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■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Gods and Goddesses ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Gods and Goddesses
of Egypt 60 of Mount Olympus 107
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Mummification and Immortality 61 ■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: Greek Vase Painting 110
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Building the Pyramids ■ ARCHITECTURAL BASICS: Greek Temple Plans 115
of Gizeh 64
■ ARCHITECTURAL BASICS: Doric and Ionic Orders 116
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Portray a God-King 66
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: The Invention of Red-Figure
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Hatshepsut, the Woman Who Would Painting 121
Be King 72
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Herakles, the Greatest Greek
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Illuminating Buildings Hero 126
before Lightbulbs 75
■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: Hollow-Casting Life-Size
■ A SECOND OPINION: Akhenaton 77 Bronze Statues 129
MAP 3-1 Ancient Egypt 58 ■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Polykleitos’s Prescription
for the Perfect Statue 131
THE BIG PICTURE 8 3
■ ART AND SOCIETY: The Hegeso Stele 141
■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: White-Ground Painting 142
4 The Prehistoric Aegean 85 ■ A SECOND OPINION: The Alexander Mosaic 150
■ ARCHITECTURAL BASICS: The Corinthian Capital 152

FRAMING THE ERA Greece in the Age of Heroes 85
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Hippodamos’s Plan for the
TIMELINE 86
Ideal City 154
Greece before Homer 86 MAP 5-1 The Greek world 106
Cycladic Art 87 THE BIG PICTURE 1 6 3

Minoan Art 88
Mycenaean Art 97 6 The Etruscans 165
■ A SECOND OPINION: Cycladic Statuettes 87
FRAMING THE ERA The Portal to the Etruscan
■ ART AND SOCIETY: The Theran Eruption and the Chronology Afterlife 165
of Aegean Art 92
TIMELINE 166
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Fortified Palaces for a Hostile
World 96 Etruria and the Etruscans 166
■ ARCHITECTURAL BASICS: Corbeled Arches, Vaults, and Early Etruscan Art 166
Domes 97
MAP 4-1 The prehistoric Aegean 86 Later Etruscan Art 173

■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Etruscan Counterparts
THE BIG PICTURE 1 0 3 of Greco-Roman Gods and Heroes 167
■ WRITTEN SOURCES: Etruscan Artists in Rome 168
■ ART AND SOCIETY: The “Audacity” of Etruscan Women 169

5 Ancient Greece 105
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Houses of the Dead in a City
FRAMING THE ERA The Perfect Temple 105 of the Dead 170
TIMELINE 106 ■ A SECOND OPINION: The Capitoline Wolf 174
MAP 6-1 Italy in Etruscan times 166

The Greeks and Their Gods 106
Geometric and Orientalizing Periods 108 THE BIG PICTURE 1 7 9
Archaic Period 111
7 The Roman Empire 181
Early and High Classical Periods 125
Late Classical Period 144 FRAMING THE ERA The Roman Emperor as World
Conqueror 181
Hellenistic Period 153
TIMELINE 182
vi Contents
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 6 13/09/19 3:27 PM

Rome, Caput Mundi 182 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Life of Jesus in
Art 244
Republic 183
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Early Christian Saints and
Pompeii and the Cities of Vesuvius 189 Their Attributes 246
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: What Should a Church
Early Empire 201 Look Like? 249
High Empire 211 ■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: Manuscript
Illumination 252
Late Empire 223
■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: Ivory Carving 253
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Who’s Who in the Roman World 183
■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: Mosaics 256
■ ARCHITECTURAL BASICS: Roman Concrete Construction 186
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Picturing the Spiritual
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Roman Ancestor Portraits 187 World 260
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Art for Freed Slaves 190 MAP 8-1 The Mediterranean world in Late Antiquity 238
■ WRITTEN SOURCES: An Eyewitness Account of the Eruption of
Mount Vesuvius 191 THE BIG PICTURE 2 6 1
■ ART AND SOCIETY: The Roman House 193
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Role Playing in Roman Portraiture 200

9 Byzantium 263
■ THE PATRON’S VOICE: The Res Gestae of Augustus 202
FRAMING THE ERA Church and State United 263
■ WRITTEN SOURCES: Vitruvius’s Ten Books on
Architecture 204 TIMELINE 264
■ WRITTEN SOURCES: The Golden House of Nero 206 The Christian Roman Empire 264
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Spectacles in the Colosseum 207
Early Byzantine Art 265
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: The Ancient World’s Largest
Dome 216 Middle Byzantine Art 279
■ WRITTEN SOURCES: Hadrian and Apollodorus of Late Byzantine Art 287
Damascus 217
■ WRITTEN SOURCES: The Emperors of New Rome 267
■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: Iaia of Cyzicus and the Art
of Encaustic Painting 223 ■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Placing a Dome over a
Square 270
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Tetrarchic Portraiture 229
■ A SECOND OPINION: The Vienna Genesis 276
■ A SECOND OPINION: The Arch of Constantine 233
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Icons and Iconoclasm 278
MAP 7-1 The Roman Empire at the death of Trajan in
117 ce 182 ■ ART AND SOCIETY: Born to the Purple: Empress Zoe 282
MAP 9-1 The Byzantine Empire at the death of Justinian

THE BIG PICTURE 2 3 5 in 565 264
THE BIG PICTURE 2 9 1

8 Late Antiquity 237
FRAMING THE ERA Polytheism and Monotheism 10 The Islamic World 293
at Dura-Europos 237
FRAMING THE ERA The Rise and Spread
TIMELINE 238
of Islam 293
The Late Antique World 238 TIMELINE 294
From the Soldier Emperors to the Sack Early Islamic Art 294
of Rome 238
Later Islamic Art 306
From the Sack of Rome to Justinian 254
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Muhammad and Islam 295
■ A SECOND OPINION: The Via Latina Catacomb 240
■ A SECOND OPINION: The Rock of the Dome of the Rock 296
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Old Testament Subjects in
Christian Art 242 ■ ART AND SOCIETY: Major Muslim Dynasties 297
Contents vii
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■ ARCHITECTURAL BASICS: The Mosque 299 TIMELINE 348
■ WRITTEN SOURCES: A Venetian Visitor to the Alhambra 307 European Culture in the New Millennium 348
■ WRITTEN SOURCES: Sinan the Great and the Mosque
of Selim II 310
France and Northern Spain 348
■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: Islamic Tilework 311 Holy Roman Empire 364
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Christian Patronage of Islamic Art 316 Italy 370
MAP 10-1 The Islamic world around 1500 294 Normandy and England 372
THE BIG PICTURE 3 1 7 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Veneration of Relics 349
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Pilgrimage Roads in France and Spain 350
■ WRITTEN SOURCES: The Burning of Canterbury Cathedral 353

11 Early Medieval Europe 319
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Stone Vaulting in Romanesque
FRAMING THE ERA Missionaries and the Beauty Churches 354
of God’s Words 319 ■ A SECOND OPINION: The Rebirth of Large-Scale Sculpture
in Romanesque Europe 355
TIMELINE 320
■ WRITTEN SOURCES: Bernard of Clairvaux on Cloister
Europe After the Fall of Rome 320 Sculpture 356
Merovingians and Anglo-Saxons 320 ■ ARCHITECTURAL BASICS: The Romanesque Church Portal 358
Vikings 323 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Crusades 360
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Illuminate a Nave 365

Hiberno-Saxon Monasteries 324
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Romanesque Countesses, Queens, and
Visigothic and Mozarabic Art 327 Nuns 367
Carolingian Empire 328 ■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: Embroidery and Tapestry 377
MAP 12-1 Western Europe around 1100 350

Ottonian Empire 337
■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: Cloisonné 321 THE BIG PICTURE 3 7 9
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Early Medieval Ship Burials 322
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Medieval Books 324
■ A SECOND OPINION: The Lindisfarne Saint Matthew 326

13 Gothic Europe North
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Charlemagne’s Renovatio Imperii
of the Alps 381
Romani 329
FRAMING THE ERA The Birth of Gothic 381
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Four Evangelists 331
TIMELINE 382
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Illustrate a Psalm 332
“Gothic” 382
■ WRITTEN SOURCES: Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel at
Aachen 334 France 382
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: Medieval Monasteries and
Opus Francigenum outside France 407
Benedictine Rule 336
■ THE PATRON’S VOICE: Abbot Suger and the Rebuilding
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Theophanu, a Byzantine Princess at the
of Saint-Denis 383
Ottonian Court 342
■ ARCHITECTURAL BASICS: The Gothic Rib Vault 387
MAP 11-1 The Carolingian Empire at the death of Charlemagne
in 814 328 ■ ART AND SOCIETY: Paris, the New Center of Medieval
Learning 388
THE BIG PICTURE 3 4 5
■ ARCHITECTURAL BASICS: High Gothic Cathedrals 389
■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: Stained-Glass Windows 392

12 Romanesque Europe 347 ■ ART AND SOCIETY: Louis IX, the Saintly King 398
■ A SECOND OPINION: Gothic Cathedrals and Gothic Cities 400

FRAMING THE ERA The Blessed and the Damned
on Judgment Day 347 ■ ART AND SOCIETY: Gothic Book Production 402
viii Contents
70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 8 13/09/19 3:27 PM

■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: The Scissors Arches of Wells ■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: Fresco Painting 428
Cathedral 409
■ THE PATRON’S VOICE: Artists’ Guilds, Artistic Commissions,
MAP 13-1 Europe around 1200 382 and Artists’ Contracts 430
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Artistic Training in Renaissance

THE BIG PICTURE 4 1 7 Italy 434
■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: Cityscapes and Landscapes as
Allegories 436
14 Late Medieval Italy 419 MAP 14-1 Italy around 1400 420
FRAMING THE ERA Duccio di Buoninsegna 419 THE BIG PICTURE 4 4 1
TIMELINE 420
Duecento (13th Century) 420 Notes 442

Trecento (14th Century) 424 Glossary 443
■ ART AND SOCIETY: Italian Artists’ Names 421 Bibliography 456
■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Great Schism, Mendicant
Orders, and Confraternities 423 Credits 466
■ A SECOND OPINION: Pietro Cavallini 425 Index 469
Contents ix
70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 9 13/09/19 3:27 PM

70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 10 13/09/19 3:27 PM

PREFACE
I take great pleasure in introducing the extensively revised and (following similar forays into France, Tuscany, Rome, and Germany
expanded 16th edition of Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western for the 14th and 15th editions). MindTap also includes custom vid-
Perspective, which, like the 15th edition, is a hybrid art history eos made on these occasions at each site by Sharon Adams Poore.
textbook—the first, and still the only, introductory survey of the This extraordinary proprietary Cengage archive of visual material
history of art of its kind. This innovative new kind of “Gardner” ranges from ancient temples and aqueducts in Rome and France; to
retains all of the best features of traditional books on paper while medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque churches in England, France,
harnessing 21st-century technology to increase by 25% the number Germany, and Italy and 18th-century landscape architecture in
of works examined—without increasing the size or weight of the England; to such postmodern masterpieces as the Pompidou Center
book itself and at only nominal additional cost to students. and the Louvre Pyramide in Paris, the Neue Staatsgalerie in Stutt-
When Helen Gardner published the first edition of Art through gart, and the Gherkin in London. The 16th edition also features the
the Ages in 1926, she could not have imagined that nearly a century highly acclaimed architectural drawings of John Burge prepared
later, instructors all over the world would still be using her textbook exclusively for Cengage, as well as Google Earth coordinates for all
(available even in a new Chinese edition, the third time this clas- buildings and sites and all known provenances of portal objects.
sic textbook has been translated into Chinese) in their classrooms. Together, these exclusive photographs, videos, and drawings pro-
Indeed, if she were alive today, she would not recognize the book vide readers with a visual feast unavailable anywhere else.
that, even in its traditional form, long ago became—and remains— Once again, scales accompany the photograph of every paint-
the world’s most widely read introduction to the history of art and ing, statue, or other artwork discussed—another innovative feature
architecture. I hope that instructors and students alike will agree of the Gardner text. The scales provide students with a quick and
that this new edition lives up to the venerable Gardner tradition and effective way to visualize how big or small a given artwork is and its
even exceeds their high expectations. relative size compared with other objects in the same chapter and
The 16th edition follows the 15th in incorporating an innova- throughout the book—especially important given that the illus-
tive new online component called MindTaptm, which includes, in trated works vary in size from tiny to colossal.
addition to a host of other features (enumerated below), MindTap Also retained in this edition are the Quick-Review Captions
Bonus Images (with zoom capability) and descriptions of more (brief synopses of the most significant aspects of each artwork or
than 200 additional important works of all eras, from prehistory building illustrated) that students have found invaluable when pre-
to the present. The printed and online components of the hybrid paring for examinations. These extended captions accompany not
16th edition are very closely integrated. For example, each MindTap only every image in the printed book but also all the digital images
Bonus Image appears as a thumbnail in the traditional textbook, in MindTap, where they are also included in a set of interactive
with abbreviated caption, to direct readers to MindTap for addi- electronic flashcards. Each chapter also again ends with the highly
tional content, including an in-depth discussion of each image. popular full-page feature called The Big Picture, which sets forth
The integration extends also to the maps, index, glossary, and chap- in bullet-point format the most important characteristics of each
ter summaries, which seamlessly merge the printed and online period or artistic movement discussed in the chapter. Also retained
information. from the 15th edition are the timelines summarizing the major
artistic and architectural developments during the era treated (again
in bullet-point format for easy review) and a chapter-opening essay
KEY FEATURES OF called Framing the Era, which discusses a characteristic painting,
sculpture, or building and is illustrated by four photographs.
THE 16TH EDITION Another pedagogical tool not found in any other introductory
In this new edition, in addition to revising the text of every chapter art history textbook is the Before 1300 section that appears at the
to incorporate the latest research and methodological developments beginning of the second volume of the paperbound version of the
and dividing the former chapter on European and American art book. Because many students taking the second half of a survey
from 1900 to 1945 into two chapters, I have added several important course will not have access to Volume I, I have provided a special
features while retaining the basic format and scope of the previous (expanded) set of concise primers on architectural terminology
edition. Once again, the hybrid Gardner boasts roughly 1,600 pho- and construction methods in the ancient and medieval worlds,
tographs, plans, and drawings, nearly all in color and reproduced and on mythology and religion—information that is essential for
according to the highest standards of clarity and color fidelity, understanding the history of Western art after 1300. The subjects of
including hundreds of new images, among them a new series of these special essays are Greco-Roman Temple Design and the Clas-
superb photos taken by Jonathan Poore exclusively for Art through sical Orders; Arches and Vaults; Basilican Churches; Central-Plan
the Ages during a photographic campaign in England in 2016 Churches; the Gods and Goddesses of Mount Olympus; the Life of
xi
70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 11 13/09/19 3:27 PM

Jesus in Art; and Early Christian Saints and Their Attributes. Before Art through the Ages in order to ensure that the text lives up to the
1300 also is included in MindTap for all courses. Gardner reputation for accuracy as well as readability. I take great
Feature boxes once again appear throughout the book as well. pleasure in acknowledging here the important contributions to the
These features fall under nine broad categories, one of which is new 16th edition made by the following: Bradley Bailey, Saint Louis
to the 16th edition: University; Amy Bloch, University at Albany; Anne-Marie Bouché,
Architectural Basics boxes provide students with a sound foun- Florida Gulf Coast University; Betty Brownlee, Macomb Commu-
dation for the understanding of architecture. These discussions are nity College; Caroline Bruzelius, Duke University; Petra Chu, Seton
concise explanations, with drawings and diagrams, of the major Hall University; Kathy Curnow, Cleveland State University; Paola
aspects of design and construction. The information included is essen- Demattè, Rhode Island School of Design; Sarah Dillon, Kingsbor-
tial to an understanding of architectural technology and terminology. ough City College, City University of New York; Eduardo de Jesús
Materials and Techniques essays explain the various media that Douglas, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill; Sonja Drimmer,
artists have employed from prehistoric to modern times. Because University of Massachusetts Amherst; Ingrid Furniss, Lafayette Col-
materials and techniques often influence the character of artworks, lege; Karen Hope Goodchild, Wofford College; Christopher Gregg,
these discussions contain essential information on why many mon- George Mason University; Melinda Hartwig, Emory University; Joe
uments appear as they do. Hawkins, Hagley Park; Peter Holliday, California State University,
Religion and Mythology boxes introduce students to the princi- Long Beach; Craig Houser, City College of New York/City Uni-
pal elements of the world’s great religions, past and present, and to versity of New York; Margaret Jackson, University of New Mexico;
the representation of religious and mythological themes in painting Mark J. Johnson, Brigham Young University; Lynn Jones, Florida
and sculpture of all periods and places. These discussions of belief State University; Tanja L. Jones, University of Alabama Tuscaloosa;
systems and iconography give readers a richer understanding of Nancy Klein, Texas A&M; Peri Klemm, California State University,
some of the greatest artworks ever created. Northridge; Yu Bong Ko, Dominican College; Paul Lavy, Univer-
Art and Society essays treat the historical, social, political, sity of Hawai’i at Manoa; John Listopad, California State University,
cultural, and religious context of art and architecture. In some Sacramento; Gary Liu Jr., University of Hawaii at Manoa; Nancy
instances, specific monuments are the basis for a discussion of Bea Miller, Montgomery County Community College; Michelle
broader themes. Moseley-Christian, Virginia Tech University; Evan Neely, Pratt
Written Sources boxes present and discuss key historical docu- Institute; Huiping Pang, University of Iowa; Benjamin Paul, Rut-
ments illuminating important monuments of art and architecture gers University; Julie-Anne Plax, University of Arizona; Stephanie
throughout the world. The passages quoted permit voices from the Porras, Tulane University; Sharon Pruitts, East Carolina University;
past to speak directly to the reader, providing vivid and unique Kurt Rahmlow, University of North Texas; Julie Risser, Minneapolis
insights into the creation of artworks in all media. College of Art and Design; Robyn Roslak, University of Minnesota-
In the Artists on Art boxes, artists and architects throughout Duluth; Susan Elizabeth Ryan, Louisiana State University; Nicholas
history discuss both their theories and individual works. Sawicki, Lehigh University; Nancy Serwint, Arizona State Uni-
The Patron’s Voice essays underscore the important roles played versity; Kerri Cox Sullivan, University of Texas, Austin; James R.
by the individuals and groups who paid for the artworks and build- Swensen, Brigham Young University; David S. Whitley, University
ings in determining the character of those monuments. of California, Los Angeles/ASM Affiliates; Margaret L. Woodhull,
Problems and Solutions essays are designed to make students University of Colorado Denver.
think critically about the decisions that went into the making of I am especially indebted to the following for creating the
every painting, sculpture, and building from the Old Stone Age instructor and student materials for the 16th edition: Anne
to the present. These discussions address questions of how and McClanan, Portland State University; Kerri Cox Sullivan, Univer-
why various forms developed; the problems that painters, sculp- sity of Texas, Austin.
tors, and architects confronted; and the solutions they devised to I am also happy to have this opportunity to express my grati-
resolve them. tude to the extraordinary group of people at Cengage involved
New to the 16th edition are boxes titled A Second Opinion, in with the editing, production, and distribution of Art through the
which an individual work of art that is the subject of current debate Ages. Some of them I have now worked with on various projects
or has recently been reinterpreted is discussed. These essays under- for two decades and feel privileged to count among my friends.
score for students that the history of art and architecture is not a static The success of the Gardner series in all of its various permuta-
discipline and that scholars are constantly questioning and rethinking tions depends in no small part on the expertise and unflagging
traditional interpretations of paintings, sculptures, and buildings. commitment of these dedicated professionals, especially Van-
Other noteworthy features retained from the 15th edition are essa Manter, senior product manager; Laura Hildebrand, senior
the extensive (updated) bibliography of books in English; a glossary content manager; Lianne Ames, senior content manager; Paula
containing definitions of all italicized terms introduced in both the Dohnal, learning designer; Ann Hoffman, intellectual property
printed and online texts. The host of state-of-the-art resources in analyst; Betsy Hathaway, senior intellectual property project
the 16th edition version of MindTap for Art through the Ages are manager; Laura Kuhlman, marketing manager; Sarah Cole, senior
enumerated on page xv. designer; as well as Sharon Adams Poore, former product man-
ager for art; Cate Barr, former senior art director; Jillian Borden,
former senior marketing manager; and Sayaka Kawano, former
product assistant. I also express my deep gratitude to the incom-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS parable group of learning consultants who have passed on to me
A work as extensive as a comprehensive history of Western art the welcome advice offered by the hundreds of instructors they
could not be undertaken or completed without the counsel of speak to daily.
experts in all areas of world art. As with previous editions, Cen- It is a special pleasure also to acknowledge my debt to the fol-
gage has enlisted dozens of art h
istorians to review every chapter of lowing out-of-house contributors to the 16th edition: the peerless
xii Preface
70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 12 13/09/19 3:27 PM

quarterback of the entire production process, Joan Keyes, Dove- the Charioteer of Delphi; the herm of Pericles in the Vatican;
tail Publishing Services; Michele Jones, copy editor extraordinaire; metope 28, Helios and Dionysos and the three goddesses of the
Susan Gall, eagle-eyed proofreader; Alisha Webber, text and cover east pediment, and the horsemen and maidens of the Panathenaic
designer; Lumina Datamatics, photo researchers; Jay and John procession frieze of the Parthenon; the Temple of Athena Nike and
Crowley, Jay’s Publisher Services; Cenveo Publisher Services; and the caryatids of the Erechtheion on the Athenian Acropolis; the
Jonathan Poore and John Burge, for their superb photos and archi- Tomb of the Diver, Paestum; the Farnese Hercules; and the Stoa of
tectural drawings. Attalos in the Athenian agora.
I conclude this long (but no doubt incomplete) list of acknowl- 6: The Etruscans. New Framing the Era essay “The Portal to the Etrus-
edgments with an expression of gratitude to my colleagues at Boston can Afterlife.” New A Second Opinion essay “The Capitoline Wolf.”
University and to the thousands of students and hundreds of teach- New photographs of the Tomb of the Augurs and the Capitoline Wolf.
ing fellows in my art history courses since I began teaching in 1975.
7: The Roman Empire. Added the portraits of a Republican priest
From them I have learned much that has helped determine the form
in the Vatican Museums and of Pompey the Great in Venice.
and content of Art through the Ages and made it a much better book
New Framing the Era essay “The Roman Emperor as World Con-
than it otherwise might have been.
queror.” New A Second Opinion essay “The Arch of Constantine.”
Fred S. Kleiner
New photographs of the Temple of Portunus, Rome; the Temple of
Vesta, Tivoli; the funerary relief of the Gessii in Boston; the funer-
ary procession relief from Amiternum; the gardenscape from the
CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER CHANGES
Villa of Livia at Primaporta; the Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome (gen-
IN THE 16TH EDITION eral view and Tellus panel); the Pont-du-Gard, Nîmes; the Porta
Maggiore, Rome; the facade of the Colosseum, Rome; the portrait
The 16th edition is extensively revised and expanded, as detailed
of a Flavian woman in the Museo Capitolino; the spoils relief of
below. Instructors will find a very helpful figure number transition
the Arch of Titus, Rome; four details of the spiral frieze of the
guide on the online instructor companion site.
Column of Trajan, Rome; the portrait of Hadrian in the Palazzo
Introduction: What Is Art History? Added the head of the portrait Massimo; the exterior of the Pantheon, Rome; the apotheosis and
of Augustus as pontifex maximus from the Via Labicana, Rome. decursio reliefs of the Column of Antoninus Pius, Rome; the por-
1: Art in the Stone Age. Revised and expanded discussion of trait of Caracalla in Berlin; the portrait of Trajan Decius in the
chronology and current theories about Paleolithic art, includ- Museo Capitolino; the portrait of Philip the Arabian in the Vatican
ing a new A Second Opinion essay “The Meaning of Paleolithic Museums; the Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus; the Temple of Venus,
Art.” New Art and Society essay “The Neolithic Temple at Göbekli Baalbek; and the Arch of Constantine, Rome.
Tepe.” New photographs of the passage grave at Newgrange and 8: Late Antiquity. Added the baptistery of the Christian commu-
the circles of trilithons at Stonehenge. nity house at Dura-Europos, the Anastasis Rotunda of the Church
2: Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia. Added the Babylonian of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, and the mosaics of the chan-
Queen of the Night, the Kalhu panel of Assyrians besieging a cita- cel arch of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. New Framing the Era
del, and a bull protome capital from Achaemenid Susa. Revised essay “Polytheism and Monotheism at Dura-Europos.” New A Sec-
chronology of Sumerian art and expanded discussion of the Royal ond Opinion essay “The Via Latina Catacomb.” New photographs
Cemetery at Ur with a new A Second Opinion essay “The Stan- of the Dura-Europos baptistery, the Santa Maria Antiqua sarcoph-
dard of Ur.” Revised discussion and dating of the Sasanian palace agus, two details of the Catacomb of Commodilla in Rome, and
at Ctesiphon. New photographs of the cylinder seal of Puabi, the the ivory diptych of the Symmachi.
portrait head of an Akkadian ruler, the lamassu from the palace of 9: Byzantium. Added the pedestal of the Theodosian obelisk in
Sargon II, and the Nineveh panel of Ashurbanipal hunting lions. the Constantinople hippodrome. New A Second Opinion essay
3: Egypt from Narmer to Cleopatra. Added the colossal head “The Vienna Genesis.” New photographs of the apse of San Vitale
of Senusret III in Kansas City. New A Second Opinion essay at Ravenna, the interior of the Cappella Palatina at Palermo, and
“Akhenaton.” New photographs of the columnar entrance corri- the exterior of the church of Saint Catherine at Thessaloniki.
dor of the funerary precinct of Djoser at Saqqara, the exterior and 10: The Islamic World. New A Second Opinion essay “The Rock
interior of the Temple of Ramses II at Abu Simbel, the Temple of of the Dome of the Rock.” New photographs of the exterior and
Amen-Re and the hypostyle hall at Karnak, Thutmose’s portrait of interior of the Dome of the Rock, the Umayyad palace at Mshatta,
Nefertiti, the sunken relief in Berlin of the family of Akhenaton, and the pyxis of al-Mughira.
and the sphinx of Taharqo in the British Museum.
11: Early Medieval Europe. New Framing the Era essay “Mis-
4: The Prehistoric Aegean. New A Second Opinion essay “Cycladic sionaries and the Beauty of God’s Words.” New A Second Opinion
Statuettes.” New photographs of the Hagia Triada sarcophagus, the essay “The Lindisfarne Saint Matthew.” New Problems and Solu-
Akrotiri Spring Fresco, the corbel-vaulted gallery in the fortifica- tions essay “How to Illustrate a Psalm.” New photographs of the
tion walls of Tiryns, the Lion Gate and the interior of the Treasury Oseberg ship, San Juan Bautista at Baños de Cerrato, and the
of Atreus at Mycenae, and the Mycenaean painted female head in bronze doors of St. Michael’s at Hildesheim.
the Athens National Archaeological Museum. 12: Romanesque Europe. New Framing the Era essay “The Blessed
5: Ancient Greece. Added a second centauromachy metope, the and the Damned on Judgment Day.” New Written Sources essay
horse of Selene from the east pediment, the river god Ilissos and “The Burning of Canterbury Cathedral.” Two new Problems and
Iris from the west pediment, and the peplos ceremony of the east Solutions essays “Stone Vaulting in Romanesque Churches” and
frieze of the Parthenon; and the lion hunt pebble mosaic from “How to Illuminate a Nave.” New A Second Opinion essay “The
Pella. New A Second Opinion essay “The Alexander Mosaic.” New Rebirth of Large-Scale Sculpture in Romanesque Europe.” New
photographs of the west pediment of the Temple of Artemis, Corfu; photographs of the west tympanum Last Judgment at Autun (three
Preface xiii
70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 13 13/09/19 3:27 PM

new details), the Tower of Babel on the nave vault of Saint-Savin-sur- facade), Sainte-Chapelle in Paris (interior), Salisbury Cathedral
Gartempe, the interior and atrium of Sant’Ambrogio at Milan, and (west facade, statue of Bishop Poore, and nave), Gloucester Cathe-
the nave of Durham Cathedral. dral (choir and tomb of Edward II), the exterior of the Chapel of
13: Gothic Europe North of the Alps. Added the head of Moses Henry VII in Westminster Abbey, Nicholas of Verdun’s Shrine of the
from the west facade of Saint-Denis; Wells and Exeter Cathedrals; Three Kings, and the choir of Cologne Cathedral.
and a discussion of the Decorated style of English Gothic architec- 14: Late Medieval Italy. New Framing the Era essay “Duccio di
ture. New Framing the Era essay “The Birth of Gothic.” New Art and Buoninsegna.” New A Second Opinion essay “Pietro Cavallini.”
Society essay “Louis IX, the Saintly King.” New A Second Opinion New Problems and Solutions essay “Cityscapes and Landscapes as
essay “Gothic Cathedrals and Gothic Cities.” New photographs of Allegories.” Two new photographs of Pietro Cavallini’s Last Judg-
Chartres Cathedral (aerial view and nave), Reims Cathedral (west ment in Santa Cecilia in Trastevere.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Fred S. Kleiner
Fred S. Kleiner (Ph.D., Columbia University) has been the author or coauthor of Gardner’s Art through the
Ages beginning with the 10th edition in 1995. He has also published more than a hundred books, articles,
and reviews on Greek and Roman art and architecture, including A History of Roman Art, also published by
Cengage Learning. Both Art through the Ages and the book on Roman art have been awarded Texty prizes as the
outstanding college textbook of the year in the humanities and social sciences, in 2001 and 2007, respectively. Pro-
fessor Kleiner has taught the art history survey course since 1975, first at the University of Virginia and, since 1978,
at Boston University, where he is currently professor of the history of art and architecture and classical archaeology
and has served as department chair for five terms, most recently from 2005 to 2014. From 1985 to 1998, he was
editor-in-chief of the American Journal of Archaeology.
Long acclaimed for his inspiring lectures and devotion to students, Professor Kleiner won Boston University’s
Metcalf Award for Excellence in Teaching as well as the College Prize for Undergraduate Advising in the Humanities
in 2002, and he is a two-time winner of the Distinguished Teaching Prize in the College of Arts & Sciences Honors
Program. In 2007, he was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, and, in 2009, in recognition of
lifetime achievement in publication and teaching, a Fellow of the Text and Academic Authors Association.
Also by Fred Kleiner: A History of Roman Art, Second Edition (Cengage Learning 2018; ISBN
9781337279505), winner of the 2007 Texty Prize for a new college textbook in the humanities and social sciences.
In this authoritative and lavishly illustrated volume, Professor Kleiner traces the development of Roman art and
architecture from Romulus’s foundation of Rome in the eighth century bce to the death of Constantine in the fourth
century ce, with special chapters devoted to Pompeii and Herculaneum, Ostia, funerary and provincial art and
architecture, and the earliest Christian art, with an introductory chapter on the art and architecture of the Etruscans
and of the Greeks of South Italy and Sicily.
xiv Preface
70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 14 13/09/19 3:27 PM

RESOURCES FOR STUDENTS
AND INSTRUCTORS
MINDTAP FOR MINDTAP MOBILE

ART THROUGH THE AGES Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective, 16th edition,
is now more accessible than ever with the MindTap Mobile App,
MindTap for Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective,
empowering students to learn on their terms—anytime, anywhere,
16th edition, helps students engage with course content and achieve
online or off.
greater comprehension. Highly personalized, fully online, and com-
pletely mobile-optimized, the MindTap learning platform presents •• The MindTap eReader provides convenience as students can
authoritative Cengage content, assignments, and services. read or listen to their eBook on their smartphone, take notes,
and highlight important passages.
Students
•• Students have instant access to ready-made flashcards to engage
MindTap guides you through your course via a learning path where with key concepts and images and confidently prepare for exams.
you can annotate readings and take quizzes. Concepts are brought •• Notifications keep students connected. Due dates are never for-
to life with zoomable versions of close to 1,600 images; videos to gotten with MindTap Mobile course notifications, which push
reinforce concepts and expand knowledge of particular works or art assignment reminders, score updates, and instructor messages
trends; numerous study tools, including mobile-optimized image directly to students’ smartphones.
flashcards; a glossary complete with an audio pronunciation guide;
and more!
LECTURE NOTES & STUDY GUIDES
Instructors The Lecture Notes & Study Guide for each chapter is a lecture
You can easily tailor the presentation of each MindTap course companion that allows students to take notes alongside the images
and integrate activities into a learning management system. The shown in class. This resource includes reproductions of the images
Resources for Teaching folder in MindTap and the Instructor Com- from the reading, with full captions and space for note-taking either
panion Site hold resources such as instructions on how to use the on a computer or on a printout. It also includes a chapter summary,
online test bank; Microsoft PowerPoint slides with high-resolution key terms list, and learning objectives checklist.
images, which can be used as is or customized by importing per-
sonal lecture slides or other material; YouTube playlists organized GOOGLE EARTH
by chapter; course learning objectives; and more.
Take a virtual tour of art through the ages! Resources for the 16th
edition include Google Earth coordinates for all works, monu-
ments, and sites discussed in the reading, encouraging students to
make geographical connections between places and sites. Instruc-
tors can use these coordinates to start lectures with a virtual journey
to locations all over the globe or take aerial screenshots of important
sites to incorporate into lecture materials.
xv
70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 15 13/09/19 3:27 PM

 I-1a Art historians seek to understand not only why artworks
appear as they do but also why those works exist at all. Who paid
this African artist to make this altar? Can the figures represented
provide the answer?
1 in.
I-1 Altar to the Hand (ikegobo), from Benin, Nigeria,

ca. 1735–1750. Bronze, 19 5 21 0 high. British Museum,
London (gift of Sir William Ingram).
 I-1b What tools and techniques did this sculptor employ to transform molten
bronze into this altar representing a Benin king and his attendants projecting in
high relief from the background plane?
 I-1c At the bottom of the altar is a band

with hands and other symbols, but no art-
ist’s signature or date. How can art historians
determine when an unlabeled work such as
this one was made and by and for whom?
30702_intro_rev03_xxxii-013.indd 32 12/06/18 12:38 pm

introduction
WHAT IS ART HISTORY?

What is art history? Except when referring to the modern academic discipline, people do not often
juxtapose the words art and history. They tend to think of history as the record and interpretation of
past human events, particularly social and political events. By contrast, most think of art, quite cor-
rectly, as part of the present—as something people can see and touch. Of course, people cannot see or
touch history’s vanished human events, but a visible, tangible artwork is a kind of persisting event. One
or more artists made it at a certain time and in a specific place, even if no one now knows who, when,
where, or why. Although created in the past, an artwork continues to exist in the present, long surviv-
ing its times. The earliest known paintings and sculptures were created almost 40,000 years ago, but
they can be viewed today, often in glass cases in museums built only during the past few years.
Modern museum visitors can admire these objects from the remote past and countless others pro-
duced over the millennia—whether a large painting on canvas by a 17th-century French artist (fig. I-12),
a wood portrait from an ancient Egyptian tomb (fig. I-15), an illustrated book by a medieval German
monk (fig. I-8), or an 18th-century bronze altar glorifying an African king (fig. I-1)—without any
knowledge of the circumstances leading to the creation of those works. The beauty or sheer size of an
object can impress people, the artist’s virtuosity in the handling of ordinary or costly materials can
dazzle them, or the subject depicted can move them emotionally. Viewers can react to what they see,
interpret the work in the light of their own experience, and judge it a success or a failure. These are all
valid aesthetic responses. (Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that addresses the nature of beauty,
especially in art.) But the enjoyment and appreciation of artworks in museum settings are relatively
recent phenomena, as is the creation of artworks solely for museum-going audiences to view.
Today, it is common for artists to work in private studios and to create paintings, sculptures, and
other objects to be offered for sale by commercial art galleries. This is what American artist Clyfford
Still (1904–1980) did when he created his series of paintings (fig. I-2) of pure color titled simply with
the year of their creation. Usually, someone whom the artist has never met will purchase the artwork
and display it in a setting that the artist has never seen. This practice is not a new phenomenon in
the history of art—an ancient potter decorating a vase for sale at a village market stall probably did
not know who would buy the pot or where it would be housed—but it is not at all typical. In fact, it is
exceptional. Throughout history, most artists created paintings, sculptures, and other objects for specific
patrons and settings and to fulfill a specific purpose, even if today no one knows the original contexts
of those artworks. A museum visitor can appreciate the visual and tactile qualities of these objects, but
without knowing the circumstances of their creation, that modern viewer cannot understand why they
were made or why they appear as they do. Art appreciation and aesthetic judgments in general do not
require knowledge of the historical context of an artwork (or a building). Art history does.
1

ART HISTORY IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Art historians study the visual and tangible objects that humans
make and the structures they build. Scholars traditionally have
classified these works as architecture, sculpture, the pictorial arts
(painting, drawing, printmaking, and photography), and the craft
arts, or arts of design. The craft arts comprise utilitarian objects,
such as ceramics, metalwork, textiles, jewelry, and similar acces-
sories of ordinary living—but the fact that these objects were used
does not mean that they are not works of art. In fact, in some times
and places, these so-called minor arts were the most prestigious
artworks of all. Artists of every age have blurred the boundaries
among these categories, but this is especially true today, when mul-
timedia works abound.
Beginning with the earliest Greco-Roman art critics, scholars
have studied objects that their makers consciously manufactured as
“art” and to which the artists assigned formal titles. But today’s art
historians also study a multitude of objects that their creators and
owners almost certainly did not consider to be “works of art”—for
example, the African altar illustrated on the opening page of this
introductory chapter (fig. I-1). Likewise, few ancient Romans
1 ft.
would have regarded a coin bearing their emperor’s portrait as any-
thing but money. Today, an art museum may exhibit that coin in
a locked case in a climate-controlled room, and scholars may sub-
ject it to the same kind of art historical analysis as a portrait by an
acclaimed Renaissance or modern sculptor or painter.
The range of objects that art historians study is constantly
I-2 Clyfford Still, 1948-C, 1948. Oil on canvas, 6′ 8 78 ″ × 5′ 8 34 ″. expanding and now includes, for example, computer-generated
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, images, whereas in the past almost anything produced using a
Washington, D.C. (purchased with funds of Joseph H. Hirshhorn, machine would not have been regarded as art. Most people still
1992). consider the performing arts—music, drama, and dance—as out-
Clyfford Still painted this abstract composition without knowing who would
side art history’s realm because these arts are fleeting, imperma-
purchase it or where it would be displayed, but throughout history, most art- nent media. But during the past few decades, even this distinction
ists created works for specific patrons and settings. between “fine art” and “performance art” has become blurred. Art
historians, however, generally ask the same kinds of questions
about what they study, whether they employ a restrictive or expan-
sive definition of art.
Thus a central aim of art history is to determine the original
context of artworks. Art historians seek to achieve a full under-
standing not only of why these “persisting events” of human history
The Questions Art Historians Ask
look the way they do but also of why the artistic events happened How Old Is It? Before art historians can write a history of art,
at all. What unique set of circumstances gave rise to the construc- they must be sure that they know the date of each work they study.
tion of a particular building or led an individual patron to com- Thus an indispensable subject of art historical inquiry is chronology,
mission a certain artist to fashion a singular artwork for a specific the dating of art objects and buildings. If researchers cannot deter-
place? The study of history is therefore vital to art history. And art mine a monument’s age, they cannot place the work in its historical
history is often indispensable for a thorough understanding of his- context. Art historians have developed many ways to establish, or at
tory. In ways that other historical documents may not, art objects least approximate, the date of an artwork.
and buildings can shed light on the peoples who made them and Physical evidence often reliably indicates an object’s age. The
on the times of their creation. Furthermore, artists and architects material used for a statue or painting—bronze, plastic, or oil-based
can affect history by reinforcing or challenging cultural values and pigment, to name only a few—may not have been invented before a
practices through the objects they create and the structures they certain time, indicating the earliest possible date (the terminus post
build. Although the two disciplines are not the same, the analysis of quem: Latin, “point after which”) that someone could have fash-
art and architecture is inseparable from the study of history. ioned the work. Or artists may have ceased using certain materi-
The following pages introduce some of the distinctive subjects als—such as specific kinds of inks and papers for drawings—at a
that art historians address and the kinds of questions they ask, and known time, providing the latest possible date (the terminus ante
explain some of the basic terminology they use when answering quem: Latin, “point before which”) for objects made of those mate-
these questions. Readers armed with this arsenal of questions and rials. Sometimes the material (or the manufacturing technique) of
terms will be ready to explore the multifaceted world of art through an object or a building can establish a very precise date of produc-
the ages—and to form their own opinions and write knowledgably tion or construction. The study of tree rings, for instance, usually
about artworks and buildings in all places and at all times. This is can determine within a narrow range the date of a wood statue or a
the central aim of this book. timber roof beam.
2 introduction What Is Art History?


I-4 Interior of Santa Croce (looking east), Florence, Italy, begun 1294.
In contrast to Beauvais Cathedral (fig. I-3), this contemporaneous Florentine

church conforms to the quite different regional style of Italy. The building has
a low timber roof and small windows.
I-3 Choir of Beauvais Cathedral (looking east), Beauvais, France,

“Archaic Greek” or “High Renaissance.” But many periods do not
rebuilt after 1284.
display any stylistic unity at all. How would someone define the
The style of an object or building often varies from region to region. This artistic style of the second or third decade of the new millennium in
cathedral has towering stone vaults and large colored-glass windows North America? Far too many crosscurrents exist in contemporary
typical of 13th-century French architecture. art for anyone to describe a period style of the early 21st century—
even in a single city such as New York.
Documentary evidence can help pinpoint the date of an object Regional style is the term that art historians use to describe
or building when a dated written document mentions the work. For variations in style tied to geography. Like an object’s date, its prov-
example, official records may note when church officials commis- enance, or place of origin, can significantly determine its character.
sioned a new altarpiece—and how much they paid to which artist. Very often two artworks from the same place made centuries apart
Internal evidence can play a significant role in dating an art- are more similar than contemporaneous works from two different
work. A painter or sculptor might have depicted an identifiable per- regions. To cite one example, usually only an expert can distinguish
son or a kind of hairstyle or garment fashionable only at a certain between an Egyptian statue carved in 2500 bce (fig. 3-13) and one
time. If so, the art historian can assign a more accurate date to that created 2,000 years later (fig. 3-37). But no one would mistake an
painting or sculpture. Egyptian statue of 500 bce for one of the same date made in Greece
Stylistic evidence is also very important. The analysis of style— (fig. 5-35) or Africa (fig. 19-4).
an artist’s distinctive manner of producing an object—is the art Considerable variations in a given area’s style are possible, how-
historian’s special sphere. Unfortunately, because it is a subjective ever, even during a single historical period. In late medieval Europe,
assessment, an artwork’s style is by far the most unreliable chrono- French architecture differed significantly from Italian architecture.
logical criterion. Still, art historians find stylistic evidence a very The interiors of Beauvais Cathedral (fig. I-3) and the church of
useful tool for establishing chronology. Santa Croce (Holy Cross, fig. I-4) in Florence typify the architec-
tural styles of France and Italy, respectively, at the end of the 13th
What Is Its Style? Defining artistic style is one of the key ele- century. The rebuilding of the east end of Beauvais Cathedral began
ments of art historical inquiry, although the analysis of artworks in 1284. Construction commenced on Santa Croce only 10 years
solely in terms of style no longer dominates the field the way it once later. Both structures employ the pointed arch characteristic of this
did. Art historians speak of several different kinds of artistic styles. era, yet the two churches differ strikingly. The French church has
Period style refers to the characteristic artistic manner of a spe- towering stone ceilings and large expanses of colored-glass win-
cific era or span of years, usually within a distinct culture, such as dows, whereas the Italian building has a low timber roof and small,
Art History in the 21st Century 3


1 ft.
I-5 Georgia O’Keeffe, Jack-in-the-Pulpit No. 4, 1930. Oil on canvas,

3′ 4″ × 2′ 6″. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. (Alfred Stieg-
1 ft.
litz Collection, bequest of Georgia O’Keeffe).
O’Keeffe’s paintings feature close-up views of petals and leaves in which

the organic forms become powerful abstract compositions. This approach
to painting typifies the artist’s distinctive personal style.
widely separated clear windows. Because the two contemporaneous

churches served similar purposes, regional style mainly explains I-6 Ben Shahn, The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti, 1931–1932. Tem-
their differing appearance. pera on canvas, 7′ 12″ × 4′. Whitney Museum of American Art, New
Personal style, the distinctive manner of individual artists or York (gift of Edith and Milton Lowenthal in memory of Juliana Force).
architects, often decisively explains stylistic discrepancies among O’Keeffe’s contemporary, Shahn developed a style markedly different from
paintings, sculptures, and buildings of the same time and place. For hers. His paintings are often social commentaries on recent events and
example, in 1930, American painter Georgia O’Keeffe (1887–1986) incorporate readily identifiable people.
produced a series of paintings of flowering plants. One of them—
Jack-in-the-Pulpit No. 4 (fig. I-5)—is a sharply focused close-up
view of petals and leaves. O’Keeffe captured the growing plant’s wearing academic cap and gown) who declared that the original
slow, controlled motion while converting the plant into a power- trial was fair and cleared the way for the executions. Behind, on the
ful abstract composition of lines, forms, and colors (see the discus- wall of a stately government building, hangs the framed portrait of
sion of art historical vocabulary in the next section). Only a year the judge who pronounced the initial sentence. Personal style, not
later, another American artist, Ben Shahn (1898–1969), painted period or regional style, sets Shahn’s canvas apart from O’Keeffe’s.
The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti (fig. I-6), a stinging commentary The contrast is extreme here because of the very different subjects
on social injustice inspired by the trial and execution of two Ital- that the artists chose. But even when two artists depict the same
ian anarchists, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti. Many people subject, the results can vary widely. The way that O’Keeffe painted
believed that Sacco and Vanzetti had been unjustly convicted of flowers and the way that Shahn painted faces are distinctive and
killing two men in a robbery in 1920. Shahn’s painting compresses unlike the styles of their contemporaries. (See the “Who Made It?”
time in a symbolic representation of the trial and its aftermath. The discussion on page 6.)
two executed men lie in their coffins. Presiding over them are the The different kinds of artistic styles are not mutually exclusive.
three members of the commission (headed by a college president For example, an artist’s personal style may change dramatically


I-7 Gislebertus, weighing of souls, detail of Last Judgment
(fig. 12-1), west tympanum of Saint-Lazare, Autun, France,
ca. 1120–1135.
In this high relief portraying the weighing of souls on Judgment

Day, Gislebertus used disproportion and distortion to dehumanize
the devilish figure yanking on the scales of justice.
during a long career. Art historians then must distinguish

among the different period styles of a particular artist,
such as the “Rose Period” (fig. 29-10A) and the “Cub-
ist Period” (fig. 29-14) of the prolific 20th-century artist
Pablo Picasso.
What Is Its Subject? Another major concern of art

historians is, of course, subject matter, encompassing the
story or narrative; the scene presented; the action’s time
and place; the persons involved; and the environment and
its details. Some artworks, such as modern abstract paint-
ings (fig. I-2), have neither traditional subjects nor even
settings. The “subject” is the artwork itself—its colors,
textures, composition, and size. But when artists repre-
sent people, places, or actions, viewers must identify these
features to achieve a complete understanding of the work.
Art historians traditionally separate pictorial subjects into
various categories, such as religious, historical, mythologi-
cal, genre (daily life), portraiture, landscape (a depiction of
a place), still life (an arrangement of inanimate objects),
and their numerous subdivisions and combinations.
Iconography—literally, the “writing of images”—
refers both to the content, or subject, of an artwork, and
to the study of content in art. By extension, it also includes
the study of symbols, images that stand for other images or
encapsulate ideas. In Christian art, two intersecting lines
of unequal length or a simple geometric cross can serve
as an emblem of the religion as a whole, symbolizing the
cross of Jesus Christ’s crucifixion. A symbol also can be
a familiar object that an artist has imbued with greater
meaning. A balance or scale, for example, may symbolize
justice or the weighing of souls on Judgment Day (fig. I-7).
Artists may depict figures with unique attributes
identifying them. In Christian art, for example, each of the
authors of the biblical Gospel books, the four evangelists
(fig. I-8), has a distinctive attribute. People can recognize
Saint Matthew by the winged man associated with him,
John by his eagle, Mark by his lion, and Luke by his ox.
Throughout the history of art, artists have used
personifications—abstract ideas codified in human form.
Because of the fame of the colossal statue set up in New
York City’s harbor in 1886, people everywhere visualize
Liberty as a robed woman wearing a rayed crown and
holding a torch. Four different personifications appear
I-8 The four evangelists, folio 14 verso of the Aachen

Gospels, ca. 810. Ink and tempera on vellum, 1′ × 9 12″.
Domschatzkammer, Aachen.
1 in. Artists depict figures with attributes in order to identify them
for viewers. The authors of the four Gospels have distinctive
attributes—winged man (Matthew), eagle (John), lion (Mark),
and ox (Luke).


common (but by no means universal) today, in the history of art,
countless works exist whose artists remain unknown. Because per-
sonal style can play a major role in determining the character of
an artwork, art historians often try to attribute anonymous works
to known artists. Sometimes they assemble a group of works all
thought to be by the same person, even though none of the objects
in the group is the known work of an artist with a recorded name.
Art historians thus reconstruct the careers of artists such as the
“Achilles Painter” (fig. 5-58), the anonymous ancient Greek artist
whose masterwork is a depiction of the hero Achilles. Scholars base
their attributions on internal evidence, such as the distinctive way
that an artist draws or carves drapery folds, earlobes, or flowers. It
requires a keen, highly trained eye and long experience to become
a connoisseur, an expert in assigning artworks to “the hand” of one
artist rather than another. Attribution is subjective, of course, and
ever open to doubt. For example, for a half-century through 2014,
scholars involved with the Rembrandt Research Project debated
attributions to the famous 17th-century Dutch painter Rembrandt
van Rijn (fig. 25-15)—and the debate continues today.
Sometimes a group of artists works in the same style at the
same time and place. Art historians designate such a group as a
school. “School” in this sense does not mean an educational insti-
tution or art academy. The term connotes only shared chronol-
ogy, style, and geography. Art historians speak, for example, of the
Dutch school of the 17th century and, within it, of subschools such
as those of the cities of Haarlem, Utrecht, and Leyden.
1 in. Who Paid for It? The interest that many art historians show
in attribution reflects their conviction that the identity of an art-
work’s maker is the major reason why the object looks the way it
does. For them, personal style is of paramount importance. But
I-9 Albrecht Dürer, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse,
in many times and places, artists had little to say about what form
ca. 1498. Woodcut, 1′ 3 14″ × 11″. Metropolitan Museum of Art,
their work would take. They toiled in obscurity, doing the bidding
New York (gift of Junius S. Morgan, 1919).
of their patrons, those who paid them to make individual works or
Personifications are abstract ideas codified in human form. Here, Albrecht employed them on a continuing basis. The role of patrons in dictat-
Dürer represented Death, Famine, War, and Pestilence as four men on ing the content and shaping the form of artworks is also an impor-
charging horses, each one carrying an identifying attribute. tant subject of art historical inquiry.
In the art of portraiture, to name only one category of painting
in The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (fig. I-9) by German art- and sculpture, the patron has often played a dominant role in decid-
ist Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528). The late-15th-century print is ing how the artist represented the subject, whether that person was
a terrifying depiction of the fateful day at the end of time when, the patron or another individual, such as a spouse, son, or mother.
according to the Bible’s last book, Death, Famine, War, and Pesti- Many Egyptian pharaohs (for example, fig. 3-13) and some Roman
lence will annihilate the human race. Dürer personified Death as an emperors insisted that artists depict them with unlined faces and per-
emaciated old man with a pitchfork. Famine swings the scales for fect youthful bodies no matter how old they were when portrayed. In
weighing human souls (compare fig. I-7). War wields a sword, and these cases, the state employed the sculptors and painters, and the
Pestilence draws a bow. artists had no choice but to portray their patrons in the officially
Even without considering style and without knowing a work’s approved manner. This is why Augustus, who lived to age 76, looks
maker, informed viewers can determine much about the work’s so young in his portraits (fig. I-10; compare fig. 7-27). Although
period and provenance by iconographical and subject analysis alone. Roman emperor for more than 40 years, Augustus demanded that
In The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti (fig. I-6), for example, the two artists always represent him as a young, godlike head of state.
coffins, the trio headed by an academic, and the robed judge in the All modes of artistic production reveal the impact of patron-
background are all pictorial clues revealing the painting’s subject. The age. Learned monks provided the themes for the sculptural decora-
work’s date must be after the trial and execution (the terminus post tion of medieval church portals (fig. I-7). Renaissance princes and
quem), probably while the event was still newsworthy. And because popes dictated the subject, size, and materials of artworks destined
the two men’s deaths caused the greatest outrage in the United States, for display in buildings also constructed according to their specifica-
the painter–social critic was probably an American. tions. An art historian could make a very long list of commissioned
works, and it would indicate that patrons have had diverse tastes
Who Made It? If Ben Shahn had not signed his painting of Sacco and needs throughout history and consequently have demanded
and Vanzetti, an art historian could still assign, or attribute (make different kinds of art. Whenever a patron contracts with an artist or
an attribution of), the work to him based on knowledge of the art- architect to paint, sculpt, or build in a prescribed manner, personal
ist’s personal style. Although signing (and dating) works is quite style often becomes a very minor factor in the ultimate appearance


Form and Composition. Form refers to an object’s shape and
structure, either in two dimensions (for example, a portrait painted
on canvas) or in three dimensions (such as a statue carved from a
marble block). Two forms may take the same shape but differ in
their color, texture, and other qualities. Composition refers to how
an artist composes (organizes) forms in an artwork, either by plac-
ing shapes on a flat surface or by arranging forms in space.
Material and Technique. To create art forms, artists shape

materials (pigment, clay, marble, gold, and many more) with tools
(pens, brushes, chisels, and so forth). Each of the materials and
tools available has its own potentialities and limitations. Part of all
artists’ creative activity is to select the medium and instrument most
suitable to the purpose—or to develop new media and tools, such
as bronze and concrete in antiquity and cameras and computers in
modern times. The processes that artists employ, such as applying
paint to canvas with a brush, and the distinctive, personal ways that
they handle materials constitute their technique. Form, material, and
technique interrelate and are central to analyzing any work of art.
Line. Among the most important elements defining an artwork’s

shape or form is line. A line can be understood as the path of a point
moving in space, an invisible line of sight. More commonly, however,
artists and architects make a line visible by drawing (or chiseling)
it on a plane, a flat surface. A line may be very thin, wirelike, and
delicate. It may be thick and heavy. Or it may alternate quickly from
1 in.
broad to narrow, the strokes jagged or the outline broken. When a
continuous line defines an object’s outer shape, art historians call it
a contour line. All of these line qualities are present in Dürer’s Four
I-10 Head of the statue of Augustus as pontifex maximus, from Horsemen of the Apocalypse (fig. I-9). Contour lines define the basic
Via Labicana, Rome, Italy, late first century bce. Marble, statue shapes of clouds, human and animal limbs, and weapons. Within the
6′ 10″ high; detail 1′ 4 12″. Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Museo forms, series of short broken lines create shadows and textures. An
Nazionale Romano, Rome. overall pattern of long parallel strokes suggests the dark sky on the
frightening day when the world is about to end.
Patrons frequently dictate the form that their portraits will take. Emperor
Augustus demanded that he always be portrayed as a young, godlike head
Color. Light reveals all colors. Light in the world of the painter
of state even though he lived to age 76.
and other artists differs from natural light. Natural light, or sun-
light, is whole or additive light. As the sum of all the wavelengths
of the painting, statue, or building. In these cases, the identity of composing the visible spectrum, it may be disassembled or frag-
the patron reveals more to art historians than does the identity mented into the individual colors of the spectral band. The paint-
of the artist or school. The portrait of Augustus illustrated here er’s light in art—the light reflected from pigments and objects—is
(fig. I-10)—showing the emperor wearing a hooded toga in his offi- subtractive light. Paint pigments produce their individual colors by
cial capacity as pontifex maximus (chief priest of the Roman state reflecting a segment of the spectrum while absorbing all the rest.
religion)—was the work of a virtuoso sculptor, a master wielder of Green pigment, for example, subtracts or absorbs all the light in the
hammer and chisel. But scores of similar portraits of this Roman spectrum except that seen as green.
emperor also exist today. They differ in quality but not in kind from Hue is the property giving a color its name. Although the spec-
this one. The patron, not the artist, determined the character of trum colors merge into each other, artists usually conceive of their
these artworks. Augustus’s public image never varied. Art through hues as distinct from one another. Color has two basic variables—
the Ages highlights the involvement of patrons in the design and the apparent amount of light reflected and the apparent purity. A
production of sculptures, paintings, and buildings throughout the change in one must produce a change in the other. Some terms for
text and in a series of boxed essays called The Patron’s Voice. these variables are value or tonality (the degree of lightness or dark-
ness) and intensity or saturation (the purity of a color, its brightness
or dullness).
The Words Art Historians Use Artists call the three basic colors—red, yellow, and blue—the
As in all fields of study, art history has its own specialized vocab- primary colors. The secondary colors result from mixing pairs of pri-
ulary consisting of hundreds of words, but certain basic terms maries: orange (red and yellow), purple (red and blue), and green
are indispensable for describing artworks and buildings of any (yellow and blue). Complementary colors represent the pairing of
time and place. They make up the essential vocabulary of formal a primary color and the secondary color created from mixing the
analysis, the visual analysis of artistic form, and are used whenever two other primary colors—red and green, yellow and purple, and
one talks or writes about art and architecture. Definitions and dis- blue and orange. They “complement,” or complete, each other, one
cussions of the most important art historical terms follow. absorbing the colors that the other reflects.


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70384_WATTA_Vol1_cvr_se_ptg01.indd 1 23/09/19 2:08 pm

■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: White-Ground Painting 142

4 The Prehistoric Aegean 85 ■ A SECOND OPINION: The Alexander Mosaic 150

■ ARCHITECTURAL BASICS: The Corinthian Capital 152

Cycladic Art 87 THE BIG PICTURE 1 6 3

MAP 4-1 The prehistoric Aegean 86 Later Etruscan Art 173

■ WRITTEN SOURCES: Etruscan Artists in Rome 168

■ ART AND SOCIETY: The “Audacity” of Etruscan Women 169

TIMELINE 106 ■ A SECOND OPINION: The Capitoline Wolf 174

MAP 6-1 Italy in Etruscan times 166

70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 6 13/09/19 3:27 PM

■ ART AND SOCIETY: The Roman House 193

■ ART AND SOCIETY: Role Playing in Roman Portraiture 200

MAP 9-1 The Byzantine Empire at the death of Justinian

THE BIG PICTURE 2 9 1

70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 7 13/09/19 3:27 PM

■ ART AND SOCIETY: Pilgrimage Roads in France and Spain 350

■ WRITTEN SOURCES: The Burning of Canterbury Cathedral 353

Vikings 323 ■ RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY: The Crusades 360

■ PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: How to Illuminate a Nave 365

Carolingian Empire 328 ■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: Embroidery and Tapestry 377

MAP 12-1 Western Europe around 1100 350

■ ART AND SOCIETY: Medieval Books 324

■ A SECOND OPINION: The Lindisfarne Saint Matthew 326

■ MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES: Stained-Glass Windows 392

■ A SECOND OPINION: Gothic Cathedrals and Gothic Cities 400

70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 8 13/09/19 3:27 PM

■ ART AND SOCIETY: Artistic Training in Renaissance

Duecento (13th Century) 420 Notes 442

70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 9 13/09/19 3:27 PM

70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 10 13/09/19 3:27 PM

70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 11 13/09/19 3:27 PM

70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 12 13/09/19 3:27 PM

70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 13 13/09/19 3:27 PM

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 14 13/09/19 3:27 PM

MINDTAP FOR MINDTAP MOBILE

70384_fm_rev02_i-xv.indd 15 13/09/19 3:27 PM

I-1 Altar to the Hand (ikegobo), from Benin, Nigeria,

 I-1c At the bottom of the altar is a band

30702_intro_rev03_xxxii-013.indd 32 12/06/18 12:38 pm

WHAT IS ART HISTORY?

30702_intro_rev03_xxxii-013.indd 1 12/06/18 12:38 pm

2 introduction What Is Art History?

30702_intro_rev03_xxxii-013.indd 2 12/06/18 12:38 pm

In contrast to Beauvais Cathedral (fig. I-3), this contemporaneous Florentine

I-3 Choir of Beauvais Cathedral (looking east), Beauvais, France,

Art History in the 21st Century 3

30702_intro_rev03_xxxii-013.indd 3 12/06/18 12:38 pm

I-5 Georgia O’Keeffe, Jack-in-the-Pulpit No. 4, 1930. Oil on canvas,

O’Keeffe’s paintings feature close-up views of petals and leaves in which

widely separated clear windows. Because the two contemporaneous

4 introduction What Is Art History?