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CHAPTER 6
Section 6.2 Practice!
1. A pressure gauge on the discharge side of an air compressor reads 180 kPa. What is the
absolute pressure at this point in units of psi if the local atmospheric pressure is 95 kPa?
Solution
Pabs = Pgauge + Patm

= 180 kPa + 95 kPa = 275 kPa × 0.14504 psi = 39.9 psi
1 kPa
2. A force of 1.20 kN is applied to the piston of a cylinder, compressing the gas within the
cylinder. The piston has a radius of 3.25 cm. If the local atmospheric pressure is 100. kPa,
what is the pressure inside the cylinder?
Solution
The pressure exerted on the gas by the 1.2 kN applied force is
P= F = F
A π R2
= 1200 N 2 = 3.616 × 105 N/m2 = 361.6 kPa

π (0.0325 m)
The pressure inside the cylinder is the sum of the applied and atmospheric pressures.
Pgas = P + Patm = 361.6 kPa + 100 kPa = 462 kPa
218
3. A vacuum gauge connected to a tank reads 30.0 kPa. If the local atmospheric pressure is
13.5 psi, what is the absolute pressure in units of psi?
Solution
35 kPa × 0.14504 psi = 5.076 psi = Pvac

1 kPa
Pabs = Patm − Pgauge

= 13.5 psi − 5.076 psi = 8.42 psi
4. A boiler at sea level contains superheated steam at 0.575 MPa absolute pressure and 300̊C.
Find the gauge pressure in the boiler and the steam temperature in units of K, ̊R, and ̊F.
Solution
Pgauge = Pabs − Patm

= 575 kPa − 101.325 kPa = 474 kPa
T(K) = T(̊C) + 273
= 300 + 273 = 573 K
T(̊R) = 1.8 T(K)
= 1.8 (573) = 1031̊R
T(̊F) = 1.8 T(̊C) + 32
= 1.8(300) + 32 = 572̊F
5. A hard-boiled egg removed from a pot of boiling water at 96̊C is placed in a 40̊F
refrigerator to cool. Find the temperature of the egg in units of K, ̊C, and ̊R after the egg
has attained thermal equilibrium with the refrigerator. What is the temperature change of the
egg in units of ̊F, ̊C and K?
Solution
T(K) = T(̊C) + 273 = (T(̊F) − 32)/1.8 + 273
= (40 − 32)/1.8 + 273 = 277 K
219
T(̊C) = (T(̊F) − 32)/1.8
= (40 − 32)/1.8 = 4.4̊C
T(̊R) = T(̊F) + 460
= 40 + 460 = 500̊R
ΔT(̊C) = 96 − 4.4 = 91.6̊C
ΔT(K) = ΔT(̊C) = 91.6 K
ΔT(̊F) = 1.8 ΔT(̊C)
= 1.8 (91.6) = 164.9̊F
1. As a 2500-kg truck climbs a hill, it changes speed from 20 mi/h to 50 mi/h along a straight
1600-ft section of road. If the hill is inclined at an angle of 8̊with respect to the horizontal,
find the total work.
Solution
Converting the speeds to units of m/s, we have
20 mi/h × 5280 ft × 1 h × 1 m = 8.941 m/s

1 mi 3600 s 3.2808 ft
50 mi/h × 5280 ft × 1 h × 1m = 22.35 m/s

1 mi 3600 s 3.2808 ft
Converting the distance traveled to units of m, we have
220
1600 ft × 1m = 487.7 m
3.2808 ft
The work is the sum of the acceleration and gravitational work. The acceleration work is
Wa = ½ m (v22 − v12)
= ½ (2500 kg)[(22.35 m/s)2 − (8.941 m/s)2] = 5.24 × 105 J
The gravitational work (work done by the truck against gravity) is
Wg = mg (z2 − z1)
= (2500 kg)(9.81m/s2)[(487.70) sin 8̊ − 0] m
= 1.66 × 106 J
The total work is
W = Wa + Wg
= 5.24 × 105 J + 1.66 × 106 J = 1.14 × 106 J = 2.19 MJ
2. A 95-slug automobile changes speed from 55 mi/h to 30 mi/h while climbing a 3̊ hill. If
the change in speed occurs over a 1355-ft straight section of road, find the total work.
Solution
Converting the speeds to units of ft/s, we have
30 mi/h × 5280 ft × 1 h = 44.0 ft/s

1 mi 3600 s
55 mi/h × 5280 ft × 1 h = 80.67 ft/s

1 mi 3600 s
221
The work is the sum of the acceleration and gravitational work. The acceleration work is
Wa = ½ m (v22 − v12)
= ½ (95 slug)[(44.0 ft/s)2 − (80.67 ft/s)2] = −2.172 × 105 slug⋅ft2/s2
The minus sign indicates that the automobile is decelerating as it climbs the hill. The
gravitational work (work done by the automobile against gravity) is
Wg = mg (z2 − z1)
= (95 slug)(32.2 ft/s2)[(1355) sin 3̊ − 0] ft
= 2.169 × 105 slug⋅ft2/s2
The total work is
W = Wa + Wg
= −2.172 × 105 slug⋅ft2/s2 + 2.169 × 105 slug⋅ft2/s2 = − 270 slug⋅ft2/s2
From Newton’s second law, the combination of units, slug⋅ft/s2, is defined as the pound-
force, lbf. Hence, when the unit lbf is multiplied by the unit ft, it becomes lbf⋅ft, a unit of
work. Thus, the total work is
W = −270 ft⋅lbf
3. A shaft rotating at 1200 rpm (revolutions per minute) experiences a constant torque of 60
N⋅m. How much work does the shaft perform in one hour?
Solution
First, we convert the rotational speed to units of revolutions per second.
n = 1200 rpm × min = 20.0 rev/s

60 s
Recognizing that the number of shaft rotations is the rotational speed times the time period,
the shaft work is
Wsh = 2π n τ
= 2π (20.0 rev/s × 3600 s)(60 N⋅m)
= 2.71 × 107 N⋅m = 2.71 × 107 N⋅m = 27.1 MJ
222
Note that “rev” does not appear in the final answer because a “revolution” is not considered
a true unit.
4. The pressure inside a frictionless piston-cylinder device varies according to the function
P = a − bV where a and b are constants and V is volume. The initial and final volumes for
the process are 1 m3 and 0.1 m3, respectively. If a = 500 Pa and b = 2000 Pa/m3, find the
boundary work.
Solution
Boundary work is
Performing the integration, we have
Wb = (aV − bV 2/2) 0.1
1
= [40 − (−500)] Pa⋅m3 = 540 J
Because the volume decreases, the process is a compression process. Our answer indicates
that 540 J of work is done on the fluid inside the cylinder.
5. A linear elastic spring is compressed 3.5 cm from its at-rest position. The spring is then
compressed an additional 7.5 cm. If the spring constant is 2600 N/cm, find the work done
in compressing the spring.
Solution
The initial and final displacements of the spring are
x1 = 3.5 cm , x2 = 11.0 cm
Thus, the work done by displacing the spring from 3.5 cm to 11.0 cm is
Wsp = ½ k (x22 − x12)
= ½ (2600 N/cm)[(11.0 cm)2 − (3.50 cm)2] = 1.414 × 105 N⋅cm
= 1414 N⋅m = 1.41 kJ
223
6. A frictionless piston-cylinder device has a diameter of 12 cm. As the gas inside the cylinder
is heated, the piston moves a distance of 8.0 cm. If the gas pressure is maintained at 300 kPa,
how much work is done?
Solution
The work done by the gas is the boundary work, given by
where pressure, P, has been brought outside the integral because it is constant during the
expansion process. Knowing the cylinder diameter, D, and the displacement, L, of the
piston, the boundary work given by the integral above reduces to
Wb = P (πD2/4) L
= (300 × 103 Pa)[π(0.12 m)2/4](0.08 m) = 271 Pa⋅m3 = 271 J
1. A 700-kg boulder is pushed off a 50-m high cliff. What is the velocity of the boulder
immediately before it strikes the ground? How does the boulder’s mass affect the solution?
Solution
Immediately before the boulder strikes the ground, all of its potential energy, PE, has been
converted to kinetic energy, KE. Thus, the first law of thermodynamics may be written as
PE = KE
or,
mgz = ½ mv2
Solving for the boulder’s velocity, v, immediately before impact, we have
= 2(9.81 m/s2)(50 m) = 31.3 m/s
224
The boulder’s mass, m, does not affect the answer because it divides out in the conservation
of energy equation.
2. Just before striking the ground, the boulder in practice problem 1 converts all its potential
energy to kinetic energy (assuming negligible aerodynamic friction). After colliding with the
ground, the boulder comes to rest, converting its kinetic energy into other energy forms.
What are these forms?
Solution
During the collision, the boulder’s kinetic energy is converted into:
a) thermal energy (heat)

b) acoustic energy (sound)
c) energy associated with deformation of the ground and the boulder during the collision
3. The fluid in a closed-pressure vessel receives 500 kJ of heat while a shaft does 250 kJ of
work on the fluid. If the final internal energy of the fluid is 1100 kJ, what is the initial
internal energy of the fluid?
Solution
A diagram of the closed pressure vessel with the energy transfers is shown below.
The first law of thermodynamics for this system is
(Qin − Qout) + (Win − Wout) = ΔU = U2 − U1
Setting Qout = 0 and Wout = 0, and solving for the initial internal energy, U1, we have
225
U1 = U2 − Qin − Win
= 1100 kJ − 500 kJ − 250 kJ = 350 kJ
4. The fluid in a closed tank loses 750 Btu of heat to the surroundings while a shaft does 850
Btu of work on the fluid. If the initial internal energy of the fluid is 100 Btu, what is the final
internal energy of the fluid?
Solution
A diagram of the closed tank with the energy transfers is shown below.
(Qin − Qout) + (Win − Wout) = ΔU = U2 − U1
Setting Qin = 0 and Wout = 0, and solving for the final internal energy, U2, we have
U2 = U1 − Qout + Win
= 100 Btu − 750 Btu + 850 Btu = 200 Btu
5. A small house is to be air-conditioned. The house gains 18,000 Btu/h of heat from the
surroundings while lights, appliances and occupants add 6000 Btu/h from within the
house. If the house is to maintained at a constant temperature, what is the required rating
of the air conditioner?
226
Solution
A diagram of the house with the energy transfers is shown below.
The change in internal energy is zero because the temperature of the house is constant.
Setting the work terms to zero, we have
The rating of the air conditioner is the rate at which heat is removed from the house.
Note: Air conditioners are typically rated in terms of tons of refrigeration. The capacity
of a refrigeration system that can freeze one ton (2000 lbm) of liquid water at 32̊F into
ice at 32̊F in 24 hours is defined as a ton of refrigeration. One ton of refrigeration is
equal to 24,000 Btu/h. Thus, our air conditioner is a 1-ton unit.
6. A piston-cylinder device containing water is heated. During the heating process, 300 J of
energy is supplied to the water while 175 J of heat is lost through the walls of the cylinder
to the surroundings. As a result of the heating, the piston moves, doing 140 J of boundary
work. Find the change in the internal energy of the water for this process.
227
Solution
A diagram of the piston-cylinder device with the energy transfers is shown below.
(Qin − Qout) + (Win − Wout) = ΔU
There is no work into the system, so the change in the internal energy of the water is
ΔU = (Qin − Qout) − Wout
= (300 − 175 − 140)J
= −15 J
The significance of the minus sign is that the temperature of the water goes down during
the heating process. This is possible only because the piston does enough boundary work
to cause more energy to leave the system than to enter the system.
1. A high temperature source supplies a heat engine with 25 kJ of energy. The heat engine
rejects 15 kJ of energy to a low temperature sink. How much work does the heat engine
produce?
Solution
The first law of thermodynamics for a heat engine is
228
Qin = Qout + Wout
Thus, the work produced by the heat engine is
Wout = Qin − Qout

= 25 kJ − 15 kJ
= 10 kJ
2. A heat engine produces 4 MW of power while absorbing 9 MW of power from a high

temperature source. What is the thermal efficiency of this heat engine? What is the rate
of heat transfer to the low temperature sink?
Solution
The thermal efficiency of the heat engine is
= 4 MW = 0.444
9 MW
The rate of heat transfer to the low temperature sink is
= 9 MW − 4 MW = 5 MW
3. A heat engine absorbs 20 MW from a 400̊C furnace and rejects 12 MW to the

atmosphere at 25̊C. Find the actual and Carnot thermal efficiencies of this heat engine.
How much power does the heat engine produce?
Solution
The actual thermal efficiency of this heat engine is
= 20 MW − 12 MW
20 MW
219
= 0.400
The Carnot thermal efficiency is
= 1 − (25 + 273)
400 + 273
= 0.557
The power produced by the heat engine is
= 20 MW − 12 MW = 8 MW
4. Joe, a backyard tinkerer who fancies himself as an engineer, tells his engineer neighbor,
Jane, that he has developed a heat engine that receives heat from boiling water at 1 atm
pressure and rejects heat to a freezer at −5̊C. Joe claims that his heat engine produces 1
Btu of work for every 2.5 Btu of heat it receives from the boiling water. After a quick
calculation, Jane informs Joe that if he intends to design heat engines, he needs to pursue
an engineering education first. Is Jane justified is making this comment? Justify your
answer by analysis.
Solution
Jane’s comment is justified if the actual thermal efficiency of Joe’s heat engine is higher
than the Carnot efficiency. The actual thermal efficiency of Joe’s heat engine is
ηth, actual = Wout/Qin
= 1 Btu = 0.400
2.5 Btu
But the Carnot efficiency is
ηth,Carnot = 1 − TL/TH
= 1 − (−5 + 273) K
100 + 273 K
220
= 0.282
Joe knows little or nothing about the second law of thermodynamics. He is claiming that
his backyard heat engine has a higher thermal efficiency than a Carnot heat engine
operating between the same temperature limits, which is physically impossible.
Unfortunately, there are a lot of “Joes” in the world.
END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS
Pressure and temperature
6.1 What gauge pressure would you have to inflate an automobile tire in San Diego,
California to achieve an absolute pressure of 400 kPa?
Solution
San Diego, California is located in southern California near the ocean, so the atmospheric
pressure there is Patm ≈ 101 kPa. Thus, the gauge pressure in the tire is
Pgauge = Pabs − Patm
= 400 kPa − 101 kPa
= 299 kPa
6.2 A pressure gauge connected to a tank reads 375 kPa at a location where the atmospheric
pressure is 92 kPa. Find the absolute pressure in the tank.
Solution
The absolute pressure is
Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
= 375 kPa + 92 kPa
= 467 kPa
6.3 A vertical, frictionless piston-cylinder device contains a gas. The piston has a mass of 3
kg and a radius of 5 cm. A downward force of 75 N is applied to the piston. If the
atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, find the pressure inside the cylinder. See Figure P6.3.
221
Figure P6.3
Solution
The total pressure acting downward on the piston is the pressure due to the applied force,
the weight of the piston itself and the atmospheric pressure. Thus,
P = F/A + W/A + Patm

= 75 N + (3 kg)(9.81 m/s2) + 100 × 103 Pa
π(0.05 m)2 π(0.05 m)2
= 9549 Pa + 3747 Pa + 100,000 Pa
= 113,296 Pa ≈ 113.3 kPa
To place in the piston in balance, the gas pressure must equal the total pressure applied
from outside the cylinder. Thus, the gas pressure is
Pgas = 113.3 kPa
222
6.4 A vacuum gauge connected to a tank reads 6.9 psi at a location where the atmospheric
pressure is 13.8 psi. Find the absolute pressure in the tank.
Solution
Pabs = Patm − Pvac

= 13.8 psi − 6.9 psi
= 6.9 psi
6.5 A comfortable indoor air temperature is 70̊F. What is this temperature in units of ̊R,
̊C, and K?
Solution
T(̊R) = T(̊F) + 460
= 70 + 460 = 530̊R
T(̊C) = (T(̊F) − 32)/1.8
= (70 − 32)/1.8 = 21.1̊C
T(K) = T(̊C) + 273
= 21.1 + 273 ≈ 294 K
6.6 The average body temperature of a healthy adult is approximately 98.6̊F. What is this
temperature in units of ̊R, ̊C and K?
Solution
T(̊R) = T(̊F) + 460
= 98.6 + 459.67 = 558.3̊R
T(̊C) = (T(̊F) − 32)/1.8
= (98.6 − 32)/1.8 = 37.0̊C
T(K) = T(̊C) + 273.15
= 37.0 + 273.15 = 310.2 K
223
6.7 Find the temperature at which the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales coincide.
Solution
The formula used to convert from the Celsius scale to the Fahrenheit scale is
T(̊F) = 1.8 T(̊C) + 32
The temperature at which the scales coincide is when T(̊F) = T(̊C) = T. Thus,
T = 1.8 T + 32
Solving for T, we have
T = −40̊
6.8 Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the transfer of thermal energy from one fluid to
another across a solid wall. In a particular heat exchanger, glycerine enters the unit at a
temperature of 30̊C and exits the unit at a temperature of 56̊C. What is the temperature
change of the glycerine in units of ̊F, ̊R and K?
Solution
The temperature change is
ΔT = T2 − T1 = 56̊C − 30̊C = 26̊C
ΔT(̊F) = 1.8 ΔT(̊C) = 1.8(26̊C) = 46.8̊F
ΔT(̊R) = ΔT(̊F) = 46.8̊R
ΔT(K) = ΔT(̊C) = 26 K
Work and heat
6.9 As a 75-slug automobile travels along a horizontal, 3200-ft section of road, it changes its
speed from 5 mi/h to 60 mi/h. If the friction force acting on the automobile is 25 lbf, what
is the total work?
Solution
First, we convert the speeds to units of ft/s.
224
v1 = 5 mi/h × 5280 ft × 1 h = 7.333 ft/s
1 mi 3600 s
v2 = 60 mi/h × 5280 ft × 1 h = 88.0 ft/s

1 mi 3600 s
The total work done is the sum of the acceleration work and work against friction. Thus,
W = Wa − Wfric
= ½ m (v22 − v12) − Ffric d
= ½ (75 slug)[(88.0 ft/s)2 − (7.333 ft/s)2] − (30 lbf)(3200 ft)
= 1.92 × 105 lbf⋅ft
Note that friction work is subtracted from acceleration work because the friction force is
directed in the opposite direction of the displacement of the automobile.
6.10 The pressure in a frictionless piston-cylinder device varies according to the function P =
CV-n where C and n are constants and V is volume. Derive a relationship for the boundary
work in terms of the initial and final volumes, V1 and V2, and the constants C and n.
What is the restriction on the constant, n?
Solution
Boundary work is defined as
so we have
The restriction is that n ≠ 1, which would make the expression undefined.
225
6.11 A 180-lbm person climbs a stairway consisting of 150 stairs, each with a vertical rise of 8
in. How much work does this person do against gravity?
Solution
The vertical rise of each stair is
d = 8 in × 1 ft = 0.6667 ft
12 in
The weight of the person is numerically equivalent to his mass. The work done is the
weight of the person times the total vertical distance.
Wg = F (150 d)
= (180 lbf)(150)(0.6667 ft)
= 1.80 × 104 lbf⋅ft
6.12 A shaft connected to a motor does 600 kJ of work in 5 min. If the shaft rotates at 1750
rpm, what is the torque on the shaft?
Solution
Shaft work is given by the formula
Wsh = 2 π n τ
The torque, τ, on the shaft is
τ = Wsh
2πn
= 600 × 103 J
2 π (1750 rpm)(5 min)
= 10.9 N⋅m
6.13 A crate is dragged across a rough floor by a force F = 120 N as shown in Figure P6.13. A
friction force of 40 N acts to retard the motion of the crate. If the crate is dragged 25 m
across the floor, what is the work done by the 120-N force? By the friction force? What
is the net work done?
226
Figure P6.13
Solution
The work done by the 120 N force is the component on the force in the direction of the
displacement times the displacement.
W1 = F cos 30̊(d)
= (120 N) cos 30̊(25 m)
= 2598 J
The work done by the friction force is the friction force times the displacement, but the
sign of the friction force is negative because the friction force acts in a direction opposite
to the displacement of the crate. Thus,
W2 = −F2 d
= −(40 N)(25 m)
= −1000 J
Note that no angle adjustment is required because the friction force acts parallel to the
floor. The net work is the sum of the two works found above.
W = W1 + W2
= 2598 J − 1000 J
= 1598 J
227
6.14 Heat transfer by conduction through a plane wall of thickness L and surface area A can be
calculated using the relation:
where k = thermal conductivity of wall (W/m⋅̊C) and ΔT = temperature difference across

wall (̊C). For a 1.74-cm thick plywood board (k = 0.12 W/m⋅̊C) and a temperature
difference of 30̊C, what is the heat transfer per unit surface area?
Solution
Dividing both sides of the equation above by A, we have
= (0.12 W/m ⋅̊C)(30̊C)

0.0174 m
= 207 W/m2
6.15 Heat transfer by convection from a surface of area A to a surrounding fluid can be
calculated using the relation:
where h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2⋅̊C), Ts = surface temperature (̊C), and T∞ =

free stream fluid temperature (̊C). If 32̊C air flows over a 5.5 m2 surface maintained at
a temperature of 80̊C, find the heat transfer for a heat transfer coefficient of 40
W/m2⋅̊C.
Solution
Substituting values, the heat transfer is
= (40 W/m2 ⋅̊C)(5.5 m2)(80 − 32)̊C
= 1.06 × 104 W = 10.6 kW
228
6.16 Heat transfer by radiation between an object of surface area A and emissivity ε and the
objects enclosure can be calculated using the relation
where σ = 5.669 × 10−8 W/m2⋅K4 (Stefan-Boltzmann constant) and T1 and T2 are the
absolute temperatures (K) of the object and its enclosure, respectively. Consider a 10-cm
diameter sphere of stainless steel (ε = 0.40) whose temperature is 700̊C. Find the heat
transfer if the temperature of the enclosure is 60̊C.
Solution
First, the temperatures must be converted to units of K.
T1 = 700 + 273 = 973 K
T2 = 60 + 273 = 333 K
The surface area of the sphere is
= π(0.10 m)2 = 0.0314 m2
Thus, the heat transfer is
Q = (0.0314 m2)(0.40)(5.669 × 10−8 W/m2⋅K4)[(973 K)4 − (333 K)4]
= 630 W
First law of thermodynamics
6.17 Problem statement
A 3-kg block is dropped from rest onto a linear elastic spring as shown in Figure P6.17.
The spring is initially undeformed and has a spring constant of 1130 N/m. What is the
deformation of the spring when the block momentarily stops? (Hint: Remember that the
block travels 2 m plus a distance equal to the deformation of the spring).
229
Figure P6.17
Diagram
The following diagram shows the crate in its original and final positions.
Assumptions
1. Linear elastic spring.

2. Air resistance is negligible.
3. Crate is initially at rest.
4. Crate remains in contact with spring.
230
Governing equations
First law of thermodynamics: E1 = E2
Total energy: E = KE + PE
Potential and kinetic energy: PE = mgz KE = ½ mv2
Calculations
The total energy before the crate falls is the potential energy of the crate. The reference
point for this potential energy is arbitrary, so we select the top of the spring when the
crate momentarily stops.
E1 = PE
= mg(2 + x)
where x is the unknown spring deformation. The spring energy is
E2 = ½ kx2
All the potential energy of the crate is converted into spring energy, so we have
E1 = E2
or
mg(2 + x) = ½ kx2
which yields a quadratic equation in x.
½ kx2 − mgx − 2mg = 0
Solving this equation for x, and substituting values for the constants, we obtain the two
roots (see Appendix A.1 for the solution of a quadratic equation)
x1 = −0.298 m x2 = 0.350 m
Being negative, the first root is physically unrealistic, so the deformation of the spring is
x = 0.350 m
231
Solution check
No errors are detected.
Discussion
Note that kinetic energy was not used in the calculation. The total energy prior to the
release of the crate and the total energy at the instant the crate stops were equated, so a
determination of the kinetic energy was unnecessary. However, we could have solved the
problem by breaking it into two parts. In the first part, we could calculate the velocity of
the crate just before impact with the spring. Then, we could equate the kinetic energy of
the crate at that moment to the spring energy to find the deformation. It is easily shown
that the two approaches yield the same conservation equation.
A piston-cylinder device containing a gas receives 40 kJ of heat. During the heating

process, the gas expands, moving the piston outward, performing 10 kJ of boundary
work. Also, an electric heating element imparts 16 kJ to the gas. If the heat loss from the
device is 12 kJ, what is the change in internal energy of the gas during the process?
Diagram
A diagram of the piston-cylinder device showing the energy inputs and outputs is shown
below.
Assumptions
1. The system is closed.

2. All energy transfers are constant.
232
Governing equations
First law for a closed system: (Qin − Qout) + (Win − Wout) = ΔU
Calculations
Substituting values for the heat and work terms, we have
(40 − 12) kJ + (16 − 10) kJ = ΔU
The change in internal energy of the gas is
ΔU = 34 kJ
Solution check
Discussion
This problem is a simple example of how to use the first law of thermodynamics for a
closed system. Because the internal energy of the gas increases during the process, the
temperature of the gas also increases. This temperature increase could be found by using
the relation
ΔU = m cv ΔT
where m is the mass of the gas (kg), cv is the specific heat at constant volume of the gas
(kJ/kg⋅̊C) and ΔT is the temperature increase. Suppose, for example, that the cylinder
contains 2 kg of air (cv = 0.718 kJ/kg⋅̊C). The temperature increase is
ΔT = ΔU
m cv
= 13 kJ = 9.1̊C
(2 kg)(0.718 kJ/kg⋅̊C)
A machine shop is maintained at a constant temperature during the summer by small air-
conditioning units with a rating of 8 kW. The rate of heat transfer from the surroundings
to the machine shop is 24 kW. Five lathes and four mills dissipate a total of 4 kW, the
lights in the shop dissipate 2.5 kW, and nine machinists dissipate a total of 3.5 kW. How
233
many air-conditioning units are required?
Diagram
A diagram of the machine shop showing all energy transfer rates is shown below.
Assumptions
1. Machine shop is a closed system.

2. All energy transfer rates are constant.
3. Heat transfer from machine shop is negligible.
4. A constant air temperature inside machine shop is maintained.
Governing equations
First law for a closed system:
Calculations
If the air in the machine shop is to be maintained at a constant temperature, ΔU = 0.

Also, the heat loss from the machine shop is negligible, and there is no work transfer out,
so
The required rate of energy removal by the air-conditioning units is the total rate of heat
and work input from all sources. Thus,
234
= 24 kW + 4 kW + 2.5 kW + 3.5 kW = 34 kW
The number of air-conditioning units required, N, is the air-conditioning load divided by

the rating of each air-conditioner.
= 34 kW/8 kW
= 4.25
Rounding up to the nearest integer, the required number of air-conditioning units is
N = 5 AC units
Solution check
Discussion
All forms of energy transfer not associated with a temperature difference are classified as
work, so the energy transfer by lights was written as work rather than heat.
The piston-cylinder device shown in Figure P6.20 contains a fluid that can be stirred by a
rotating shaft. The outer surface of the device is covered with a thick layer of insulation.
The shaft imparts 50 kJ to the fluid during a process in which the pressure is held
constant at 130 kPa as the piston moves outward. If the internal energy of the fluid
increases by 20 kJ during the process, what is the axial displacement of the piston?
235
Figure P6.20
Diagram
A diagram of the piston-cylinder device showing all energy interactions is shown below.
Assumptions
1. Piston-cylinder device is a closed system.

2. Pressure is constant.
3. System is perfectly insulated.
4. Piston is frictionless and massless.
Governing equations
First law for a closed system: (Qin − Qout) + (Win − Wout) = ΔU
Boundary work for constant pressure: Wb = P(V2 − V1)
236
Calculations
Because the system is perfectly insulated,
Qin = Qout = 0
Shaft work is done on the system, so
Win = Wsh = 50 kJ
and the internal energy change of the fluid is
ΔU = 20 kJ
Thus, the work done by the piston as it moves outward is boundary work. From the first
law, we write
Wout = Wb = Wsh − ΔU
= 50 kJ − 20 kJ = 30 kJ
From the expression for boundary work during a constant-pressure process, we have
ΔV = V2 − V1 = Wb = (π d 2/4) x
P
where x is the axial displacement of the piston. Solving for x, we obtain
x = 4 Wb
P π d2
= 4(30 kJ)
(130 kPa)π(0.6 m)2
= 0.816 m
Solution check
Discussion
Assumptions 3 and 4 are idealizations. We cannot perfectly insulate the piston-cylinder

device, and there is no such thing as a frictionless and massless piston. However, these
237
idealizations enable us to analyze the system without including heat transfer (assumption
3) and without including the work required to overcome friction and the weight of the
piston (assumption 4).
A closed tank containing hot air has an initial internal energy of 450 kJ. During the next
10 min, the tank loses heat to the surroundings at a rate of 1.2 kW while an electrical
element supplies 800 W to the air. Find the final internal energy of the air.
Diagram
A diagram of the tank showing all energy interactions is shown below.
Assumptions
1. Tank is a closed system.

2. All energy interactions are constant.
Governing equations
Calculations
There is no heat transfer into the tank and no work transfer out of the tank.
Rearranging the first law and solving for the final internal energy, we have
238
= (−1.2 kW + 0.8 kW)(10 × 60 s) + 450 kJ
= 210 kJ
Solution check
Discussion
The first law written above is expressed in rate form. When writing the first law this
way, the heat transfer and work transfer terms must be multiplied by the time during
which these interactions occur.
A small research facility in a remote polar region is maintained at a comfortable

temperature by heaters that burn propane. The propane storage capacity of the facility is
5000 kg. If the rate of heat loss from the facility is 40 kW and the heat of combustion of
propane is 46 MJ/kg, how long can the facility be continuously heated before depleting
the propane? Assume that only 70 percent of the heat of combustion is utilized as useful
energy.
Diagram
A diagram of the facility (plus a furry visitor) with the energy interactions is shown
below.
239
Assumptions
1. Facility is a closed system. (Polar bear does not rip into the wall, creating an open
system).
2. All energy interactions are constant.
3. Temperature of facility is constant.
Governing equations
The Qin term was not multiplied by time, t, because Qin is given in the problem as heat,
not heat transfer rate.
Calculations
There are no work interactions, and the change in the internal energy of the facility is
zero. Thus, the first law reduces to
Hence, the heat from burning propane equals the heat transfer rate multiplied by time.
We have
(46 × 106 J/kg)(5000 kg)(0.70) = (40 × 103 W) t
Solving for time, t, we obtain
t = 4.03 × 106 s = 46.6 days
Solution check
Discussion
The propane will be depleted in 46.6 days if the facility is continually heated. The
heating effects of equipment, lights and occupants would lengthen the time slightly.
240
A spherical hot-air balloon measuring 15 m in diameter flies at a constant altitude by

periodically firing the burner system, maintaining the air within the canopy at a constant
temperature. If the rate of heat loss per square meter through the canopy is 110 W/m2,
how much energy must the burner supply during a 1-hour period? If the burner system
utilizes propane as fuel, how much propane is consumed during this time if the heat of
combustion of propane is 46 MJ/kg? Assume that the entire heat of combustion is
utilized to heat the air in the canopy.
Diagram
A diagram of the balloon and its energy interactions is shown below.
Assumptions
1. Balloon is a closed system.

2. Balloon is spherical.
3. Balloon diameter is fixed.
4. Air temperature is constant.
5. All of the heat of combustion is used to heat air in balloon.
Governing equations
Surface area of a sphere: A = π D2
241
Calculations
There are no work interactions, and the change in the internal energy of the air is zero, so
the first law becomes
The total heat loss through the canopy in one hour, which equals the amount of energy the
burner system must supply, is
= (110 W/m2) π (15 m)2 (3600 s)
= 2.80 × 108 J = 280 MJ
The amount of propane consumed is
m = 2.80 × 108 J
46 × 106 J/kg
= 6.09 kg
Solution check
Discussion
If the combustion efficiency and thermal efficiency of the propane burner system are
considered, the amount of propane consumed in one hour would be greater than 6.09 kg.
For example, if the overall efficiency is 60 percent, the amount of propane burned in one
hour is
m= 2.80 × 108 J = 10.1 kg

6
(0.6)(46 × 10 J/kg)
242
The change in internal energy, ΔU, for a closed system undergoing a thermodynamic
process may be approximated by the relation
ΔU = m c (T2 − T1)
where m is the mass of the substance within the system (kg), c is the average specific heat
of the substance (J/kg̊C), and T1 and T2 are the initial and final temperatures of the
substance (̊C), respectively, for the process. A rigid tank contains 8 kg of steam at
320̊C. During the next 2 min, the rate of heat transfer from the tank is 3 kW. What is
the final temperature of the steam? For steam, let c = 1.411 kJ/kg̊C.
Diagram
A diagram of the tank with the pertinent information is shown below.
Assumptions
1. Tank is rigid (hence, no boundary work is done).

2. The heat transfer from the tank is steady.
3. No work interactions are present.
Governing equations
Internal energy relation: ΔU = m c (T2 − T1)
243
Calculations
There are no work interactions, and there is no heat transfer into the tank. Thus, the first
law is
Rearranging and solving for the final temperature of the steam, we obtain
= 320̊C − (3000 W)(2 × 60 s)

(8 kg)(1.411 × 103 J/kg ⋅̊C)
= 288̊C
Solution check
Discussion
Because heat is transferred from the tank, and there are no other energy interactions, the
temperature of the steam decreases. If our answer for the final temperature had been
higher than 320̊C, we would know from a simple energy accounting that our result is in
error.
The change in internal energy, ΔU, for a closed system undergoing a thermodynamic
process may be approximated by the relation
ΔU = m c (T2 − T1)
where m is the mass of the substance within the system (kg), c is the average specific heat
of the substance (J/kg̊C), and T1 and T2 are the initial and final temperatures of the
substance (̊C), respectively, for the process. A rigid tank contains 2 kg of air at 300̊C.
During the next 10 min, the rate of heat transfer from the tank is 1.3 kW while during the
same time a rotating shaft does 500 kJ of work on the air. What is the final temperature
of the air? For air, let c = 0.718 kJ/kg ⋅̊C.
244
Diagram
A diagram of the tank and with the energy interactions is shown below.
Assumptions
1. Tank is rigid (hence no boundary work is done).

2. The heat transfer from the tank is steady.
Governing equations
Internal energy relation: ΔU = m c (T2 − T1)
Calculations
There is no heat transfer into the tank and no work done by the air, so the first law is
Rearranging and solving for the final temperature of the air, we obtain
= 300̊C + [500 × 103 J − (1300 W)(10 × 60 s)]

(2 kg)(0.718 × 103 J/kg ⋅̊C)
= 105̊C
245
Solution check
Discussion
It is not completely clear, until the calculations are completed, whether the temperature of
the air increases or decreases because there is energy leaving as well as entering the
system. It turns out that more energy leaves the system as heat than enters it as work, so
the temperature of the air decreases.
Heat engines
A high-temperature source supplies a heat engine with 13 kJ of energy. The heat engine
rejects 8 kJ of energy to a low-temperature sink. How much work does the heat engine
produce?
Diagram
A diagram of the heat engine is shown below.
Assumption
1. Energy input and energy outputs are constant.
246
Governing equations
First law of thermodynamics for a heat engine: Qin = Qout + Wout
Calculations
The work produced is
Wout = Qin − Qout
= 13 kJ − 8 kJ
= 5 kJ
Solution check
Discussion
The thermal efficiency of this heat engine is
ηth = Wout/Qin
= 5 kJ
8 kJ
= 0.625
During a time interval of 1 h, a heat engine absorbs 360 MJ of energy from a high-
temperature source while rejecting 40 kW to a low-temperature sink. How much power
does the heat engine produce?
Diagram
247
Assumption
1. Energy input and outputs are constant.
Governing equations
First law of thermodynamics for a heat engine:
Power/energy relation:
Calculations
The rate of heat transfer into the heat engine from the high-temperature source is
= 360 × 106 J = 100 kW

3600 s
The power produced by the heat engine is
= 100 kW − 40 kW
= 60 kW
248
Solution check
Discussion
= 60 kW
100 kW
= 0.60
A heat engine produces 2 MW of power while rejecting 920 kW to the environment.

What is the rate of heat transfer from the high temperature source to the heat engine?
Diagram
Assumption
249
Governing equations
Calculations
The rate of heat transfer from the high temperature source is
= 920 kW + 2000 kW = 2920 kW
= 2.92 MW
Solution check
Discussion
= 2 MW
2.92 MW
= 0.685
A heat engine produces 10 MW of power while absorbing 15 MW of power from a high-

temperature source. What is the thermal efficiency of this heat engine? What is the rate
of heat transfer to the low-temperature sink?
Diagram
250
Assumption
Governing equations
Thermal efficiency of a heat engine:
Calculations
= 10 MW
15 MW
= 0.667
The rate of heat transfer to the low-temperature sink is
= 15 MW − 10 MW
= 5 MW
251
Solution check
Discussion
This heat engine has a thermal efficiency of 66.7%. The Carnot efficiency, which is
based solely on the source and sink temperatures, would be higher than this value.
A heat engine rejects 2 × 106 Btu/h to a lake while absorbing 5 × 106 Btu/h from a
furnace. What is the thermal efficiency of this heat engine? What is the power output?
Diagram
Assumption
Governing equations
252
Calculations
= (5 × 106 Btu/h − 2 × 106 Btu/h) = 0.60

5 × 106 Btu/h
The power output of the heat engine is
= 5 × 106 Btu/h − 2 × 106 Btu/h
= 3 × 106 Btu/h
Solution check
Discussion
The power output of the heat engine in units of kW is
3 × 106 Btu/h × 1W = 8.79 × 105 W = 879 kW

3.4121 Btu/h
The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is 35 percent. If the heat engine extracts 4 MJ of
energy from a high-temperature source, how much energy is rejected to the low-
temperature sink?
Diagram
253
Assumption
Governing equations
Calculations
Substituting the second governing equation into the first, and solving for the heat rejected
to the low-temperature sink, we have
= (4 MJ)(1 − 0.35)
= 2.60 MJ
Solution check
254
Discussion
The work output for the heat engine is
= (0.35)(4 MJ)
= 1.40 MJ
Second law of thermodynamics
A heat engine absorbs 25 MW from a 400̊C combustion chamber and rejects 15 MW to

the atmosphere at 30̊C. Find the actual and Carnot thermal efficiencies of this heat
engine. How much power does the heat engine produce?
Diagram
Assumption
Governing equations
255
Actual thermal efficiency of a heat engine:
Carnot efficiency of a heat engine:
Calculations
The power output of the heat engine is
= 25 MW − 15 MW = 10 MW
The actual thermal efficiency is
= 10 MW
25 MW
= 0.40
The Carnot efficiency is
= 1 − (30 + 273) K
(400 + 273) K
= 0.550
Solution check
No errors are detected. The actual thermal efficiency is less than the Carnot efficiency,
which is required to satisfy the second law.
256
Discussion
Note that the source and sink temperatures must be expressed in units of K in the relation
for Carnot efficiency.
A 2-GW steam power plant, which uses a nearby river as a low-temperature sink, has an
actual thermal efficiency of 42 percent. The high-temperature source is a 400̊C boiler,
and the temperature of the river water is 10̊C. Find the rate of heat transfer to the river
and the ideal thermal efficiency of the power plant.
Diagram
A steam power plant is basically a heat engine that uses water as the working fluid. A
diagram of the heat engine is shown below.
Assumptions

2. Source and sink temperatures are constant.
Governing equations
Actual thermal efficiency of a heat engine:
257
Calculations
Substituting the second governing equation into the first, and solving for the rate of heat
transfer to the river, we obtain
= (2 GW)(1/0.42 − 1)
= 2.76 GW
The ideal thermal efficiency of the power plant is the Carnot efficiency.
= 1 − (10 + 273) K
(400 + 273) K
= 0.579
Solution check
No errors are detected. The Carnot efficiency is higher than the actual efficiency, as
required by the second law.
Discussion
If the power plant operated under ideal conditions, the rate of heat transfer to the river
water would be
= (2 GW)(1/0.579 − 1)
= 1.45 GW
258
An ideal heat engine rejects a minimum amount of energy to a low-temperature sink.
An engineer proposes to design a heat engine that uses the atmosphere as the high-
temperature source and a deep cavern as the low-temperature sink. If the temperature of
atmosphere and cavern are 25̊C and 8̊C, respectively, what is the maximum thermal
efficiency that this heat engine can achieve? What is the maximum possible power
output if the heat engine absorbs 260 kW from the atmosphere?
Diagram
A diagram of the engineer’s heat engine is shown below.
Assumptions

Governing equations
Calculations
The maximum thermal efficiency is the Carnot efficiency.
259
= 1 − (8 + 273) K
(25 + 273) K
= 0.0570
The maximum possible power output of the heat engine is the power that a Carnot heat
engine would produce for the given source and sink temperatures. Using the Carnot
efficiency calculated above, we have
= 0.0570(260 kW)
= 14.8 kW
Solution check
Discussion
The Carnot efficiency is only 5.7 percent because the source and sink temperatures are
not that much different. The thermal efficiency of a real heat engine based on this
scheme would be even lower, making the whole idea of using the atmosphere as a source
and a cavern as a sink not very practical.
A particular Carnot heat engine absorbs energy from a furnace and rejects energy to the
atmosphere at 300 K. Graph the efficiency of this heat engine as a function of TH, the
temperature of the furnace. Use a range for TH of 350 K to 2000 K. What can be
concluded from this graph?
Diagram
260
Assumptions

Governing equation
Calculations
Using the relation for Carnot efficiency, we can create a graph of ηth and a function of TH,
as shown below. The source temperature, TL, is fixed at 300 K.
261
Solution check
Discussion
Conclusions:
1. Efficiency increases with TH for a given TL.

2. Efficiency increases more rapidly at low values of TH.
3. Efficiency approaches 1 for large values of TH.
262
An inventor submits a patent application for a heat engine that produces 1 kJ for every 2.2
kJ supplied to it. In the application, the inventor states that his heat engine absorbs
energy from a 250̊C source and rejects energy to a 40̊C sink. Evaluate this patent.
Diagram
A diagram of the inventor’s heat engine is shown below.
Assumptions

Governing equations
Calculations
The patent is evaluated by calculating the thermal efficiency and Carnot efficiency of the
proposed heat engine. If the actual thermal efficiency is higher than the Carnot
efficiency, the heat engine is impossible because it is in violation of the second law of
thermodynamics.
263
The actual thermal efficiency is
= 1 kJ
2.2 kJ
= 0.455
The Carnot efficiency is
= 1 − (40 + 273) K
(250 + 273) K
= 0.402
Solution check
Discussion
Because the actual thermal efficiency is higher than the Carnot efficiency, this heat engine
is impossible. The patent application should be rejected.
A 9-MW Carnot steam power plant operates between the temperature limits of 600̊C
and 20̊C. Find the rates of heat transfer to and from the power plant.
Diagram
A steam power plant is basically a heat engine, a diagram of which is shown below.
264
Assumptions

Governing equations
Calculations
The efficiency of this Carnot power plant is
= 1 − (20 + 273) K
(600 + 273) K
= 0.664
Hence, the rate of heat transfer to the power plant is
265
= 9 MW
0.664
= 13.6 MW
From the first law, the rate of heat transfer from the power plant is
= 13.6 MW − 9 MW
= 4.6 MW
Solution check
Discussion
In practice, there is no such thing as a Carnot power plant. Carnot power plants are used
as ideal models, standards against which engineers use to compare actual power plants.
A heat engine utilizes solar energy as the energy source. The heat engine incorporates a
solar panel that intercepts a solar radiation flux of 900 W/m2 of panel surface. Assuming
that the solar panel absorbs 85 percent of the incident solar radiation, find the exposed
surface area of the solar panel required to yield a thermal efficiency of 20 percent and a
power output of 3.6 kW for the heat engine.
Diagram
A diagram of the heat engine with solar panel is shown below.
266
Assumptions

2. Solar heat flux is constant.
Governing equations
Heat transfer/solar heat flux relation:
Calculations
We combine the two governing equations to solve for the surface area, A, of the solar
panel. Recognizing that 85 percent of the incident solar radiation is absorbed by the solar
panel, we have
= 3600 W
(0.85)(900 W/m2)(0.20)
= 23.5 m2
267
Solution check
Discussion
Not all the solar radiation that is incident on a surface is absorbed by that surface. A
fraction of the radiation is reflected, and, if the surface is semi-transparent, a portion is
transmitted. The 0.85 value used here represents the absorptivity of the solar panel
surface.
What is the maximum possible power output of a heat engine operating between the
temperature limits of 50̊C and 800̊C if 360 MJ of energy is supplied to the heat engine
during a time period of 1 h? What is the actual power output if the heat engine rejects
216 MJ to the 50̊C sink during the same time period?
Diagram
Assumptions
1. Energy input and outputs are constant.

Governing equations
268
Calculations
The heat engine can produce a maximum amount of power if the heat engine operates as
a Carnot heat engine. The Carnot efficiency of the heat engine is
= 1 − (50 + 273) K
(800 + 273) K
= 0.699
Hence, the maximum possible power output is
= (360 × 106 J)(0.699)

3600 s
= 69.9 kW
The actual power output is
= (360 − 216 ) × 106 J

3600 s
= 40.0 kW
269
Solution check
Discussion
The actual thermal efficiency of the heat engine is
= (40 kW)/(100 kW) = 0.40
A coal-fired steam power plant is to be designed for the purpose of generating electrical
power for a city with a population of 60,000 residents. Based on an order-of-magnitude
analysis, it is estimated that each resident of the city will consume an average energy of
55 MJ per day. The coal-fired boiler supplies 70 MW to the steam while thermal energy
is rejected to a nearby lake whose average temperature is 15̊C. What is the minimum
required temperature of the boiler to meet the power demands of the city?
Diagram
A steam power plant is basically a heat engine. The diagram is shown below.
Assumptions

270
3. Conversion efficiencies of electrical equipment are neglected.
Governing equations
Calculations
The total power requirement for the city is
= (60,000)(55 × 106 J/day)(1 day/24 h)(1 h/3600 s)
= 3.819 × 107 W
= 3.819 × 107 W
70 × 106 W
= 0.546
Thus, the minimum required temperature of the steam in the boiler is
= (15 + 273)
1 − 0.546
= 634 K = 361̊C
271
Solution check
Discussion
The minimum required boiler temperature is based on the presumption that the power
plant is operating under ideal conditions, i.e., as a Carnot power plant. The actual
required boiler temperature would have to be higher than the value calculated to meet the
power demands of the city.
272
Another random document with
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some degree of corruption was inevitable in all political
organisations, he held that they should be regarded by the voter in
exactly the same light as bidders for a contract. Government should
simply be handed over to the organisation making, all things
considered, the lowest bid, which in New York city, Mr. Thompson
thought, would usually be Tammany Hall. The argument is so
thoroughly feudal in its conception of politics that one finds it difficult
to believe in the author’s entire sincerity, although this is flatly
asseverated throughout the book. Moral objections similar to those
employed against the doctrine of the inviolability of a “ten per cent
rake-off” thoroughly dispose of any rational claim it may make to
attention. Political experience is also against it. Reform movements
particularly in municipalities may be laughed at as “spasms,” but
these movements, which are usually based largely on charges of
corruption, occur so frequently as to discredit the belief that purely
prudential considerations on the part of corruptionists will restrain
effectively the excesses of their demands. Supine acceptance by the
electorate of the “lowest bidder” theory would speedily result in the
submission of none but extortionately high bids. In the long run
“millions for defence but not one cent for tribute” is a sentiment quite
as justifiable economically as ethically.
To recapitulate the preceding argument,—the structure of society,
no matter how completely evolved and generally beneficial to the
highest human interests, is nevertheless such that when brought into
contact with natural human egoism it offers access at many points to
the onslaughts of corruption. The evil consequences may be
extreme, or only severe, or in time they may be completely
overcome. History furnishes examples of all three eventualities. It
also bears witness to the fact that many gross and threatening forms
of corruption that were once prevalent have been eliminated from the
life of civilised nations. Those which remain to afflict us are the
object of vigorous corrective measures which are constantly being
extended and strengthened. Corrupt practices are found to be limited
in some cases to certain branches or spheres of government with
consequences of varying degrees of danger to the national life. Or
they may be limited in amount or percentage by various prudential
considerations on the part of political leaders who, however, are far
from being sufficiently restrained in this way as social welfare
requires. While corruption thus appears to be a persistent problem of
social and political life it is far from being a hopeless one. In the
words of Professor Henry C. Adams,[39] its solution “is a continuous
task, like the cleansing of the streets of a great city, or the renewing
of a right purpose within the human heart.”
FOOTNOTES:
[24] It would, of course, be absurd to assume that every victor
in such contests is free from all taint of corruption. A very large
and powerful state may, although extremely corrupt, succeed in
overcoming a small and weak state which is relatively free from
corruption. Something akin to this occurred when Finnish
autonomy was suppressed by Russia in 1902. On the other hand
it is evident that in such a struggle the honesty of the small state
would be in its favour while the corruption of the great state would
be a source of weakness.
[25] Although most of the references to historic forms of
corruption presented in the following pages are taken from the
comparatively recent annals of nations which are still living, it is
worth noting that the subject could also be illustrated abundantly
from ancient history. Even prior to the Christian era Rome
suffered from various kinds of political corruption that exist in very
similar forms at the present day. Readers of the Old Testament
find, particularly in the books of Isaiah and Micah, denunciations
of social evils not unlike those published in contemporary
magazines.
[26] Herbert Spencer shows “that from propitiatory presents,
voluntary and exceptional to begin with but becoming as political
power strengthens less voluntary and more general, there
eventually grow up universal and involuntary contributions—
established tribute; and that with the rise of a currency this
passes into taxation” (“Principles of Sociology,” vol. ii, pt. iv, ch. iv,
p. 371), and further that “In our own history the case of Bacon
exemplifies not a special and late practice, but an old and usual
one” (p. 372). Bribe giving may, therefore, be regarded as a lineal
descendant of an old practice once regarded as legitimate, but
now fallen under the ban. Given a social state in which public
dues are open, regular, and fixed in amount, and in which bribery
is distinctly reprobated, as contrasted with a social state in which
present giving is common and tolerated or defended by public
opinion, the higher moral standard of the former would seem
beyond question.
[27] Op. cit., pp. 44-45.
[28] “The Diary of Samuel Pepys,” edited by Henry B. Wheatley,
vol. i, p. 207, entry of date of August 16, 1660.
[29] Op. cit., vol. vii, p. 49, entry dated July 30, 1667.
[30] “Samuel Pepys and the World He Lived In,” by Henry B.
Wheatley, p. 62.
[31] Op. cit., pp. 161-162, note.
[32] Ibid., p. 15.
[33] Ibid., p. 42.
[34] Ibid., p. 16.
[35] “The Shame of the Cities,” p. 152.
[36] “Japan, Its History, Arts, and Literature,” by Captain F.
Brinkley, vol. iv, p. 250 et seq.
[37] New York Times, March 9, 1900.
[38] “Politics in a Democracy,” New York, 1893.
[39] “Public Debts,” p. 358
CORRUPTION IN THE PROFESSIONS,
JOURNALISM, AND THE HIGHER EDUCATION
IV
CORRUPTION IN THE PROFESSIONS, JOURNALISM, AND
THE HIGHER EDUCATION
The wisdom of some quasi-philosophic counsellors of ambitious

youth expresses itself in the aphorism that in this world there are as
many doors labelled “pull” as there are labelled “push.” Without
admitting the equality in ratio of the two kinds of avenues to material
well being, it is undeniable that a great many of our social
relationships are very commonly exploited by interests of a more or
less directly personal character. Church membership, for example,
may be maintained chiefly as a stepping stone to business,
professional, or social success. Business men are overrun with
solicitations for aid to church and charitable purposes under
circumstances which suggest the discrete advertisement of their
delinquency in case they do not contribute “according to their
means,” and the probable loss of custom in consequence. The
charitable organisations themselves are imposed upon by unworthy
applicants for relief who display a pertinacity and ingenuity
calculated to destroy all faith in any trait of human nature except
universal parasitism. Of course one should not look a gift horse in
the mouth, but in the case of many presentations from inferiors to
superiors or from favour-seekers to men of influence the motives of
the givers, and also at times of the recipients, are certainly not
beyond suspicion. The ethics of the petty tipping system are dubious
at best. Labourers “soldier on their jobs”; clerks appropriate office
supplies as “perquisites”; there are “tricks in all trades.” To avoid
conflicts in the kitchen good housewives frequently send bad
servants away with excellent “characters.” During hard time winters
newspapers maintain free soup stations and publish the harrowing
details of the poverty which they are relieving in such a sensational
fashion that even the most guileless reader finds himself wondering
whether any motive connected with self-advertisement or circulation
reinforces the charitable sentiments of the journalist. On the other
hand many a queer and clever scheme is devised to secure
newspaper notoriety for some presumably deserving person or
cause. The ways of authors with critics, and of critics with authors for
that matter, are said at times to stand in need of criticism
themselves. “Dead easy” professors and “snap” courses (of which,
be it said with grief and contrition, every institution seems to have a
few samples) are exploited by college students whose mental efforts
in other directions are hopelessly inhibited by chronic brain fag. In
short every person charged with administrative duties in connection
with any social organisation, be it a business house, a club, a
church, a school, a charity, or what not, is familiar ad nauseam with
the fact that tacit or overt efforts are constantly being made both by
outsiders and insiders to procure suspensions of the rules or other
unwarranted privileges and favours.
It would, however, be an unnecessarily harsh judgment to
condemn all actions of the foregoing character as corrupt. If criticism
is to be attempted it must be based on a full knowledge of motives in
given cases, and these are not always apparent. Then, too, customs
have grown up under the influence of which men act without
analyzing the real nature of their conduct. Reflection would show,
however, that, with the exception of conscious evil intent, the
elements of corruption are present not only in the cases cited above,
but in many others which are constantly being encountered in the
course of the day’s experiences. It is certainly an error to assume
that all the grafters are engaged in “big” business or “big” politics. Let
us not excuse in the slightest degree the misdeeds of great
corporations, but, on the other hand, let us not forget that conduct of
a precisely similar ethical colour is sometimes indulged in by
labourers, clerks, small retailers, farmers, and others. The fact that
corrupt or “near” corrupt practices are more common than people are
ordinarily inclined to believe is significant in another way. There is
always a direct relationship between the characteristic petty offences
of a people and its characteristic major crimes. Thus in a country
given over to brawling, crimes of violence will be numerous. Chicane
largely prevalent in every day affairs will certainly breed an
atmosphere favourable to the perpetration of gigantic frauds. For this
reason the minor forms of corruption which occur in the daily life of a
people are worthy of much more attention than they ordinarily
receive.
Let us turn now from the petty and dubious manifestations of a
corrupt spirit to those larger and more directly threatening practices
which have become subject to public criticism and in some cases to
repressive legislation. The field thus ventured upon is so extensive
and its features are so involved that no progress can be made in its
discussion without classification. Yet any scheme of classification
that may be attempted must encounter great difficulties. Individual
judgments vary widely regarding the importance or degree of danger
to the public interest of various anti-social developments. Along
certain lines corrupt practices have been exploited by journalistic
enterprise with great pertinacity, while other suspicious areas are still
largely neglected. As a consequence of the very difficulties which
embarrass it, however, there is a certain justification even for a
confessedly imperfect classification. A service of considerable
importance may be rendered merely by bringing together in the form
of an outline all or nearly all the more threatening forms of corruption
in such a way that some of their salient characteristics and
interrelations are more clearly developed. Without therefore claiming
finality for the following arrangement it would seem desirable to
distinguish roughly two great fields of corrupt practices: first,
corruption in professional life generally; and second, corruption in
business and politics. The divisions and subdivisions of these two
groups will be indicated later. Corruption in professional life will be
discussed with some detail in the present study.[40] Business and
political corruption, the interrelations of which are very numerous and
close, will form the subject of the following paper.
Corruption in professional life may be held to involve virtually all of
our social leadership outside of business and politics. Apart from the
specific services rendered by the various professions their principal
practitioners are instinctively looked up to by the community for
guidance. In a broad sense all professional men are teachers.
Corruption in the professions is thus equivalent to the defilement of
the sources of public instruction. Yet precisely on this ground very
sweeping and bitter accusations are made. Law, journalism, and the
higher education are more frequently attacked, but medicine,
philanthropy, and theology also come in for criticism. To cite specific
instances:—editors are accused of wholesale misrepresentation and
suppression of news in behalf of sinister interests; college
professors, assumed to be subtly bribed by munificent endowments,
are reproached as the crafty inventors of philosophic excuses for
menacing public evils; lawyers are denounced as servile hirelings
who “justify the wicked for reward” and who accept crooked
corporation or political work without demur; ministers, philanthropic
workers, and other leaders of thought are said to be purchased by
large contributions, gifts of parks, playgrounds, hospitals, and so on.
[41] There are many modern Micahs who go about saying of our
people that “the heads thereof judge for reward, and the priests
thereof teach for hire, and the prophets thereof divine for money.”
Corruption of the sources of public instruction is manifestly replete
with the potency of evil. If a nation’s “men of light and leading” fail in
their function the case is hopeless indeed. Moreover the regulation
of the various sources of public instruction is a task the complexity of
which far excels that of any problem presented by the other forms of
corruption. No insuperable technical difficulty is involved, for
example, in prescribing the standard of pure milk, the proper safety
devices for theatres, the best method of fencing dangerous
machinery in mills, the adequate safeguarding of the interests of
policy holders in life insurance companies. But who will tell us with
authority exactly what is news and what isn’t; who will define
explicitly the standard of orthodoxy for university instruction in
economics and political science; who will provide ministers of the
gospel with a social creed drawn up with the precision and free from
the dogmatic differences of their theological creeds? It is not strange,
therefore, that although there has been much vague talk of “tainted
money,” proposals for the legal definition and regulation of its alleged
pernicious consequences have been wanting. We already have
extended and complicated legal systems of inspection and regulation
of many of the material goods of life, while but little has been done or
even concretely outlined in the direction of state supervision of ideal
goods and services.
Great as are the technical difficulties in the way of the latter policy,
the real reason for its lack of advocates would seem to lie in the
partial efficiency of the various ancient and highly socialised codes of
professional ethics. Competition in the economic world has not been
similarly safeguarded from within. With the breakdown of the guild
system and the sudden changes introduced by the industrial
revolution business found itself upon an uncharted sea. Laisser faire,
laisser aller seemed perfectly obvious in this spacious time of
untouched world markets, but latterly distances have dwindled,
density has increased, and collisions with social norms have become
increasingly frequent. Too often and too easily competition has been
pushed beyond the limits of social safety. In the economic struggle
the “twentieth mean man” has been able to wield compulsory power
over his nineteen decent competitors and to force them on pain of
bankruptcy to adopt his own lower standards. The professional
“mean men,” on the other hand, knew from the start that they were
derogating from the ethics of their fellow practitioners, and in many
cases were brought quickly to book for it. Here rather than in any
differences of personal integrity must be found the reason for the
higher moral reputation enjoyed by professional as compared with
business men. It is impossible to believe that of the brothers of the
family the black sheep always went into business and the good boys
into medicine or the ministry. Finally we may expect the general
immunity of the professions from state regulation to continue just so
long as they develop progressively their own police systems. In this
connection it is significant that that one of them which has been most
frequently and severely accused of abetting corruption in economic
and political fields, namely the law, is precisely the one which has
shown the most concern recently in the reformation of its code of
ethics.[42] Obviously such sanitary processes may be materially
hastened by the pressure from without of a forceful and honest
popular feeling in opposition to abuses which have grown up in
professional practice.
The greatest immediate influence upon public opinion is exerted,
of course, by journalism. The question of its corruption or
corruptibility is, therefore, one of prime importance. Accusations
against the press on this score are common enough, but few of them
are so sweeping as the following attributed to the late John Swinton,
formerly of the New York Sun and Tribune.[43] At a banquet of the
New York Press Association in 1895, in response to a toast on “The
Independent Press” he is reported to have said:
“There is no such thing in America as an independent press unless
it is in the country towns. You know it, and I know it. There is not one
of you who dare express an honest opinion. If you express it, you
know beforehand that it would never appear in print. I am paid $150
per week for keeping my honest opinions out of the paper I am
connected with. Others of you are paid similar salaries for doing
similar things. If I should permit honest opinions to be printed in one
issue of my paper, like Othello, before twenty-four hours my
occupation would be gone. The man who would be so foolish as to
write honest opinions would be out on the street hunting for another
job. The business of the New York journalist is to distort the truth, to lie
outright, to pervert, to vilify, to fawn at the feet of Mammon, and to sell
his country and race for his daily bread; or for what is about the same
thing, his salary. You know this, and I know it; and what foolery to be
toasting an ‘independent press.’ We are tools, and the vassals of rich
men behind the scenes. We are jumping jacks. They pull the string
and we dance. Our time, our talents, our lives, our possibilities, all are
the property of other men. We are intellectual prostitutes.”
It is hardly probable that any one not himself accustomed to
drafting headlines could have so far exaggerated a situation, even
under post-prandial influences, as did the author of the above
paragraph. Whatever may be the measure of the sinning of any
newspaper, certainly no single sheet has ever been the corrupt
apologist for all anti-social interests. A paper which at any one time
should attempt to stand for unsanitary tenement houses, for child
labour, for quack medicines, for “embalmed” beef, for “tainted
money” colleges, for monopoly tactics in beating down small
competitors, for life insurance frauds, for the spoils system, the
stealing of elections, and franchise grabbing,—or for any
considerable number of these,—would certainly lose its influence
with extreme suddenness. Newspapers are of all kinds, of course.
They differ even more in character than do individuals. As the focal
points of every interest in a community the interests of a newspaper
are much more diverse than those of the individual, and, as in the
case of the individual, these interests are shot through and through
with the noble and the base. Few people who are unfamiliar with the
practical making of newspapers realise what a constant and bitter
struggle is being waged in many cases to keep them free from
selfish and dishonest influences. In other instances, of course, the
partial triumph of the counting-room is palpable. Advertising columns
still carry, although with much less frequency than formerly, the
insertions of get-rich-quick schemes, of bucket-shops, of salary-loan
sharks, of quack doctors, quack medicines, and clairvoyants. Of
course these are frankly presented as paid matter, and every reader
of intelligence understands that they are inspired by the directly
selfish motives of the advertiser. When one thinks of the poor, the
ignorant, and the sick, who are exploited through such agencies,
however, the despicable character of the abuse is manifest. In some
papers, also, the reader finds abundant evidence of the activities of
press and publicity bureaus working in the interest of certain forms of
business. Morally this abuse is much worse than the foregoing, for it
throws off the form of advertising and clothes itself as news or
editorial opinion.
Large advertisers, particularly since the development of daily full
page announcements by department stores, also insist at times, and
not always ineffectually, upon exerting influence over news and
editorial columns. A pitch of absurdity seldom realised in this
connection was exemplified by the silence or approval with which the
press of one of our largest cities, a single paper honourably
excepted, treated the clearly mistaken philanthropy of a certain
wealthy merchant who had established many distributing stations for
sterilised, rather than Pasteurised milk. The paralysing effect of box
office influence upon sincere and vigorous dramatic criticism is
another deplorable instance of the same sort.
Finally there are papers which, however free they may keep
themselves from outside interests, nevertheless represent the
immediate political or economic ambitions of their owners. It is easy
to exaggerate this abuse not only with regard to its present extent
absolutely considered, but also with reference to its contemporary
development as compared with the press of the past. In its earlier
periods journalism was almost universally the tool of party. During
the civil war,—the epoch of great editorial personalities,—political
ambitions constantly invaded the sanctum with the result that the
gross unfairness and bitter partisanship engendered by the times
were doubly and trebly emphasised in the columns of the press. The
new journalism which began its career about 1875 not only prints
more news but prints it more fairly than the old school. Of course
most of our papers are still the recognised organs of some party, but
they are far from being servile and characterless advocates of every
party policy. Moreover there is a considerable number of politically
independent papers, some of which are avowedly so, while others
are really so although they may still wear lightly some party emblem.
Fearless, continued criticism of public abuses is more and more
coming to be recognised as good policy both for a paper and for the
commonweal.
Unfortunately there is another side to this record of improvement
and achievement. Perhaps the most important single difference
between the old personal journalism and the journalism of to-day is
the large capitalistic character of the latter. When the mechanical
outfit of a city paper could be supplied with a comparatively small
sum of money, the personality of the editor was all important,
although, as we have seen, even this favouring economic condition
did not by any means produce uncorrupted journalism. At the
present time large capital is necessary not only to provide the
equipment, but also to meet the heavy losses of the few inevitable
lean years at the outset. In most cases the money is contributed by
one man or by a comparatively small number of men whose other
business interests are likely to be very harmonious if not already
consolidated. In consequence there is a common, and withal very
human, tendency on the part of the paper thus established and
owned to deal favourably under all circumstances with the financial
interest or group of interests back of it. This is the typical journalistic
danger of the present period, just as the political bee in the editor’s
bonnet was the typical evil of the old personal journalism. Legislation
requiring newspapers to print the names of their principal owners,
and to deposit full lists of stockholders in some state office of record
where they could be made available to all comers, ought to limit
considerably the possibility of capitalistic manipulation of the press.
By revealing facts regarding financial control which at best can only
be suspected at the present time, publicity of this character would
enable readers to make the necessary allowances for any undue
form of counting-room control which might manifest itself in the
editorial or news columns of a given paper. In spite of this and other
shortcomings, however, most observers agree that the American
press as a whole is more independent to-day than ever before.
In considering abuses which affect our journalism one should not
forget certain conditions which set a limit to the corrupt manipulation
of the greatest single agency of public instruction. A modern
newspaper is a large capitalistic enterprise, of course, but its
business is peculiar in that it must sell its product to tens of
thousands of people every day at the price of a cent or two per copy.
However plutocratic a paper may be at one end it always represents
the extreme of democracy at the other. Our press is occasionally
prostituted by large moneyed interests, but it is in much more
constant danger of that directly opposite form of corruption, namely
demagogy. Reform of the press depends ultimately upon the reform
of its readers. Even on the latter side, however, we have to note an
increasing and very gratifying readiness on the part of our papers to
tell the American people the truth about themselves and about
foreign peoples regardless of all our old time prejudices and
antipathies.[44]
Reverting to the plutocratic influences affecting the press,
however, we have seen that in the nature of things no single
newspaper can become the tool of all the anti-social interests. It can
defend effectively only the few which for one reason or another are
approved by the managers of its policy. Usually a newspaper which
is thus silent or mildly unctuous on certain abuses endeavours to
rehabilitate itself by the condemnation, sometimes in a sensational
and even hysterical fashion, of other abuses, thus conducting, so to
speak, a vigorous department of moral foreign affairs. As a result the
position taken by the press as a whole on most points is strongly
favourable to the public interest. On this ground one may find a
philosophic justification for the sentiment so compactly phrased by
Mr. George William Curtis to the effect that “no abuse of a free press
can be so great as the evil of its suppression.”[45]
Even in dealing with those subjects concerning which a given
paper is not honest with its readers great care must be exercised. So
far as possible it must conceal the evidences of selfish interest and
present its case on grounds of public policy. Now arguments based
on such grounds are always worthy at least of consideration. A very
large part of political discussion, not only journalistic but of other
kinds, is “inspired” in this fashion, and it not infrequently happens
that what may be in accord with the self interest of individuals and
groups is also in accord with public interest. If this is not the case a
competing paper ought to be able to expose pretty effectively the
false assertions of its wily contemporary. In dealing with national
questions which are discussed by newspapers in every part of the
country this function of mutual criticism is in general well performed.
Cases occur, however, especially in connection with municipal
issues, where practically every paper of wide local circulation is
either silenced or actively engaged in the support of a crooked deal.
Under such circumstances a fight in defence of public interest is
almost hopeless. The more nearly the press of a given district
approaches this condition of corrupt paralysis, however, the brighter
are the opportunities for an opposition paper. In journalism as
everywhere in the world of social phenomena the inviolable law
prevails that a function cannot be abused without corresponding
harm to the agency which allows itself to be perverted. If it should
ever happen,—although at the present time the prospect seems
remote enough,—that a thoroughgoing control embracing the daily
papers of the whole country should be established in defence of
consolidated interests, it is certain that some new agency of publicity
would spring up in the interest of the people as a whole. In the end
the daily papers themselves would be the worst sufferers from a
general perversion of their activities. As a matter of fact a new and
powerful journalistic organ has already developed an influence not
incomparable with that of the daily press. The wonderful growth of
the low priced monthly and weekly magazines during the decade just
past has been explained on various grounds:—the cheapening of
paper and of illustrations, the second-class mailing privilege, the
effectiveness of such media for advertisement, and so on. No doubt
these factors go far toward explaining the great expansion of
magazine circulation, but in spite of much journalistic prejudice to the
contrary circulation and influence are not necessarily correlative. And
the influence, as distinct from the circulation, of the magazines has
been due very largely to the boldness and effectiveness with which
they assailed many public abuses with regard to which for one
reason or another the daily press was silent or even favourable. Of
course the detached situation of the magazines made it easy and
even profitable for them to pursue policies which might have cost the
newspapers dear. In any event a new way was found for the
effective journalistic presentation of the public interest.
In discussing the alleged corruption of the learned professions as
a whole reference was made to the powerful influence of
professional codes of ethics. One must recognise the journalistic
instinct and journalistic traditions as strong factors of similar
character. Even where editorial and reportorial staffs have given way,
for purely bread and butter reasons, to what they knew were the
selfish suggestions of controlling financial interests these same
interests must sometimes have wondered at the lukewarmness of
their paper’s support, and also, perhaps, at the enthusiasm which it
manifested for some good cause indifferent to them. Moreover
professional standards are rising in this field as well as elsewhere.
No one has given clearer or more forcible expression to the highest
of these newer ideals of journalism than Mr. George Harvey of the
North American Review, whose words, by the way, present the
extreme of contrast to those quoted earlier from Mr. Swinton. After
pointing out that the great editorial leaders of the past generation,—
Greeley, Raymond, Dana, Bennett,—were shackled by their own
political ambitions, Mr. Harvey asks:
“What, then, shall we conclude? That an editor shall bar acceptance
of public position under any circumstances? Yes, absolutely, and any
thought or hope of such preferment, else his avowed purpose is not
his true one, his policy is one of deceit in pursuance of an
unannounced end; his guidance is untrustworthy, his calling that of a
teacher false to his disciples for personal advantage, his conduct a
gross betrayal not only of public confidence, but also of the faith of
every true journalist jealous of a profession which should be of the
noblest and the farthest removed from base uses in the interests of
selfish men.” ...
“He [the journalist] is, above all, a teacher who, through daily
appeals to the reason and moral sense of his constituency, should
become a real leader.... Above capital, above labour, above wealth,
above poverty, above class, and above people, subservient to none,
quick to perceive and relentless in resisting encroachments by any,
the master journalist should stand as the guardian of all, the vigilant
watchman on the tower ever ready to sound the alarm of danger, from
whatever source, to the liberties and the laws of this great union of
free individuals.”[46]
Discussion of the “tainted money” charge so far as it affects our

universities and colleges can not, of course, be presented with
complete objectivity by the present writer. Nothing can be promised
beyond an earnest effort to attain detachment and impartiality. On
the other hand, a decade spent in the active teaching of the principal
debatable subjects in three institutions of widely different character
may furnish a basis of experience of some value.[47]
First of all there must be no blinking of the importance of the
subject. “It is manifest,” wrote the acute Hobbes, “that the Instruction
of the people, dependeth wholly, on the right teaching of Youth in the
Universities.” Quaint as is the language in which he defends this
proposition the argument which it contains is applicable with few
changes to modern conditions.
“They whom necessity, or couvetousnesse keepeth attent on their
trades, and labour; and they, on the other side, whom superfluity, or
sloth carrieth after their sensuall pleasures, (which two sorts of men
take up the greatest part of Man-kind,) being diverted from the deep
meditation, which the learning of truth, not onely in the matter of
Natural Justice, but also of all other Sciences necessarily requireth,
receive the Notions of their duty, chiefly from Divines in the Pulpit, and
partly from such of their Neighbours, or familiar acquaintance, as
having the Faculty of discoursing readily, and plausibly, seem wiser
and better learned in cases of Law, and Conscience, than themselves.
And the Divines, and such others as make shew of Learning, derive
their knowledge from the Universities, and from the Schooles of Law,
or from the Books, which by men eminent in those Schooles, and
Universities have been published.”[48]
In spite of the development of other intermediate agencies of
public instruction since the seventeenth century, and particularly of
the press and our elementary school system, the influence of
universities and colleges was never greater than it is at present, and
it is an influence which is constantly increasing in strength. The
number of universities and colleges is larger, their work is more
efficient, their curricula are broader, the number of college bred men
in the community is greater, and their leadership therein more
perceptible than ever before. Professors are enlisting in industrial,
scientific, and social activities outside academic walls in a way
undreamed of so long as the old monastic ideals held sway. By
extension lectures and still more by books and articles they are
reaching larger and larger masses of the people. Newspapers
formulate current public opinion, but to the writer, at least, it seems
plainly apparent that the best thought of the universities and colleges
to-day is the thought that in all likelihood will profoundly influence
both press and public opinion in the near future. Academic observers
of the sound money struggle of 1896, for example, must have smiled
frequently to themselves at the arguments employed during the
campaign. There was not one of them which had not been the
commonplace of economic seminars for years. The newspapers and
the abler political leaders on both sides simply filled their quivers with
arrows drawn from academic arsenals. Extreme cleverness was
shown by many journalists and campaign orators in popularising this
material, in adapting it to local conditions, and in placing it broadcast
before the people, but of original argumentation on their part there
was scarcely a scintilla. It is significant also that the battle of the
ballots was decided in favour of the contention which commanded
the majority of scientific supporters. Subsequent political issues,
great and small, have developed very similar phenomena, although
of course it would be absurd to assert that in all cases the dominant
opinion of the literati prevailed at the ballot. There are also certain
academic ideals of the day with which practical politics and business
are demonstrably and crassly at variance. Not until the fate of many
future battles is decided can we estimate the full strength of the
university influence on such pending questions. Victory would seem
assured in a sufficient number of cases, however, to make it clear
that just as the wholesomeness of the public opinion of to-day is
conditioned by the independence of the press, so the
wholesomeness of the public opinion of to-morrow will be
determined largely by the independence of our colleges and
universities.
As compared with the press, universities possess certain great
advantages which justify the public in demanding from them higher
standards of accuracy and impartiality. The professor enjoys some
measure of leisure; the editor is always under the lash of production
on the stroke of the event. It is also a very considerable advantage
that the editorial “we” and the anonymity of the newspaper are
foreign to college practice. There is, of course, a pretty well
recognised body of opinion on methods and ideals common to the
faculties of our learned institutions, but in the separate fields of
departmental work any opinion that may be expressed is primarily
the opinion of the professor expressing it. His connection with a
given institution is, indeed, a guaranty of greater or less weight as to
his general scholarly ability, and he will, of course, be mindful of this
in all that he says or writes. But beyond this his personal reputation
is directly involved. Those who make a newspaper suffer collectively
and more or less anonymously for any truckling to corrupt interests.
The college president or teacher guilty of an offence of the same sort
must suffer in his own person the contempt of his colleagues, his
students, and the public generally.
Newspapers, moreover, are usually managed by private
corporations frankly seeking profit as one of their ends. Universities
and colleges, on the other hand, are much more free from the
directly economic motive. There are, however, certain large
qualifications to the advantages which institutions of learning thus
enjoy. Every university and college is constantly perceiving new
means of increasing its usefulness and persistently seeking to
secure them. The demands made in behalf of such purposes may
seem excessive at times, but it is clear that an educational institution
which does not appreciate the vital importance of the work it is doing,
and consequently the importance of expanding that work, is simply
not worth its salt. In a great many cases the readiest means of
securing the necessary funds is by appeal to rich men for large gifts
and endowments. As the number of munificent Mæcenases is
always limited and the number of needy institutions always very
considerable, a competitive struggle ensues, different in most of its
incidents from the directly profit seeking struggles of the business
world, but essentially competitive none the less. In the campaign of a
university or college for expansion a large body of students makes a
good showing; hence too often low entrance requirements weakly
enforced and low standards of promotion. At times even the springs
of discipline are relaxed lest numbers should be reduced by a
salutary expulsion or two. Courses are divided and subdivided
beyond the real needs of an institution and salaries are reduced in
order to secure a sufficient number of teachers to give the large
number of courses advertised with great fulness in the catalogue. A
large part of crooked collegiate athletics is due to an indurated belief
in the advertising efficacy of gridiron victories as a means of
attracting first, students, and then endowments. So far as charges of
corruption against our higher educational institutions are at all
justified they are justified chiefly by the practices just described.
Fairness requires the statement, however, that a marked change of
heart is now taking place. Public criticism has placed athletic graft in
the pillory to such an extent that enlightened self-interest, if no better
motive, should bring about its speedy abolition by responsible
college managements. Many sincere efforts have been made by
members of faculties singly and through organisations covering
certain fields of study to raise and properly enforce entrance and
promotion standards. Finally in the Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching there has been developed an agency of
unparalleled efficiency for detecting and exposing low standards. A
college may continue to publish fake requirements, to crowd its class
rooms with students who belong to high schools, to pad its courses,
to underpay and overwork its instructing staff, but if it does these
things it cannot, even if otherwise qualified, secure pensions for its
professors, and in any event its derelictions will be advertised
broadcast in the reports of the Foundation with a precision and a
conviction beyond all hope of rebuttal. Let cynics smile at a process
which they may describe as bribing the colleges to be good by
pensioning their superannuates, but unquestionably the work of the
Foundation has resulted in a new uprightness, a new firmness of
standards, a higher efficiency that bodes well for the future of
American education. Parents may give material encouragement to
this movement by reading the publications of the Carnegie
Foundation, as well as college catalogues and advertisements,
before they determine upon an institution for the education of their
children.
Although the conditions just described are the principal evil results
of the competitive struggle for college and university expansion, the
accusations of corruption against institutions of learning have usually
dealt with their teaching of the doctrines of economics, sociology,
and political science. Endowments must be secured; as a rule they
can be had only from the very rich; among the very rich are
numbered most of the “malefactors of great wealth”;—ergo university
and college teaching on such subjects must be made pleasing or at
least void of all offence to plutocratic interests.
There is a certain disproportion between the means and the ends
considered by the foregoing argument which is worth notice. To
found or endow a college or university requires a great deal of
money. Any institution worthy of either name is made up of
numerous departments,—languages, literature, the natural sciences,
history, and the social sciences,—of which only the last named are
concerned with the moot questions of the day. If one cherished the
Machiavellian notion of corrupting academic opinion to his economic
interest he would be obliged, therefore, to support an excessively
large number of departments the work of which would be absolutely
indifferent to him. Endowment of the social sciences alone would be
rather too patent. That they are not over-endowed at the present

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Introduction to Engineering Analysis

4th Edition Hagen Solutions Manual

Introduction to Renewable Energy for Engineers 1st

Introduction to Analysis 4th Edition Wade Solutions

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering 4th Edition

Introduction To Environmental Engineering 4th Edition

Introduction to Real Analysis 4th Edition Bartle

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering SI Edition 4th

Introduction To Finite Elements In Engineering 4th

Engineering Fundamentals An Introduction to Engineering

Section 6.2 Practice!

Pabs = Pgauge + Patm

The pressure exerted on the gas by the 1.2 kN applied force is

= 1200 N 2 = 3.616 × 105 N/m2 = 361.6 kPa

Pgas = P + Patm = 361.6 kPa + 100 kPa = 462 kPa

35 kPa × 0.14504 psi = 5.076 psi = Pvac

Pabs = Patm − Pgauge

Pgauge = Pabs − Patm

T(K) = T(̊C) + 273

= 300 + 273 = 573 K

T(̊R) = 1.8 T(K)

= 1.8 (573) = 1031̊R

T(̊F) = 1.8 T(̊C) + 32

T(K) = T(̊C) + 273 = (T(̊F) − 32)/1.8 + 273

= (40 − 32)/1.8 + 273 = 277 K

= (40 − 32)/1.8 = 4.4̊C

T(̊R) = T(̊F) + 460

ΔT(̊C) = 96 − 4.4 = 91.6̊C

ΔT(K) = ΔT(̊C) = 91.6 K

ΔT(̊F) = 1.8 ΔT(̊C)

= 1.8 (91.6) = 164.9̊F

Section 6.4 Practice!

Converting the speeds to units of m/s, we have

20 mi/h × 5280 ft × 1 h × 1 m = 8.941 m/s

50 mi/h × 5280 ft × 1 h × 1m = 22.35 m/s

Converting the distance traveled to units of m, we have

= ½ (2500 kg)[(22.35 m/s)2 − (8.941 m/s)2] = 5.24 × 105 J

The gravitational work (work done by the truck against gravity) is

= (2500 kg)(9.81m/s2)[(487.70) sin 8̊ − 0] m

The total work is

Converting the speeds to units of ft/s, we have

30 mi/h × 5280 ft × 1 h = 44.0 ft/s

55 mi/h × 5280 ft × 1 h = 80.67 ft/s

= ½ (95 slug)[(44.0 ft/s)2 − (80.67 ft/s)2] = −2.172 × 105 slug⋅ft2/s2

= (95 slug)(32.2 ft/s2)[(1355) sin 3̊ − 0] ft

= 2.169 × 105 slug⋅ft2/s2

The total work is

First, we convert the rotational speed to units of revolutions per second.

n = 1200 rpm × min = 20.0 rev/s

= 2π (20.0 rev/s × 3600 s)(60 N⋅m)

= 2.71 × 107 N⋅m = 2.71 × 107 N⋅m = 27.1 MJ

Performing the integration, we have

Wb = (aV − bV 2/2) 0.1

= [40 − (−500)] Pa⋅m3 = 540 J

The initial and final displacements of the spring are

Wsp = ½ k (x22 − x12)

= ½ (2600 N/cm)[(11.0 cm)2 − (3.50 cm)2] = 1.414 × 105 N⋅cm

= 1414 N⋅m = 1.41 kJ

The work done by the gas is the boundary work, given by

= (300 × 103 Pa)[π(0.12 m)2/4](0.08 m) = 271 Pa⋅m3 = 271 J

Section 6.5 Practice!

Solving for the boulder’s velocity, v, immediately before impact, we have

= 2(9.81 m/s2)(50 m) = 31.3 m/s