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 Contents vii

Nut Breads, Coffee Cakes, and Fried Quick Breads 265

Biscuits 266
Scones 267

Chapter 17 ■ Yeast Breads 269

Characteristics of Yeast Breads 269
Ingredients 270
Mixing and Handling 274
Fermentation and Proofing 276
Baking Bread 279
Rolls 281
Whole-Grain and Variety Breads 281
Staling of Bread 283

Chapter 18 ■ Cakes and Cookies 287

Shortened Cakes 287
Foam Cakes 294
Cookies 297

Chapter 19 ■ Pastry 303

Characteristics of Plain Pastry 304
Ingredients in Plain Pastry 304
Techniques of Mixing 305
Rolling Pastry 307
Baking 308
Other Types of Pastry and Crusts 308

FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND SALADS

Chapter 20 ■ Vegetables and Vegetable Preparation 311
Consumption Trends and Nutrition 311
Nutrition 311
Kinds of Vegetables 313
Purchasing 321
Storage 325
Preliminary Vegetable Preparation 326
Preparation and Quality Considerations 329
Specific Methods of Cooking Vegetables 335
Plant Proteins and Vegetarian Diets 338
viii Contents

Chapter 21 ■ Fruits and Fruit Preparation 345

Fruit Classifications 345
Fruit Consumption, Composition, and Nutritive Value 345
Color 347
Flavor 348
Changes During Ripening 350
Selection of Fresh Fruits 351
Storage of Fresh Fruits 358
Fruit Juices 360
Dried Fruits 361
Canned Fruits 362
Frozen Fruits 362
Preparation 362

Chapter 22 ■ Salads and Gelatin Salads 367

Salad Use in Meals 367
Nutrition 368
Salad Preparation and Ingredients 368
Gelatin and Gels 375
Gelatin Hydration, Swelling, and Dispersion 377
Gelation 378
Gelatin Salads and Desserts 379

DAIRY PRODUCTS AND EGGS

Chapter 23 ■ Milk and Milk Products 382
Consumption Trends and Nutrition 382
Composition and Properties of Milk 384
Sanitation, Grading, and Processing 387
Types of Milk Products 390
Food Preparation with Milk and Cream 395
Cheese 399

Chapter 24 ■ Eggs and Egg Cookery 409

Composition and Nutritive Value 409
Structure 411
Egg Quality and Sizing 412
Food Safety of Eggs 416
 Contents ix

Preservation and Processing 418

Coagulation of Eggs and Egg Foams in Food Preparation 420
Specific Methods of Egg Preparation 424

MEAT, POULTRY, AND SEAFOOD

Chapter 25 ■ Meat and Meat Cookery 433
Consumption Trends and Nutrition 433
Composition and Structure 434
Classification 437
Meat Production and Marketing 440
Purchasing Meat 446
Tenderness and Flavor 455
Cured Meats 458
Safe Storage and Preparation of Meats 460
Methods of Preparing and Cooking Meat 462
Stock, Broth, Consommé, Gravy, and Sauces 470
Carving Meat 472

Chapter 26 ■ Poultry 477

Consumption 477
Composition and Nutritive Value 477
Classification and Market Forms 478
Poultry Production and Processing 478
Government Regulations 479
Buying Poultry 482
Safe Storage and Preparation 484
Cooking Poultry 487

Chapter 27 ■ Seafood 492

Consumption 493
Composition and Nutritive Value 493
Classification 494
Seafood Harvest and Aquaculture 498
Government Regulation 499
Buying Fish and Shellfish 499
Safe Storage and Handling 503
Preparation 503
x Contents

BEVERAGES
Chapter 28 ■ Beverages 509
Consumption Trends and Nutrition 509
Water 509
Carbonated Beverages 511
Functional Beverages 511
Noncarbonated Fruit or Vegetable Beverages 512
Alcoholic Beverages 512
Coffee 513
Tea 520
Cocoa and Chocolate 522

FOOD PRESERVATION
Chapter 29 ■ Food Preservation and Packaging 528
Causes of Food Spoilage 528
General Methods of Food Preservation 529
Packaging of Food 533

Chapter 30 ■ Food Preservation by Freezing and Canning 541

Freezing 541
Canning 546

Appendix A ■ Weights and Measures 557

Abbreviations for Measurements 557
Equivalents 557
Some Ingredient Substitutions 558
Standard Can Sizes 558
Metric Conversions 559
Common Measurements Used in Food Preparation 559
Approximate Number of Cups in a Pound of Some Common Foods 559
Weights and Measures for Some Food Ingredients 559
 Contents xi

Appendix B ■ Temperature Control 560

Oven Temperatures 560
Thermometers for Other Uses 560
Converting Fahrenheit and Celsius Temperatures 560

Appendix C ■ Nutritive Value of Foods 562

References 563
Glossary 598
Index 609
This page intentionally left blank

T
he fourteenth edition of Introductory Foods has
been written and revised to introduce begin-
ning college students to the basic fundamental
principles of food preparation and to alert them to many
innovations and emerging trends in food science and
technology. The scientific basis for ingredients and tech-
niques used in food preparation are provided throughout.
This text is designed to be one of the first courses in food
preparation for students studying nutrition and dietetics,
hospitality management, family and consumer science
education, and culinary arts.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
The book was revised throughout with over 300 new
sources added to the already extensive references pro-
vided for each chapter. Several new feature boxes, tables,
and photographs were added to this edition. Some of the
updated or new topics in the book include the following:
j The 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans and
the USDA Choose My Plate
j Food deserts, food swamps, and the impact of
geography on food costs
j Factors that influence food selection such as local
foods, farmer’s markets, cage-free and other egg
production practices, and fair trade were added
to complement content on organic and natural
foods
j Environmental issues such as mercury in the
environment, the important role of honey bees in
pollination, and fishing catch limits
j Incorporation of nutrition topics in connection
with the new Dietary Guidelines for Americans
and foods such as sugar, whole grains, fats and
oils, seafood, and others
ORGANIZATION
The chapters in this book are independent, so that
instructors may present them in any order that best
fits the structure and objectives of the course. Cross-
references to other chapters are indicated periodically in
the text.
Chapters 1 through 4 contain introductory material
about food choices, sensory analysis, economics, food
safety, and regulations. Foundational principles of cook-
ing are given in Chapters 5 through 8. The discussion
PREFACE
of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in Chapter 9 may
be used as a review for students who have had chemis-
try courses or as an introduction for those who have not
studied chemistry. The remaining chapters are divided
into eight sections: “Fats, Frying, and Emulsions,”
“Sweeteners, Crystallization, Starch, and Cereal
Grains,” “Bakery Products,” “Fruits, Vegetables, and
Salads,” “Dairy Products and Eggs,” “Meat, Poultry, and
Seafood,” “Beverages,” and “Food Preservation.”
FEATURES
j Tables and charts present concepts in a concise,
student-friendly format.
j Definitions of key words are provided in a glos-
sary to assist students in learning new terms.
j Chapter summaries and study questions aid in
the review and understanding of the material.
j Feature boxes provide in-depth coverage of
specialized topics including Focus on Science,
Multicultural Cuisine, Healthy Eating, Hot
Topics, Keep It Safe, and Thinking Green.
j Extensive reference lists contain over 300
updated sources.
j For instructors, PowerPoint slides and an
instructor’s manual are available.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To my husband Doug and sons Colin and Nathan, thank
you for your understanding, patience, and encourage-
ment throughout the revision of this text. Doug and
Nathan are also thanked for their assistance in taking
some of the photographs in the book. My parents, Ema-
line and Lamoine Einspahr, are recognized for the value
they always placed on the quest for knowledge and a qual-
ity education. Appreciation also is extended to my col-
leagues and students at Kent State University for their
support and encouragement.
Marion Bennion’s ongoing influence, as the author of
this text for so many years, is gratefully recognized. Frank
Conforti, PhD, associate professor of human nutrition,
foods, and exercise at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University, is appreciated for his contributions to many
of the Focus on Science features found in every chapter.
Our editor Vern Anthony and Project Manager Kris
Roach are recognized for all of their efforts in successfully
xiii
xiv Preface
navigating this revision from a draft manuscript to a book
in print. Appreciation is extended to all of the reviewers
of this edition for their insightful and constructive com-
ments: Tracey Brigman, University of Georgia; Joseph
Huges, California State University, San Bernardino;
Mark Kent, University of Akron; Kimberly Lukhard, East
Carolina University; Edye Cameron McMillen, Delta
State University; Eric Milholland, Colorado State Uni-
versity; Martha O’Gorman, Northern Illinois University;
and Sherri Stastny, North Dakota State University.
INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
To access supplementary materials online, instructors
need to request an instructor access code. Go to www
.pearsonhighered.com/irc, where you can register for an
instructor access code. Within 48 hours after registering,
you will receive a confirming e-mail, including an instruc-
tor access code. Once you have received your code, go to
the site and log on for full instructions on downloading
the materials you wish to use.
 Food Choices and Sensory
Characteristics
T
he food choices that we make and the develop-
ment of our behavior and habits concerning
food are influenced by many interacting fac-
tors, including availability, income, culture, concerns
about health, social values, religion, and even genetics
[21, 56]. Yet, for most persons and in ordinary circum-
stances, foods must be palatable or have appetite appeal
if they are to be eaten. A palatable food is one that is both
acceptable to an individual and agreeable to his or her
taste. Various sensory impressions or sensations, includ-
ing odor, appearance, taste, and mouthfeel or touch, are
involved in our judgment of palatability and food quality.
Learning to prepare foods with great appetite appeal
includes learning to discriminate and evaluate the quality
of food through the intensity of the sensations received
when food is sampled. Individuals vary in their capacities
to experience flavors and odors, but sensitivities to pleas-
urable encounters with food may be heightened as they
learn more about food characteristics and quality.
A taste or liking for a variety of foods may be
acquired. Learning to like new foods will provide ample
rewards from increased enjoyment and enhanced aes-
thetic experiences. Eating a wide variety of foods also is
an excellent practice from a nutritional perspective. You
are encouraged to develop a discriminating taste as you
begin to learn basic reasons why foods behave as they do
during preparation and/or processing.
In this chapter, the following topics will be discussed:
j Factors affecting food selection and consumption
j Sensory characteristics of food
j Objective evaluation of food
Factors Affecting
Patterns of Eating
Humans, as biological beings, require food to sustain life.
Humans eat to satisfy hunger and to meet a basic drive for
food. The decision of what and when to eat is not solely
1
driven by biological needs, however. Food consumption
patterns are influenced by family and friends, cultural
traditions, religious beliefs, health and nutrition factors,
economic concerns, technological developments, psy-
chological influences, and sensory quality.
Family and Social
The family structure and interactions among family
members are important influences on the development of
our food habits. Children learn that food provides com-
fort when they are hungry and is a pleasurable dimension
of family activities, celebrations, and time with friends
(Figure 1-1). Several studies have shown an association
between children’s food preferences, the food practices
of their parents, and parenting styles [1, 6, 20]. Peers,
schools, day care providers, and the media also influence
eating patterns of children and adolescents [1, 20, 23].
Adults share meals with friends, family, and coworkers as
part of their social interactions.
The food patterns of families in the twenty-first cen-
tury are being influenced by time restraints. Nearly 77
percent of women with children under 18 are working
outside the home [56]. However, mothers are preparing
91 percent of meals with an average preparation time of
34 minutes [5]. Food preparation time is further limited
by a variety of extracurricular family activities. Families
are coping with time challenges by purchasing takeout
foods as home meal replacements and using conveni-
ence foods [5, 52]. Drive-through food from a quick-
service restaurant, or “desktop” brown bag or microwave
meals when at work are additional timesaving strategies
[49]. Meals purchased outside the home accounted for 47
percent of total food expenditures in 2012 [38].
Regular, shared meals have been declining under
the pressures of modern society. Nevertheless, the fam-
ily meal plays an important role in human communica-
tion—communicating love, values, and information. It
can be especially effective in increasing the well-being of
children. Even in our changing society, ideals about the
1
2 Chapter One
Figure 1-1 Two children enjoy each others’ company while
enjoying a healthy snack. (Photo by Keith Weller, Courtesy of U.S.
Department of Agriculture)
importance of family meals have persisted [6]. Five nights
out of seven, Americans prepare dinner at home [52].
Cultural
Cultural forces shape our food behaviors. The culture in
which we develop determines, to a large extent, our food
patterns or habits. Foods are eaten in combination with
other foods in ways that are determined and perpetuated
Multicultural Cuisine
Ethnic Foods in America—So What Is the Typical Meal?
N ine out of 10 Americans regularly eat ethnic foods at
home or in restaurants [50]. Italian, Mexican, and Chi-
nese foods are the foods most frequently prepared. Medi-
terranean cuisines, including Spanish and Greek foods,
are gaining in popularity. Among Asian cuisines, Thai and
Japanese are most preferred. Flavors and ingredients featur-
ing teriyaki, ginger, wasabi, and ponzu are gaining in impor-
tance. The consumption of Indian foods is also on the rise
with 10 percent of Americans preparing Indian food at home
and another 7 percent selecting Indian food when dining out.
The growth of the U.S. Hispanic population in the dec-
ade ahead is likely to fuel a continued interest and demand
by our culture. Food patterns differ mark-
edly from one culture to another. Not eve-
ryone in a cultural group eats exactly alike,
however because of individual and family
preferences.
The influence of ethnic groups is also
seen in geographical areas in which indi-
viduals from these cultures represent a
large percentage of the population. Food
habits learned in other areas of the world
tend to continue, when possible, as indi-
viduals or groups move to new locations.
In the United States, some regional food
preferences can be traced to the influx
of immigrants into the region. Each cul-
ture passes on its unique food habits and
patterns to their children [17, 26]. In
the United States, cultural food habits
are modified as acculturation with the
“American” diet occurs [4, 68, 69].
The study of foods should help you understand and
appreciate the food patterns of other cultures or eth-
nic groups as well as different taste preferences among
various regions of the United States [34]. America is
becoming increasingly more global in its tastes for food,
resulting from a more diverse population, increased
travel, and rapid communication [59]. Each ethnic group
has developed a cuisine with its distinctive combina-
tion of flavorings for basic foodstuffs. When eating out,
many people choose a culinary experience involving dif-
ferent and sometimes exotic foods. The food industry
is accepting the challenges presented by demographic
changes with new menu items featuring Japanese, Thai,
for Latin foods [47]. The flavors and ingredients from South
American and Caribbean cuisines characterize Latin food.
Pico de gallo, chipotle sauce, mole, and flan are appearing
on more menus. Latin food can be hot because of the use of
chilies or refreshing with citrus fruits and assorted vinegars.
Look for empanadas (a beef dish), Peruvian blue potatoes,
postones (fried plantain), mango fruits, dulce de leche ice
cream (based on a South American sweet caramel-like milk
product), and many other Latin-inspired dishes j
Source: References 45, 46.

Vietnamese, Korean, Indian, Middle Eastern, Caribbean,
Jamaican, and Mediterranean foods [47, 50]. With this,
great variety of food choices are available. Fascinating
experiences await the adventurer who learns to enjoy, and
prepare, the foods of many different cultures.
Religious Beliefs
Food has significance in relation to many religious beliefs.
Food laws within religious life may set strict guidelines
dictating the types of food to be consumed, the proce-
dures for processing and preparing foods, the complete
omission of certain foods, and the frequency of eating
other foods. To take advantage of the large markets avail-
able in religious communities, the food industry must
serve the needs of these various groups.
Christian. The foods consumed (or not consumed)
vary by the church denomination, although few dietary
restrictions are common in most Christian denomina-
tions. Some churches, such as Catholic, may encourage
members to avoid meat consumption during specific days
in Lent.
Judaism. The kosher dietary laws, kashruth, are
observed to varying degrees by members of the Jewish
faith [34, 43]. These laws include a prohibition against
eating blood and thus dictate rules concerning the slaugh-
ter of animals and their further processing [32]. Milk
products and meat products must be kept separate. Only
certain species of animals are considered to be suitable for
consumption. Pork and shellfish, among others, are pro-
hibited. Kosher laws also extend to ingredients that are
used in food processing. Even many non-Jewish individu-
als choose kosher products because they are regarded as
clean, high-quality foods.
Islam. Islam also prescribes a set of food laws [14, 34].
Foods that are lawful for Muslims to consume are called
halal [34]. As a general principle, most foods are permit-
ted; however, some prohibitions are specified. Prohibited
foods include swine and all their by-products, intoxicants
of all types, birds of prey, land animals without ears such
as snakes, flowing or congealed blood, and animals killed
in a manner that prevents their blood from being fully
drained from their bodies. Thus, there are strict require-
ments for the slaughtering of animals. Food products may
be certified by the Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of
America.
Hinduism. Hindu dietary practices emphasize the
avoidance of foods that may interfere with the develop-
ment of the body or mind [34]. Although not required,
many Hindus are vegetarian. The consumption of cows
is prohibited because cows are considered sacred. Pork
is also frequently avoided by Hindus. Fish or meat must
first be sanctified before it is consumed.
Food Choices and Sensory Characteristics 3
Vegetarianism and Religious Belief. Several reli-
gions advocate vegetarianism, although vegetarianism
may be chosen for ecological, health, or other reasons as
well. Chinese Buddhists advocate vegetarianism because
they believe in compassion [29]. A vegetarian diet is rec-
ommended by the Seventh-Day Adventist Church but is
not required for membership [9]. In the United States,
approximately 4 percent of the population, or 9 million
adults, are vegetarians [57]. The majority of vegetar-
ians consume dairy and eggs and are classified as lacto-
ovo vegetarians. About 1 percent are strict vegetarians
or vegans and do not consume any animal products or
honey. Forty-seven percent of Americans consume at
least one vegetarian meal each week [57].
Nutrition and Health
An interest in healthful lifestyles, including recognition of
nutrition as an important part of the health improvement
process, is flourishing among Americans. At the same
time, obesity rates for adults and children have increased
dramatically since 1990 (Figure 1-2) [61]. Seventy-two
percent of men, 64 percent of women, and 32 percent of
children are overweight or obese [65]. National nutrition
objectives are included in the U.S. Public Health Ser-
vice’s broad-based initiative Healthy People 2010: National
Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives [66] and
are supported through the U.S. Dietary Guidelines, My
Plate, and Nutrition Facts labeling on food products. How
Americans respond to government health and dietary
recommendations by adjusting their dietary habits will
become more apparent in the years ahead (Figure 1-3).
An increased interest in healthy choices is evident in some
segments of the food marketplace [13, 48, 51].
Dietary Guidelines. Dietary Guidelines for Ameri-
cans, first published in 1980 by the U.S. Departments of
Agriculture (USDA) and the Department of Health and
Human Services, is now in the seventh edition [18]. The
2010 Dietary Guidelines, like previous editions, provides
recommendations for healthy Americans age 2 and older.
The 2010 guidelines differs from previous guidelines by
also including recommendations for Americans who have
an increased risk of chronic disease. Two overarching
concepts, “maintain calorie balance over time to achieve
and sustain a healthy weight” and “focus on consuming
nutrient-dense foods and beverages,” are emphasized
in the 23 key recommendations found in the guidelines
[65]. As in the past, the goal of the guidelines is to pro-
mote health and reduce the risk for major chronic dis-
eases by providing recommendations for healthy eating.
Four focus areas and key recommendations are provided
within the Dietary Guidelines (Table 1-1) [65].
Choose My Plate. In 2011, the Food Guide Pyramid
was replaced by My Plate, also called Choose My Plate.
The My Plate was designed to simplify the message to
the public to encourage Americans to make half of their
4 Chapter One

Obesity Trends* Among U.S. Adults

BRFSS, 1990, 2000, 2010
(*BMI 30, or about 30 lbs. overweight for 5’ 4” person)

1990 2000

2010

No Data <10% <10-14% <15-19% <20-24% <25-29% ≥30&

Source: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, CDC.

Figure 1-2 Obesity trends among U.S. adults. (Courtesy of U.S. Centers for Disease Control)

plate fruits and vegetables (Figure 1-4). Individualized
dietary recommendations and a “SuperTracker” tool
to monitor your nutrition intake may be found at www
.choosemyplate.gov. The original Food Guide Pyramid
was introduced by the USDA in 1992 and revised in 2005
to illustrate the dietary guidelines graphically [18, 62].
Food Labeling. In 1990, the Nutrition Labeling and
Education Act resulted in the provision of standard-
ized nutrition labels on nearly all processed foods. The
Nutrition Facts labels are used by consumers seeking to
make informed choices about the foods purchased [18,
39]. Nutrition labeling is discussed further in Chapter 4.
Economic and Marketplace Factors
Food Availability. Geography of an area and varia-
tions in climate influence the types of food that can be—
and usually are—grown. Historically, this fact has had a
profound influence on the availability of particular foods
and, in turn, on the eating patterns of people in the area.

Usual intake as a percent of goal or limit

Eat more of these:

GOAL
Whole grains 15%
Vegetables 59%
Fruits 42%
Dairy 52%
Seafood 44%
Oils 61%
Fiber 40%
Potassium 56%
Vitamin D 28%
Calcium 75%

Eat less of these: LIMIT

Calories from SoFAS* 280%
Refined grains 200%
Sodium 149%
Saturated fat 110%

0% 50% 100% 150% 200% 250% 300%

* SoFAS = solid fats and added sugars Percent of goal or limit

Figure 1-3 How do typical American diets compare to recommended intake levels or limits?
(Courtesy of U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture)
 Food Choices and Sensory Characteristics 5

Table 1-1 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans: Summary Key Recommendations
Focus Areas Key Recommendations

Balancing Calories to Manage Weight
Food and Food Components to Reduce
Food and Nutrients to Increase
Building Healthy Eating Patterns
Prevent and/or reduce overweight and obesity through improved eating and physical activity
behaviors.
Control total calorie intake to manage body weight. For people who are overweight or obese, this
will mean consuming fewer calories from foods and beverages.
Increase physical activity and reduce time spent in sedentary behaviors.
Maintain appropriate calorie balance during each stage of life—childhood, adolescence, adult-
hood, pregnancy and breast feeding, and older age.
Reduce daily sodium intake to less than 2,300 milligrams (mg) and further reduce intake to
1,500 mg among persons who are 51 and older and those of any age who are African American
or have hypertension, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease. The 1,500 mg recommendation
applies to about half of the U.S. population, including children, and the majority of adults.
Consume less than 10 percent of calories from saturated fatty acids by replacing them with
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Consume less than 300 mg per day of dietary cholesterol.
Keep trans-fatty acid consumption as low as possible by limiting foods that contain synthetic
sources of trans fats, such as partially hydrogenated oils, and by limiting other solid fats.
Reduce the intake of calories from solid fats* and added sugars.**
Limit the consumption of foods that contain refined grains, especially refined grain foods that
contain solid fats, added sugars, and sodium.
If alcohol is consumed, it should be consumed in moderation—up to one drink per day for
women and two drinks per day for men—and only by adults of legal drinking age.
Increase vegetable and fruit intake.
Eat a variety of vegetables, especially dark green and red and orange vegetables and beans and
peas.
Consume at least half of all grains as whole grains. Increase whole-grain intake by replacing
refined grains with whole grains.
Increase intake of fat-free or low-fat milk and milk products, such as milk, yogurt, cheese, or
fortified soy beverages.
Choose a variety of protein foods, which include seafood, lean meat and poultry, eggs, beans
and peas, soy products, and unsalted nuts and seeds.
Increase the amount and variety of seafood consumed by choosing seafood in place of some
meat and poultry.
Replace protein foods that are higher in solid fats with choices that are lower in solid fats and
calories and/or are sources of oils.
Use oils to replace solid fats where possible.
Choose foods that provide more potassium, dietary fiber, calcium, and vitamin D, which are
nutrients of concern in American diets. These foods include vegetables, fruits, whole grains,
and milk and milk products.
Select an eating pattern that meets nutrient needs over time at an appropriate calorie level.
Account for all foods and beverages consumed and assess how they fit within a total healthy
eating pattern.
Follow food safety recommendations when preparing and eating foods to reduce the risk of
foodborne illnesses.

*Solid fats are those fats typically solid at room temperature and containing highly saturated fats. Examples include butter, shortening,
margarine, animal fats, cheese (full fat), and foods such as pizza, desserts, chips, and entrees containing these fats. Coconut oil, palm
kernel oil, and palm oil also contain a high percentage of saturated fats and therefore, like solid fats, should be limited in the diet.
**Added sugar includes white sugar, brown sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, corn syrup solids, raw sugar, malt syrup, maple syrup, pan-
cake syrup, fructose sweetener, liquid fructose, honey, molasses, anhydrous dextrose, and crystal dextrose. These added sugars are found
in the diet of Americans in soda, sports drinks, desserts, sugar-sweetened fruit drinks, and candy.
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department Health and Human Services, Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 7th ed. (Washington, DC:
U.S. Government Printing Office, December 2010), www.cnpp.usda.gov/DGAs2010-PolicyDocument.htm.
6 Chapter One
Figure 1-4 Choose My Plate. (Courtesy of USDA Center for
Nutrition Policy and Promotion)
Examples are the widespread use of pinto beans and chili
peppers in the southwestern United States and the exten-
sive use of seafood in coastal areas. With the development
of rapid transportation and modern food-handling facili-
ties, however, the influence of geography and climate on
our food habits has decreased greatly. For example, 40 per-
cent of the fresh fruit consumed by Americans is imported.
During the winter months especially, many imported
vegetables may be found in American grocery stores [42].
Supermarkets in the United States have, on a regular
basis, fresh fruits from tropical areas and live seafood, even
though most are located far from the tropics or the ocean.
Economics. Whether we consume the variety of foods
available in supermarkets and restaurants depends, to a
considerable extent, on our purchasing power. Economics
is a powerful factor in limiting or expanding our dietary
patterns, although these changes may be transitory in
some cases. When food budgets are restricted because of
financial problems, less expensive foods must make up a
larger share of the menus offered. When budgets are lib-
eral, more convenience items and snack foods are often
Healthy Eating
Does Where We Eat Make a Difference?
I n general, food prepared and consumed at home is lower
in calories, fat, and sodium and higher in fiber, iron, and
calcium than food eaten away from home. As Americans eat
a greater percentage of their meals outside the home, the
impact of these food choices on the total diet is significant.
One additional meal consumed outside of the home
each week adds 134 calories to the diet, which can translate
purchased, and “eating out” occurs more frequently.
These trends can be observed nationally when the country
is in recession or in a period of economic prosperity [15].
Income and household size are the most important
factors determining where and how Americans spend
their food dollars [8]. Low-income families who earn
$10,000 to $14,999 a year spend 25 percent of their
income on food as compared to average U.S. consumers
who spend only 9.8 percent of their disposal income on
food [15]. High-income households spend a larger share
of their food dollars on eating out.
Some households in America are unable to meet basic
food needs because of financial limitations and therefore
do not enjoy food security [2, 44, 66]. More than 14
percent of U.S. households were insecure at some point
during the year [2]. There are 15 nutrition assistance pro-
grams available to help families, such as the Supplemental
Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and the National
School Lunch Program. The USDA calculates costs for
four levels of food plans [64]. Understanding food prepa-
ration and food quality is an advantage whether working
with limited or generous household food budgets.
Technological Development
The food-processing industry is sharing in the many
ideas, innovations, and technological developments that
are bringing about major changes in our society. The
industry’s growth and continued development keep an
ever-increasing supply of new and convenient foods on
the market and affect the purchasing habits of the con-
sumer and the types of meals served both at home and in
food service establishments.
Processing. The development of technological exper-
tise in transportation, food preservation, and process-
ing extends the seasons of food availability. Irradiation,
which is the treatment of food with electron beams,
gamma rays, or X-rays, may be used to decrease bacte-
rial contamination on poultry and meat and increase the
into a weight gain of two pounds annually. Nutritious foods,
such as fruits, whole grains, dark green and orange vegeta-
bles, and dairy, are consumed at a lower frequency outside
of the home.
Source: References 19, 25, 36, 58.

shelf life of fresh fruits. Aseptic packaging decreases
processing time and results in more flavorful food prod-
ucts because the separate sterilization of the food and
the package requires less heat. High-pressure processing
reduces microorganisms without the application of heat
resulting in safe yet fresh-tasting foods [22].
Biotechnology. Conventional breeding and selection
of plants and animals over the centuries has been used
to improve food supplies. Now, with a group of genetic
tools that falls under the heading of biotechnology, the
variety, productivity, and efficiency of food production
can be targeted in less time and with greater predictabil-
ity and control than was possible with traditional meth-
ods [22, 27]. Genetic engineering may be used to increase
crop yields and disease resistance and to produce faster-
maturing, drought-resistant varieties. Biotechnology
could be used to improve the nutritional quality of the
food supply and reduce the use of chemicals [7]. How-
ever, in spite of the benefits, biotechnology has not been
without controversy [30]. Public education about bio-
technology is needed so that people will acquire a base
of knowledge with which to make judgments about these
new tools as they make choices in food purchasing [55].
Technology in the Home. Refrigeration and freeze
processing within the modern home allow patterns of
cooking and eating that cannot exist in developing coun-
tries where methods for keeping foods fresh are limited.
Different types of cooking equipment, including the
(a)
Figure 1-5 (a) A brother and sister can get to know each other over ice cream cones. (gemenacom/Fotolia)
(b) Eating spaghetti requires real concentration. (Val Thoermer/Fotolia)
Food Choices and Sensory Characteristics 7
microwave oven, have affected patterns of eating. Even
the social aspects of food may be influenced by devel-
opments in food technology as we need to rely less on
other family members to prepare the food we eat. Almost
anyone in the household can retrieve an entree from the
freezer and quickly heat it in the microwave oven.
Emotional and Psychological Effects
With all of today’s technological influences, it is impor-
tant that the meanings of food, other than the biologi-
cal and economic ones, be considered (Figure 1-5). Food
means security, hospitality, and even status. Infants learn
about security when mothers respond to their crying by
giving them food. Familiar foods bring back memories of
home and family and make one feel secure. Feeling full
and physically satisfied and knowing that there is more
food available for other meals bring security. Food is a
symbol of hospitality and is used to show that one cares
about others and is a friend. Gifts of food are given in
times of both happiness and sorrow.
Sensory Characteristics
of Food
Sensory characteristics are important factors in deter-
mining whether we will first taste, then eat, and enjoy
the food. Those involved in food preparation, both in the
home and in commercial establishments, must take into
careful account the appearance, flavor, and texture of the
dishes prepared. Humans assess their food using the five
(b)
8 Chapter One

senses: taste, smell, sight, touch, and hearing. For exam-
ple, consider how the sounds of crisp foods such as raw
carrots and the sizzle of fajitas when brought to the table
influence the total experience with these foods. Under-
standing these sensory characteristics is essential in the
study of food.
Appearance
Appearance often creates the first impression of food.
Such qualities as color, form, consistency, size, and
design or arrangement contribute to what may be called
“eye appeal” of foods. Without an attractive and appeal-
ing appearance, foods may be rejected without being
tasted. For the commercial vendor of prepared foods, the
appearance of the food is extremely important because
this is the first opportunity to impress the potential buyer
with the quality and desirability of the product.
Color is an especially important attribute. Try eating
a jelly bean and guessing the flavor without prior knowl-
edge of the color. Not only does color influence expecta-
tions of flavors, but it provides a perception of quality.
Olive-green broccoli or a fruit tray with slices of apples
and pears that have surfacing browning would not be
favorably received.
ice cream to hot chocolate, affects the apparent intensity
of some of the primary tastes. Sugar seems sweeter at
higher temperatures than at lower temperatures. Just the
reverse seems to be true of salt. Some substances, such as
menthol, feel cool because of the sensitization of recep-
tors in the mouth and throat, thereby exaggerating the
feeling of coolness. Conversely, some foods such as chili
peppers produce a hot or biting sensation by irritating the
mucous membranes lining the mouth. The compound
primarily responsible for the “hotness” of chili peppers
is capsaicin.
Odor
An odor may be pleasing or offensive. The term aroma
is usually applied to a pleasant odor. The smell of fresh
baked bread, hot apple cider, freshly cut cantaloupe, and
many other foods are considered appealing and, when
experienced, encourage tasting of the food. In contrast,
the odor resulting from burnt food is offensive. Some
foods, especially those that are cold, have a limited odor.
Ice cream is an example of this.

Taste
Although flavor and taste are used synonymously, in a strict
sense, taste is only one part of flavor. Taste involves the
sensations produced through stimulation of the taste buds
on the tongue. There are five primary taste sensations:
sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami, also called savory.
Sweet tastes are primarily associated with hydrocyl (-OH)
groups, whereas salty tastes occur due to the ions of salts.
Sour substances are generally the result of hydrogen ions
(H+) found in acids. A number of compounds taste bitter,
including, in part, caffeine and theobromine. Umami is a
taste associated with amino acid–based substances and is
often described as “savory,” “meaty,” or “brothy.” Mono-
sodium glutamate is one example of a substance providing
an umami taste. Other foods contributing umami include
tomatoes, eggs, seafoods, cheese, and soy sauce.

Taste Buds. Taste buds are found in small elevations,

called papillae, on the surface of the tongue (Figure 1-6).
Taste sensations are produced when bitter, salty, sweet,
or acid substances in a solution contact taste receptors
in the taste pore leading to the taste bud. Sensation of
bitter tastes is generally delayed rather than immediate.
Figure 1-6 shows a diagram of a taste bud. A message is
sent to the brain from the taste cells via nerve fibers with
endings in the taste cells. The brain interprets and identi-
Figure 1-6 Drawing of the tongue, showing papillae on the
fies the specific taste.
surface. Taste buds are located on the sides and at the base
of many of the papillae. Diagram of an individual taste bud
Influence of Temperature. Temperature may affect containing tiny taste receptors that come in contact with the
the blending of primary tastes and other factors contribut- substance being tasted, taste cells, and nerve fibers that carry
ing to flavor. The temperature of foods when eaten, from the message from the taste bud to the brain for interpretation.
 Food Choices and Sensory Characteristics 9

The olfactory center is found at the top of the nasal

cavity, as shown in Figure 1-7. To stimulate the olfactory
center, substances must be in gaseous form. The gaseous
molecules enter the nose as food is placed in the mouth
and are drawn toward the olfactory center, where they
stimulate nerve endings. Nerve impulses are thus sent
to the brain to be interpreted. The sense of smell is esti-
mated to be about 10,000 times as sensitive as the sense of
taste in detecting minute concentrations, and it can differ-
entiate hundreds or possibly thousands of distinct odors.

Flavor
Flavor is a blending of taste and odor. Millions of fla-
vor sensations are experienced in a lifetime. For most, the
perceived pleasantness of the flavor will determine if the
food will be consumed. Flavor perceptions change over
time, and foods not liked when one is young may become
favorites later in life. Older adults may have less sensitiv-
ity to some flavors and therefore are inclined to add more FIGURE 1-7 Gaseous molecules enter the nose and stimulate the
sugar, salt, or other flavoring substances to enhance eat- olfactory center, from which nerve fibers send messages to the
ing enjoyment [41]. brain concerning the odor of food.
Perceived flavor results from an integrated response
to a complex mixture of stimuli or sensations from the Analysis of Flavor. Countless numbers of molecules
olfactory center in the nasal cavity, the taste buds on the contribute to our perception of odor or aroma and taste.
tongue, tactile receptors in the mouth, and the percep- One single flavor may be produced from the interaction
tion of pungency, heat, cooling, and so on when a food of many different chemical molecules. Did you know, for
is placed in the mouth [31]. The flavor of food can be example, that more than 200 different compounds are
affected by every step in the production process, from used to make artificial banana flavor? Many of the odor-
selection of ingredients to processing to packaging and ous substances in foods occur in such vanishingly small
storage of the final product [35]. concentrations that it is difficult to show that they are

A person could detect 10,000 odors, but how one could be

detected from the other is still unknown. Scientists think that
FOCUS ON SCIENCE a person has many different receptors that “light up” in various
combinations in response to different scents.
Scientists also have found a strong link between smell and
memory. Consider how a dinner experience could be enhanced
Sensory Characteristics of Food if guests could enjoy the food with a smell associated with a
Flavor pleasant experience.

F lavor is a complex mixture of taste, smell, texture, and tem-

perature. The nose and mouth work together to deliver sig-
nals that the brain translates into the flavor of food. Some other
facts about taste:
j Salt can hide bitter flavors.
j The heat of chili peppers is actually not a flavor but a
response of pain receptors on the tongue.
j Aging tends to cause a loss of taste buds and sensitiv-
ity to food decreases—food tastes more bland to older
people.
“The nose knows.” How does the nose partici-
pate in tasting food?
Most of what is called “flavor” actually comes from odors that
reach nerves via nasal passages at the back of the throat.
Umami—What is it?
Umami is a Japanese word meaning “savory” or “meaty” and
thus applies to the sensation of savoriness—specifically to the
detection of glutamates which are especially common in meats,
cheese (Parmesan, Roquefort), soy sauce, fish sauce, walnuts,
grapes, broccoli, tomatoes, and mushrooms. The action of
umami receptors explains why foods treated with monosodium
glutamate (MSG) often taste fuller or better.
The glutamate taste sensation is most intense in combi-
nation with sodium. This is one reason why tomatoes exhibit
a strong taste after adding salt. Sauces with savory and salty
tastes are very popular for cooking, such as tomato sauces and
ketchup for Western cuisines, and soy sauce and fish sauce for
East Asian and southern Asian cuisines.
10 Chapter One
even present. With the development of analytical tools
such as the gas chromatograph, tracings from which are
shown in Figure 1-8, the chemist has been able to sepa-
rate, isolate, and identify many of the molecules that are
responsible for aroma and taste in such foods as onions,
strawberries, and beef.
Analytical tools used to great advantage by the flavor
researcher are high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC), the electronic nose, and the electronic tongue
[33, 37, 59]. HPLC is especially useful for studying non-
volatile and/or labile (unstable) flavor components (see
Figure 1-9). Among other things, it can be used to test for
adulteration of flavoring materials from natural sources.
The electronic nose is a chemical sensing system that
offers the advantage of the rapid detection of volatiles.
Impact of Heat on Flavor Development. The flavors
of some foods are readily perceivable in the raw “natu-
ral” state, whereas cooking other foods produces flavors
from nonflavor substances called flavor precursors. The
method of cooking also has an impact on flavor devel-
opment. For example, flavors produced when meat is
cooked in water are different from those produced when
it is roasted in an oven surrounded by dry heat. The tan-
talizing odors that develop during the baking of bread
are additional examples of flavor substances produced by
heating. Many of the volatile substances that waft from
the oven where bread is baking are initially the products
of yeast fermentation. The browning of the bread crust
in a hot oven contributes to a pleasant flavor as well as an
attractive appearance.
Natural Flavors. Flavors also may be produced during
processing by enzymatic reactions, such as cheese fla-
vors, or by microbial fermentation, such as butter flavors.
Flavor substances that occur naturally or that are gener-
ated during heating, processing, or fermentation are con-
sidered to be “natural” flavors [31].
Artificial or Synthetic Flavors. Biotechnology can be
used to generate natural flavor substances from enzymatic
or microbial reactions. Natural flavors are simulated as
closely as possible through the production of synthetic
compounds. Synthetic compounds added to foods either
individually or as part of a mixture are considered in the
United States to be “artificial” or “synthetic” flavors.
Both natural and artificial flavorings are combined in
many foods.
Flavor Researchers. Knowledge of flavor chemistry
and ways of simulating natural flavors is especially impor-
tant as the world population increases and global markets
expand. Foods must be flavored so that they are accepted
by consumers in their unique cultural environment. To
apply the science of flavor successfully to the develop-
ment of new products and the improvement of old ones,
the flavor researcher must first identify the substances
that are responsible for the acceptable flavor and the
mechanism by which people eating the food experience
flavor. New food-flavor ingredients can then be devel-
oped, and foods can be processed in a manner that results
in the most desirable flavors [28, 35].
Texture
The physical properties of foods, including texture, con-
sistency, and shape, involve the sense of touch or feel-
ing, also called the tactile sense. When food is contacted,
pressure and movement receptors on the skin and mus-
cles of the mouth and tongue are stimulated. Sensations
of smoothness, stickiness, graininess, brittleness, fibrous
qualities, or lumpy characteristics may be detected [53].
The tingling feeling that comes from drinking a carbon-
ated beverage is an attribute of texture. Terms describ-
ing extremes of texture and consistency may include dry
or moist, solid or fluid, thick or thin, rough or smooth,
coarse or fine, tough or tender, hard or soft, and compact
or porous.
Texture includes those qualities that can be felt with
the fingers, the tongue, the palate, or the teeth. Textural
characteristics of food influence consumer preferences
both positively and negatively [54]. Those textures that
are universally liked are crisp, crunchy, tender, juicy, and
firm. Those generally disliked are tough, soggy, crumbly,
lumpy, watery, and slimy. Texturizing agents are often
used by the food processor to impart body, to improve
consistency or texture of a food, or to stabilize an emul-
sion [40]. Such agents, of which there are many, optimize
the quality of a food product so that consumers will find
it acceptable.
Sound
The sound made when a food is eaten is also part of pal-
atability and the enjoyment of eating. We often evaluate
crispness by the sound it makes and by its tactile sen-
sations in the mouth. Try to imagine how crisp carrot
and celery sticks would “taste” without the accompany-
ing sound of crunching. When microwave popcorn was
introduced, one of the significant sensory concerns was
the squeaky rather than crunchy sound audible when
eating.
Sensory Evaluation of Food
When the quality of a food is judged or evaluated by the
senses (taste, smell, sight, touch, and hearing), it is said
to be a sensory evaluation. Because food is prepared for
the primary purpose of being eaten and enjoyed through
the senses, sensory evaluation is most appropriate. No
machine has yet been devised that can totally substitute
for the human senses in evaluating the quality of human
food. However, the human instrument used in sensory
evaluation is complex, and many issues need to be man-
aged when collecting and analyzing data.
Flavor perceptions are difficult to characterize ver-
bally. For example, think about how a strawberry tastes,
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Book of Knowledge, 6, 226
Boole, George, 38, 110
Boolean algebra, 38, 110, 119
Bradbury, Ray, 153, 257
Brain, 121
Brain
computer, 128, 129, 130
human, 87, 125, 128
BRAINIAC computer, 88, 117
Britton, Lionel, 121
Buffer
computer, 55
lexical, 238
Buildings, automation of, 217
Burack, Benjamin, 44
Bureau of Mines, U. S., 189
Bureau of Ships, U. S., 255
Burke, Edmund, 32
Burkhart, William, 45
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Business, computer in, 171
Business management, use of computer, 12, 143
Butler, Samuel, 32, 33, 121, 252, 268

CALCULO computer, 75
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Calendars as computers, 24
California Institute of Technology, 169
Cancer Society, American, 193
Candide, 30
Capek, Karel, 43, 121, 215
Caplin, Mortimer, 150
Carroll, Lewis, 38, 118
CDC 1604 computer, 165
Celanese Corp. of America, 207
Celestial simulator, 85
Census, 41
Census Bureau, U. S., 149
Chain circuit, 127
Characteristica Universalis, 109
Charactron tube, 66
Checkers (game), 8, 143
Checking, computer, 60
Checkout computer, 183
Chemical Corp., 249
Chess, 8, 9, 16, 35, 99, 142, 156
Circuit
chain, 127
delay-line, 63
flip-flop, 63, 115
molecular, 9, 253
printed, 62
reverberation, 128
Clapp, Verner, 248
Clarke, Arthur C., 265
CLASS teaching machine system, 226-228
Clock, 20, 24, 56, 85
COBOL language, 234
Code, computer
binary-coded decimal, 103, 106
binary-octal, 106
economy, 106
excess-3, 105, 114
“Gray,” 106
reflected binary, 106
self-checking, 105
Color computer, 4
Commercial Art, 175
Commission on Professional and Hospital Activity, 194
Communication, use of computers, 179
Computer
ADAM, 258
addition, 106
airborne, 90, 154, 158, 162
analog, 21, 45, 72, 74, 80, 125, 203
direct, 76, 79
direct-current, 76
discrete, 80
indirect, 76, 79
mechanical differential analyzer, 76
scaling, 76
Antikythera, 25
Apollo, 182
space vehicle, 169
applications, digital, 92
ASCC, 155
asynchronous, 255
Athena, 52
ballistic, 83
Bendix G-15, 183, 188
BINAC, 7, 47
BRAINIAC, 88, 117
CALCULO, 75
CLASS, 226-228
code, binary-coded decimal, 103, 106
color, 4
definition, 129
dictionary, 49, 50
difference engine, 5, 35
digital, 18, 45, 73, 84, 125, 203
division, 107
do-it-yourself, 75, 88, 117, 147
electrical-analog, 75
electronic, 1, 46, 122, 151
ENIAC, 7, 40, 46, 85, 215
ERMA, 173
family tree, 86
FINDER system, 161
flow chart, 58, 59
GE 210, 172
GE 225, 245
general-purpose, 54, 81, 191
gigacycle, 254
“Hand,” 132, 214, 215
household, 15, 257
hybrid, 80, 84, 92
ILLIAC, 197
input, 51, 54, 125
JOHNNIAC, 11, 47, 129, 140, 142
language, 233
LARC, 47, 162, 191
LGP-30, 198
limitations, 89
MANIAC, 47, 156, 165
Memex, 13
mill, 38, 51, 60
MIPS, 159
MOBIDIC, 157
MUSE, 48
music, 11, 92, 196, 257
on-line, 81, 205
on-stream, 83, 207
output, 51, 65, 125
parts, 50, 52, 53
problem-solving, 140, 143
Psychological Matrix Rotation, 78, 94
Q-5, 77
RAMAC, 150, 151, 198, 199
Range Keeper Mark I, 42
RAYDAC, 260
RCA 501, 151
“real-time,” 78, 168, 202, 205
RECOMP, 47
revolution, 251
Sabre, 183
SAGE, 3, 12, 37, 53, 158, 159, 226, 259
sequential, 126
“Shoebox,” 242
“software,” 54
spaceborne, 167
special-purpose, 79
SSEC, 155, 156
Stone Age, 21
store, 36, 62
STRETCH, 47, 48
subtraction, 106
testing, 117
UNIVAC, 47, 149, 151, 171, 221
VIDIAC, character-generator, 242
Zuse L23, 199
Computer Control Co., 260
Conjunctive operation, 37, 51, 110
Consciousness, 144, 145, 267
Continuous analog computer, 80
Continuous digital computer, 80
Continuous quantity, 73
Control, computer, 51, 56
Control Data Corp., 194
Conversion
analog-to-digital, 74
digital-to-analog, 74
Converters, 94
Cook, William W., 29
Copland, Aaron, 11, 196
Cornell Medical College, 123
Cornell University, 133
Corrigan Communications, 231
Council on Library Resources, 248
Counting
Australian, 20
birds, 18
boards, 20
digital, 84
machines, 20
man, 19
modulo-, 97, 101
Credit card, 13, 256
Cryogenics, 70
components, 63
Cryotron, 9, 88, 141, 254, 255
Cybertron, 135, 139
Cyborg, 265

Daedalus, 18
Darwin, Charles, 32, 137, 252
Data
link, 14, 185, 256
logger, 205
processing, 22, 171, 264
recording media, 57
Daystrom, Inc., 211
Dead Sea Scrolls, 235
Decimal system, 19
Decision-making, 91
Defense, use of computer, 259
Delay-line circuit, 63
DeMorgan, Augustus, 38, 110, 115
Department of Commerce, U. S., 149, 221
Department of Defense, U. S., 148, 234
Design, use of computer, 14, 172, 186, 268
Desk calculator, 51
Diagnostic use of computer, 194
Diamond Ordnance Fuze Laboratory, U. S. Army, 69
Dictionary, computer, 49, 50
DIDAK teaching machine, 224
Difference engine, 5, 35
Digiflex trainer, 225
Digital computer, 18, 45, 73, 84, 125, 203
Digital differential analyzer, 94
Digitronics, 236
Discrete quantity, 73
Disjunctive operation, 110
Division, computer, 107
Dodgson, Charles L., 38
Do-it-yourself computer, 75, 88, 117, 147
Douglas Aircraft Co., 65
Dow Chemical Corp., 208
Du Pont Corp., 208
Dunsany, Lord, 108

Eccles-Jordan circuit, 47
Eckert, J. Presper, 47, 85
EDGE computer system, 185
Education, use of computers, 219
Elan vital, 127
Election, use of computers, 150
Electric Questionnaire, 133
Electric utilities, use of computers, 93, 208
Electrical-analog computer, 75
Electrical logic machine, 44
Electronic computers, 1, 46, 122, 151
Elephant, compared with computer, 56
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ENIAC computer, 7, 40, 46, 85, 215
Erewhon, 32, 121
ERMA computer, 173
Ernst, Heinrich, 132, 215
Euler, 142, 143, 163
EURATOM, 158

Family tree, computer, 86

Farnsworth Car Pool logic problem, 116, 118
Farrington Electronics, Inc., 240
Federal Aviation Authority, 149, 161
Federal Government, 148
Feedback principle, 36, 204
Fein, Louis, 260
Fermat’s theorem, 56
Ferranti, Ltd., 182
Ferrite cores, 9, 63, 131, 253
FIELDATA computer family, 157
FINDER computer system, 161
Finn, James D., 224
Flexibility of digital computer, 89
Flight simulator, 83
Flip-flop
circuit, 47, 63, 115
fluid, 70
Floating-point arithmetic, 108
Flow chart, computer, 58, 59
Flyball governor, 36, 203
Fluid computer, 70
Food Machinery Corp., 249
Ford Instrument Co., 42
Forrester, J. W., 199
Fortune, 245
Frankenstein, 42, 212
Freed, Roy, 152
Free learning, 7
Freight trains controlled by computer, 211

Game-playing, 8, 12, 143

Gaming theory, 92
Gardner, Martin, 140
GE 210 computer, 172
GE 225 computer, 245
General Dynamics Corp., 169, 183, 256
General Electric Co., 10, 45, 67, 76, 77, 79, 171, 172, 240
General Motors Corp., 218
General Precision, Inc., 69
General-purpose computer, 81, 85, 191
Gestalt principle, 241
Giant Brain, 121
Gigacycle computer, 254
Gilfillan Radio, 67
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Go (game), 143
Goal-seeking behavior, 124
Gödel, Kurt, 135
“Golem,” 27
Goodrich Tire & Rubber Co., 188
Goodyear
Aircraft Corp., 77
Tire & Rubber Co., 208
Goren, Charles, 226
Government, 258, 263
Greek numbers, 23
Grieg, 11
Grimaldi, 99
Gulliver’s Travels, 30

Half-adder, 107, 115

Hamilton, Sir William, 109
“Hand” computer, 132, 214, 215
Handwriting reader, 241
Harcourt-Brace, 226
Harvard Business Review, 171, 172
Harvard University, 132, 217, 224
Hawkeye aircraft computer, 162
Heath, D. C., and Co., 226
HAYSTAQ, 249
Heikolator computer, 195
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Heuristics, 56, 142
High-school computer training, 15, 220
High-temperature susceptibility, 69
Hilbert, David, 110
Hiller, Lejaren A., Jr., 197
Hindu numbers, 23
HIPO system, 195
Hippo problem, 155
Hoffman Electronics Corp., 267
Holland, James, 224
Hollerith coding, 42
Hollerith, Herman, 2, 41, 54, 148
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 109
Homeostat, 124
Homer, 26, 47
Hood, H. P. & Sons, 206
Hoover Commission, 149
Hourglass, 24
Household computer, 15, 257
Hughes Aircraft Co., 203, 215, 222
Hugo, Victor, 251
Hybrid computer, 80, 84, 92

IBM cards, 41
IBM 704 computer, 8
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IBM 1620 computer, 177
IBM 7074 computer, 175
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Ice cream, computer-made, 206
ILLIAC computer, 197
“Illiac Suite,” 196, 197
Iliad, 26, 235
India, chess legend, 99
Industrial Advertising Research Institute, 180
Industrial revolution, 173
Industry, 181
“Inflexible Logic,” 32
Information explosion, 245
Information retrieval, 14, 243, 246, 247
Input, computer, 51, 54, 125
Instamatic computer system, 183
Insurance, use of computer, 92, 173
Intellectronics, 258, 262
Intelligence, 124, 135
Interagency Data Processing Committee, 148
Internal Revenue Department, U. S., 150
International Air Transport Association, 235
International Association of Machinists, 218
International Business Machines Corp., 69, 237, 247, 255
Interlingua, 237
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Inverter, 114, 119
IRE, 170
Isaacson, L. M., 197

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Jet engine simulator, 78
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 169
Jevons, William S., 40
JOHNNIAC computer, 11, 47, 129, 140, 142
Johnson’s Wax Co., 178
Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 188, 189, 205
Journalistor, 64, 252

Kalin, Theodore, 45, 135

Kalin-Burkhart machine, 45
Kane, Sydney, 193
Kant, Immanuel, 135
Kelvin, Lord, 75
Kelvin wheels, 76
Khayyám, Omar, 108
KNXT, television station, 179
Kresge Eye Institute, 195
Kyoto University, 243

Lamb, Sydney, 238

Language, computer, 233
LARC computer, 47, 162, 191
Law, 232
Law Institute, American, 152
Learning, 123
forced, 133, 134
free, 7, 133
reinforced, 134
soldered, 7, 133
Learning, Inc., 226
Leibnitz, Gottfried, 24, 29, 85, 99, 109, 120
Lenkurt Electric Co., Inc., 190
LGP-30 computer, 198
Library, use of computers, 231
Limitations of computers, 89
Lincoln Laboratory, 124
Lindgren, Astrid, 3
Literature, computers in, 30
Litton Industries, 128
Livanov, M., 133
Lockheed Aircraft Corp., 185, 248
Logarithms, 30
Logic, 38, 90, 108, 229
Aristotelian, 109
Farnsworth problem, 116, 118
mathematical, 110
symbolic, 38, 109, 110, 115, 248, 255
unit, 60
Logical algebra, 40, 108
 piano, 40
Loom, Jacquard, 34
Loy, W. D., 23
Luhn, H. P., 247
Lull, Ramon, 27, 28, 122
Lull’s wheel, 28

Machine Design, 180

Machine shop, use of computers, 209
Machine Translations, Inc., 239
MAD, computer language, 220
Maelzel chess automaton, 35
Magic squares, 142
Magnetic cores, 64
Magnetic disc, 63
Magnetic drum, 63
Magnetic films, 88, 255
Magnetic ink, 3, 240
Magnetic tape, 55
Majority rule checking, 60
Malin, David, 220, 221
Maloney, Russell, 32
Management games, 199
MANIAC computer, 47, 156, 165
Man-machine relationship, 258
Mark I computer, 46, 219
Marquand, Allan, 40, 44
Matsuzake, Kiyoshi, 21
Mauchly, John, 47, 85
Mayans, 24, 97
McCarthy, John, 170
McDonnell Aircraft Corp., 186
McDonough, James, 235
McDougall, W., 124
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 226
Mechanical-relay, 122
Mediation principle, 102
Medical diagnosis, 257
Medical Research Foundation, American, 193
Medical use of computers, 193
MEDLARS system, 194
Memex computer, 13
“Memistor,” 137
Memory computer, 51, 63, 254
BIAX, 10
MIND, 137
molecular, 64
scratch-pad, 63
unit, 62
Mercury space capsule, 168, 249
Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith, 236
Michigan State University, 151
MICR, 240
“Mill,” computer, 38, 51, 60
MIND memory unit, 137
Minneapolis-Honeywell Co., 162, 206, 208, 216
Minimax theory, 156
Minuteman missile, 4, 137, 168
MIPS computer, 159
MIT, 44, 169, 209, 215, 220
Mobot, 145, 215, 216, 266
MOBIDIC computer, 157
Modeling principle, 83
Modular approach, 115, 116
Molecular block memory, 64
Molecular circuit, 9, 253
Molecular electronics, 9
Monsanto Chemical Corp., 208
“Mooer’s” Law, 245
Morse code, 99
Mozart, 11, 197
Multiplication
computer, 61, 107
Russian peasant, 103
MUSE computer, 48
Music, 11, 92, 196, 257

Nanosecond, 61
NANWEP, 165
Napier, John, 30
“Napier’s bones,” 30
National Library of Medicine, 194
NASA, 149
National Bureau of Standards, 94, 239, 249, 258
National Cash Register Co., The, 240
National Science Foundation, 158, 249
Navigation, use of computer, 182
Navy, U. S., 162
Negation principle, 113, 114
Neuristor, 137
Neurons
human, 91, 125, 128, 135
artificial, 136, 138
Newell, Allen, 141, 251
Newton, Isaac, 30
New York University, 194, 220
Nike missile, 119, 157, 191
Nim (game), 8, 143
NORAD, 3, 160, 258
North American Aviation Corp., 65, 185
Numbers
cuneiform, 23
Arabic, 23
Babylonian, 23
binary, 55
discrete, 73
Greek, 23
Hindu, 23
pure binary, 102, 104
Roman, 23, 97
Numerical control, 210
Numerical weather prediction, 163

Odyssey, 235
Ohio State University, 222
On-line computers, 81, 205
On-stream computers, 83, 207
On the Origin of Species, 32
Operant reinforcement, 223
Operations research, 36, 155, 256
Optical scanning, 240
OR gate, 112, 113, 117, 119
Outline of Psychology, 124
Output, computer, 51, 65, 125

Packaging density, 9, 140

Paper tape, 54
Papermaking, 209
Paradox, 45
Parallel addition, 107
Parallel operation, 126
Parametron, 255
Parity bit checking, 105
Parrish, Stephen Maxfield, 235
Pascal, Blaise, 30, 85
Patent Office, U. S., 249