y + 2 s = 28.1 + 2(13.93) = 55.96
For Grid H, at least 75% of the data fall in the interval 0.24–55.96.
Grid H shows a wider 75% range of values.

s 9.80
(d) Grid E: CV = ⋅100 = ⋅100 ≈ 48%
x 20.35
s 13.93
Grid H: CV = ⋅100 = ⋅100 ≈ 49%
y 28.1
Grid H demonstrates slightly greater variability per expected signal. The CV, together with the interval,
indicates that Grid H might have more buried artifacts.

19. (a) Students verify results with a calculator.

NOT FOR SALE

( Σx ) 2 (245) 2
Σx 245 Σx 2 − n 14, 755 −
(b) =
x = = = 49 , s = 5
≈ 26.22
= , s 2 26.222 ≈ 687.49
n 5 n −1 5 −1

37
 ( Σy ) 2 (224) 2
Σy 2 − n 12, 070 −

NOT FOR SALE

Σy 224
(c) =
y = = = 44.8 , s = 5
≈ 22.55
= , s 2 22.552 ≈ 508.50
n 5 n −1 5 −1

s 26.22
(d) Mallard nest: CV = ⋅100 = ⋅100 ≈ 53.5%
x 49
s 22.55
Canada Goose nest: CV = ⋅100 = ⋅100 ≈ 50.3%
y 44.8
The CV gives the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean. With respect to their means, the variation
for the mallards is slightly higher than the variation for the Canada geese.

s 14.05
20. (a) Pax CV = ⋅100 = ⋅100 ≈ 146.7%
x 9.58
s 12.50
Vanguard CV = ⋅100 = ⋅100 ≈ 138.6%
x 9.02

Vanguard fund has slightly less risk per unit of return.

(b) Pax: x − 2 s =
9.58 − 2(14.05) =
−18.52
x + 2 s = 9.58 + 2(14.05) = 37.68
At least 75% of returns for Pax fall within the interval −18.52% to 37.68%.

Vanguard: x − 2 s =
9.02 − 2(12.50) =
−15.98
x + 2 s = 9.02 + 2(12.50) = 34.02
At least 75% of the returns for Vanguard fall within in the interval −15.98% to 34.02%.
Vanguard has a narrower range of returns, with less downside, but also less upside.

s x ⋅ CV 2.2 (1.5 )
21. CV = ⋅100
= , s = = 0.033 .
x 100 100

22.
Class f x xf x−x ( x − x )2 ( x − x )2 f
1–10 34 5.5 187 −10.6 112.36 3820.24
11–20 18 15.5 279 −0.6 0.36 6.48
21–30 17 25.5 433.5 9.4 88.36 1502.12
31 and 11 35.5 390.5 19.4 76.36 4139.96
n=∑f = ∑ xf = ∑(x − x ) f =
2
80 1290 9468.8

∑ xf 1290
=x = ≈ 16.1
n 80
∑ ( x − x ) f 9468.8
2
=s2 = ≈ 119.9
n −1

NOT FOR SALE

79
=s 119.9 ≈ 10.95

38
 Class f x xf x−x ( x − x )2 ( x − x )2
f

NOT FOR SALE

23.
21–30 260 25.5 6630 −10.3 106.09 27,583.4
31–40 348 35.5 12,354 −0.3 0.09 31.3
41 and over 287 45.5 13,058.5 9.7 94.09 27,003.8
n=∑f = ∑ xf = ∑(x − x ) f =
2
895 32,042.5 54,619

∑ xf 32,042.5
=x = ≈ 35.80
n 895
∑ ( x − x ) ⋅ f 54,619
2
=s2 = ≈ 61.1
n −1 894
=s 61.1 ≈ 7.82

24. x f xf x2 f
3.5 2 7 24.5
4.5 2 9 40.5
5.5 4 22 121.0
6.5 22 143 929.5
7.5 64 480 3,600.0
8.5 90 765 6,502.5
9.5 14 133 1,263.5
10.5 2 21 220.5
∑f =
200 ∑ xf =
1,580 ∑ x2 f =
12,702

∑ xf 1,580
=x = = 7.9
n 200
( ∑ xf )2 (1,580 )2
SS x =
∑ x2 f − =
12,702 − =
220
n 200
SS x 220
=s = ≈ 1.05
n −1 199
s 1.05
=
CV = 100 100 ≈ 13.29%
x 7.9

25. Class f x xf x−x ( x − x )2 ( x − x )2 f

8.6–12.5 15 10.55 158.25 −5.05 25.502 382.537
12.6–16.5 20 14.55 291.00 −1.05 1.102 22.050
16.6–20.5 5 18.55 92.75 2.95 8.703 43.513

NOT FOR SALE

20.6–24.5 7 22.55 157.85 6.95 48.303 338.118
24.6–28.5 3 26.55 79.65 10.95 19.903 359.708
n=∑f = ∑ xf = ∑(x − x ) f =
2
50 779.5 1,145.9

39
 ∑ xf 779.5
= = ≈ 15.6

NOT FOR SALE

x
n 50
∑ ( x − x ) f 1,145.9
2
=s 2
= ≈ 23.4
n −1 49
= s 23.4 ≈ 4.8

26. (a) Students can use a calculator to verify the calculations.

1.78 + 17.79 + 7.46
=
(b) For 1992, x = 9.01
3
17.49 + 6.80 − 2.38
=
For 2000, x = 7.30
3
(c) Students can use a calculator to verify the calculations.
(d) The 3-year moving averages have approximately the same mean as computed in part (a), but the standard
deviation is much smaller.

27.
∑(x − x ) ∑ ( x2 − 2 xx + x 2 )= ∑ x2 − ∑ 2 xx + ∑ x 2 =
2
=

∑ x2 − 2 x ∑ x + nx 2 = ∑ x2 − 2 xnx + nx 2 =

∑x
2

∑ x 2 - 2nx 2 + nx 2 = ∑ x 2 − nx 2 = ∑ x2 − n  n  =
 

(∑ x)
2

∑x 2
−
n

28. (a) n1 ≈ 10; n2 ≈ 56; n3 ≈ 34

(b) µ ≈ 103.2 lb

29. (a) n1 ≈ 59; n2 ≈ 23; n3 ≈ 168

(b) µ ≈ 7.46

30. (a) n1 ≈ 34; n2 ≈ 69; n3 ≈ 47

(b) µ ≈ 88.43

Section 3.3
1. 82% of the scores were at or below her score. 100% − 82% = 18% of the scores were above her score.

2.

3. NOT FOR SALE

The upper quartile is the 75th percentile. Therefore, the minimum percentile rank must be the 75th percentile.

No, the score 82 might have a percentile rank less than 70. Raw scores are not necessarily equal to percentile
scores.

40
4. Timothy performed better because a percentile rank of 72 is greater than a percentile rank of 70.

NOT FOR SALE

5. (a) The low is 2, Q1 = 5 , the median is 7, Q3 = 8.5 , and the high is 10.
(b) IQR = 8.5 − 5= 3.5 .
(c)
Box-and-Whisker Plot

10

6. (a) The low is 2, Q1 = 5 , the median is 7.5, Q3 = 9 , and the high is 12.
(b) IQR = 9 − 5 = 4
(c)
Box-and-Whisker Plot

12

10

7. Order the data from smallest to largest.

Lowest value = 2
Highest value = 42
There are 20 data values.

23 + 23
=
Median = 23
2
There are 10 values less than the Q2 position and 10 values greater than the Q2 position.

8 + 11
=
Q1 = 9.5
2
28 + 29
=Q3 = 28.5

NOT FOR SALE

2
IQR = Q3 − Q1 = 28.5 − 9.5 = 19

41
 Boxplot of Months for Nurses

NOT FOR SALE

40

30
Months

20

10

8. (a) Order the data from smallest to largest.

Lowest value = 3
Highest value = 72

There are 20 data values.

22 + 24
=
Median = 23
2

There are 10 values less than the median and 10 values greater than the median.

15 + 17
=Q1 = 16
2
29 + 31
=Q3 = 30
2
IQR = Q3 − Q1 = 30 − 16 = 14

Boxplot of Months for Staff

80

70

60

50
Months

40

30

20

10

(b) The median for nurses and clerical workers is 23 months. The upper half of the data for the nurses falls
between values of 23 and 42 months, whereas the upper half of the data for the clerical workers falls
between 23 and 72 months. The distance between Q3 and the maximum for nurses is 13.5 months; for
clerical workers, this distance is 42 months. The distance between Q1 and the minimum for nurses is 7.5

NOT FOR SALE

months; for clerical workers, this distance is 13 months.

42
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
which all these impressions are made, and from which reactions
come. Suppose there is something outside. I see the blackboard.
How does the knowledge come? The blackboard itself is unknown, I
can never know it. It is what the German philosophers call the “thing
in itself.” That blackboard, that “X,” is acting on my mind, and the
chitta reacts. The chitta is like a lake; throw a stone upon it, and as
soon as the stone strikes it a reactionary wave comes towards the
stone. This wave is what you really know. And this wave is not like
the stone at all, it is a wave. So that blackboard, “X,” is the stone
which strikes the mind and the mind throws up a wave towards that
object which strikes it, and this wave which is thrown towards it is
what we call the blackboard. I see you. You as reality are unknown
and unknowable. You are “X” and you act upon my mind, and the
mind throws a wave towards the point from which the action came,
and that wave is what I call Mr. or Mrs. So-and-So.
There are two elements in this, one from inside and the other from
outside, and the combination of these two, “X” plus mind, is our
external universe. All knowledge is by reaction. In the case of a
whale it has been determined by calculation how long after its tail is
struck, its mind reacts upon the tail and the tail feels the pain. Take
the case of the pearl oyster, in which the pearl is formed by the
oyster throwing its own juice around the grain of sand that enters the
shell and irritates him. There are two things which cause the pearl.
First the oyster’s own juice, and second the blow from outside. So
this table is “X” plus my mind. The very attempt to know it will be
made by the mind; therefore the mind will give some of its own
substance to enable it to understand, and when we understand it, it
has become a compound thing,—“X” plus the mind. Similarly in
internal perception; when we want to know ourselves. The real Self,
which is within us, is also unknown and unknowable. Let us call it
“Y.” When I want to know myself as Mr. So-and-So it is “Y” plus the
mind. That “Y” strikes a blow on the mind, and when I want to know
myself I must throw a blow upon the mind also. So our whole world
is “X” plus mind (the external world), and “Y” plus mind (the internal
world). We shall see later how this Advaitist idea can be
demonstrated mathematically.
“X” and “Y” are simply the algebraic unknown quantities. We have
seen that all knowledge is a combination, and this world, the
universe, is a combination, and intelligence is similarly a
combination. If it is internal intelligence it is “Y” plus the mind, if an
external object, it is “X” plus the mind. Knowledge is a combination of
“Y” plus the mind and matter is a combination of “X” plus the mind.
We first take the internal group. Intelligence which we see in Nature
cannot be wholly in Nature, because intelligence itself is a compound
of “Y” plus the mind. “Y” comes from the Self. So the intelligence that
we know is a compound of the power of the light of the soul plus
nature. Similarly, the existence which we know must be a compound
of “X” plus the mind. We find therefore that in these three factors, I
exist, I know and I am blessed, the idea that I have no want, which
comes from time to time, is the central idea, the grand basic idea of
our life, and when it becomes limited, and becomes a compound, we
think it happiness and misery. These factors manifest as existence
phenomenal, knowledge phenomenal, and love phenomenal. Every
man exists, and every man must know, and every man is made for
bliss. He cannot help it. So through all existence; animals and plants,
from the lowest to the highest existence, all must love. You may not
call it love; but they must all exist, must all know and must all love.
So this existence which we know is a compound of “X” and the mind,
and knowledge also is a compound of that “Y” inside plus mind, and
that love also is a compound of that “Y” and mind. Therefore these
three factors which come from inside and are combining themselves
with the external things to manufacture phenomenal existence,
knowledge and love, are called by the Vedantists “Existence
Absolute, Knowledge Absolute, Bliss Absolute.”
That Absolute Existence which is limitless, which is unmixed,
uncombined, which knows no change, is the free soul, and that Real
Existence, when it gets mixed up, muddled up, as it were, with the
elements of Nature is what we call human existence. It is limited and
manifests as plant life, animal life, human life, just as infinite space is
apparently limited by the walls of this room, or by any other
enclosure. That Knowledge Absolute means not the knowledge we
know, not intelligence, not reason, not instinct, but that which when it
becomes manifested we call by these names. When that Knowledge
Absolute becomes limited we call it intuition, and when it becomes
still more limited we call it reason, instinct, etc. That Knowledge
Absolute is Vijnâna. The nearest translation of it is “all-knowingness.”
There is no combination in it. It is the nature of the soul. That Bliss
Absolute when it becomes limited we call love, attraction for the
gross body, or the fine bodies, or for ideas. These are but distorted
manifestations of this blessedness which is not a quality of the soul,
but the essence, the inherent nature of the soul. Absolute Existence,
Absolute Knowledge, and Absolute Blessedness are not qualities of
the soul, but its essence; there is no difference between them and
the soul. And the three are one; we see the one thing in three
different lights. They are beyond all knowledge and by their reflection
Nature appears to be intelligent.
It is that eternal Knowledge Absolute of the Self percolating through
the mind of man that becomes our reason and intelligence. It varies
according to the medium through which it is shining. There is no
difference as soul between me and the lowest animal, only his brain
is a poorer medium through which the knowledge shines, and we call
it instinct. In man the brain is much finer, so the manifestation is
much clearer, and in the highest man it has become entirely clear,
like a piece of glass. So with existence; this existence which we
know, this limited bit of existence is simply a reflection of that
Existence Absolute which is the nature of the soul. So with bliss; that
which we call love or attraction is but the reflection of the eternal
blessedness of the Self, because with these manifestations come
limitations, but the unmanifested, the natural, essential existence of
the soul is unlimited, to that blessedness there can be no limit. But in
human love there are limitations. I may love you one day, I may
cease to love you the next. My love increases one day, decreases
the next, because it is only a limited manifestation. The first thing
therefore that we find against Kapila is that he conceives the soul to
be a mere qualitiless, colorless, inactive something. Vedânta teaches
that it is the essence of all Existence, Knowledge, and Bliss; infinitely
higher than all knowledge that we know, infinitely more blessed than
any human love that we can think of, infinitely existing. The soul
never dies. Death and birth are simply unthinkable in connection with
the Self, because it is Existence Absolute.
The second point where we will contend with Kapila is with regard to
his idea of God. Just as this series of limited manifestations of
Nature, beginning with the individual intellect and ending with the
individual body, requires the Self behind as the ruler and governor on
the throne, so in the Cosmos, we must enquire what the universal
Intelligence, the universal Mind, the universal fine and gross
materials have as their ruler and governor? How will that series
become complete without one universal Self behind it as its ruler and
governor? If we deny that there is a universal governor, we must
deny there is a soul behind the lesser series, because the whole
universe is a repetition of the same plan. When we know one lump of
clay we know the nature of all clay. If we can analyze one human
being, we shall have analyzed the whole universe, because it is all
built on the same plan. Therefore if it be true that behind this
individual series there stands one who is beyond all nature, who is
not composed of materials, the purusha, the very same logic will
apply to this universe, and this universe too will require such a Soul.
The Universal Soul which is behind the modifications of Nature is
called by Vedânta Isvara, the Supreme Ruler, God.
Now comes the more difficult point to fight. There can be but one
Soul. To begin with, we can give the Sânkhyas a good blow by taking
up their theories and proving that each soul must be omnipresent,
because it is not composed of anything. Everything that is limited
must be limited by something else. Here is the existence of the table.
Its existence is circumscribed by many things, and we find that every
limitation presupposes some limiting thing. If we think of space, we
have to think of it as a little circle, but beyond that is more space. We
cannot imagine a limited space in any other way. It can only be
understood and perceived through the infinite. To perceive the finite,
in every case we must apprehend the infinite; both stand or fall
together. When you think of time, you have also to think of time
beyond any particular period of time. The latter is limited time and
the larger is unlimited time. Wherever you endeavor to perceive the
finite, you will find it impossible to separate it from the infinite. If this
be the case, we shall prove thereby that this Self must be infinite,
omnipresent. Then comes a fine question. Can the omnipresent, the
infinite be two? Suppose there are two infinites, one will limit the
other. Suppose there are two infinites,—A and B; the infinite “A”
limits the infinite “B,” because the infinite “B” you can say is not the
infinite “A,” and the infinite “A” it can be said is not the infinite “B.”
Therefore there can be but one infinite. Secondly, the infinite cannot
be divided. Infinity divided into any number of parts must still be
infinity, for it cannot be separated from itself. Suppose there is an
infinite ocean of water, could you take up one drop from there? If you
could, that ocean would no longer be infinite, that drop would limit it.
The infinite cannot be divided by any means.
But there are stronger proofs that the Self is One. Not only so, but
that the whole universe is one. We will once more take up our “X”
and “Y”. We have shown how what we call the external world is “X”
plus mind, and the internal world “Y” plus mind. “X” and “Y” are both
unknown quantities, unknown and unknowable. What is the mind?
The mind is the “time, space and causation.” This idea is the nature
of the mind. You can never think without time, you can never
conceive of anything without space, and you can never imagine
anything without causation. These three are the forms in which both
“X” and “Y” are caught, and which become the mind. Beyond that
there is nothing to the mind. Take off these three forms which of
themselves do not exist,—what remains? It is all one; “X” and “Y” are
one. It is only this mind, this form, that has limited them apparently,
and made them differ as internal and external world. “X” and “Y” are
both unknown and unknowable. We cannot attribute any quality to
them. As such they are both the same. That which is qualitiless and
attributeless and absolute must be one. There cannot be two
absolutes. When there are no qualities there can be only One. “X”
and “Y” are both without qualities because they take qualities only in
the mind, therefore this “X” and “Y” are one.
The whole universe is One. There is only One Self in the universe,
only One Existence, and that One Existence, when it is passing
through the forms of time, space and causation, is called buddhi, fine
matter, gross matter, etc. All physical and mental forms, everything in
the universe is that One, appearing in various ways. When a little bit
of it gets into this network of time, space and causation, it apparently
takes forms; remove the network and it is all One. This whole
universe is all one, and is called in the Advaitist philosophy
Brahman. Brahman appearing behind the universe is called God;
appearing behind the little universe—the microcosm, is the soul. This
very “Self” or Âtman therefore is God in man. There is only one
Purusha, and He is called God, and when God and man are
analyzed they are one. The universe is you yourself, the unbroken
you; you are throughout this universe. “In all hands you work,
through all mouths you eat, through all nostrils you breathe, through
all minds you think.” The whole universe is you; this universe is your
body; you are the universe, both formed and unformed. You are the
soul of the universe, its body also. You are God, you are the angels,
you are man, you are the animals, you are the plants, you are the
minerals, you are everything; all manifestation is you. Whatever
exists is you—the real “You”—the one undivided Self—not the little,
limited personality that you have been regarding as yourself.
The question now arises,—how have you, that Infinite Being, broken
into parts, become Mr. So-and-So, and the animals and so on? The
answer is that all this division is only apparent. We know that the
infinite cannot be divided, therefore this idea that you are a part has
no reality, and never will have: and this idea that you are Mr. So-and-
So was never true at any time; it is but a dream. Know this and be
free. That is the Advaitist conclusion. “I am neither the mind, nor the
body, nor am I the organs; I am Existence-Knowledge-Bliss
Absolute; I am He, I am He,” This is knowledge, and everything
besides this is ignorance. Everything that is, is but ignorance, the
result of ignorance. Where is knowledge for me, for I am knowledge
itself! Where is life for me, for I am life itself! Life is a secondary
manifestation of my nature. I am sure I live, for I am life, the one
Being, and nothing exists except through me, and in me, and as me.
I am manifested through elements, but I am the one free. Who seeks
freedom? Nobody seeks freedom. If you think that you are bound,
you remain bound; you make your own bondage. If you realize that
you are free, you are free this moment. This is knowledge,
knowledge of freedom. Freedom is the goal of all Nature.
 IV
THE FREE SOUL
We have seen that the analysis of the Sânkhyas stops with the
duality of existence, Nature and souls. There are an infinite number
of souls, which, being simple, cannot die, and must therefore be
separate from Nature. Nature in itself changes and manifests all
these phenomena, and the soul, according to the Sânkhyas is
inactive. It is a simple by itself, and Nature works out all these
phenomena for the liberation of the soul, and liberation consists in
the soul discriminating that it is not Nature. At the same time we
have seen that the Sânkhyas were bound to admit that every soul
was omnipresent. Being a simple the soul cannot be limited,
because all limitation comes either through time, space, or
causation. The soul being entirely beyond these cannot have any
limitation. To have limitation one must be in space, which means the
body, and that which is body must be in Nature. If the soul had form,
it would be identified with Nature; therefore the soul is formless, and
that which is formless cannot be said to exist here, there, or
anywhere. It must be omnipresent. Beyond this the Sânkhya
philosophy does not go.
The first argument of the Vedantists against this is that this analysis
is not a perfect one. If this Nature be a simple, and the soul is also a
simple, there will be two simples, and all the arguments that apply in
the case of the soul to show that it is omnipresent, will apply in the
case of Nature, and Nature too will be beyond all time, space, and
causation, and as the result there will be no change or manifestation.
Then will come the difficulty of having two simples, or two absolutes,
which is impossible. What is the solution of the Vedantist? His
solution is that, just as the Sânkhyas say, it requires some sentient
being as the motive power behind, which makes the mind think and
Nature work, because Nature in all its modifications, from gross
matter up to Mahat (Intelligence) is simply insentient. Now, says the
Vedantist, this sentient being which is behind the whole universe is
what we call God, and consequently this universe is not different
from Him. It is He Himself who has become this universe. He not
only is the instrumental cause of this universe, but also the material
cause. Cause is never different from effect, the effect is but the
cause reproduced in another form. We see that every day. So this
Being is the cause of Nature. All the forms and phases of Vedânta,
either dualistic, or qualified-monistic, or monistic, first take this
position,—that God is not only the instrumental but also the efficient
cause of this universe, that everything which exists is He. The
second step in Vedânta is that these souls are also a part of God,
one spark of that Infinite Fire. “As from a mass of fire millions of
small particles fly, even so from this Ancient One have come all
these souls.” So far so good, but it does not yet satisfy. What is
meant by a part of the Infinite? The Infinite is indivisible; there cannot
be parts of the Infinite. The Absolute cannot be divided. What is
meant therefore that all these sparks are from Him? The Advaitist,
the non-dualistic Vedantist, solves the problem by maintaining that
there is really no part; that each soul is really not a part of the
Infinite, but actually is the Infinite Brahman. Then how can there be
so many? The sun reflected from millions of globules of water
appears to be millions of suns, and in each globule is a miniature
picture of the sun-form; so all these souls are but reflections and not
real. They are not the real “I” which is the God of this universe, the
one undivided Being of the universe. And all these little different
beings, men and animals, etc., are but reflections, and not real. They
are simply illusory reflections upon Nature. There is but one Infinite
Being in the universe, and that Being appears as you and as I, but
this appearance of division is after all delusion. He has not been
divided, but only appears to be divided. This apparent division is
caused by looking at Him through the network of time, space, and
causation. When I look at God through the network of time, space,
and causation, I see Him as the material world. When I look at Him
from a little higher plane, yet through the same network, I see Him as
an animal, a little higher as a man, a little higher as a god, but yet He
is the One Infinite Being of the universe, and that Being we are. I am
That, and you are That. Not parts of It, but the whole of It. “It is the
Eternal Knower standing behind the whole phenomena; He Himself
is the phenomena.” He is both the subject and the object, He is the
“I” and the “You.” How is this? “How to know the knower?” The
Knower cannot know himself. I see everything but cannot see
myself. The Self, the Knower, the Lord of all, the Real Being, is the
cause of all the vision that is in the universe, but it is impossible for
Him to see Himself or know Himself, excepting through reflection.
You cannot see your own face excepting in a mirror, and so the Self
cannot see its own nature until it is reflected, and this whole universe
therefore is the Self trying to realize Itself. This reflection is thrown
back first from the protoplasm, then from plants and animals, and so
on and on from better and better reflectors, until the best reflector,—
the perfect man,—is reached. Just as a man who, wanting to see his
face, looks first in a little pool of muddy water, and sees just an
outline. Then he comes to clearer water, and sees a better image,
then to a piece of shining metal, and sees a still better image, and at
last to a looking-glass, and sees himself reflected as he is. Therefore
the perfect man is the highest reflection of that Being, who is both
subject and object. You now find why man instinctively worships
everything, and how perfect men are instinctively worshipped as God
in every country. You may talk as you like, but it is they who are
bound to be worshipped. That is why men worship Incarnations,
such as Christ or Buddha. They are the most perfect manifestations
of the eternal Self. They are much higher than all the conceptions of
God that you or I can make. A perfect man is much higher than such
conceptions. In him the circle becomes complete; the subject and
the object become one. In him all delusions go away and in their
place comes the realization that he has always been that perfect
Being. How came this bondage then? How was it possible for this
perfect Being to degenerate into the imperfect? How was it possible
that the free became bound? The Advaitist says he was never
bound, but was always free. Various clouds of various colors come
before the sky. They remain there a minute and then pass away. It is
the same eternal blue sky stretching there forever. The sky never
changes; it is the cloud that is changing. So you are always perfect,
eternally perfect. Nothing ever changes your nature, or ever will. All
these ideas that I am imperfect, I am a man, or a woman, or a sinner,
or I am the mind, I have thought, I will think, all are hallucinations;
you never think, you never had a body; you never were imperfect.
You are the blessed Lord of this universe, the one Almighty ruler of
everything that is and ever will be, the one mighty ruler of these suns
and stars and moons and earths and plants, and all the little bits of
our universe. It is through you the sun shines, and the stars shed
their lustre, and the earth becomes beautiful. It is through your
blessedness that they all love and are attracted to each other. You
are in all, and you are all. Whom to avoid, and whom to take? You
are the all in all. When this knowledge comes delusion immediately
vanishes.
I was once travelling in the desert in India. I travelled for over a
month and always found the most beautiful landscapes before me,
beautiful lakes and all that. One day I was very thirsty and I wanted
to have a drink at one of these lakes, but when I approached that
lake it vanished. Immediately with a blow came into my brain the
idea that this was a mirage about which I had read all my life, and
then I remembered and smiled at my folly, that for the last month all
the beautiful landscapes and lakes I had been seeing were this
mirage, but I could not distinguish them then. The next morning I
again began my march; there was the lake and the landscape, but
with it immediately came the idea, “This is a mirage.” Once known it
had lost its powers of illusion. So this illusion of the universe will
break one day. The whole of this will vanish, melt away. This is
realization. Philosophy is no joke or talk. It will be realized; this body
will vanish, this earth and everything will vanish, this idea that I am
the body, or the mind, will for some time vanish, or if the Karma is
ended it will disappear never to come back; but if one part of the
Karma remains,—as a potter’s wheel after the potter has finished the
pot, will sometimes go on from the past momentum—so this body,
when this delusion has vanished altogether, will go on for some time.
Again this world will come, men and women and animals will come,
just as the mirage came the next day, but not with the same force,
along with it will come the idea that I know its nature now, and it will
cause no bondage, no more pain, nor grief, nor misery. Whenever
anything miserable will come, the mind will be able to say, “I know
you as hallucination.” When a man has reached that state he is
called jivan mukta, “living free,” free even while living. The aim and
end in this life for the Jnâna Yogi is to become this jivan mukta, living
freedom. He is jivan mukta who can live in this world without being
attached. He is like the lotus leaves in water, which are never wet by
the water. He is the highest of human beings, nay, the highest of all
beings, for he has realized his identity with the Absolute, he has
realized that he is one with God. So long as you think you have the
least difference from God, fear will seize you, but when you have
known that you are He, that there is no difference, entirely no
difference, that you are He, all of Him, and the whole of Him, all fear
ceases. “There who sees whom? Who worships whom? Who talks to
whom? Who hears whom? Where one sees another, where one
talks to another, where one hears another, it is in law. Where none
sees none, where none speaks to none that is the highest, that is the
great, that is the Brahman.” Being That, you are always That. What
will become of the world then? What good shall we do to the world?
Such questions do not arise. “What becomes of my gingerbread if I
become old?” says the baby. “What becomes of my marbles if I
grow, so I will not grow,” says the boy. “What will become of my dolls
if I grow old?” says the little child. It is the same question in
connection with this world; it has no existence in the past, present, or
future. If we have known the Âtman as It is, if we have known that
there is nothing else but this Âtman, that everything else is but a
dream, with no existence in reality, then this world with its poverties,
its miseries, its wickedness and its goodness will cease to disturb us.
If they do not exist, for whom and for what shall we take trouble?
This is what the Jnâna Yogis teach. Therefore, dare to be free, dare
to go as far as your thought leads, and dare to carry that out in your
life. It is very hard to come to jnânam. It is for the bravest and most
daring, who dare to smash all idols, not only intellectual, but in the
senses. This body is not I; it must go. All sorts of curious things may
come out of this. A man stands up and says I am not the body,
therefore my headache must be cured, but where is the headache if
not in his body? Let a thousand headaches and a thousand bodies
come and go. What is that to me? “I have neither birth nor death;
father nor mother I never had; friends and foes I have none, because
they are all I; I am my own friend and I am my own enemy; I am
Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute; I am He, I am He.” If in a
thousand bodies I am suffering from fever and other ills, in millions of
bodies I am healthy. If in a thousand bodies I am starving, in other
thousand bodies I am feasting. If in thousands of bodies I am
suffering misery, in thousands of bodies I am happy. Who shall
blame whom, who praise whom? Whom to seek, whom to avoid? I
seek none, nor avoid any, for I am all the universe, I praise myself, I
blame myself, I suffer for myself, I am happy at my own will, I am
free. This is the Jnâni, brave and daring. Let the whole universe
tumble down; he smiles and says it never existed. It was all an
hallucination; we see the universe tumble down; where was it?
Where has it gone?
Before going into the practical part, we will take up one more
intellectual question. So far the logic is tremendously rigorous. If man
reasons, there is no place for him to stand until he comes to this, that
there is but One Existence, that everything else is nothing. There is
no other way left for rational mankind but to take this view. But how
is it that what is infinite, ever perfect, ever blessed, Existence-
Knowledge-Bliss Absolute has come under these delusions? It is the
same question that has been asked all the world over. In the vulgar
form the question becomes “How did sin come into this world?” This
is the most vulgar and sensuous form of the question, and the other
is the more philosophic form, but the answer is the same. The same
question has been asked in various grades and fashions, but in its
lower forms it finds no solution, because the stories of apples and
serpents and women do not give the explanation. In that state, the
question is childish and so is the answer. But the question has
assumed very high proportions now. “How this illusion came?” And
the answer is as fine. The answer is that we cannot expect any
answer to an impossible question. The very question is impossible in
terms. You have no right to ask that question. Why? What is
perfection? That which is beyond time, space and causation. That is
perfect. Then you ask how the perfect became imperfect. In logical
language the question may be put in this form—“How did that which
is beyond causation become caused?” You contradict yourself. You
first admit it is beyond causation, and then ask what causes it. This
question can only be asked within the limits of causation. As far as
time and space and causation extend, so far can this question be
asked. But beyond that it will be nonsense to ask it, because the
question is illogical. Within time, space and causation it can never be
answered, and what answer may lie beyond these limits can only be
known when we have transcended them, therefore the wise will let
this question rest. When a man is ill, he devotes himself to curing his
disease, without insisting that he must first learn how he came to
have it.
There is another form of this question, a little lower, but more
practical and illustrative. What produced this delusion? Can any
reality produce delusion? Certainly not. We see that one delusion
produces another, and so on. It is delusion always that produces
delusion. It is disease that produces disease, and not health that
produces disease. The wave is the same thing as the water, the
effect is the cause in another form. The effect is delusion, and
therefore the cause must be delusion. What produced this delusion?
Another delusion. And so on without beginning. The only question
that remains for you to ask is, does not this break your monism,
because you get two existences in the universe, one yourself, and
the other the delusion? The answer is,—delusion cannot be called
an existence. Thousands of dreams come into your life, but do not
form any part of your life. Dreams come and go; they have no
existence; to call delusion existence will be sophistry. Therefore
there is only one individual existence in the universe, ever free, and
ever blessed, and that is what you are. This is the last conclusion
reached by the Advaitists. It may then be asked, what becomes of all
these various forms of worship? They will remain; they are simply
groping in the dark for light, and through this groping light will come.
We have just seen that the Self cannot see Itself. Our knowledge is
within the network of Mâyâ (unreality), and beyond that is freedom;
within the network there is slavery, it is all under law. Beyond that
there is no law. So far as the universe is concerned, existence is
ruled by law, and beyond that is freedom. As long as you are in the
network of time, space and causation, to say you are free is
nonsense, because in that network all is under rigorous law,
sequence and consequence. Every thought that you think is caused,
every feeling has been caused; to say that the will is free is sheer
nonsense. It is only when the infinite existence comes, as it were,
into this network of Mâyâ that it takes the form of will. Will is a portion
of that being caught in the network of Mâyâ, and therefore “free-will”
is a misnomer. It means nothing,—sheer nonsense. So is all this talk
about freedom. There is no freedom in Mâyâ.
Every one is as much bound in thought, word, deed, and mind, as a
piece of stone or this table. That I talk to you now is as rigorously in
causation as that you listen to me. There is no freedom until you go
beyond Mâyâ. That is the real freedom of the soul. Men, however
sharp and intellectual, however clearly they see the force of the logic
that nothing here can be free, are all compelled to think they are
free; they cannot help. No work can go on until we begin to say we
are free. It means that the freedom we talk about is the glimpse of
the blue sky through the clouds, and that the real freedom—the blue
sky itself,—is behind. True freedom cannot exist in the midst of this
delusion, this hallucination, this nonsense of the world, this universe
of the senses, body and mind. All these dreams, without beginning
or end, uncontrolled and uncontrollable, ill-adjusted, broken,
inharmonious, form our idea of this universe. In a dream, when you
see a giant with twenty heads chasing you, and you are flying from
him, you do not think it is inharmonious; you think it is proper and
right. So is this law. All that you call law is simply chance without
meaning. In this dream state you call it law. Within Mâyâ, so far as
this law of time, space and causation exists, there is no freedom,
and all these various forms of worship are within this Mâyâ. The idea
of God and the ideas of brute and of man are within this Mâyâ, and
as such equally hallucinations; all of them are dreams. But you must
take care not to argue like some extraordinary men of whom we hear
at the present time. They say the idea of God is a delusion, but the
idea of this world is true. Both ideas stand or fall by the same logic.
He alone has the right to be an atheist who denies this world, as well
as the other. The same argument is for both. The same mass of
delusion extends from God to the lowest animal, from a blade of
grass to the Creator. They stand or fall by the same logic. The same
person who sees falsity in the idea of God ought also to see it in the
idea of his own body, or his own mind. When God vanishes, then
also vanish the body and mind, and when both vanish, that which is
the Real Existence remains forever. “There the eyes cannot go, nor
the speech, nor the mind. We cannot see it, neither know it.” And we
now understand that so far as speech and thought and knowledge,
and intellect go, it is all within this Mâyâ, within bondage. Beyond
that is Reality. There neither thought, nor mind, nor speech, can
reach.
So far it is intellectually all right, but then comes the practice. The
real work in these classes is the practice. Are any practices
necessary to realize this one-ness? Most decidedly. It is not that you
become this Brahman. You are already that. It is not that you are
going to become God or perfect; you are already perfect, and
whenever you think you are not, it is a delusion. This delusion which
says that you are Mr. So-and-So, or Mrs. So-and-So, can be got rid
of by another delusion, and that is practice. Fire will eat fire, and you
can use one delusion to conquer another delusion. One cloud will
come and brush away another cloud, and then both will go away.
What are these practices then? We must always bear in mind that
we are not going to be free, but are free already. Every idea that we
are bound is a delusion. Every idea that we are happy or unhappy, is
a tremendous delusion; and another delusion will come,—that we
have got to work and worship and struggle to be free,—and this will
chase out the first delusion, and then both will stop.
The fox is considered very unholy by the Mohammedans, also by the
Hindus. Also, if a dog touches any bit of food it has to be thrown out,
it cannot be eaten by any man. In a certain Mohammedan house a
fox entered and took a little bit of food from the table, ate it up and
fled. The man was a poor man, and had prepared a very nice feast
for himself, and that feast was made unholy, and he could not eat it.
So he went to a Mulla, a priest, and said: “This has happened to me;
a fox came and took a mouthful out of my meal; what can be done? I
had prepared a feast and wanted so much to eat it, and now comes
this fox and destroys the whole affair.” The Mulla thought for a
minute, and then found only one solution and said: “The only way is
for you to get a dog, and make him eat a bit out of the same plate,
because dog and fox are eternally quarrelling. The food that was left
by the fox will go into your stomach, and that not eaten by the dog
will go there, and both will be purified.” We are very much in the
same Predicament. This is an hallucination that we are imperfect,
and we take up another, that we have to practice to become perfect.
Then one will chase the other, as we can use one thorn to extract
another and then throw both away. There are people for whom it is
sufficient knowledge to hear, “Thou art That.” With a flash this
universe goes away and the real nature shines, but others have to
struggle hard to get rid of this idea of bondage.
The first question is, who are fit to become Jnâna Yogis? Those who
are equipped with these requisites. First, renunciation of all fruits of
work and of all enjoyments in this life or another life. If you are the
creator of this universe whatever you desire you will have, because
you will create it for yourself. It is only a question of time. Some get it
immediately; with others the past samskâras (impressions) stand in
the way of getting their desires. We give the first place to desires for
enjoyment, either in this or another life. Deny there is any life at all,
because life is only another name for death. Deny that you are a
living being. Who cares for life? Life is one of these hallucinations
and death is its counterpart. Joy is one part of these hallucinations,
and misery the other part, and so on. What have you to do with life
or death? These are all creations of the mind. This is called giving up
desires of enjoyment either in this life or another.
Then comes controlling the mind, calming it so that it will not break
into waves and have all sorts of desires; holding the mind steady, not
allowing it to get into waves from external or internal causes,
controlling the mind perfectly just by the power of will. The Jnâna
Yogi does not take any one of these physical helps, or mental helps,
simply philosophic reasoning, knowledge and his own will, these are
the instrumentality he believes in. Next comes Titikshâ, forbearance,
bearing all miseries without murmuring, without complaining. When
an injury comes, do not mind it. If a tiger comes, stand there. Who
flies? There are men who practice titikshâ, and succeed in it. There
are men who sleep on the banks of the Ganges in the mid-summer
sun of India, and in winter float in the waters of the Ganges for a
whole day; they do not care. Men sit in the snow of the Himâlayas,
and do not care to wear any garment. What is heat? What is cold?
Let things come and go, what is that to me, I am not the body. It is
hard to believe this in these Western countries, but it is better to
know that it is done. Just as your people are brave to jump at the
mouth of a cannon, or into the midst of the battle-field, so our people
are brave to think and act out their philosophy. They give up their
lives for it. “I am Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute; I am He; I am
He.” Just as the Western ideal is to keep up luxury in practical life, so
ours is to keep up the highest form of spirituality, to demonstrate that
religion is not merely frothy words, but can be carried out, every bit
of it, in this life. This is titikshâ, to bear everything, not to complain of
anything. I myself have seen men who say “I am the soul; what is the
universe to me? Neither pleasure, nor pain, nor virtue, nor vice, nor
heat, nor cold are anything to me.” That is titikshâ; not running after
the enjoyments of the body. What is religion? To pray: “give me this
and that”? Foolish ideas of religion! Those who believe them have no
true idea of God and soul. My Master used to say the vulture rises
high and high until he becomes a speck, but his eye is always in the
piece of rotten carrion on the earth. After all, what is the result of
your ideas of religion? To cleanse the streets, and have more bread
and clothes. Who cares for bread and clothes? Millions come and go
every minute. Who cares? Why care for the joys and vicissitudes of
this little world? Go beyond that if you dare; go beyond law, let the
whole universe vanish, and stand alone. “I am Existence-Absolute,
Knowledge-Absolute, Bliss-Absolute; I am He; I am He.”
 V
ONE EXISTENCE APPEARING AS MANY
We have seen how Vairâgyam, or renunciation, is the turning point in
all these various Yogas. The Karmi (worker) renounces the fruits of
his work. The Bhakta (devotee) renounces all little loves for the
almighty and omnipresent love. The Yogi renounces his experiences,
because his philosophy is that the whole Nature, although it is for the
experience of the soul, at last brings him to know that he is not in
Nature, but eternally separate from Nature. The Jnâni (philosopher)
renounces everything, because his philosophy is that Nature never
existed, neither in the past, present nor future. We have also seen
how the question of utility cannot be asked in these higher themes; it
is very absurd to ask utility, and even if it be asked, after a proper
analysis what do we find in this question of utility? The ideal of
happiness, that which brings man greater happiness is of greater
utility to him than those things which do not improve his material
conditions or bring him such great happiness. All the sciences are for
this one end, to bring happiness to humanity and that which brings
the larger amount of happiness, mankind takes and gives up that
which brings a lesser amount of happiness. We have seen how
happiness is either in the body, or in the mind, or in the Âtman. With
animals, and in the lowest of human beings, who are very much like
animals, happiness is all in the body. No man can eat with the same
pleasure as a famished dog, or a wolf; so, in the dog and the wolf the
happiness is gone entirely into the body. In men we find a higher
plane of happiness, that of thought, and in the Jnâni there is the
highest plane of happiness in the Self, the Âtman. So to the
philosopher this knowledge of the Self is of the highest utility,
because it gives him the highest happiness possible. Sense
gratifications or physical things cannot be of the highest utility to him
because he does not find in them the same pleasure that he finds in
knowledge itself; and after that, knowledge is the one goal, and is
really the highest happiness that we know. All who work in ignorance
are, as it were, the draught animals of the devas. The word deva is
here used in the sense of a wise man. All the people that work, and
toil, and labor like machines do not really enjoy life, but it is the wise
man who enjoys. A rich man buys a picture at a cost of a hundred
thousand dollars perhaps, but it is the man who understands art that
enjoys it; and if a man is without knowledge of art it is useless to him,
he is only the owner. All over the world, it is the wise man who
enjoys the happiness of the world. The ignorant man never enjoys;
he has to work for others unconsciously.
Thus far we have seen the theories of these Advaitist philosophers,
how there is but one Âtman; there cannot be two. We have seen
how in the whole of this universe there is but One Existence, and
that One Existence when seen through the senses is called the
world, the world of matter. When It is seen through the mind It is
called the world of thoughts and ideas, and when It is seen as it is,
then It is the One Infinite Being. You must bear this in mind; it is not
that there is a soul in man, although I had to take that for granted in
order to explain it at first, but that there is only One Existence, and
that one the Âtman, the Self, and when this is perceived through the
senses, through sense imageries, It is called the body. When It is
perceived through thought, It is called the mind. When It is perceived
in Its own nature, It is the Âtman, the One Only Existence. So, it is
not that there are three things in one, the body and the mind and the
Self, although that was a convenient way of putting it in the course of
explanation; but all is that Âtman, and that one Being is sometimes
called the body, sometimes the mind, and sometimes the Self,
according to different vision. There is but one Being which the
ignorant call the world. When a man goes higher in knowledge he
calls the very same Being the world of thought. Again when
knowledge itself comes, all illusions vanish, and man finds it is all
nothing but Âtman. I am that One Existence. This is the last
conclusion. There are neither three nor two in the universe; it is all
One. That One, under the illusion of Mâyâ is seen as many, just as a
rope is seen as a snake. It is the very rope that is seen as a snake.
There are not two things there, a rope separate and a snake
separate. No man sees two things there. Dualism and non-dualism
are very good philosophic terms, but in perfect perception we never
perceive the real and the false at the same time. We are all born
monists, we cannot help it. We always perceive the one. When we
perceive the rope, we do not perceive the snake at all, and when we
see the snake, we do not see the rope at all; it has vanished. When
you see illusion, you do not see real men. Suppose one of your
friends is coming from a distance in the street; you know him very
well, but through the haze and mist that is before you, you think it is
another man. When you see your friend as another man, you do not
see your friend at all, he has vanished. You are perceiving only one.
Suppose your friend is Mr. A., but when you perceive Mr. A. as Mr. B.
you do not see Mr. A. at all. In each case you perceive only one.
When you see yourself as a body, you are body and nothing else,
and that is the perception of the vast majority of mankind. They may
talk of soul and mind, and all these things, but what they perceive is
the physical form, the touch, taste, vision, and so on. Again, with
certain men, in certain states of consciousness, they perceive
themselves as thought. You know, of course, the story told of Sir
Humphrey Davy, who was making experiments before his class with
laughing-gas, and suddenly one of the tubes broke, and the gas
escaping, he breathed it in. For some moments he remained like a
statue. Afterwards he told his class that when he was in that state,
he actually perceived that the whole world is made up of ideas. The
gas, for a time, made him forget the consciousness of the body, and
that very thing which he was seeing as the body, he began to
perceive as ideas. When the consciousness rises still higher, when
this little puny consciousness is gone forever, that which is the
Reality behind shines, and we see it as the One Existence-
Knowledge-Bliss, the one Âtman, the Universal. “One that is only
knowledge itself, One that is bliss itself, beyond all compare, beyond
all limit, ever free, never bound, infinite as the sky, unchangeable as
the sky. Such an One will manifest Himself in your heart in
meditation.”
How does the Advaitist theory explain all these various phases of
heavens and hells and all these various ideas we find in all religions?
When a man dies it is said that he goes to heaven or hell, goes here