PERIODIC TABLE

LECTURER: EN. MOHD HILMI JAAFAR (H1)

PN. WAN NURHIDAYAH A. KARIM (H2)

DR. NURSHAFIZA SHAHABUDIN (F1)

CIK AZLINA PUANG (F2)

PUSAT ASASI SAINS, UNIVERSITI MALAYA

SEMESTER 1, SESSION 2022/2023
FAD1016
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1
❑ Understand the arrangement of elements in
the Periodic Table and determine their
position (group and period) according to the
electron configuration
❑ Determine the locations in the Periodic Table of
the representative/main-group elements,
transition and inner-transition elements.
❑ Identify the position (group and period) of
elements in periodic table (spdf blocks) and
classify the elements according to spdf blocks.
What is the PERIODIC TABLE?

Shows all known elements in the universe

“ Alphabet of the universe”

Organizes the elements by chemical properties

WHO CREATED
IT?
By 1860 about 60 elements were known and a method
was needed for organization.

The quest for a systematic arrangement of the

elements started with the discovery of individual
elements.
In 1869, Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev proposed
arranging elements by atomic weights/atomic mass
and chemical properties.
The table contained gaps but Mendeleev predicted the
discovery of new elements.
 Mendeleev’s periodic table
• Mendeleev’s “periodic table” allowed for the prediction of elements
not yet discovered based on their physical and chemical properties.
• However, the Modern Periodic Table
that we see today is based on
Moseley’s Periodic Table which was
almost the same as Mendeleev’s
Periodic Table .However the
arrangement of elements in the
Periodic Table is in ascending order
of their atomic number.

H.J.G Moseley
How elements are arranged in the modern periodic table

Elements are arranged horizontally in All elements in a group have the same
ascending order of their proton number. number of valence electrons and show
There are 18 vertical column of elements a repeated pattern or periodicity in
in the Periodic table, known as a group. their chemical / physical properties
There are 7 horizontal rows of element
in the Periodic Table, known period 1
period 7.

The elements in a period are not a like in

properties. In fact, the properties change
greatly across even given row.

The first element in is always an

extremely active solid while the last
element is always an inactive gas.
 Relationship between the electronic configuration
and the position of the element in Periodic Table

• The number group of an element is determined by

the number of valence electron in an atom of the
element.
• Element with the same group will exhibit similar
chemical properties.
• The period number of an element is determined by
the highest principle quantum number, n ( the
highest number of shell occupied with electron in
an atom of that element.
• This table show the configuration of the
valence electrons of the elements in the
periodic table
• The valence electron for the transition
elements is (n-1)d1-10 ns2
• If Valence electron is 3d1 4s2
• ,therefore, group is 3 (1+2) ,
• d –block element and the period is 4.
Block Part of Periodic Table
s Groups 1 and 2
p Groups 13 to 18
d Transition metals –
Groups 3 to 12.
d electrons first appear
in the 4th period.
Similarities in Elements
Outer shell electrons are in the s
subshell (ns1 and ns2)
Outer shell electrons are in the p
subshell (ns2np1 to ns2np6)
The d subshell is being
progressively filled
(nd1ns2 to nd10ns2)
Ex: 21Sc : [Ar]4s23d1

f Lanthanides and The f subshell is being

Actinides progressively filled.
f electrons first appear in Ex: 58Ce – [Xe]6s24f15d1
the 6th period.
Summarizing Period Table Organization

The periodic table is divisible into four blocks corresponding to

the filling of the four quantum sublevels (s, p, d, f )

The group number of a main element is equal to the number of

valence electrons for that element.

The row number of main-group element is equal to the highest

principal quantum number of that element.
Valence Electron for first 20 elements
Element Electronic Configuration Valence Electron
1H 1s1 1s1
2He 1s2 1s2
3Li 1s2 2s1 2s1
4Be 1s2 2s2 2s2
5B 1s2 2s22p1 2s22p1
6C 1s2 2s22p2 2s22p2
7N 1s2 2s22p3 2s22p3
8O 1s2 2s22p4 2s22p4
9F 1s2 2s22p5 2s22p5
10Ne 1s2 2s22p6 2s22p6
11Na 1s2 2s22p63s1 3s1
12Mg 1s2 2s22p63s2 3s2
13Al 1s2 2s22p63s23p1 3s23p1
14Si 1s2 2s22p63s23p2 3s23p2
15P 1s2 2s22p63s23p3 3s23p3
16S 1s2 2s22p63s23p4 3s23p4
17Cl 1s2 2s22p63s23p5 3s23p5
18Ar 1s2 2s22p63s23p6 3s23p6
19K 1s2 2s22p63s23p64s1 4s1
20Ca 1s2 2s22p63s23p64s2 4s2
Write the electronic configuration and classify
the elements A,B,C and D in term of s,d,p and f
-block
B
A
C D
• Element P has atomic number of 18.
i. Write the electronic configurations of P

ii. Identify the valence electrons

iii. Identify the positions in the periodic table

iv. Classify these element as either s-block, p-block, d-block

or f-block elements
• An element X has a valence electronic configuration of
5s2 4d6 What is the position of X in the Periodic
Table? Is X a metal or non-metal?
• Consider T with the proton number and nucleon
number of 9 and 19 respectively.
a) Write the appropriate symbol for T?
b) How many neutron are there in T?
c) Write the electronic configuration of T?
d) Where is T located in the Periodic Table?
 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
2
❑ Identify the chemical groups in the Periodic
Table: alkali metals, alkaline earths, halogens,
noble gases, etc.
❑ Discuss the similarities and differences in the
properties of elements in the same group, with
reference to alkali metals (group 1) and
halogens (group 17).
❑ Predict and explain the metallic and non-
metallic behaviour of an element based on its
position in the periodic table.
 Group 1, the alkaline metal(element: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr)

Have single soft metal with They are shiny, reactive

electron or low melting have the metals, react
half-filled in points consistency of violently with
outermost s clay and easily water.
orbital. cut with a
knife.

Never found as free elements in

nature. The always bonded with
another element i.e NaCl
 Placing H (hydrogen)
in group 1?
• Hydrogen does not have the similar properties as a
member of group 1 although it is put on top of this
group (not an alkali metal).
• It’s a gas at room temperature.
• However, in reactions, it forms 1+ ion just like the
alkali metals, thus is placed in group 1.
• It has one proton and one electron.
• It has one electron in s orbital.
• Hydrogen only needs 2 electrons to fill up its valence
shell.
Group 2, the
alkali earth metal

complete-filled reactive metals

in outermost s at standard
orbital / 2 temperature and
electron valence pressure

React with Ex: Be, Mg and

oxygen to form Ca
metal oxide
which is basic in
nature.
Transition metal
Transition Elements include those elements in
the 3 -12 groups ( d-block elements)
They are good conductors of heat and electricity.

Usually brightly colored and are often used to

color paints.
Ex. Cadmium is used in making paint.

Many transition metals combine chemically with

oxygen to form compounds called oxides.
Have 1 or 2 valence electrons ex. Copper, Zinc,
Silver and Nickel
 Copper, Cu Gold, Au Silver, Ag Scandium oxide

Vanadium (V) Iron (III) oxide Chromium, Cr Chromium Manganese

oxide oxide oxide

Cobalt, Co Cobalt oxide Nickel Nickel oxide

Universiti Malaya 2022/23

 Boron & other
elements of group 13

• Have 3 valence electrons.

• Contains one element of great
importance, Al. Al and three others
are metals (Ga, In, Tl).
• B is a metalloid, occurs in the
mineral borax, which is mined in
Death Valley, CA, for use as a
cleaning agent, antiseptic, and flux
for metal work.
• Al is the most abundant metal in the
earth’s crust.
Carbon (C ) & other
elements of group 14
• Have 4 valence electrons.
• Combination of non-metal (C), two metalloids (Si, Ge)
and two metals (Sn, Pb).
• More variation occurs in this group due to the change
from metallic to non-metallic behavior.
• C – the bases for great variety of chemical compounds
that make up living things, in atm as CO2, in
carbonates form like lime stones, coal, petroleum and
natural gas.
• C can have allotropes – best known allotropes are
graphite and diamonds.
Nitrogen(n) & other
elements of group 15

• Have 5 valence electrons.

• Can share electrons to form
compounds.
• N2 makes up ¾ of earth’s
atmosphere.
• Phosphorus – constituent in
bones and teeth.
Oxygen & other
elements of group
16,calcogens
• Have 6 valence electrons.
• O2 – makes up 20% of earth’s atmosphere,
which combines readily with most other
elements.
• Sulfur – brimstone or burning stone and
major element in eggs.
• Most important compound of sulfur – sulfuric
acid.
• Chalcogens (khalkos @ copper) – sulfur,
selenium and tellurium – copper ores
contain these 3 elements.
 Group 17: Halogens
Halogens have 7 valence electrons

Most active non-metals.

Halogen atoms only need to gain 1 electron to fill their

outermost energy level.

They react with alkali metals to form salts.

Ex: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine.

 Group 18: Noble gas
Exist as monoatomic molecules

Colorless gases that are extremely un-reactive.

Ex: helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon.

Their outermost energy level is full.

Because they do not readily combine with other elements to

form compounds, the noble gases are called inert.
All the noble gases are found in small amounts in the earth's
atmosphere.
 Inner Transition elements/ rare earth
elements

• Composed of the lanthanide

and actinide series.
• One element of the lanthanide
series and most of the
elements in the actinide series
are called trans-uranium,
which means synthetic or man-
made
 An overview of group 1 elements & their chemistry.

• alkaline metal - soft solid at room temperature

with relatively low melting points
• Most reactive metal
• i.e React violently with water
• Because of their reactivity, these metal are only
found in nature combined in compounds (such
as NaCl),never as the free element
• have valence electrons with configuration of ns1
and this allow them to reacts with non-metals
element to form an ionic compound.
 An overview of group 17 elements &
their chemistry.

• entirely of non-metal-all exist as covalent non-

polar molecules with formula X2
• They exist naturally various mineral salt in our
earth’s crust and sea water.
• have valence electrons with configuration of
ns2 np5 .This allow them to form covalent
bond between atoms in order to achieve noble
gas configuration
• Receive an electron - good oxidizing agent.
• Reacts with metals to form ionic compound
• Reacts with hydrogen to form acidic
compound.
 Properties of Metals and Nonmetals

Metal element characteristics Nonmetal element characteristics

Malleable and ductile Brittle in solid state

Shiny, lustrous, reflect light Dull, nonreflective solid surface

Conduct heat and electricity Electrical and thermal insulators

Most oxides are basic and ionic Most oxides are acidic and molecular.

Form cations in solution Form anions and polyatomic anions

Lose electrons in reactions Gain electrons in reactions

- oxidized - reduced
 Properties of metalloids:
• Have properties of both metals and non-metals.

• They are solids that can be shiny or dull.

• They conduct heat and electricity better than non-metals but

not as well as metals(semiconductor).

• They are ductile and malleable.

Across a Period from left to right (Period 2 and 3).
➢ Across a period from left to right, metallic character
decreases.
➢Na, Mg, Al are metals: conductor
➢Si is metalloid: semi-conductor/ semi-metals. Poor
conductors, but can be doped to increase conductivity (e.g. Si
doped with 1ppm of B)
➢P, S, Cl are non-metals: non-conductor
 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
3

❑ Interpret and explain the trend

and gradation of atomic radius
(including isoelectronic series)
EXERCISE
• What is meant by the atomic radius of an element?
• Give two factors that influence the force of attraction between nucleus
and outermost electron.
• State and explain the change in the radius of the atom of element in
• i) Group 1
• Ii) Period 2
Which has the larger atomic radius?

a. N or F
b. C or Ge
c. B or Al
d. Li or K
 The effective nuclear charge,Z eff

• Effective Nuclear Charge, Zeff, is the net charge

that an electron experiences from the nucleus or
the pull/force an electron “feels” from the nucleus
(protons).
• The closer the electrons are to the nucleus, the
greater the “pull” on the electrons.
• The greater the Zeff, the more tightly the electrons
are held and the more energy needed to remove
the electrons.
• Electrons located farthest from the nucleus (e.g.,
valence shell) experience less Zeff
 Atomic radius
• Defined as one-half of the average distance ‘d’
between the two closest or identical atom

• The atomic radius is determined by 2 factors

a) The effective nuclear charge
b) The screening effect
• Zeff explains the reason for the periodic properties and trends
of the elements.

• Zeff general trend: Zeff increases going across periods.

• Zeff = Z – δ where Z is actual nuclear charge and sigma is the

screening constant.
• The nuclear charge, Z, is the total charge of all the protons in
the nucleus. It has the same value as the proton number
• The shielding effect is an effect of electron repulsions within
the same orbitals as well as between inner and outer
electrons.
• The inner electrons shields the outer electrons more
effectively than electrons in the same orbital.
 The shielding / screening effect
• The term "shielding effect" refers to a decrease in attraction between
electrons and the nucleus in an atom.

• It is caused by the mutual repulsion of electrons.

• Shielding electrons in the same orbital (across period) is less

effective compared to electrons of different orbitals

• Atomic size will increase when shielding effect increases

 • Effective Nuclear Charge, Zeff,and
Screening/Shielding Effect
Estimated Zeff
= [Z (proton no.) - (No. of inner electrons)]
Pull felt by 2s electron in 3Li: 1s22s1
Zeff = 3 - 2 = 1

Zeff increases across a period owing to incomplete

shielding by inner electrons in atomic orbitals (subshells).

Shielding ability of subshells:

s>p>d>f
Across a period, from left to right, a gradual decrease in size of the atom is
observed. Why?

• As we go across period, we add electrons to the same principal

quantum number, n, and also increasing the proton number.
• Shielding does occur between electrons in the same orbital, thus less
effective (less important).
• The increase in proton number leads to increase in effective nuclear
charge, Zeff.
• Outer electron are attracted more strongly to the nucleus without any
additional shielding of the nuclear charge by the added electrons.
• Similar trend is observed for positive and negative ions.
Atomic radii of period 3 elements
 Magnesium

bigger
 Atomic size for transtion elements
o Atomic size for the first-row transition elements are about the same.
o This is because the valence electrons are in 4s orbital.
o As we moved across the row, electrons are added into the inner 3d
orbitals.
o Thus the increase in nuclear charge is cancelled by the increase in the
screening effect.
o i.e. the effective nuclear charge, Zeff is about the same for these
elements.

Figure: Variation of the

atomic size of the first-
row transition
elements
 Number of
Element Electron Configuration
Protons
Scandium (Sc) 21 [Ar] 3d14s2
Titanium (Ti) 22 [Ar] 3d24s2
Vanadium (V) 23 [Ar] 3d34s2 Table: Electron
Chromium (Cr) 24 [Ar] 3d54s1 configuration and
Manganese (Mn) 25 [Ar] 3d54s2 proton number of the
first-row transition
Iron (Fe) 26 [Ar] 3d64s2 elements
Cobalt (Co) 27 [Ar] 3d74s2
Nickel (Ni) 28 [Ar] 3d84s2
Copper (Cu) 29 [Ar] 3d104s1
Zinc (Zn) 30 [Ar] 3d104s2
• It can be seen from this table that the periodic trend in atomic radii is not followed as closely by the
transition metals.
• Since we are adding electrons to the 3d orbitals, we are actually adding to the core electrons
and not to the valence orbitals.
• Although the nuclear charge is going up, the shielding is also increasing with each added electron.
Because of this, there is less atomic shrinkage throughout the transition metals.
 Atomic size going down a group
Shielding effect Atomic size
Going down increases increases
group
Down a group, an increase in size of the atom is observed.
Why?

• Going down a group, number of electrons of each element

increases.
• Electrons are added into bigger orbitals (larger principal quantum
number, n).
• Additional n leads to increase in shielding effect (more repulsions
occur between electrons of negatively charged).
• As electrons farther away from the nucleus, there is less attraction by
the protons in the nucleus to the orbiting electrons.
 • Increasing number of protons in the nucleus pulling the
electrons closer to the nucleus.
• Tighter hold on their electrons.

• Increasing number
of electron energy
levels which
places the
valence electron
energy level
further from the
nucleus.
• Lose hold on their
electrons.
 SIZE OF IONS
➢ CATIONS are SMALLER than the atoms from which
they come.

The attractive force between outer electron and nucleus

INCREASES, so size DECREASES

➢ ANIONS are LARGER than the atoms from which they

come.

The acceptance of one/more electrons to the valence shell

of atom results in a greater force of repulsion among the
electrons (which causes the electrons to spread out), thus size
INCREASES
 SIZE OF IONS
➢ Isolelectronic –size of ions decreases as the positive
nuclear charge increases.

*atoms or ions with the same electronic configurations

Ions O2- F- Ne Na+ Mg 2+ Al 3+ P 3- S 2- Cl -
Ionic 1.40 1.36 1.31 0.95 0.65 0.50 2.12 1.84 1.81
radius/ Å
No of 10 10 10 10 10 10 18 18 18
electrons
No of 8 9 10 11 12 13 15 16 17
protons

Greater attraction between nucleus and the outer electrons

 EXERCISE
Choose the larger of each pair.

(i) S or S2−

(ii) Fe or Fe2+

(iii) Cl− or Ar
i) Arrange the following ions in order of decreasing
ionic radius. Explain the answers.

N3- , Mg2+ , Na+ , F- , Ne

ii) Why size of K+ is smaller than Ca2+ ion , even

though both contains same electron number?
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
4
❑ Interpret and explain the trend
and gradation of ionization
energy
❑ Deduce/ identify electronic
configuration of an element and
its position in the PT based on
successive ionization energies
IONIZATION ENERGY,
IE
➢ 1st Ionization Energy (IE) - is the
minimum energy required to remove one
mole of electrons from one mole of
individual atom in the gas phase to form a
positive ion (cation).
➢ Ionization is endothermic (ΔH = +ve).

Ionization energy values are typically very high and

follow trends throughout the periodic table.
➢ The IE increase from bottom to top and left to right
in the periodic table.
 FACTORS AFFECTING IONIZATION ENERGY

• The level of difficulty in removing an electron from the atom or

from the ion depends on the strength of the attractive force
between the electron and the nucleus.
• Hence, the ionization energy of an element is influenced by
three factors:
1) The distance of the outer electrons from the nucleus/ atomic
radius
2) The effective nuclear charge
3) The screening/shielding effect of the electrons in the inner
shells.
• Across a period (from left to right), 1st
IE increases because

• Zeff increases due to poor shielding ability

of p electrons.
• valence electrons for elements on the right
side of periodic table are more strongly
bound by its nucleus.
• more energy is needed to remove the
outermost electron.
• Down a group, 1st IE decreases because

• there is an increase in shielding effect

• i.e. more repulsions occur between the electrons of
negatively charged
• which leads to an increase in atomic size
• However, effective nuclear charge, Zeff between
nucleus and valence electrons is constant/less
effective
• Thus, less energy is needed to remove the
outermost electron.
 TREND IN 1ST IONIZATION ENERGY

➢ 1st IE increases with the nuclear charge Z as we

move across the periodic table from left to right

➢ They decrease as we move down the table because in

each period the electron is being removed from a shell
one step farther from the nucleus

➢ This results in the familiar zig-zag lines when the first

ionization energies are plotted as a function of Z.
The trend of the ionization energy (IE) of elements
in Period 2

Why Be > B and N> O?

4Be: 1s22s2
5B: 1s 2s 2p
2 2 1

Reason:

• Be loses an electron from 2s orbital,

whereas B loses an electron from 2p
orbital.

• More energy is required to remove an

electron from 2s orbital(completely filled
orbital) than 2p orbital.

• A single electron in 2p orbital is better

shielded (from the nucleus) by the inner electrons
than 2s2 electrons.
The trend of the ionization energy (IE) of elements
in Period 2

7N: 1s22s22px12py12pz1
8O: 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz
2 2 2 1 1

Reason:
• N has a half-filled orbital (more
stable).

• Oxygen has 2 electrons in the

same 2p orbital, results in greater
repulsion between the two
electrons.

• Therefore, it is easier to remove

one of these electrons than
unpaired electron from a half-filled
2p orbital.
EXERCISE
i) Why first ionization energy Cl is higher than Na,
even though both are at the same period.

ii) Comment on first ionization between Li and Na.

 Successive Ionization Energies
➢ Since all atoms other than hydrogen have more
than one electron, therefore there are more than
one ionization energy for each element.
➢
➢ The second ionization, IE2 is defined as
The minimum energy required to remove one mole of
electrons from one mole of unipositive ions in the gaseous
phase.
Mg+(g) ➝ Mg2+(g) + e ∆H = 1450 kJ/mol (second ionization energy)

➢ The magnitude of the second IE for any element is always

larger than the first one.
 Successive Ionization Energies
Why do successive ionization energies get larger?

o Once you have removed the first electron you are left with a positive
ion. Trying to remove a negative electron from a positive ion is going
to be more difficult than removing it from an atom. Removing an
electron from a 2+ or 3+ (etc) ion is going to be progressively more
difficult.
o The first four ionization energies of aluminium, for example, are
given by
Al(g) --> Al + (g) + e- 1st I.E. = 577 kJ mol-1

Al+(g) --> Al 2+ (g) + e- 2nd I.E. = 1820 kJ mol-1

Al 2+ (g) --> Al 3+ (g) + e- 3rd I.E. = 2740 kJ mol-1

Al 3+ (g) --> Al 4+ (g) + e- 4th I.E. = 11600 kJ mol-1

Why is the fourth ionization energy of aluminum so
large? Successive Ionization Energies

Al : 1s22s22p63s23px1.

• The first three electrons to be removed are the three

electrons in the 3p and 3s orbitals.

• Once they've gone, the fourth electron is removed from

the 2p level - much closer to the nucleus, and only
screened by the 1s2 electrons, thus requires very high
IE.

• A large increase in IE indicates the removal electron

from an inner orbital which has a noble gas electronic
configuration.
 Using ionization energies to work out which group an
element is in?
This big jump between two successive IEs is typical of suddenly breaking into an
inner level. You can use this to work out which group of the Periodic Table an
element is in from its successive ionization energies.

Mg : (1s22s22p63s2) is in group 2 of the Periodic Table and has successive IEs:

Here the big jump occurs after the second IE. It means that there are 2 electrons
which are relatively easy to remove (the 3s2 electrons), while the third one is much
more difficult (because it comes from an inner level - closer to the nucleus and with
less screening).
Si : (1s22s22p63s23px13py1) is in group 4 of the Periodic Table and has
successive IEs:

Here the big jump comes after the fourth electron has been removed.
The first 4 electrons are coming from the 3-level orbitals; the fifth from
the 2-level.

The lesson from all this:

Count the easy electrons - those up to (but not including) the big jump.
That is the same as the group number.
 EXERCISE:
(a) Write the equations to show first and second ionization
energies for Na
(b) There is an increase in the first ionization energy from Na to
Si. Explain the trend.
(c) Explain why the first ionization energy of magnesium is higher
than that of aluminum.
(d) For each elements, the successive ionization energies are
increasing. Explain why this happened.
 EXERCISE:
The successive ionization energy of an
element X is given below:
578, 1820, 2750, 11600, 12500, 13500 kJ/mol
i) write the electronic configuration of X

ii)determine the group and the block

iii) why is there a drastic increase in the ionization energy of

the element?
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
5
❑ Interpret and explain the
trend and gradation of
electron affinity and
electronegativity.
 ELECTRON AFFINITY, EA
➢ Electron affinity are also used to show the behaviour of non-metals
towards electrons as ionisation energies does. This is because
ionisation energy concerns the loss of electrons whereas electron
affinity measures the ability of an atom or an ion to receive
electrons.

➢ Definition of Electron Affinity (EA)

Electron affinity is the change in energy (E)
involved (or energy liberated) when one atom gains
an electron to form an anion.

O(g) + e ➝ O-(g) ∆H = -142 kJ/mol

(first EA)
The first EA of elements are negative. The more
negative the value of EA, the greater the ease of
formation of anions.
 ELECTRON AFFINITY, EA
➢ Second EA is the enthalpy change when one
mole of uninegative charged ions in the gaseous
state accepts one mole of electrons.

O-(g) + e ➝ O2-(g) ∆H = +844 kJ/mol

(second EA)

➢ Second EA is defined as the energy absorbed

when one mole of doubly charged anions is
formed from one mole of singly charged anions
in gaseous state.

➢ The second EA of any element is always

endothermic.
WHY IT IS EASIER TO FORM ANION WHEN EA IS MORE
NEGATIVE?
If a gaseous atom gains an electron, heat energy is
liberated.

However, if an electron is added to a negative ion, a

strong repulsion is felt, and the energy of the system
increases.

Thus, heat is absorbed to overcome the electrostatic

repulsion between the electron and negative charge
on the anion.
EA can be either endothermic or exothermic in nature.
Why EA has such energy exchange?
It is due to electron-electron repulsion within orbitals
and the volume of the atom.
✓ EA is almost always negative when an electron is
accepted by an atom.
✓ The higher (more negative) the EA, the more easily
it accepts an electron.
✓ A positive value of EA indicates that the energy
must be added to the system to force the electron
onto the atom/anion.
General trends:
Across a period, the magnitude of EA increases because
▪ Zeff increase
▪ atomic radius decrease
▪ Attraction between nucleus and electron is stronger
▪ To add an electron, more energy is released

Down a group, the magnitude of EA decreases because

▪ Zeff decrease
▪ Atomic size increases
▪ Electrons experience less attraction of nucleus
▪ To add an electron, less energy is released
 General Trends in Electron Affinity (EA) across period

• Adding an electron to a small atom, releases more energy due to the

increase of Zeff.
• Atoms with stronger Zeff have greater EA.
• The Group 2 elements have low EA values. These elements are relatively
stable because they have filled s subshells.
• Group 17 elements have high EA because the addition of an electron to an
atom results in completely-filled shells.
• Group 18 elements (i.e. noble gases), have
EA near zero/+ve, since each atom has a
stable octet and will not accept an electron
readily.
• Endothermic reaction (Be, Mg) is because of
these atoms have a completely s-orbital.
• N also shows endothermic reaction because
of half-filled orbital (more stable).
 General Trends in Electron Affinity (EA)

• The fluoride ion has a LOWER EA than the

chloride ion because it has a smaller volume
and greater electron-electron repulsion than
chloride.

• EA is greatest for halogens.

• EA is greater for non-metals than metals

(i.e. non-metals tend to form anion).

• A LARGER EA value means a very

STABLE ion.
EA trend across period
Across a period, the magnitude of EA increases because
➢ Zeff increases
➢ the shielding effect is constant/less effective
➢ atomic radius decreases
➢ attraction between nucleus and electron is stronger
➢ to add an electron, more energy is released
(rxn is favorable/readily happens)

In other words, across a period, EA is becoming more negative.

More negative = more energy is released when electron is added, i.e.
the atom really likes the electron to be added to it.
EA trend down group
Down a group, the magnitude of EA decreases
because
➢ Zeff constant/less effective
➢ increase in shielding of electrons (more repulsion
between electrons in the orbitals)
➢ atomic radius increases
➢ electrons experience less attraction of nucleus
➢ to add an electron, less energy is released (rxn is
not favored)

In other words, across a period, EA is becoming less negative.

less negative = less energy is released when electron is added, i.e. the
atom does not like the electron to be added to it.
 ELECTRONEGATIVITY

• Definition: the measure of the ability of an atom in

molecule to attract the electrons in a bond electrons
towards itself.
• Electronegativity is used to predict the type of bonding
between two atoms.

• Atoms with large electronegativities (such as F and O)

attract the electrons in a bond better than those that
have small electronegativities (such as Na and Mg).
Factors affecting electronegativity:
➢ atomic size
➢ effective nuclear charge, Zeff. A small atom with high
Zeff , electronegativity has a greater ability to attract the
bonding electrons towards itself.
 Electronegativity and EA trends
of group 17 elements
• Down the group, the electronegativity and EA
decreases due to increase in size ( ability of the
nucleus to pull the electron decreases).
• Therefore, reactivity of group 17 elements
with hydrogen and the power of being oxidizing
agent are decreases
• fluorine is most powerful oxidizing agent, that it
can convert water to oxygen
 EXERCISE:
(a)Explain why the second electron affinities have a
positive value while first electron affinities have a
negative value?
(b)Down the group, the electron affinities decrease.
Explain.
(c) What is the general relationship between the
electronegative of an atom with its first electron
affinity?
(d)What does the electronegativity of the element
increase across a period?
Arrange the elements M, N X and Y in the
ascending order of electronegativity

M
X N
Y
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
6
➢ Interpret and explain the trend and
gradation of melting point, boiling point,
in terms of structure and bonding.
➢ Account for the trend of melting and
boiling points across period 2 and 3, and
group 1 and 17.
 Boiling point & melting point
• Boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid is at the
equilibrium with the gaseous state and when its vapour
pressure equals to the atmospheric pressure.
• Melting point: the temperature at which a solid substance is
at the equilibrium with its liquid at constant pressure.
• In general, the stronger the bond between the atoms of an
element, the higher the energy requirement in breaking that
bond.
• Melting point and boiling point of the elements depend on the
✓ strength of bonds (within molecules)
✓ structure of molecules (ionic, covalent)
✓ forces acting between molecules.
 Boiling point & melting point

General trends:
✓Metals generally possess a high melting point.
✓Most non-metals possess low melting points.
✓The non-metal carbon possesses the highest
boiling point of all the elements. The semi-
metal boron also possesses a high melting
point.
 METALLIC TREND

Elements gradually becomes less metallic as one moves from left to right across a
period and the metalloids lie along the metal -nonmetal boundary.
.
Melting and boiling points of group 1 elements
(alkali metals)

For group 1 and 2 (metals): the m.p. and b.p.

decreases down the group due to

✓ the atomic size increases, electrons are less

attracted to nucleus
✓ the metallic bonds are weaker & Metallic character
increases
 Metallic bonding
Strong force of electromagnetic attraction between electrons that move freely
(delocalized).
Sometimes described as “an array of positive ions in a sea of electrons”.
 Melting and boiling points of Group 17 elements
(halogens)

Element Melting
point (K)
Fluorine 85
Chlorine 238
Bromine 332
Iodine 457
Astatine 610

For group 17 the boiling & melting point increases due to

• The halogens are diatomic molecules, so F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
• As the molecules get bigger there are more electrons that can cause more influential or
increase in VDW forces between molecules.Therefore ,fluorine and chlorine are gas,
bromine is a liquid and iodine is solid.
• The stronger the forces, more energy needed to break the bond (higher Tm and Tb).
 Boiling point & melting point (Period)

➢ From Na to Al, the boiling point increases due to the

increasing of nuclear charge and the number of
electrons in ionic bonding.
➢ Si has giant covalent structure. The transition from liquid to
vapour needs the breaking of covalent bonding.
➢ From P to Ar, the boiling point decreases due to the
decreasing of the Van der Waals forces.
 Boiling point & melting point (Period)
Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
M.P (oC) 98 649 660 1420 44 113 -101 -189
110
B.P (oC) 881 2467 3280 280 445 -34 -186
5
Classificati Metalloi Table: m.p. and b.p. of elements in
Metal Non-metal
on d Period 3.
Covalent van der
Type of Covalen
Metallic van der Waals Waals
Bonding t
forces forces
Simple molecular
Giant ionic Giant
(weak forces Mono-
Structure (strong forces molecul
between atomic
between atoms) ar
molecules)

Across the period,

o an irregular changes in the melting and boiling point which depends
on the strength of bonds, structure of molecules and forces acting
between molecules.
o The melting and boiling points of non metals are much lower than
those of metals and metalloids.
 Boiling point & melting point (Period)
Group 1 2 13
Element Na Mg Al
Charge +1 +2 +3
Valence electrons 1 2 3
M.P (oC) 98 649 660
B.P (oC) 881 1105 2467
Classification Metal
Type of Bonding Metallic
Giant ionic
Structure
(strong forces between atoms)

o Metals – strength of metallic bond depends on the attractive

force between positive charge and the valence electron (VE)
o Thus depends on the positive charge and number of VE
involved in bonding
o From Na to Al, the BP increases due to the increasing of
nuclear charge and the number of electrons in metallic
bonding.
 Boiling point & melting point (Period)

Group 14 15 16 17 18
Element Si P S Cl Ar
M.P (oC) 1420 44 113 -101 -189
B.P (oC) 3280 280 445 -34 -186
Classification Metalloid Non-metal
Covalent van der Waals
Type of Bonding Covalent
van der Waals forces forces
Simple molecular
Structure Giant molecular Mono-atomic
(weak forces between molecules)

• From P to Ar, the boiling point decreases due to the decreasing of the
Van der Waals forces.
• Cl, S, P exist as simple covalent molecules i.e. Cl2, S8 and P4 , whose van der
Waals strength depends on the molecular mass.
• Therefore m.p. and b.p. : Ar < Cl2 < P4 < S8
• As for Si the highest melting point reflects the strength of its giant covalent
structure.
• The transition from liquid to vapour/ solid to liquid needs the breaking of covalent
bonding
 Molecular covalent structure of S8

• Sulphur in S8 forms a covalent molecular

structure.

• Each S atom forms strong covalent bonds

with another S atom

• Each molecule is stacked in a lattice with

van der Waals’ attractive forces
 SIMPLE COVALENT STRUCTURE OF P4 AND Cl2

• Phosphorus, P exists as P4 (simple covalent structure).

• Chlorine – diatomic molecule.
• Both have weak van der Waals forces between molecules.
• Both have low melting point and boiling point.
 Giant covalent structure of Si

• Silicon has a giant covalent structure

• Each atom Si is bonded to 4 other Si

– tetrahedral arrangement

• Similar to C atom arrangement of

diamond

• Covalent bond – very strong – high

m.p. and extremely hard

• All valence e of Si are used in

bonding – no free moving e to
conduct electricity at low temperature
GIANT COVALENT STRUCTURE OF DIAMOND AND
GRAPHITE
EXERCISE
• The melting points of elements in period 3 are shown below

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Melting Point 98 650 660 1423 44 120 -101 -189
( oC)

(i) Classify the element into metal, metalloid and non-metal?

(ii) Describe the change in melting point across period 3?
(iii) Explain the variation in melting points in terms of bonding and
structure?
(iv) There is significant increase in the melting point of Mg from Na.
Discuss.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
7
➢ Account for the trends of
oxides of Period 3 elements.
 OXIDE OF PERIOD 3 ELEMENT

❑ Oxides is a compound when oxygen reacts with an

element.
❑ Almost all elements can combine with oxygen (except
helium, argon and neon).
❑ Most oxides can be classified as acidic or basic depending
on whether they produce acids or bases when dissolved in
water or react as acids or bases in certain processes.
❑ Some oxides are amphoteric (display both acidic or basic
properties).
 Trends of oxides in Periodic Table

• Across a period ,there is a gradual transition from basic to acidic

character, reflecting a transition from metallic to non-metallic
nature.
• Going down a group, the acidity of oxides become more basic
/decreases
 Trends of oxides in Periodic Table
A basic oxides (Ex: Na2O, MgO)
• Metals tend to lose electrons, thus form cation.
• Metals react with oxygen to form oxides which have basic properties

➢reacts with water to form hydroxide

Na2O (s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)

➢reacts with acids to form salts.

MgO(s) + HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
 Trends of oxides in Periodic Table

• Non metals tend to accept electrons, thus form anion.

• Non metals react directly and indirectly with oxygen to
form oxides which have acidic properties.

An acid oxides (Ex: SO2, SO3, P2O5, P4O10)

➢ reacts with water to form an acid solution.

SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)

➢ reacts with bases to form salts.

P4O10(s) + 12NaOH(aq) → 4Na3PO4(aq) + 6H2O(l)
 Trends of oxides in Periodic Table
Neutral oxides
➢ do not react with either acids or bases.
➢ Ex. CO, NO, N2O
Nitrogen and carbon can also form acidic oxides.

Amphoteric oxides (Ex. ZnO, Al2O3, PbO, SnO)

➢act as acid or base, depending on whether it donates or

excepts electrons.
➢tend to be the semi metal or weaker metals.
➢ react with both acids and bases

Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2NaAl(OH)4(aq)
Trends of oxides in Periodic Table
Slides credited to:
Dr Faridah Sonsudin; sfaridah@um.edu.my;
En Nasrulzamani Mohd. Rodzi; zamani@um.edu.my
Dr. Nurshafiza Shahabudin @nurshafiza.s@um.edu.my
Universiti Malaya 2022/23