Book About Motors

TROUBLESHOOTING AND
UNDERSTANDING
ELECTRICAL AND
MOTOR CONTROLS
L.A. Bryan
E.A. Bryan
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Plant Power Distribution

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................... 2
OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................ 2
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 3
POWER GENERATION ............................................................................................ 6
WYE SYSTEM .......................................................................................................... 9
Balanced Circuits ............................................................................................... 11
Phase to Neutral Voltage ................................................................................... 12
Phase to Phase Voltage .................................................................................... 12
DELTA SYSTEM ..................................................................................................... 14
POWER DISTRIBUTION ........................................................................................ 15
Transformers ..................................................................................................... 16
Wye to Wye Transformer ................................................................................... 18
Delta to Delta Transformer ................................................................................ 20
POWER DISTRIBUTION INSIDE THE PLANT ...................................................... 21
Busways ............................................................................................................ 25
Motor Control Centers (MCC) ............................................................................ 26
Grounding .......................................................................................................... 27
DC POWER ............................................................................................................ 28
REVIEW QUESTIONS ............................................................................................ 31
ANSWERS .............................................................................................................. 36
Chapter 2: Static/Manual Control Switches

OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................. 40
OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................................... 40
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 41
BASIC LADDER DIAGRAM .................................................................................... 41
STATIC CONTROL SWITCHES ............................................................................. 42
Switches ............................................................................................................ 42
Single Break—Double Break ............................................................................. 46
Push Buttons ..................................................................................................... 47
Troubleshooting Push Buttons .......................................................................... 50
Selector Switches .............................................................................................. 52
Pilot Lights ......................................................................................................... 56
Drum Switch ...................................................................................................... 58
REVIEW QUESTIONS ............................................................................................ 63
ANSWERS .............................................................................................................. 68
Chapter 3: Sensing and Timing Control Switches
OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................. 71
OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................................... 71
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 72
LIMIT SWITCHES ................................................................................................... 72
Limit Switch Construction .................................................................................. 72
Representation and Contact Activation ............................................................. 74
Travel Action ...................................................................................................... 75
Installation and Adjustment of Limit Switches ................................................... 77
Troubleshooting Limit Switches ......................................................................... 78
PRESSURE SWITCHES ........................................................................................ 79
Pressure Switch Operation ................................................................................ 80
Pressure Differential .......................................................................................... 81
Installing Pressure Switches .............................................................................. 82
Troubleshooting Pressure Switches .................................................................. 84
FLOW SWITCHES .................................................................................................. 84
Installing and Troubleshooting Flow Switches................................................... 85
FLOAT SWITCHES ................................................................................................ 87
Troubleshooting Float Switches ........................................................................ 88
TEMPERATURE SWITCHES ................................................................................. 89
Installing and Troubleshooting Temperature Switches...................................... 91
FOOT SWITCHES .................................................................................................. 92
PROXIMITY SWITCHES ........................................................................................ 92
Target and Environmental Considerations ........................................................ 94
Installing and Troubleshooting Proximity Switches ........................................... 95
PHOTOELECTRIC SWITCHES ............................................................................. 95
Fiber Optic Photoelectric Switches .................................................................... 97
PLUGGING SPEED SWITCHES ............................................................................ 98
REED SWITCHES ................................................................................................ 100
TIMERS ................................................................................................................ 101
Understanding ON-Delay and OFF-Delay ....................................................... 102
Additional Timer Circuit Codings ..................................................................... 105
Types of Timers ............................................................................................... 106
Troubleshooting Timers ................................................................................... 108
COUNTERS .......................................................................................................... 108
REVIEW QUESTIONS .......................................................................................... 111
ANSWERS ............................................................................................................ 116
Chapter 4: Electromagnetic Control Switches

OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................... 120
OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................ 120
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 121

CONTROL RELAYS ............................................................................................. 121
Latch/Unlatch Relays ....................................................................................... 122
MAGNETIC CONTACTORS ................................................................................. 124
Contactor Connection ...................................................................................... 125
Differences Between AC and DC Contactors .................................................. 126
ARC Suppression andProtection ..................................................................... 127
MOTOR STARTERS ............................................................................................ 129
Types of Magnetic Motor Starters ................................................................... 131
Installation and Wiring ..................................................................................... 133
SOLENOIDS ......................................................................................................... 134
Solenoids and Valves ...................................................................................... 135
Installing and Troubleshooting a Solenoid ....................................................... 139
FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS ..................................................................... 140
Fuses ............................................................................................................... 141
Fuse Curves .................................................................................................... 145
Other Advantages of Dual Elements inMotor Control Circuits ......................... 145
Fuse Types ...................................................................................................... 147
Circuit Breakers ............................................................................................... 147
OVERLOADS ........................................................................................................ 148
Overload Components and Operation ............................................................. 149
Sizing Proper Heater Coils .............................................................................. 151
Effects of Ambient Temperature ...................................................................... 153
ANSWERS ............................................................................................................ 160
Chapter 5: Understanding Electrical Control Circuits

OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................... 163
OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................ 163
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 164
LADDER DIAGRAMS ........................................................................................... 166
Basic Rules of electrical Ladder Diagrams ...................................................... 167
SECTIONS OF A CONTROL CIRCUIT ................................................................ 172
Input Section .................................................................................................... 172
Logic Section ................................................................................................... 173
Output Section ................................................................................................. 173
CONTROL CIRCUIT LOGIC ................................................................................. 174
AND ................................................................................................................. 175
OR ................................................................................................................... 176
NOT ................................................................................................................. 177
Control Circuit Example Using AND, OR, NOT Logic ..................................... 178
ADDING MEMORY TO A CONTROL CIRCUIT ................................................... 181

INTERLOCKING CIRCUITS ................................................................................. 184
Mechanical Interlock ........................................................................................ 185
Push Button Interlock ...................................................................................... 185
Auxiliary Contact Interlocking .......................................................................... 186
INTERPRETING MORE COMPLEX LADDER DIAGRAMS ................................. 189
Cross Referencing Relay Contacts ................................................................. 189
Cross Referencing Mechanically Linked Devices ............................................ 190
LAYOUT AND CONNECTION DIAGRAMS .......................................................... 191
ANSWERS ............................................................................................................ 200
Chapter 6: Introduction to AC and DC Motors and Motor Control Circuits

OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................... 203
OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................ 203
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 204
NATIONAL ELECTRIC CODE—ARTICLE 430 .................................................... 204
HOW TO READ MOTOR NAME PLATES ............................................................ 207
MOTOR CIRCUIT SIZING .................................................................................... 210
Circuit Protection—Conductors ....................................................................... 210
Fuse Protection For Branch Circuit ................................................................. 211
Motor Overload Protection ............................................................................... 212
STARTERS AND CONTACTORS ........................................................................ 213
NEMA Starter Selection ................................................................................... 213
Component Sizing Summary ........................................................................... 215
More Than One Branch Circuit From A Feeder ............................................... 216
CONTROLLING MOTOR OPERATIONS ............................................................. 217
Safer Control Circuits—Control Power ............................................................ 218
Wiring Diagrams .............................................................................................. 219
Magnetic Starter Wiring Diagrams ................................................................... 220
Wiring Diagram and Ladder Diagram Example ............................................... 222
Two-Wire and Three-Wire Control ................................................................... 224
TYPES OF AC AND DC MOTORS ....................................................................... 228
AC Motors ........................................................................................................ 228
DC Motors ....................................................................................................... 234
POWER FACTOR ................................................................................................. 235
Power Factor Correction .................................................................................. 238
ANSWERS ............................................................................................................ 245
Chapter 7: Preventive Maintenance and Electrical Control Circuit Troubleshooting

OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................... 248
OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................ 248

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 249
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE ............................................................................ 249
TROUBLESHOOTING .......................................................................................... 256
CAUSES THAT MAKE MOTORS FAIL ................................................................ 272
ANSWERS ............................................................................................................ 285
Chapter 8: Understanding and Troubleshooting DC Motor Controls

OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................... 288
OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................ 288
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 289
DC MOTOR COMPONENTS AND OPERATION ................................................. 289
DC MOTOR STARTS ........................................................................................... 291
REVERSING DC MOTORS .................................................................................. 293
SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS .................................................................. 297
ACCELERATION OF DC MOTORS ..................................................................... 299
DECELERATING METHODS FOR DC MOTORS ............................................... 303
TROUBLESHOOTING DC MOTORS ................................................................... 307
ANSWERS ............................................................................................................ 319
Chapter 9: Understanding and Troubleshooting AC Motor Controls

OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................... 323
OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................ 323
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 324
GENERAL OPERATION OF AC MOTORS .......................................................... 324
STARTING AND ACCELERATING AC MOTORS ............................................... 327
REVERSING AC MOTORS .................................................................................. 338
DECELERATION OF AC MOTORS ..................................................................... 341
SPEED CONTROL OF AC MOTORS .................................................................. 343
TROUBLESHOOTING AC MOTORS ................................................................... 348
ANSWERS ............................................................................................................ 364
Chapter 10: Use, Application and Troubleshooting of Programmable Controllers (PLCs)

OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................... 367
OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................ 367
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 368
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION ........................................................................... 368
PLC INSTRUCTIONS ........................................................................................... 387
ANSWERS ............................................................................................................ 411

MODULE
CHAPTER 1 1
Chapter 1—Plant Power Distribution
OVERVIEW
This first chapter, presents an introduction to

how AC power is generated and how it arrives
at the manufacturing plant. The Wye and Delta
power systems are covered along with their use
and connections in three-phase transformers
and power routing throughout the plant.
During the explanation of power distribution in-

side the plant, we also covered the use of
switchgear and busways. Conversion of AC into
DC is also covered for both one and three-
phase power.
OBJECTIVES
After this chapter, you should:
• Know how alternators/generators work

and their application in power genera-
tion.
• Understand the Wye and Delta power

systems.
• Know how to maintain a power system

balanced.
• Understand Phase-to-Phase and

Phase-to-Neutral voltages and where
they come from.
• Know how power is distributed through

the plant via switchgear and busways.
• Understand the application of Motor

Control Centers (MCC)
• How DC power is generated from AC
Industrial Text & Video Company 1-800-752-8398 www.industrialtext.com 2

INTRODUCTION NOTES
The first chapter in Troubleshooting and Un-

derstanding Electrical & Motor Controls intro-
duces how power is routed to a plant and how
power is distributed within the plant to the many
machines, lighting and HVAC systems that
need the power to function. This chapter pro-
vides a foundation for later chapters that deal
with the electrical circuits and their component
devices that you will likely find throughout your
facility.
As we know, the incoming plant power is gen-

erated at the utilities power plant and sent
through the network via high voltage transmis-
sion cables. In fact, the original power gener-
ated is stepped up to a higher voltage using a
stepped-up transformer at the generating sub-
station.
The power being transmitted is reduced, or

stepped down, at another power substation.
The power from these substations are deliv-
ered to various locations which may include
your plant. When the power arrives at your
plant, it will be delivered to an incoming factory
Figure 1.
transformer.
Essentially what happens is that power is gen-

erated, stepped up, transmitted, stepped down,
and routed to your incoming plant transformer
(see Figure 1). From these step-down substa-
tions, we also get the power we use at home.
The transformers, instead of being at the plant,
are at the familiar street poles we see in our
daily life.

The substations (Figure 2) that bring the incom- Figure 2.

ing power to your plant’s transformer are mainly
used as a means of voltage transformation and
control along the distribution system for ultimate
use at the plant. A substation is mainly com-
prised of three parts, which are an input volt-
age section, a transformer section, and an out-
put voltage section.
The input section includes primary switchgear

where the incoming high voltage is passed to a
transformer which steps down or, in other
words, reduces the voltage. The output section
contains secondary switchgear which includes
NOTES
load interrupters with current limiting. This final
section passes or routes the actual power to
the transformer of your plant or building. From
here, the power is brought into the plant to what
is known as a switchboard or switchgear, which
is the central control for power inside the plant
or building.
In this program, we are going to cover in detail

electrical circuits found in the control panels or
motor control centers located in the plant. These
control centers have all the wiring necessary
to start and stop motors, actuate solenoids,
valves, etc.
However, experience has taught us that before

getting into the explanation of control circuitry,
it is a good idea to know more about how the
power is distributed in the plant and how the
original power comes about and gets reduced
in the manner we’ll find it at the switchgear
location. In fact, all the information we’re about
to cover will make clear why motors and their

voltages are designed the way they are. This NOTES

information will also give us an insight into their
operation which will certainly help us to control
them using electric motor control circuits. With
this in mind, let’s get back to the origin of how
electrical power is generated in the first place.
We all know that electric power is created at a

power generating plant. Whether the power
comes from coal, nuclear or an hydroelectric
source, the plant converts the original sources
to heat, which, in turn, is turned into mechani-
cal energy and then to electrical energy, which
is what we use.
As you know, the electricity we see being pro-

duced at generating plants is AC which stands
for alternating current. AC permits efficient
transmission of power between the generating
station and the final location which is, as far as
the power company is concerned, your plant
building. The other type of power you probably
have heard is the DC or direct current and, as
we’ll see later, differs from AC. DC power is
limited by distance and the way it can be eco-
nomically transmitted. For that reason, we use
AC power.
However, you know that your plant may have

equipment which operates on DC power. The
good thing is that DC power can be easily
changed from AC power to satisfy that need.
We’ll see later.
Now, let’s go back and find out how AC power

is made so that we can understand the whole
picture a little better.

NOTES
A while ago we mentioned that all the original
sources for generating power, such as nuclear,
water, coal, and others are used to produce
mechanical movement which, in turn, is used
to drive a turbine. This turbine is connected to
an alternator, or generator, which is actually
the one which translates the mechanical move-
ments into electrical energy.
It is not, of course, our intention here to ex-

plain everything about power generation, but
simply to know some basics to which we’ll be
able to relate later on. With this in mind, let’s
look briefly at how this power generation is
done.
POWER GENERATION
Alternators operate on the theory of electro-

magnetic induction which simply means that
if a conductor is moved through a magnetic
field a voltage is induced into the conductors
(Figure 3). Figure 3.
MAGNETS
(NORTH &
SOUTH POLES)
This movement for instance, may come from
MOTION OF
a turbine rotating as a result of water falling in CONDUCTOR
a hydroelectric plant, in which case the gen-

erator would be coupled with the turbine.
CONDUCTOR
This conductor, which moves, is formed by
CURRENT
groups of wires rotating around the north and
south poles of a permanent magnet. The cur-
DIRECTION OF
LOAD
rent which is generated through the group of MAGNETIC FIELD
NORTH TO SOUTH
rotating wires is simply AC.

Figure 4.
If we track the rotation of the alternator through 0˚

START
AB
a complete revolution of 360 degrees (Figure
4), or one cycle, we see that at one quarter of
a turn or 90 degrees, we generate a quarter
of the current, at half a turn, half of the cur-
rent, at three quarters of a turn, three quar- 0˚ 90˚ 180˚ 270˚ 360˚
ters of the current and when we complete the 180˚
whole turn, we get a complete current cycle.

The number of degrees turning by the rotat-
ing coil are called mechanical degrees. Figure 5.
Current
As the current is generated (Figure 5), it also Electrical Degrees
follows the same pattern as in the mechanical 0˚ 90˚ 180˚ 270˚ 360˚
rotation, except that here the degrees created
by the two poles, the north and the south, are
called electrical degrees and alternates be- 180˚
tween positive and negative, therefore the
name alternating current.
Figure 6.
If this rotating coil, let’s call it alternator, is ro- RPMs =60 Hertz
tated 3600 times per minute, or at 3600 RPMs, 60
we would get 60 revolutions per second or 60
hertz (Figure 6), which is our normal every-
day electricity. In other parts of the world, the
number of cycles per second that this alterna-
tor rotates is 50, which means 50 Hertz. Figure 7.
By having one element (Figure 7) , in this case 0˚

90˚
the alternator, rotate in two poles, we gener- 0˚ 90˚ 180˚ 270˚ 360˚
180˚
ate 360 mechanical degrees and also get 360
90˚
electrical degrees.
S

Figure 8.
Now, if we add another set of poles (Figure 8),
another north and south poles to our existing
N1 MAGNETIC
alternator, we’ll find that a mechanical rotation FIELD
of 360 degrees, or one mechanical cycle, will
produce not one but two electrical cycles, each S1
S2
one of 360 degrees for a total of 720 electrical
degrees. This simply means that 180 mechani-
cal degrees will give us 360 electrical degrees N1 N2
in an alternator with four poles. N2
So, if the alternator is running at a lower speed

S1 S2
of 1800 rotations or revolutions per minute, or ONE REVOLUTION GENERATES
2 WAVES EACH OF 360˚
RPMs instead of 3600, this four pole configu-
ration will still give 60 electrical cycles per sec-
Figure 9.
ond or 60 hertz.
If we added even more poles to the alternator,

then the required speed of the alternator’s ro- N
tor would be even less to maintain a 60 Hertz
frequency. Now, here is something interesting.
S
Because it is more economical and practical,

alternators use three separate coils to gener-
ate three different powers (Figure 9). These coils
are separated 120 mechanical degrees from
one another. Figure 10.
By having these coils separated in this man-

ner, the power generated will also be spaced
by 120 electrical degrees as the rotor turns the
two poles. One coil creates phase A, another
one phase B, and the last one creates phase
C. All three phases separated by 120 degrees
120˚
(Figure 10).

Figure 11.
These three phases are called phase one, L1

phase two and phase three or A,B and C or L2 M
the familiar L1, L2 and L3 (Figure 11) we gen- L3

erally see in the plant going to motors, trans-
L1 L2
formers, and also the ones we see in control
circuit schematics.
Figure 12.
These phases are also represented by the sym- PHASE REPRESENTATION
bols for one, two or three phases or phase A, B 1O AO

and C as illustrated in Figure 12. 2O BO
3O CO
Since each coil in an alternator has two termi-
Figure13.
nations (Figure 13), a beginning and an end
for each conductor, there are two wires that ex-
N
tend out of the alternator for each of the three
S
coils, two wires for each phase.
These wires can be connected, internally or

externally, in two manners. One called a Wye Figure 14.
connection, also known as a star represented WIRE CONNECTIONS
by the symbol shown in Figure 14, and the sec-

ond one is known as a Delta connection repre-
sented by the other symbol shown in Figure
14.
Figure 15. A1
WYE SYSTEM
Alternator coils are generally represented by

the symbol shown in Figure 15, and all three of
them in a Wye configuration are represented A2 B
as illustrated in Figure 16. Note that the spac- A1
ing between each of the representations is also Figure16.
120 degrees.
120˚
A2 B2
The terminal connections coming from the al-
ternator can be labeled A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2
C2 when all six are brought out. B1
C1

If we place a load across each of these gen- Figure 18. A1
erating coils, such as lights, then the lights will

be lit (Figure 18). Note that the A2, B2 and C2
wires all represent coil returns to the genera- C2 A2
tor.
B2
If we tied together the A2, B2 and C2 lines C1

B1
(Figure 19), then we would create a common

wire called the neutral wire. Furthermore, if we Figure 19. A1
place the light loads to this Wye configuration
with a neutral wire or common, then the lights NEUTRAL
will also be lit. One light for each phase. The A2
B2
three voltages, one for each phase, converge C2
at this neutral point when connected together.
C1 B1
Graphically, the sinusoidal curve for each
Figure 20.
phase is represented as shown in Figure 20,
which are extended to the point of origin. Note
that while one curve is positive, the other two +4 ○ ○ ○ ○
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
are negative and vice versa. In fact, if we add +2
the positive and negative values for each of 0
the curves, we would get a value of zero. For ○ ○ ○
-2
instance, at the dotted line, the value of A is 4
-4
while the value of B and C are each minus 2,
which, when added, will give us zero.
Figure 21.
This neutral point can also be seen in another
graphical form called vectors (Figure 21). In
here, each of the coils is represented by a line,
again separated by 120 degrees. The central 0
point will be zero.
To understand this, simply visualize three Figure 22.

people pulling three ropes with the same force ALL PULLS
and the middle being tied together (Figure 22). ARE EQUAL
PULL
The effect of this force will be zero or no move- N
ment at the middle, while the amount of pull
PULL PULL
from the point A to the neutral will still be the
same force being pulled. Remember that this
is a neutral wire.
POINT N STAYS THE SAME

Balanced Circuits Figure 23.
AO
If we connect the neutral to ground, then we
would have a neutral grounded which is cus-
tomary (Figure 23).
N
In the circuit in Figure 24 there is no current

flowing to the neutral point because the loads, BO
in this case lamps, were consuming the same CO
amount of power, thus is said that the circuit
was balanced.
Figure 24.
Large power distribution systems are designed
using three-phase systems for use with bal- AO
anced loads across each of the phases as close
as possible so that the current that flows
through the neutral wire, or the so called un- N
balanced current, is kept to a minimum.
These loads are balanced because they are BO

taken into consideration during the planing of CO
what loads are going to be connected to which
circuits in the plant.
Figure 25.
In Figure 25, we see that we get two distinctive

ways of measuring the voltage in the Wye con- A1
figuration. One is from the point A1 to A2, or PHASE

neutral, and another one from A1 to B1. TO
NEUTRAL PHASE
TO
C2 A2 PHASE
The first one, for obvious reasons, is called N
B2
phase-to-neutral voltage or simply called a
phase voltage while the other is called phase- B1
C1
to-phase voltage or the so-called line voltage
which is across the lines.

Figure 26.
Phase To Neutral Voltage
120 VOLTS
In a three-phase Wye system, the voltage gen-
erated at each of the three coils is equal (Fig-
ure 26). That is, if the voltage from Phase A to 120 VOLTS 120 VOLTS
neutral is 120 volts, the same will be for the

other two phases. The current labelled I from
Ia
each coil will be the same also; therefore, the
current supplied by each phase line in the gen-
erators will be equal. Ic Ib
Phase To Phase Voltage

Ia = Ib = Ic
LINE CURRENT = PHASE CURRENT
The second voltage that you will see if you
placed a voltmeter across line A1 and B1 will Figure 27. A1
differ from that of A1 to neutral or B1 to neutral

120
(Figure 27). Let’s assume that we have a phase 208 VOLTS VOLTS
208 VOLTS
to neutral voltage of 120 volts in the generator. N
In other words, our phase voltage is 120 volts.
If this is the case, we would get a reading of
C1 B1
208 volts from A1 to B1. In fact, we would also 208 VOLTS
read 208 volts from A1 to C1 and from B1 to PHASE TO PHASE VOLTAGE (LINE VOLTAGE)
C1–from phase to phase, the voltage will be
208 volts. But why is this voltage different? Let’s Figure 28.
A
look at it without going into too much detail.
C B
Remember when we said that the generator
N S
had three coils rotating and that we represented
this configuration as shown in Figure 28. B C
A
Well, we know that each voltage A, B and C to
Figure 29.
neutral is 120 volts. To find the voltage between
A and B (Figure 29) is done by simple Trigo-
120
nometry. Although it is not our intention of go- VOLTS
ing into too much explanation of it, let’s just go
over it and take it even if we don’t quite remem-
ber Trigonometry.

We know that we can simply represent the Wye Figure 30.
configuration as illustrated in Figure 29. How-

ever, since we are interested in finding one
phase-to-phase voltage, let’s look between A Vab = PHASE TO
and B for simplicity as shown in Figure 30.. Van = 120 V PHASE
We know that the voltage from A to neutral is

120 volts and from B to neutral is also 120 volts.
The voltage from A to B we are going to call
Vab or the voltage from phase A to phase B.
We can see graphically that the voltage from Vbn = 120 V
phase A to phase B is bigger in magnitude than
either of the two phases to neutral voltages Van
and Vbn.
Figure 31.
Remember that there are 120 degrees between 30˚

the phases. And, if we cut them in half (Figure Vab
Van 2
31), there will be 60 degrees. The phase-to-
phase voltage VAB will be composed of two Vab 60˚ Vab
halves. The value of one half of VAB, using trigo-
nometry, is equal to the phase to neutral volt- 60˚ Vab
age Van times the cosine of 30 degrees. 2
Vbn
Remember that the sum of all angles inside a

triangle is 180 degrees and we know one is Figure 32.
60, and the other perpendicular is 90, so it
leaves the one at point A to be 30 (Figure 32). 30˚
Therefore, the voltage phase to phase VAB is VAB
equal to two times the phase to neutral VAN 2
times the cosine of 30 degrees. Using trigo- 60˚
nometry, we know that 2 times the cosine of 30
degrees is equal to the square root of three. VAB
= VAN x Cos 30˚
Therefore, the phase to phase voltage VAB will 2
VAB = 2 x VAN x Cos 30˚
be the square root of three times the phase to VAB = 3 x VAN
neutral voltage VAN. So, for our 120 volts phase VAB = 1.73 x 120 volts = 208 volts
to neutral voltage, we would have the square
root of three which is 1.73 times the phase to
neutral voltage of 120 volts, totalling 208 volts.

We may find that the incoming voltage in the Figure 33.

DISTRIBUTION TO PLANT
plant (Figure 33) from a large distribution sys- OA
tem may be of 2,400 volts phase-to-neutral, thus
2,400 VOLTS
having a 4,152 volts phase-to-phase or line PHASE TO NEUTRAL
voltage which is 2,400 times 1.73.
N
The Wye distribution system with a earth- OB

4,152 VOLTS
grounded neutral connection is highly used and PHASE
OC TO PHASE
considered one of the safest methods for power
distribution. This system carries four wires, three Figure34. OA
for the phases and one for the grounded neu-

TO EQUIPMENT
tral (Figure 34). AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION
DELTA SYSTEM N N
OB
The delta system is created by the way the wires
OC
of coils are connected in the generator. The end
wire of one coil is connected to the beginning Figure 35.
of another and what we get is a triangular
shaped system called delta and is represented
by the symbol shown in Figure 35.
The voltage across each of the coils is the same.

Therefore, the line-to-line voltage or phase-to-
phase voltage is the same. In a 120 volts delta
120 VOLTS 120 VOLTS
system we would have 120 volts from phase A
to B, 120 volts from phase B to C and 120 volts
from phase A to C.
120 VOLTS
LINE VOLTAGE = PHASE VOLTAGE
The current of this delta system (Figure 36),
Figure 36.
however, differs a little because the line cur- A IA
rent, for instance, IA in phase A will be receiv-
ing current from the two coils that form the point
A. As an example, lets take the phase currents
feeding point B; the line current IL will be equal
to the phase current IP times 1.73. The 1.73
IP
comes from a similar trigonometric exercise as
IL = IP x 1.73
the one we did in the previous phase-to-phase
IP
Wye voltage calculations.

If we have a delta system (Figure 37) with a Figure 37.
phase voltage of 480 volts and a phase cur-

rent of 100 amps, we would have a line voltage
0V
48
equal to 480 volts and a line current of 173
48
VL = VP = 480V
10
0V
0A
0A
amps or 1.73 times the phase current of 100
10
IP
amps.
100A
480V IL = 1.73 x IP
POWER DISTRIBUTION
= 1.73 x 100 = 173 A
A while back we were talking about how the

power gets from the generating plant to a sub- Figure 38.
station via the high power transmission cables

(Figure 38). When the power gets to the sub-
station, it is brought down or stepped down with
the use of transformers, and brought to the
factory’s substation which, in general, is formed
by a large transformer. From here, the power is
passed to the plant, generally underground to
a service entrance.
In summary (see Figure 39), the power passes

via the entrance to the plant’s switchgear or
switchboard and from there, the power is redi-
rected to many other areas which include mo-
tor control centers, branch circuits for the light-
ing system, branch circuits for heating, ventila- Figure 39.
tion, and air conditioning systems, and other FROM POWER COMPANY
branch circuits that will feed power to factory PLANT'S
TRANSFORMER
machines. PLANT
SWITCHGEAR OR
SWITCHBOARD
These transformers are key devices used in dis-

tribution systems to bring the voltage and cur- MACHINES
rent to higher and lower levels in an efficient BRANCH
and safe manner.

LIGHTING 1
In fact, when the power is getting ready to be

MCC1 MCC2 HVAC LIGHTING 2
transmitted, it is stepped up with a transformer to
the high power level used for the transmission.

The reason the power is stepped up is because Figure 40.
it transmits with fewer losses at higher voltages

than at lower voltages (Figure 40). So when the
high voltage gets to the substation, it must be
stepped down to levels used in the plant. Let’s
have a look at how a transformer is used. TRANSMITTED
Transformers GENERATING
PLANT
Basically a transformer (Figure 41) takes a high

input voltage like 2400 volts on one end and Figure 41.
TRANSFORMER
converts it into, let’s say, 120 volts on the other
end.
IN OUT
2400 120
A transformer can be simply looked at like two VOLTS VOLTS
sets of windings around an iron core, namely
the primary winding and the secondary wind-
ing (Figure 42). The voltage in the input cre-
ates a magnetic field in the primary which pro- Figure 42.
duces another voltage in the secondary. The
number of windings in the primary and second- AC
INPUT
ary determine the ratio of step up or step down. WINDING
SECONDARY
If the primary has more windings than the sec-
PRIMARY AC
ondary, the output voltage will be stepped down OUTPUT
(Figure 43). Conversely, if the primary has fewer
windings than the secondary, the voltage at the
output will be higher and therefore the voltage
will be stepped up (Figure 44).
Figure 43.
STEPPED DOWN
The amount of power, measured in volt am- PRIMARY SECONDARY
peres or VAs, is the same for both the primary WINDINGS WINDINGS
and the secondary. This VA power is calculated
by multiplying the voltage times the current. So
if we have 480 volts with 10 amps in the pri- Figure 44.
mary in a stepdown transformer with a ratio of STEPPED UP
2 to 1, we will get 240 volts in the secondary
PRIMARY SECONDARY
with 20 amps. In this case, the VA power will be
WINDINGS WINDINGS

the same for both the primary and the second- Figure 45.
ary at 4,800 VA or 4.8 KVA. The KVA nomen-
STEP UP
clature indicates that the VAs are times 1,000.
In a stepdown transformer the current in the AC AC
INPUT OUTPUT
PRIMARY SECONDARY
secondary is increased while, in a step up trans- 120 VOLTS 240 VOLTS
10 AMPS 5 AMPS
former, the current is decreased.
Transformers are represented graphically as

shown in Figure 45 where the primary is at the Figure 46.
left and the secondary is at the right. In this

STEP DOWN
case, the transformer is a step-up transformer
AC AC
which, for this example, changes the voltage INPUT OUTPUT
PRIMARY SECONDARY
from 120 volts to 240 volts, a one to two volt- 240 VOLTS 120 VOLTS
5 AMPS 10 AMPS
age ratio.
While in the configuration shown in Figure 46

the voltage will be stepped down from 240 volts Figure 47.
to 120 volts, a two to one voltage ratio.

VOLTAGE IS STEPPED
DOWN FOR EACH PHASE
In the substation (Figure 47), this step down is
essentially performed for each of the phases
by transformer banks.
MAIN
SWITCH
GEAR
Transformers are found in several types of con- CABLE

LINE
figurations and connections. Some have the TO PLANT
primary in a Wye configuration with a second-
ary also in a Wye or delta (Figure 48).
Figure 48.
Others have the primary in a delta and the sec-

ondary in a Wye or delta. In other words, the
primary and secondary can be either in a Wye
or delta configuration.

Wye To Wye Transformer Figure 49.
In a Wye to Wye transformer step down, the

configuration will look graphically as illustrated PRIMARY SECONDARY
in Figure 49. However, it is easier to represent
it as shown in Figure 50, where the primary
winding is shown on the left and the secondary
is shown on the right.
In fact, this representation may be the one that Figure 50.

depicts the factory transformer, where the sec- A A
ondary side is brought into the plant to the
switchgear.
From the switchgear (Figure 51), the power, as B B

we know, will be routed to the rest of the plant,
C C
where other transformers will be used to pro-
vide the appropriate voltages and currents re- Figure 51.
FROM POWER COMPANY
quired by each branch circuit. PLANT'S
TRANSFORMER
SWITCHGEAR OR PLANT
SWITCHBOARD
Note that, in the one line diagram representa-
tion of Figure 52, the three phase transform- MACHINES
BRANCH
ers are also represented in one line diagram
format. Furthermore, we'll find that we may even LIGHTING 1
include the Wye to Wye or Wye to delta, etc. MCC1 MCC2 HVAC LIGHTING 2
transformer configuration.
Figure 52.
The three phase power from the switchgear is SWITCHGEAR
represented as shown in Figure 53. Addition-

ally, the neutral line may also be included in the
power distribution media, such as busways,
which we’ll see later. This neutral line may also
TRANSFORMERS TO BRANCH CIRCUITS
be grounded.
Figure 53.
As it is distributed through the plant, the power
representation at the top of Figure 54 will be
feeding to other transformers. The bottom con-
figuration of Figure 54 shows the coils for each

Figure 54.
phase of the transformer. This figure also rep- A A
resents a Wye to Wye transformer connection
for each of the transformer's coils. 480 V 120V
N
The incoming power lines are connected to the B B

C C
H1 side of the transformer— in transformer no- A
B
menclature, the sides with the H’s, H1 and H2, C
N
are used for the high voltage, where the X’s, H2 H1 H2 H1 H2 H1
the X1 and X2 sides are used for the low volt- X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 X1

age. Note that the fourth wire, the neutral in
this example, is grounded and connected to the
H2 side of each transformer. NOTES
Let’s go over this transformer wiring to make

sure that we have wired it in a Wye configura-
tion. Tracing from line A to the first coil’s H1
terminal, we go through the coil to H2. This H2
terminal of the first coil goes also to the neu-
tral.
From line B we go to H1 of the second coil,

through it to its H2, which also goes to neutral.
Similarly, the C phase goes to H1, through the
transformer coil H2 to neutral. As you can see,
this representation is a Wye connection with a
neutral wire. The secondary also follows in the
same manner, as shown in Figure 55. This Wye
Figure 55.
transformer connection can be traced for line
480 V
L1 to X1 through the coil to X2 and neutral. A
B
The same is true for line L2 and also for line C
N
L3. This is a Wye to Wye transformer connec-
tion. X2 C X1 X2 B X1 X2 A X1
120V 120V 120V
N
L3
The three stepped-down voltages, one for each L2
L1
phase of 120 volts, came from the X1 and X2 120V
side of each of the transformers. Here again,
each of the X2 sides is connected together to

form a neutral and, also, all three are grounded. NOTES

In this configuration, the stepped-down voltage
is 120 volts from 480 volts, a 4:1 step down.
Note that each of the phases is being stepped

down and passed accordingly. Also remember
that the voltage between phase L1 and neutral
is the transformed 120 volts and between
phases, the line voltage will be 1.73 times 120
volts or 208 volts
In the power distribution configuration of Fig-

ure 56, we could connect a 3-phase 208 volts Figure 56.
motor, a one phase 208 volts, receiving the 208 480 V
volts from lines L1 and L2, and in the same A
B
C
system we could also have a one-phase 120 N
volts which will be connected from any of the
lines, L1, L2 or L3, in this case L3, to the neu- X2 C X1 X2 B X1 X2 A X1
120V 120V 120V
tral of the Wye transformer. N
L3
L2
L1
We could also have a lighting connection in a
branch circuit which is perhaps supplying a 120-
volts lighting system. Note that, in this small
3ø 1ø 1ø
example, we have connected each of the 120- 208 3Ø 208 1Ø 120 1Ø
volt lights to different phases to try to maintain LOAD LOAD LOAD
120V
a balanced load for all phases.
Delta To Delta Transformer

Figure 57.
A transformer bank of a delta-to-delta trans- 480 volts

former configuration is shown in Figure 57. A
B
This delta representation is easily described C
H2 C H1 H2 B H1 H2 A H1
in this manner, where each of the nodes of
the transformer coils are joined together in
X4 X2 X3 X1 X4 X2 X3 X1 X4 X2 X3 X1
a delta fashion.
N
L3
L2
The secondary section of the transformer will L1
also be in a delta configuration where the ends 240 volts

and beginnings of each coil will be joined to- NOTES

gether in a delta form. Assuming that the in-
coming voltage is also 480 volts, and the trans-
former ratio is 2 to 1, we would get phase-to-
phase or line voltages of 240 volts. If we wanted
to have 120 volts available in this system, we
would then be required to tap one of the coils
in the secondary at the half point which will give
us 120 volts from neutral to each of the adja-
cent phases. In this case, if we use the B coil,
we will have 120 volts between phase L2 and
neutral and between phase L3 and neutral.
Under this condition, we could then connect

Figure 58.
(Figure 58) 120 volts lighting loads to the single
phases L2 or L3. We could also connect a 3- 480 volts
A
phase and a one-phase 240 volt motor to this B
C
configuration. Note that we would not use the H2 C H1 H2 B H1 H2 A H1
L1 phase to neutral because this one is the

unreliable high voltage or wild leg voltage of X4 X2 X3 X1 X4 X2 X3 X1 X4 X2 X3 X1
N
this neutral grounded delta system. If you use L3
L2
this voltage, the transformer load will become L1
unbalanced and cause the transformer to over-
heat. Remember, this voltage connection 240 volts
should always be avoided because it could 3Ø 1Ø
damage equipment. 240 3Ø 240 1Ø 120 1Ø
LOAD LOAD LOAD
POWER DISTRIBUTION INSIDE THE PLANT

NOTES
We have seen, so far, how the power is stepped
down at the plant’s transformer. Furthermore,
these discussions on transformers will be very
useful because transformers are used through-
out the plant at different branch circuits and
panel boards. Let’s now take a look in more
detail at how the power is distributed inside the
plant.

We know that power is brought into a central Figure 59.

location in the plant, called the switchgear room
or switchboard from the plant’s transformer. This
WATER
is actually the first stop, so to speak, for the TANK
total inside power plant distribution.
We could make an analogy of the switchgear

to that of a tank full of water which has different
pipe sizes feeding or distributing water in a
greenhouse or garden (Figure 59).
The switchgear divides power around and, in

addition, it also contains the necessary equip-
ment to monitor control and protect the reliabil-
ity of the power being distributed. Figure 60.
The switchboard takes the large amount of FEEDER BUS LIGHT DUTY
HEAVY CAPACITY
power coming in what’s known as a heavy ca- SMALL
CAPACITY
pacity feeder bus and reroutes all the power in
light duty conduits and wires and small capac-
ity busways throughout the plant (Figure 60).
A switchgear is composed or formed of two

possible sections which may or may not be in
the same location. These are the service en-
trance and distribution section.
The incoming power to the switchgear comes

Figure 61.
through the service entrance via underground
cable busway or via a feeder duct busway (fig- SERVICE
ure 61). HEAD
The service entrance contains metering equip-

ment such as watt hour meters, voltage and
current meters. These will indicate to a mainte-
nance person incoming and outgoing voltages
and currents in the system. The service en- CH
WIT
IN S
trance also houses protecting equipment for MA

overcurrent and overvoltage conditions and Figure 62.

also contains the necessary disconnect means
SERVICE ENTRANCE
for the power (Figure 62). BUSWAY
DISTRIBUTION
SECTION
Switchgears also contain circuit breakers and,
when more than six breakers are in a
switchgear enclosure, a main disconnect switch
must be provided.
In some cases, we can find additional space in ON OFF

a switchgear enclosure to provide for control
devices or motor starters, although they are
generally grouped in a separate panel enclo- MAIN SWITCH
DISCONNECT
sure. The power from the switchgear, as we
NOTES
said, is rerouted in lighter, so to speak, capaci-
ties.
Typically, you may see a main feeder from the

switchgear go into motor control centers, con-
trol panels containing the circuits that control a
machine and also into a variety of panel boards.
These panel boards are generally described
as wall-mounted cabinets containing an
overcurrent and short circuit devices for light
loads or for power distribution branch circuits
(Figure 63).
Figure 63.
These panel boards provide the last centrally
located protection for the power run to the loads MAIN
and control circuitry. SWITCHBOARD MOTOR CONTROL
CENTER
These panels can be classified according to

their use as lighting, power and distribution
CH
SWIT
panel boards. WITCH
MAIN
MAIN S
CH
SWIT
MAIN
TRANS- LIGHTING FUSIBLE

FORMER PANEL PANELBOARD

Figure 63 (cont.)
From these panel boards, we get additional pro-

tection and circuits feeding the loads; these cir- MAIN
SWITCHBOARD MOTOR CONTROL
cuits are called branch circuit feeders, which CENTER
may feed control panels containing all the cir-

cuits for the control of a machine (continue Fig-
ure 63). SWIT
CH
MAIN
CH
SWIT
MAIN
CH
SWIT
MAIN
The National Electric Code, which we’ll talk
about in chapter 6, gives the basic requirements
and guidelines for the necessary overcurrent TRANS-
FORMER
LIGHTING FUSIBLE
PANEL PANELBOARD
protection branch circuits and their connection
to loads such as motors.
NOTES
In fact, it is a good idea to check with local and

state power authorities to make sure that you
adhere to the regulations that must be followed
for the proper installation of electrical equip-
ment.
The overcurrent protecting devices used in

panel boards going into branch circuits are
fuses and circuit breakers. These obviously
must be properly rated according to the loads
that these branch circuits are connected to.
Panel board interiors are graphically repre-

sented as depicted in Figure 64, where one or Figure 64.
more phases can be feeding the panel board A B C

and where the protecting devices can be break-
ers or fused switches. A A
B B
We are accustomed to seeing panel boards in C C
everyday life. For instance, at home. The circuit A A
breaker box we can identify with, especially B B
when a breaker is tripped, is the perfect ex- C C
ample of a panel board with branch circuits pro- NEUTRAL BUS
tected by breakers.

Figure 65.
Each branch circuit is used for the final propa-
gation of power. For instance (see Figure 65), PANEL BOARD
from the panel board to the kitchen, to the bed-
room, or to the basement. Each branch circuit
is controlled by a protecting device.
TO TO
KITCHEN BEDROOM
Busways
TO
A while ago we mentioned that from the BASEMENT
switchgear we transport the power to other Figure 66.
parts of the plant via busways (Figure 66).

SWITCHGEAR
These busways are metal enclosures contain-
ing electrical conductors which distribute the BUSWAY
power. Busways are prefabricated and are avail-

able in many shapes, such as elbows and tees
to make connections and extensions in a very TO TO TO TO
easy manner along the power distribution sys- MCC HVAC MACHINES LIGHT
SYSTEM
tem (reference Figure 67).
Figure 67.
The inside conductors in the busways are MAIN
SWITCHBOARD MOTOR CONTROL
braced by insulated support holders to prevent CENTER
accidental contact with the enclosure.
CH
SWIT
There are two primary methods of distributing MAIN
SWITC
H
MAIN
CH
SWIT
power from busways. The first one is using MAIN
feeder busways and the second one is using

TRANS- LIGHTING FUSIBLE
FORMER
busways which are plug-in types. PANEL PANELBOARD
NOTES
The feeder busway delivers the power directly
into the loads. The plug-in busways allow loads
to be connected to a panel module which can
be plugged in the busway close to the location
of the final power consuming load.

This plug-in configuration allows flexibility be- Figure 68.

cause modules can be plugged in when needed
BUSWAY
during expansion along a busway. The plug-in
panels generally contain circuit breakers, fus-
ible switches, or receptacle plugs. From these TO 480V TO 208V TO 200V
20A 3O 3O
plug-ins, a simple conduit and wire are run to CONTROL MOTOR MOTOR
PANEL
the close-by load or machine (Figure 68).
As you know, loads connected to the power dis-

tribution system vary according to its size, pri-
marily determined by its voltage and current re-
quirements. Figure 69.
RECEPTACLE NEMA WIRING

For this reason, the system wiring and load pro- RATING CONFIGURATION ANSI DIAGRAM
tection at these terminations follow a standard 3P 3W
30A 11-30
plug and receptacle configuration according to 3O 250V C73.56
NEMA, the National Electrical Manufacturers 50A 11-50

3O 250V C73.57
Association (Figure 69).
15A 14-15
3 POLE 4 WIRE
125/250V C73.49
If you become familiar with these standard rep- 20A 14-20
125/250V C73.50
resentations, you’ll be able to tell what kind of
30A 14-30
voltage, phase and current are available at any 125/250V C73.16
particular plug.
Motor Control Centers (MCC) NOTES
We know that a power distribution system pro-

vides all the necessary voltages and currents
for the plant’s loads. These loads include lights,
a myriad of control devices and the so com-
monly found motor loads.
These motor loads may require from a simple

ON/OFF control to a complex circuit for its con-
trol, depending on the application.

Motor control centers provide a central loca- NOTES

tion for the incoming power and a consolidated
point for overcurrent and overload protection
and control circuitry, such as starters for the
control of motors. By far one of the greatest
advantages of a motor control center is its
modularity.
The center is composed of many pre-as-

sembled individual control units available from
their manufacturers. This plug-in flexibility of-
fers tremendous advantages for troubleshoot-
ing and for expansions when necessary. The
same advantages are offered when there is a
need to replace a unit in the center.
Sometimes, depending on the complexity of the

electrical control system, a control panel may
be next to the motor control center housing the
hardwired control logic and terminations
needed for proper control of the motors.
Elements like limit switches, level switches, etc.

would be routed to these control panels to form
the electrical control. Other elements such as
control relays and pilot light indicators will also
be housed in these nearby control panels (Fig-
Figure 70.
ure 70). The direct command to start or stop,
or accelerate a motor would come out to be
CONTROL
wired to the motor control center’s specific mo- PANEL MCC
tor starter control circuitry. LIMIT
SWITCHES
HARDWIRED
Grounding LEVEL
CONTROL
SWITCHES
CIRCUITS
OPERATOR COMMANDS
One important fact of a distribution system is STATION FOR MCC
to provide a ground bus. This will allow for
proper grounding of the equipment. In fact, all
noncurrent carrying metal parts, such as con-

NOTES
duits, switch gear enclosures, etc. should be
connected to ground to limit the voltage be-
tween metal parts and earth to a safe level. The
ground bus should contain an approved ground-
ing conductor and fittings which must be prop-
erly connected to an electrode embedded in
the earth to provide a good ground.
Figure 71. Figure 72.

DC POWER
DC VOLTAGE
AC VOLTAGE
Earlier in this chapter, we mentioned that AC
power is transmitted from the generating plant
to your industrial plant. And, that it was AC
power because it was easier to send via trans-
mission lines without significant losses along
the way. However, we may have an application Figure 73. Figure 74.
which uses DC power to operate. RECTIFCATION RECTIFCATION
This direct current power does not change or

alternate (see Figures 71 and 72) between posi-
tive and negative swings like the AC; instead, it
is at a constant voltage, positive or negative, at
all times. In fact, the need for DC power is a
must for the operation of most of all electronic Figure 75.
equipment.
In order to convert from AC to DC, we must

rectify the AC voltage (Figures 73 and 74). By DIODE
DIODE
rectification we mean to convert from a swing-
ing voltage to a steady voltage by using an elec-
trical device called a diode (Figure 76).
Figure 76.
This diode (Figure 76), containing two termi- ANODE CATHODE

nals, called an anode and a cathode, allow only
the voltage to swing one way by permitting the
current to flow in one direction.
CURRENT FLOW

When we pass an AC signal through a diode, Figure 77.

only the positive part of the voltage passes
through, or just half of the wave. This type of
transformation is called half-wave rectification
(Figure 77).
However, this type of half-wave rectification is

not practical since it is inefficient. For this rea- HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION
son, it is necessary to obtain what’s called a
full-wave rectification.
Figure 78.
From a single phase AC source, it is possible

to obtain a full-wave rectification by using two
diodes with a center tap transformer or using
four diodes in a configuration called a bridge
rectifier. Full wave rectification is shown in Fig-
ures 78 and 79 for the center tap transformer +
and the bridge rectifier respectively.
LOAD
In the center-tap transformer (refer to Figure -

78), one diode will be allowing one part of the Figure 79.
wave to pass by while the other one is off. When
the other part of the wave swings, in this case D4 D1
the negative side, the second diode will allow it
to pass in a positive manner, thus making the
full wave rectification.
D2 D3
In a bridge circuit with four diodes (refer to Fig-
LOAD
ure 79), the same outcome is achieved. In here,
diodes D1 and D2 conduct during the positive
voltage swing while D3 and D4 are off. During
NOTES
the negative voltage swing, D3 and D4 con-
duct while D1 and D2 don’t. In this manner the
full wave is obtained.
Although the rectification circuit is simple in

nature, it generally utilizes other electronic com-
ponents to filter noise from the AC line and also

1-139
prevents the rectified voltage from dropping to Figure 80.
zero, thus providing for a smoother DC voltage

(Figure 80).
RECTIFIER
FILTER
There will always be, however, a small CIRCUIT
sawtooth-like wave on top of the DC level (Fig-
ure 81). This line variation is called a ripple volt-
age and its amount depends on how much and
how the signal was filtered.
Figure 81.
In a three-phase power circuit, the rectification RIPPLE VOLTAGE

method is essentially the same (Figure 82). Di-
odes are used to rectify each of the phases. In
a three-phase power, the rectification using one
simple diode per phase produces a smoother
output because when one voltage goes nega-
tive, at least one of the other phases is posi-
tive.
The important thing to remember for DC sup-

plies is how it is derived from AC power. There Figure 82.
are many available commercial DC power sup- OA

ply systems to satisfy almost all industrial A B C
needs. LOAD
In this chapter you have learned about power

generation, transmission and distribution into OB
and throughout you plant. This information will
OC
prove very helpful when we address motor con-
trol circuits where Wye and Delta circuits will
again be discussed. The next three chapters
cover most of the control devices and compo-
nents used in electrical control systems.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.- The power generated at a utility plant is

______ before being transmitted via the
high voltage network.
a– Reduced
b– Stepped up
c– Stepped down
d– None of the above
2.- True/False. The substations that bring in-

coming power to the plant are primarily
used as a means of voltage transforma-
tion and control for ultimate use at the
plant.
3.- The central incoming point of power in the

plant is the ______.
a– Motor control center

b– Power panels
c– Switchgear or switchboard
d– Equipment room
4.- In power generation, if the alternator is ro-

tating at 3600 RPMs, the resulting fre-
quency of power will be ______.
a– 50 Hz
b– 60 Hz
c– 36 Hz
d– 120 Hz

5.- In a three-phase power system, each of

the phases is separated by ______ de-
grees.
a– 120
b– 180
c– 90
d– 0
6.- Alternators in power generation systems

can be configured as ______ and ______.
a– Wye
b– L1, L2, L3
c– Delta
d– 3 Phases
e– Double coils
7.- If one coil is represented by the symbol of Figure 1 A1

Figure 1, how would you represent a wye
and a delta configuration?
8.- Briefly describe what is the neutral of a

A2 B
wye system.
9.- The neutral point of a wye system can be

thought of as being at ______.
a– The highest potential

b– Zero volts
c– 120 volts
d– 240 volts
10.- True/False. Large distribution systems

should be kept imbalanced so that more
current is available.

11.- In Figure 2, indicate which one is the Figure 2. A1

phase-to-phase voltage and the phase-to-
neutral voltage. PHASE
TO
NEUTRAL PHASE
TO
12.- True/False In a balanced wye system, the C2 A2 PHASE
N
phase-to-phase voltage is the same as the B2
phase to neutral.
B1
C1
13.- The current available from a balanced wye
system is ______ for each phase.
a– The same
b– Twice the amount
c– Never the same
d– Very different
14.- In a wye system, the phase to ______ volt-

age is equal to ______ times the phase
to ______.
a– Neutral
b– Phase
c– 208
d– 1.73
15.- True/False. The delta system is created by

the way the wires in the generator coils
are connected.
16.- The phase-to-phase voltage in a delta sys-

tem is ______ for each phase.
a– Different
b– The same
c– Not connected
d– More

17.- In a delta system, which current is larger

in magnitude, the phase current or the line
current? And by how much?
18.- True/False The KVA rating of a transformer

is not the same for the primary and the
secondary.
Figure 3.
19.- For the transformer shown in Figure 3, fill STEP UP
in the blanks. AC AC
INPUT OUTPUT
PRIMARY SECONDARY
120 VOLTS 240 VOLTS
a– Step up 10 AMPS 5 AMPS
b– Step down
c– 1:2 :
d– 2:1
STEP DOWN
20.- The current in a stepped down transformer
AC AC
is ______ while the voltage is ______. INPUT OUTPUT
PRIMARY SECONDARY
240 VOLTS 120 VOLTS
5 AMPS 10 AMPS
a– Reduced
b– Increased
:
c– The same
d– Not altered
Figure 4.
21.- Connect the secondary of the transformer
A
shown in Figure 4 so that it is in a wye-to- B
C
wye configuration with a neutral wire in N
H2 H1 H2 H1 H2 H1
the secondary.
X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 X1
22.- True/False The two most common types
of Busways are feeder and plug-ins.
23.- The method by which AC power is trans-

formed into DC power is called ______.
a– Conversion
b– DC resolve
c– Rectification
d– Transformation
24.- A diode has a ______ and a ______.
a– Cathode
b– Gate
c– Anode
d– Electrode
25.- A ______ can be used to perform ______

of an AC voltage.
a– Phaser
b– Bridge rectifier
c– Full wave rectification
d– Voltage correction

ANSWERS
1.- b– Stepped up
2.- True
3.- c– Switchgear or switchboard
4.- b– 60 Hz
5.- a– 120
6.- a– Wye
c– Delta A1
7.-
120 VOLTS 120 VOLTS
A2 B2
C2
B1
C1
Wye Delta
8.- The neutral is the center point of a wye sys-

tem which has been tied together thus cre-
ating a common point. When this connec-
tion is extended, it is known as the neutral
wire.
9.- b– Zero volts
10.- False. They always should be kept balanced.

A1
11.-
PHASE
TO
NEUTRAL PHASE
TO
C2 A2 PHASE
N
B2
B1
C1
12.- False. The phase-to-phase voltage is 1.73

times the phase-to-neutral.
13.- a– The same
14.- b– Phase-to-phase
d– 1.73
a– Phase-to-neutral
15.- True
16.- b– The same
17.- The line current. It is larger by a factor of

1.73.
18.- False. The KVA is maintained.
19.- STEP UP STEP DOWN
AC AC AC AC
INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT
PRIMARY SECONDARY PRIMARY SECONDARY
120 VOLTS 240 VOLTS 240 VOLTS 120 VOLTS
10 AMPS 5 AMPS 5 AMPS 10 AMPS

20.- b– Increased
a– Reduced
A
21.- B
C
N
X2 C X1 X2 B X1 X2 A X1
120V 120V 120V
N
L3
L2
L1
22.- True
23.- b– Rectification
24.- a– Cathode
c– Anode
25.- b– Bridge rectifier

c– Full wave rectification

MODULE
CHAPTER 2 2
TO
CIRCUIT TO
L2
RETURN
TO
L1
120 VAC
Chapter 2—Static/Manual Control Switches
OVERVIEW
This chapter, presents the first of three chap-
ters dedicated to field control devices. Chapter
two, covers static switches which include:
• Switches
• Push Buttons
• Switches
• Pilot Lights
• Drum switches
The other two chapters, describe sensing and

timing switches and electromagnetic types of
control elements.
The operation, application and troubleshooting

of these static control switches are also shown.
OBJECTIVES
After this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand what static switches are

• Understand the basics of electrical lad-
der diagram.
• Know the differences between poles,
throws and breaks in contacts.
• Troubleshoot static switches.
• Know how to read multiposition selector
switches.
• Apply drum switches for forward and re-
verse motor operation.
• Wire and troubleshoot drum switches.

INTRODUCTION NOTES
This chapter describes many of the control
switches and pilot devices used to control plant
equipment. Without a good understanding of
each device’s function and the terms and sym-
bols representing it, a thorough understanding
of motor control would not be possible.
We can classify control switches into four dis-

tinct categories which are:
• Static or Manual Switches

• Sensing Switches
• Timing and Counting, and
• Electromagnetic Switches.
In this chapter, we’ll discover the static type of

switches which are manually operated while
sensing, timing and counting will be in the next
chapter. Electromagnetic switches, which re-
late to the control of final elements, like mo-
tors, will be covered in chapter 4. But before
we get into static switches, let’s briefly look at
the manner by which all these control devices
and elements are used and represented in con-
trol circuits.
BASIC LADDER DIAGRAM
All the control devices we’ll be explaining will

be represented in what’s called ladder dia-
grams. These diagrams are also called line dia-
grams or elementary diagrams.

Figure 1.
These basic representations are based on two

RAILS
rails–one on the left and one on the right where (POWER)
they represent power (Figure 1). The control
elements or devices are placed from left to right
in a specified sequence to illustrate the wiring
connections that are made to form the control
circuit. The final element to the most right is
generally the element being controlled like a
relay, motor starter, or an indicating light. CONTROL DEVICES
The devices that are used to control the opera-

tion of a system or process are called pilot de-
NOTES
vices. A pilot device can be defined as a switch
or other device that is actuated by non electri-
cal means. A push button is an example of a
pilot device, as are limit switches, float switches
and temperature switches. Pilot devices are
characterized as having limited current carry-
ing capability and are normally limited to loads
that do not exceed 10 to 15 amps.
STATIC CONTROL SWITCHES
The static control switches we’ll be covering

include the simple switch, push buttons, selec- Figure 2.
tor switches, pilot lights and drum switches. SWITCH
Switches TO POWER
To begin our discussion of control components, LIGHT

let’s start with the switch (Figure 2). The pur-
pose of a switch is to turn a device on or off by
closing or opening the switch. As an example,
a switch can be used to turn a lamp on and off.

Switches are available in several configurations, Figure 3.
depending on the number of contacts they have

and the type of connection they make. They POLES: Number of Source Wires
are categorized by the number of so-called the Switch Can Control
poles and throws.
The poles indicate the number of source wires THROW: Positions the Switch Can
the switch can control, whereas the throw indi- Be Thrown In or Put In
cates the possible positions the switch can be
thrown in or put in to make a connection (Fig-
ure 3). NOTES
Furthermore, switches are also classified by

how they make contact; this classification is
called breaks. This deals with the number of
separate contacts used to break the circuit; if it
breaks it in one place, it is called a single break,
and if it breaks in two places it is called a double
break. We’ll see more on this in a little while.
Switches are classified by two or more of the

categories that make it; for instance, there are:
• Single Pole Single Throw

• Double Pole Single Throw
• Single Pole Double Throw
• Double Pole Double Throw
Figure 4.
Additionally, we can have them with single
break or double break, as we’ll see shortly. SINGLE POLE - SINGLE THROW (SPST)
The single pole single throw, or SPST for short, CURRENT

is the most basic of all contact arrangements
found in switches. As its name implies, it has
one source wire or pole which connects the side
we want to switch from to the position we want SOURCE WIRE
to switch it to – or throw it to (Figure 4).

Figure 5.
S
In fact, this is the regular everyday wall switch
we have at home. The one that turns the light
of a room on and off. When the switch closes, Figure 6.
L1 L2
contact is made and current flows through the
switch from the pole to the throw side.
The ladder diagram representation of this single

pole single throw is shown in Figure 5. If we
wanted to connect the switch so that we could
turn a light on, we would connect one side to
the power at L1 and the other one to the light
and from the light to the return L2 or common, Figure 7.
as illustrated in Figure 6. If the switch is turned DOUBLE POLE - SINGLE THROW (DPST)
on, the light will also turn on. TWO CURRENT

SOURCE WIRES MECHANICALLY
LINKED
The double pole single throw is essentially two
single pole single throw switches together (see
Figure 7). The dashed lines between the con-
tacts as shown in Figure 7 indicate a mechani-
TWO TWO
cal link between the two switches. This switch SINGLE POLES WIRE CIRCUIT
DESTINATIONS
can connect two source wires which can be
thrown to two single wire destinations. If the Figure 8.
switch is turned on, current from the left will L1
SWITCH
L2
flow to the right.
In a ladder diagram, if we had two lights con-

nected to the switch, its representation will be
as shown in Figure 8. When the switch is thrown
into the on position, both lights will be on.
Figure 9.
Note that all switches have only one switch ac-

tivation mechanism (see Figure 9) which can
have different switching contact configurations
according to the number of poles and throws.

The single pole double throw (Figure 10) Figure 10.

SINGLE POLE - DOUBLE THROW (SPDT)
switches one source wire in either of two pos-
sible positions you can throw it in. One of the
positions is closed while its other one is open.
SOURCE WIRE TWO WIRE

CIRCUIT
If you had two lights, one connected to each of DESTINATION
the throws of the switch, as shown in Figure Figure 11.
11, one will be on while the other one is off. L1 L2

SPDT
When you throw the switch into the other posi- SWITCH
tion, the bottom light will be on and the other

one off.
This single pole double throw switch configura-

Figure 12.
tion is, in fact, used a lot at home by us every
day (Figure 12). You can recall the two switches
in a room where both can turn a light on and
off.
In the ladder diagram of Figure 13, we can see

that, if you throw the switch in one position in
one side of the room, the light will be on and, if
you throw the second switch, it will turn it off. In Figure 13.
this diagram, the second switch (SPDT-2) was L1 L2
drawn in a reverse manner to simplify its wiring SPDT-1 SPDT-2

LIGHT
representation. This circuit is the one we have
at home using two single pole double throw
switches to turn one light on and off.
The double pole double throw (see Figure 14)

Figure 14.
connects two source wires to two possible
DOUBLE POLE - DOUBLE THROW (DPDT)
thrown positions for each circuit. It is like com-
bining two single pole double throw switches 2 POSITIONS
(THROWS)
and controlling the throws with the same
mechanism. One of the two throw contacts of TWO
SOURCE WIRES
each pole is in a closed position while the other 2 POSITIONS
(THROWS)
one is in the open position.
In a ladder circuit, they are represented as Figure 15.
shown in Figure 15, where the switch can be DPDT

L1 L2
wired to four possible loads. The double pole SWITCH
double throw can also be used to control two

loads. For instance, if the switch is in the top
position, the top light of each circuit will be on
because the current will flow from L1 source
power to the return L2. When the switch posi-
tion is changed, the bottom light will be on.
When this double pole double throw switch is

Figure 16.
used in the configuration shown in Figure 16, it
is called an isolation switch because one load
L1
is isolated or disconnected when the other one
is on.
The single pole double throw and double pole

double throw switches can also be ordered with
a center off position (Figure 17). If this is the
type of switch that you need for a given appli- L2
cation, it will be necessary to specify single pole

Figure 17.
single throw center off, or double pole double
throw center off when ordering the switch. SPDT
OFF
SWITCH
Single Break —Double Break
The single break denomination comes about OFF

due to the fact that a switch uses one set of DPDT
contacts to break a circuit. In this single pole SWITCH
single throw (top of Figure 18), there is only OFF
one point of break at the left.
Figure 18.
If a switch breaks in two points (bottom of Fig-
ure 18), then it is called a double break contact SPST
switch. The single break and double break type
SINGLE
of contacts also apply to all the switches that BREAK
we have talked about. Note that, where before
we used to use the sort of swing side of the
switch, there is now the additional break. DOUBLE
BREAK
Push Buttons
In many motor control circuits, push buttons are NOTES

used in conjunction with motor starters to con-
trol the on and off state of motors. Push but-
tons can be ordered with normally open con-
tacts, normally closed contacts, or a combina-
tion of both normally open and normally closed
contacts.
What does normally open or normally closed

mean? Normal for control devices is the state
or position of the device contacts without any
Figure 19.
external force or outside influence being ap-
plied. Normally Open
WIRE
CONNECTIONS
A spring loaded normally open push button (see
Figure 19 top) would be in the open position
and would remain open until an operator
presses the button with his finger. When the
button is pressed, the normally open contacts
will close. Normally Closed
WIRE
CONNECTIONS
Likewise, if a normally closed push button (Fig-
ure 19 bottom) is pressed, the normally closed
contacts will open and close again when re-
leased.
Just like in the case of the switches that we’ve Figure20.

discussed earlier had their own unique sym-
bols, push buttons also have special symbols NORMALLY OPEN
SYMBOL
that are use to identify them in electrical dia-
grams (See Figure 20).
The symbol for the normally open push button CONNECTION

is shown in Figure 20 (top left). When the but- L1 L2
ton is pressed, the normally open contacts will

close and complete the path for current flow.

When the button is released, the spring mecha- Figure21.
nism will return the contacts to their normally

NORMALLY CLOSED
open position, which will break or interrupt the SYMBOL
path for current flow.
The correct symbol for a normally closed push CONNECTION
button is illustrated in Figure 21 (top left). In the L1 L2
normal position the contacts are closed and a

path for current flow exists.
When the button is pressed, the normally closed Figure 22.

contacts will open and the circuit would be in- DOUBLE CONTACT PUSH BUTTON
terrupted. As before, when the button is re-
leased, the contacts will return to their normal
N.O.
condition, which is closed, and a path for cur-
rent, or power flow will again exist.
N.C.
It is very common for a push button to have

both a normally open and a normally closed Figure 23.
set of contacts (Figure 22). This configuration
gives the push button more flexibility when be- L1 L2
ing used in motor control circuits. This double

contact push button is often used for electrical
interlocks. Applications of double contact push
buttons (Figure 23) as electrical interlocks will
be discussed and explained later in chapter 5.
Push buttons are also available with maintained

contacts represented by the symbol shown in
Figure 24.
Figure 24, where the dashed line that connects
MAINTAINED
the two buttons indicates a mechanical connec-
PUSH BUTTONS
tion or linkage. Maintained contacts are push
buttons which operate in a similar manner as
the regular push buttons we’ve been talking
about.

The maintained open contacts, however, as the Figure 25.
name implies, will keep the open contacts SET

L1 L2
closed once (Figure 25) it has been pushed and
will remain closed until the second operator
button is pushed. The operation of the main- RESET
tained push button is analogous to the opera-
tion of a seesaw.
Another push button symbol that you will see

on electrical and wiring diagrams is a push but-
ton with an oversized or mushroom head. The Figure 26.
larger size is used to make the button easier to
push. This type of head is generally used for
Stop and for Emergency shut down and is rep-
resented by the symbol shown in Figure 26.
Push buttons are also referred to as elements

or operators, while the enclosure that houses
them is called a push button station or simply,
a station (Figure 27).
Figure 27.
A typical push button is composed of several

assemblies (Figure 28) which include the op-
erator itself covered with a legend plate and
retaining or mounting rings which form the part
of the push button we see from the front.
On the back side, it has the contact blocks which Courtesy of Allen-Bradley
can be formed by one or more blocks which
Figure 28.
are activated mechanically by the operator but-
ton. These contacts, as we know, come in nor-
mally open or normally closed sets.
The contact connections from the push buttons

are hardwired to other control elements or Contact Blocks
power sources. Operator
Legend
Plate Mounting
Rings
Courtesy of Cutler-Hammer
Legend plates are available for all standard Figure 29.

functions such as; STOP, START, FORWARD,
REVERSE, UP, DOWN, ETC. The legend plates
come in various sizes and mount under the
push button retaining ring. Push buttons and
legend plates can also be mounted on panel
door fronts, motor control centers and other
types of enclosures.
Troubleshooting Push Buttons
As an electrician or technician, you will need to

troubleshoot many components for faulty op-
eration and replacement, and the push button Figure 30.
will be one of these components.

HOT 120 VAC COMMON
In other chapters, especially in chapter 7, we L1 L2
discussed troubleshooting of electrical control
circuits in detail. In here however, we’ll cover
just the push button alone (Figure 29) and
where to look for problems when they are con-
nected in a circuit.
If a push button is wired in a circuit, you can

test the two points where it has its connections
wired to (See Figure 30). In this example, one
side of the normally open push button is con- Figure 31.
nected to the power side L1 of 120 volts AC
while the other is wired to a light. When the push
L1 L2
button is pressed, the light has to turn on; if it
doesn’t, it could be a series of problems as
explained in chapter 7 but, assuming that we
have isolated it to the push button, we would need
to check it.
METER
The first thing to do is to test with a voltmeter

for voltage between the supply side of the push
120 VAC
button and the common (Figure 31). In here,
we should see 120 volts AC. When the push
button has not been pressed and we place one Figure 32.
side of the voltmeter to the right point of the L1 L2

push button (load side), we’ll see no voltage
and when pushed, if the push button is OK, we
should see 120 volts (Figure 32).
METER
If we don’t see voltage, there is something
wrong because power is not getting to the light.
120 VAC
The first thing to check is to make sure that the
wire connection, preferably stranded wire, is
properly terminated and making good contacts
with the screws. Make sure that power is re- Figure 33.
moved. WITH
POWER
If a problem with the contact blocks is sus- OFF
pected, you can set the meter for an Ohms re-
sistance reading so that we can measure con-
tinuity in the contacts when the push button is TO TO
pressed. Make sure again that power has been L1 LIGHT
removed from the circuit during continuity
(ohms) checks.
0
To measure for continuity, we place each side
of the meter in the contact connections
(Figure 33). Here we should read infinity resis-
tance, indicating an open. When the push but- Figure 34.
ton is pressed (Figure 34), the resistance read- WITH

ing should go to zero Ohms, indicating conti- POWER
nuity is being provided by the contacts and that OFF
they are operating correctly. If the push button
is OK and the light is not turning on, or the volt-
age is not passing through, then there could TO TO
be a problem in the wiring or even in the screw L1 LIGHT
assembly or at the terminal blocks if used in a

panel or enclosure.
0
If the reading was not zero Ohms, then there is
a problem with the contacts and we need to
replace them. This problem could be due to dirt Figure 35.

or corrosion in the contact assembly or a prob-
lem with the spring actuation of the operator
assembly (Figure 35).
In a normally closed push button the problem

could exist in the spring return of the contact
0
assembly or if a set of normally closed con-
tacts have experienced a heavy overload or a
short circuit fault, the contacts could have been
welded and the circuit cannot be broken when
pushed. Figure 36.
The troubleshooting of normally closed contacts

also follow in the same manner. When the con-
tacts are closed (Figure 36), there is continuity
and zero Ohms resistance, and if open, the re-
sistance reading will be infinity. 0
When troubleshooting, please be aware of

where you place your hands, tools, and the
probes of the meter because there is a possi- Figure 37.
bility of electrical shock (Figure 37).
Selector Switches
Another control component is the selector

switch. Selector switches (Figure 38) use a cam
assembly and contact blocks to give the switch Figure 38.
the capability of having 2, 3 or 4 possible posi- POS 1
SS1 POS 2
tions. Varying the contact block assemblies will
provide a wide variety of contact sequences.
Other options include a selector switch with key

POS 1 POS 2
operator, or a variety of knobs as the selector
mechanisms.

A two-position selector switch symbol is repre-

sented in Figure 39. Selector switches are also Figure 39. SS1
identified by the abbreviation SS1, SS2 and so POS 1 POS 2
on, depending on the number of selector
switches in a circuit.
The symbol used for the 2 position selector

switch (see Figure 40) has the arrow–which is
Figure 40.
the handle or selector–pointed to the left. In this L1 L2
position the top set of contacts will be closed LIGHT 1

1 2
and the bottom set will be open. When the knob
is turned to the position 2, then the bottom set
of contacts will be closed.
LIGHT 2
This type of switch can be used as an off/run

switch to control a circuit (Figure 41). Wired as
shown, when the switch is in the off position, Figure 41.
L1 L2
there is no power to the circuit.
OFF RUN
MOTOR
When the switch is moved to the run or on po-
M
sition, power is connected to the circuit and the
circuit can operate normally. In this case, the OFF RUN
motor will be energized and run. This selector

switch has a double pole-double throw set of
contacts with double breaks.
2
Figure 42. 1 3
For a three position switch (Figure 42), the ar-
row points straight up. In this position, neither
set of contacts are closed and the selector
switch is off. This is the type of switch that is
2
used for a HAND OFF AUTO switch. 1 3

Figure 42.
The HAND nomenclature implies operation by
L1 L2
hand or manual. In the example shown in Fig- OFF RUN MIX
ure 42, when the selector is to the left, the top HAND AUTO MOTOR
set of contacts will be closed and the circuit M

would be in the HAND position so that the mixer
motor can be operated by pressing the run push
button.
Every time the operator pushes RUN, the mixer

motor will run. With the selector in the center Figure 43.
position, the circuit would be off. Turning the
MIX MIX
selector to the right will close the bottom set of MOTOR MOTOR
contacts and the circuit would be in the AUTO

mode.
FLOAT FLOAT
SWITCH SWITCH
In the auto or automatic mode, the mixer motor

will run automatically as soon as the float switch
senses that the liquid level is reached and its
contacts close. (Figure 43). We’ll see more on Figure 44. POS
float switches in the next chapter. 1 2 3
Selector switches with more than two positions LINE 1
will show the contact connections in many ways.

LINE 2
The two most common ones include the use of
X markings and chart tables. LINE 3
The X markings in a line indicate that, at that LINE 4

switch position, the contacts in that line will be
making contact. For instance, in the position 1 NOTES
the switch in Figure 44 will be providing conti-
nuity in the first and third lines as indicated by
the X’s. When the switch is placed in position 3,
the lines marked with the X for this position will
be making contact, in this case the second and
fourth lines.
As can be seen in Figure 44, the second posi-

tion points out to the center without any X or
connection. This is the center off position.
If the selector switch had 4 positions marked Figure 45.

by the X’s, as illustrated in Figure 45, the same POS
selection would apply. In position one, the lines 1 2 3 4
marked with an X, in this case lines 2 and 4,
LINE 1
will be providing continuity. In position 2, lines
2 and 3 will have continuity. In position 3, lines LINE 2
one and three will be selected for continuity and
in position 4 will be lines one and four. LINE 3
Note that in diagrams where a multiple posi- LINE 4

tion selector switch is shown with the X’s
marked, you can only have one X in one line
Figure 47.
per double pole double throw selector switch
POS
position.
1 2 3 4
A ladder diagram with a switch position as LINE 1

shown in Figure 47 would be a mistake and a
conflict because, at position 3, you cannot have LINE 2
line 1 and 2 both providing continuity at the

LINE 3
same time.
LINE 4
A wrongly documented diagram like the one
depicted in Figure 47 will make troubleshoot-
ing a circuit rather difficult because you would
Figure 48.
not know which one is the correct one provid-
ing continuity in line 1 or in line 2. POS
1 2 3
CONTACTS
The selector switch table representation (see
POS A B C D
Figure 48) also provides the same information A
as in the case of the X markings. In position 1, 1
the switch will be conducting at points A and C, B 2

while at position 3, it will be providing continu- 3
ity at contacts B and D. As can be seen in posi- C
INDICATES
tion 2, the switch will be in a center of the switch, CONTACT
D CLOSED
or in the off position where no contact will pro-
vide continuity.

Pilot Lights Figure 49.

PL
To indicate the status and operation of various
parts of motor control circuits, indicator or pilot
lights are often used. A pilot light might be used
to indicate that a motor is running, or a pilot C CLEAR
R RED
light may be used to indicate that power is avail-
G GREEN
able. In fact, we’ve been talking and using pilot A AMBER
lights throughout our explanations of other de- B BLUE
vices to illustrate their application and use. O OPAL OR WHITE
The is the symbol used for a full voltage pilot Figure 50.
light, or indicator lamp is shown in Figure 49. If
there is letter indication inside the circle repre-
sentation of the lamp, it defines the color of the
lens in the lamp.
The standard letter designation for the various

colors are:
C for Clear
Figure 51.
R for Red L2
SYSTEM READY
G for Green
A for Amber G
B for Blue, and
O for Opal or White SYSTEM ON
R
Red pilot lights are often used to indicate that a
motor is running, or to indicate that a machine NOTES
is operational and caution exists.
Green is often used to indicate that power is

available but no equipment is operational. It’s
like having the system in a stand-by mode,
ready to be brought on line (Figure 50).
When the equipment starts, the green light goes

out and a red light will come on. Your manufac-

turing operation or plant may have already de- Figure 52.

PL
veloped a standard for the color of lamps that
TO
will be used and under what conditions. It is CIRCUIT TO L2
COMMON
important that you know the standard and main- TO
POWER
tain it when changing or modifying motor con-
trol circuits.
Figure 53.
Indicator lamp assemblies can be purchased L1 L2
with a “push-to-test” feature that allows the op-
erator or maintenance person to test the lamp FLOAT
PL
even though the equipment is not running. SWITCH
The symbol of a push-to-test pilot light, as

shownin Figure 52, indicates a connection to
the circuit that will energize it to provide indi-
cation and a connection to the power source.
The other side of the light is connected to the Figure 54.
common or return. This light represents a full
"TEST THE LIGHTS"
voltage lamp since it will take the full voltage of
the circuit between L1 and L2 (Figure 53) • Check operation at
To test the lamp, a momentary push button is beginning of each shift.
provided with the lens which, if pushed, will light • Helps in troubleshooting.
the lamp if the bulb is good by making a direct
connection to power.
Figure 55.
IS THE MOTOR RUNNING?

When an operator depends on indicator lamps
OR
to show the operation or status of a given ma- IS THE BULB BURNT OUT?
chine or process, it is very important that the
condition of the bulbs be checked at the start PL
of each shift (Figure 54). This type of pilot light

also aids in troubleshooting. Is the motor not
running, or is the bulb just burnt out? A press
of the lamp will answer the question about the Figure 56.
condition of the bulb (Figure 55).
Another type of light you may encounter dur-

ing installation or while troubleshooting a ma- TO
CIRCUIT
TO
chine or system is a transformer type push to TO L2
RETURN
test pilot light (See Figure 56). This type of L1
120 VAC

light is used frequently in machines which ex- NOTES

hibit a lot of vibration where a low voltage bulb
is preferred. The bulb is rated at an operational
voltage between 6 to 8 volts. Note that the lamp
is rated at 120 volts but the transformer brings
its voltage to the 6 to 8 volts AC.
The lamp provides a double pole double throw

set of contacts with double break that connects
the light power through an internal jumper to
the L1 power. When the lens is pushed to test
the lamp, the light will be lit, indicating a good
condition. The dashed lines show the mechani-
cal link between the lens of the lamp and the
test contacts.
When replacing the bulbs, remember that they

are rated at a much lower voltage than 120 volts
so, if for some reason, a 120 volts bulb is found
and fits the lamp, it will provide virtually no lu-
minance when lit. On the other hand, if you
place a low voltage bulb into a regular, full volt-
age lamp in a 120 volts system, the bulb will
blow out immediately at test.
Drum Switch
Another type of switch that you may encounter

on the plant floor is the drum switch, or drum
controller. Drum switches are manually oper-
ated and are used to start, stop, reverse and/or
to control the speed of AC and DC motors.
The function of a given drum switch is depen-

dent upon the number of contacts and the con-
tact arrangement. Direct manual control of AC
and DC motors is limited by the voltage and
horsepower rating of the drum switch. Although

drum switches are not normally considered pi- Figure 57. CAM TYPE
lot devices because they can handle loads
larger than 10 to 15 amps, they can be used in
conjunction with motor star ters and/or FIXED
contactors and would then be considered pilot CONTACTS ROTATING
CAMS
devices.
There are two types of drum switches, the cam

type and the segmented type. The cam drum MOVABLE
switch (Figure 57) has actuating cams in the CONTACT
SEGMENT
drum which rotate around a stationary housing
which contains the contacts. One of the con-
tact segments is fixed while the other one
Figure 58. SEGMENTED TYPE
moves and makes connections with the fixed
ones when the cam pushes it after rotation.
ROTATING
FIXED DRUM
In the segmented drum switch (Figure 58), the CONTACTS
drum supports one half of each contact set. By CONTACT
SEGMENTS
means of the handle, the drum can be rotated
FIXED
in either direction, causing the attached con- CONTACTS
tact segments to also revolve. Fixed contacts, JUMPER
located in tiers on the side of the stationary CONNECTION
housing, are mounted so that each one is

“wiped” or contacted by one of the movable
NOTES
contact segments.
A pair of contacts are closed and a circuit com-

pleted when the corresponding stationary and
rotating contacts are in the contact with each
other. By moving the handle from one position
to another, contacts are made or closed and
broken or open, altering the circuit or circuits
connected to the drum switch.
The lengths, positions, and number of contacts

possible can all be varied by the manufacture
to provide a wide variety of contact make-and-
break sequences. Many drum switches may be

Figure 59.
field converted–that is changed in the field by
maintenance or installation personnel–to give
even more flexibility.
L1 T1
A typical application for a drum switch would
L2 T2
be to reverse the direction of a three phase M
motor (Figure 59). When the motor has the three L3 T3
phases, L1, L2 and L3, connected to the motor

terminals, T1, T2 and T3, the motor will rotate
in the forward direction. USED TO REVERSE
DIRECTION OF MOTOR
By switching two of the phases going into the

Figure 60.
motor terminals, let’s say we switch L1 and L3,
the motor will rotate in the opposite direction or
in the reverse direction (Figure 60). We could L1 T1 L1 T1
have switched L1 and L2 or L2 and L3 to their L2 T2

M
L2 T2
M
L3 T3 L3 T3
respective switched terminals and the results
would have been the same. FORWARD REVERSE
The drum switch provides you with a mecha-

nism of making the line switches to the motor Figure 61.
terminals easy to implement and operate (Fig-

ure 61). In the off position, the drum switch
makes no connection to the motor, so there is
no power to energize the motor and it is there- FROM L1
fore in a stop position. TO T1
The drum switch provides a chart, illustrated in FROM L2

Figure 62, which denotes the contacts inside TO T2
the drum which will be making contacts at the
reverse and forward positions. In the off posi-
tion, no contacts are made, so no power is Figure 62.
HANDLE END
passed to the motor.
FORWARD OFF REVERSE
In the forward position (see Figure 62), con- 1 2 1 2 1 2

tacts 1 and 2, 3 and 4, and 5 and 6 are con- 3 4 3 4 3 4
nected and in the reverse, 1 and 3, 2 and 4, 5 6 5 6 5 6
and 5 and 6.
As can be seen in Figure 63, if we are switch-

Figure 63.
ing L1 and L3, we would wire L2 to drum switch
contact number 5; connection 6 goes to T2.
Note that the number 5 and 6 contact connec-
L1 1 2 T1
tions don’t change in the drum switch for ei-
ther forward (Figure 64) or reverse (Figure 65) L2 3 4 T2
M
positions. L1 can go to contact number 1 and L3 T3
5 6
L3 to contact number 4.
In the forward position (see Figure 64), the for-

ward contact segments 1 and 2, 3 and 4, and DRUM SWITCH
5 and 6 make connection thus switching L1,
L2, and L3 to T1, T2, and T3 respectively. When
the drum switch is placed in the reverse (see
Figure 64.
Figure 65) position, the contact segments 1 and
3, 2 and 4, and 5 and 6 will be making connec-
tion, thus connecting L1, L2 and L3 to T3, T2
and T1, respectively, for a reverse motor rota-
L1 1 2 T1
tion.
L2 3 4 T2
M
Note that when the drum switch is in the re-
L3 5 6 T3
verse position, the contact segments will be
connecting L1 to T3 and L3 to T1 to reverse L1 T1
the direction. Note also, that the switch still con- L2 T2
DRUM SWITCH L3 T3
nects L2 to T2 since we decided to switch L1 FORWARD
and L3 for the change in motor direction.
Later on in chapters 8 and 9, we inspect fur-

ther the use of drum switches to change the Figure 65.
rotation direction of not only 3-phase AC mo-

tors, but also of single-phase and DC type
motors. L1 1 2 T1
L2 3 4 T2
You troubleshoot drum switches in the same M
manner of other switches. You need to test the L3 5 6 T3
contacts for closures and continuity if there is
L1 T3
a malfunction in its operation. L2 T2
DRUM SWITCH L3 T1
REVERSE
The test in continuity in its contacts should fol-
low the chart table for the reverse and forward
positions shown previously in Figure 62. You’ll Figure 66.

need also to have the necessary documenta- WITH
tion which specifies which connection is made POWER
OFF
where for the reverse direction operation. L1 1 2 T1
L2 3 4 T2
By placing the meter, set for an Ohms reading M
L3 5 6 T3
and with the power off, you would test the ter-
METER
minal leads from the power source section to
each of the motor lead connections (Figure 66). L1 T1 0
L2 T2
When performing a continuity test, it is better if L3 T3
you disconnect the leads from the motor to
avoid possible readings of resistance, due to
the motor windings which could backfeed into
the meter.
As each of the leads is tested, zero Ohms NOTES

should show in the meter illustrating that the
drum switch has indeed closed as indicated.
This procedure is repeated for each of the leads
for both the forward and reverse positions.
If a contact is failing to make a good connec-

tion, you’ll need to change the contact assem-
bly and put the switch back on line.
As will be explained in later chapters, if one of

the contacts is not making a good connection,
the motor could be harmed and burn out due
to the loss of one phase in its circuit.
We have covered important information about

the static switches you encounter everyday on
the plant floor. In order to troubleshoot these
devices you need to be knowledgeable about
how they work and how they are wired in a con-
trol circuit. This and the next two chapters pro-
vide the foundation for properly implementing
the control devices used in today’s motor con-
trol circuitry.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.- Ladder diagrams are also known as
______.
a– Line Diagrams
b– Elementary Diagrams
c– Both a and b
2.- True/False. Pilot devices are characterized

as being able to carry load currents that
do not exceed 10 to 15 amps.
3.- Switches are defined and categorized by

the number of ______ and ______, as well
as ______.
a– Breaks
b– Poles
c– Assemblies
d– Throws
e– Current conductors
4.- A ______ is the number of source wires a

switch can control, while a ______ is the
number of positions the switch can be put
in.
a– Break
b– Pole
c– Throw
d– Assembly
5.- The switch in Figure 1 is a ______. CE WIRES MECH

Figure 1 LI
a– Single-pole single-throw
b– Double-pole single-throw
c– None of the above.
TWO TWO 63
SINGLE POLES WIRE CIR
DESTINA
Figure 2.
6.- Explain the circuit of Figure 2.
L1 L2
7.- The switch shown in Figure 3 is said to SPDT-1 SPDT-2

LIGHT
have a ______ position.
a– Double break
b– Center off
c– Double center
d– All of the above. Figure 3
8.- The term break relates to the number of SPDT

OFF
______ the switch makes. SWITCH
a– Contacts
b– Circuits
c– Off positions
d– On positions
9.- When measuring for contact continuity, a

voltmeter must be set for ______ and the
power to the circuit ______.
a– Ohms or resistance reading

b– Current reading
c– Voltage
d– Must be off
e– Must be on
10.- Push buttons come in ______ and ______

configurations to provide input to a circuit.
a– Normally open
b– Different
c– Uncomplicated
d– Normally closed

11.- When the selector switch shown in Fig- Figure 4

ure 4 is pointing to position one, lines POS
______ and ______ are providing conti- 1 2 3
nuity, while in the number two position,
LINE 1
the switch is ______.
LINE 2
a– One
b– Two LINE 3
c– Three
LINE 4
d– Four
e– On
f– Off
Figure 5
12.- Referencing Figure 5 when the switch is
in the ______ position, the motor will turn
L1 L2
on when the run push button is pressed.
OFF RUN MIX
HAND AUTO MOTOR
a– Hand M
b– Off
c– Auto
d– Switch
e– All of the above
13.- True/False. Target tables or charts are

also used to indicate selector switches’
positions.
14.- A push-to-test pilot light provides an easy

way to ______ the bulb of the light.
PL
a– Test TO
CIRCUIT TO L2
COMMON
b– Bulb TO
POWER
c– Connect
d– Replace
15.- True/False. Push-to-test pilot lights are

generally used in machines which exhibit
a lot of vibration.
16.- When replacing bulbs in pilot lights, you

have to make sure that the replacement
is of ______.
a– Same manufacturer
b– Different make
c– The same rating
17.- True/False. Pilot lights should be tested

once a week, preferably on Mondays.
18.- True/False. Drum switches can be used

to start, stop, reverse and/or control the
speed of AC and DC motors.
19.- Drum switches ______ capable of han-

dling currents ______ than normal pilot
devices.
a– Are
b– Larger
c– Are Not
c– Smaller
20.- When using a drum switch to change the

rotation of a motor, ______ of the three
line voltages are ______.
Figure 6
a– L1 and L2
b– Any two
c– Swapped
d– Controlled L1 T1
L2 T2
21.- In Figure 6, fill in the connections for for- M
ward, off, and reverse positions. L3 T3

22.- Drum switches can be found as ______

and ______.
a– Cam
b– Segmented
c– Combination
d– Stationary
23.- True/False. Drum switches can be consid-

ered automatic switching pilot devices.
24.- True/False. Checking contact continuity in

a drum switch is completely different than
in other pilot devices where special equip-
ment is required.
25.- The position of contacts in a drum switch

is controlled by ______ of the switch.
a– Pushing the contacts

b– Turning on the indicator
c– Moving the handle
d– All of the above

ANSWERS
1.- c– Both a and b
2.- True
3.- a– Breaks
b– Poles
d– Throws
4.- b– Pole
c– Throw
5.- b– Double-pole single-throw
6.- When SPDT-1 is switched, the light will

turn on. If SPDT-2 is then switched, the L1 L2
light will turn off. The same circuit opera- SPDT-1 SPDT-2
tion occurs when SPDT-2 is switched first. LIGHT
This circuit (with this SPDT switches) is
the same in operation to the circuit we
have at home, where a light can be turned
on and off from two switch locations
7.- b– Center off
8.- a– Contacts
9.- a– Ohms or resistance reading

d– Must be off
10.- a– Normally open

d– Normally closed
11.- a– One
c– Three
f– Off

12.- a– Hand
13.- True
14.- a– Test
15.- True
16.- c– The same rating
17.- False. They should be checked regularly
18.- True.
19.- a– Are
b– Larger
20.- b– Any two

c– Swapped
21.-
HANDLE END
L1 T1 L1 T1 FORWARD OFF REVERSE
L2 T2 L2 T2 1 2 1 2 1 2
M M
L3 T3 L3 T3 3 4 3 4 3 4
5 6 5 6 5 6
FORWARD REVERSE
22.- a– Cam
b– Segmented
23.- False.
24.- False
25.- c– Moving the handle

Chapter 3—Sensing and Timing Switches
MODULE
CHAPTER 3 3
FLOW
OVERVIEW
In this third chapter, the second part of control

switches, you will learn about the different types
of sensing switches available. These include
limit, pressure, flow, float, temperature, foot,
proximity, photoelectric plugging and reed
switches.
These sensing switches detect mechanical

motion and translate it into an electrical signal
for use in a control circuit.
You will also learn about timers and counters,

their application and how to troubleshoot these
control elements.
OBJECTIVES
• Define the operation and use of all sens-

ing switches covered.
• Properly install and troubleshoot these

control elements in a proper manner.
• Know the important use of plugging

switches (zero speed) in stopping and re-
versing motors.
• Define on-delay and off-delay timers and

their use in different controlcircuits.
• Know the difference between instanta-

neous timer contacts and and delayed
timer contacts.
• Understand the operation and uses of

counters.

INTRODUCTION Figure 1.
UPPER
In this third chapter we are going to cover an- LIMIT
other important and very frequently used group SWITCH
DRILL
of pilot devices which we are classifying as
sensing and timing switches. We’ll begin with MOVEMENT
sensing switches which, as the name implies,
provide information to a circuit by sensing a LOWER
LIMIT
physical condition. So let’s start by first look- SWITCH
ing at limit switches.
LIMIT SWITCHES
WORKPIECE
Limit switches are one of the most common
and widely used pilot devices in industrial
motor control applications. Their primary ob-
jective is to convert mechanical motion into an
electrical signal. For example, they are used NOTES
in applications to limit the travel of a moving
part, such as in a drill-to-depth machine where
the work piece will be drilled until the limit
switch is reached (see Figure 1). Other appli-
cations may include the detection of parts in a
conveyor or counting parts in a line. The appli-
cations of this pilot device are innumerable.
There are many types of limit switches and,

depending on the application, the proper type
must be selected to obtain the desired con-
trol. All of them, however, have the basic op-
erational characteristics. Let’s first start by re-
viewing their construction and the components
that form them.
Limit Switch Construction
Limit switches are composed of basically two

parts – the actuator and the electrical contacts.

The actuator (see Figure 2) comprises a lever Figure 2.

that provides an actuating mechanism to close
the contacts of the switch. In other words, the ACTUATOR
actuator is the sensing part of the limit switch
which translates the detection into an electri-
cal control signal at the contact assembly. ELECTRICAL
CONTACTS
Actuators come in three basic types which are

the Roller Arm, Plunger, and Wobble Stick (Fig- Figure 3.
ure 3). These actuators are the elements that
differentiate one limit switch from another. They
are generally mounted on top of the switch body
and can be changed without having to com-
pletely remove the whole switch.
These three types have many different sub-clas-

sifications, so to speak. Under the roller arm
you have the fixed lever type, the adjustable,
and the fork level. The roller on top is connected
to the arm to provide smooth movement and Roller Arm Top Plunger Wobble Lever
Actuator
easy travel and to prevent the mechanism from Courtesy of Micro Switch
excessive wear and tear. The design of how the
actuator detects a part is the only difference. NOTES
The plunger actuator requires linear operation

for its movement which can be from the top, or
from the side. The plunger actuates the switch
assembly by pushing and care must be taken
that the limit switch is not pushed beyond its
travel specifications because it could damage
the switch mechanism.
The wobble lever actuator uses an extended

wobble stick to detect movement. The stick can
be available in different lengths, depending on
the application requirements. The length of this
actuator allows the switch to be mounted in a
safe location where the machine travel will not

reach and damage the switch. Figure 4.
Representation and Contact Activation
The contact assembly of a limit switch is avail-

able with normally open and normally closed Figure 5.
contacts or a combination of both. This is the LS
NORMALLY OPEN
section of the pilot device which provides the
electrical information to the control circuit.
Limit switches are represented by the symbol LS

NORMALLY CLOSED
shown in Figure 4, regardless of the actuator
type being used. The actuator part of the switch
can be thought of as being the triangular part
of the symbol which, when actuated, would ac- Figure 6. Figure 6B.
tivate the limit switch contacts.
LS LS
In Figure 5, we have the normally open limit

switch and the normally closed limit switch. The
normally open limit switch closes its contacts
when the switch is actuated, (see Figure 6) while
the normally closed limit switch will open its con-
tacts when actuated (see Figure 7). In motion Figure 7. Figure 7B.
detection and control, you’ll also find two de- LS LS
rivative symbols of the standard normally open

and normally closed limit switches. These are
the normally open–held closed and the normally
closed–held open limit switches. These symbol
representations, as shown in Figure 8, are es-
sentially the same as the standard normally
Figure 8.
opened or closed, but for the electrical ladder NORMALLY OPEN
diagram, they represent a specific condition for
the machine.
NORMALLY OPEN-
HELD CLOSED
NORMALLY CLOSED
NORMALLY CLOSED-
HELD OPEN

Figure 9
The normally open–held closed switch (see NORMALLY OPEN - HELD CLOSED
Figure 9) indicates that an external force is
normally activating the switch without any ma-
chine motion or, in other words, the force is al-
-External Force Activates the Switch
ways present, just as if a normally open push
button switch were always pushed. When the
external force of the switch is removed, the
switch contacts will open. This would occur if Figure 10.
NORMALLY CLOSED - HELD OPEN
the motion had caused the forcing part away
from the switch, thus removing the external
force.
-External Force Keeps Contacts Open
Likewise, the normally closed–held open limit
switch (see Figure 10) operates in the same
manner. The normally closed contacts are held Figure 11A. Figure 11B.
open by the external force until it is removed,

thus closing the contacts.
Travel Action
The limit switch contacts open or close accord-

ingly once the actuator has reached a set travel
distance (see Figure 11). There are several
Figure 12.
travel specifications which we must be aware
of when installing and troubleshooting limit
switches to insure their proper operation. These
are pre-travel, over travel, total travel, and dif-
ferential travel. In each of these travel positions,
the actuator will be making or breaking the limit
switch contacts (see Figure 12). Let’s take a
roller type lever and see the actuation of a nor- Figure 13.
mally open limit switch. Figure 13A. Figure 13B.
TRIP
TRIP TRAVEL
POSITION
At the rest position (Figure 13), the lever does
not actuate the contacts of the switch. When
the lever has travelled to the point of tripping,

the contacts will close. This distance, from rest Figure 13C. Figure 13D.
to the start of tripping, is the pre-travel distance TOTAL
TRAVEL
OVER
or sometimes called the trip travel. TRAVEL
Under normal operation or application of limit

switches, the part that was sensed will continue
to move in the same direction until the part has
passed by. The actuator of the limit switch will Figure 13E. Figure 13F.
continue to move past the pre-travel distance RESET

POSITION
DIFFERENTIAL
(RESET)
TRAVEL
to what is called the over travel. At this point,
the actuator still has the contacts closed. This
over travel movement allowed by the switch in-
sures that the limit switch doesn’t break off. The
pre-travel, plus over travel distances form the
total travel distance of the limit switch.
When the part clears the limit switch, the ac- Figure 14.
tuator begins to return to its rest position due

to the spring action of the switch. The contacts PUSH
ACTUATOR
will be back to open at what’s called the reset
position of the lever actuator. The distance be-
tween where the actuator starts to close the
contacts for the first time, to when it starts to
release or reset the contacts back to their nor-
mal state is called the differential travel or re-
set travel. The wobble stick actuator operates
in the same manner as the roller lever just de-
scribed.
Figure 15. TOTAL
TRAVEL
In a push type of actuator, like the plunger, the
same travel description applies(see Figure 14).
The contacts become activated after the
pretravel and continue closed during the over
travel. When the action has passed the reset
point, the contacts will be back to the normal
position (see Figure 15).
ACTUATOR: FREE POSITION
CONTACTS: OPEN

NOTES
Installation and Adjustment of
Limit Switches
As an electrician or technician, you will be re-

quired to install, troubleshoot and select limit
switches in your plant. This will require you to
be able to select the best actuator for the appli-
cation and mount the limit switch in a correct
position so that the moving part hits the switch
actuator in the right place and that the
manufacturer’s specifications on hand are fol-
lowed.
Other considerations include the environment

or ambient in which the limit switch will be op-
erating and the physical location in the machine.
Limit switches should not be installed on sur-

faces where heat dissipating elements from ma-
chines are exposed. These include heaters, in-
jection molding machines or ovens in a foundry.
Excessive heat could damage the plastic parts
of the rollers or levers and cause the switch to
malfunction.
To solve this problem you may use or attach

additional extensions to the levers to avoid prox-
imity to a potential problem area within the
machine and still provide motion detection of
the part.
Although limit switches are rugged and meant

to last in an industrial environment, you need
to be careful so as not to mount limit switches
at the lower part of milling machines and lathes
where oil and moisture may drop down to the
switch and cause corrosion and malfunction.

Debris from metal cutting could also cause in-

terference as it builds up between the detect- NOTES
ing part and the lever of the limit switch. In these
applications, you should look for mounting po-
sitions where the amount of cutting oil or cool-
ant liquids dripping on the machine are mini-
mal and be sure that you use watertight or oil-
tight limit switches.
Extreme vibration, such as that experienced in

stamping presses may cause the limit switch
in mountings to become loose and create a mal-
function. Here the solution is to mount the
switch in a location where the vibration is mini-
mal or away from the section that creates most
of the vibration.
The actual wiring and connection of limit

switches are very easy and follow the same
principles as any other pilot device. Preferably,
you should use stranded wire in the connec-
tions at the terminal screws in the base of the
switch assembly. The actuator, after installation,
must be adjusted for proper operation and travel
detection of the part in a machine. You also
need to make sure that the amount of force or
torque required by the limit switch to detect the
movement is enough to snap the contacts. If
the amount of torque is limited or the machine
travel is minimal, you may need to use a preci-
sion limit switch.
Troubleshooting Limit Switches
The electrical troubleshooting of limit switches

follows the basic methods as those employed
to troubleshoot a push button, whether the prob-
lem is with an open circuit malfunction of the

contacts or a short in the switch due to an Figure 16.

overcurrent fault condition. This troubleshoot-
L1 L2
ing is done with a voltmeter to check for volt-
age during contact closures or with power off
to check for continuity of the switch contacts PL
(see Figure 16) However, if you suspect a limit
switch problem, the most important part of
troubleshooting it is the duplication of the travel
that activates the switch. You have to make sure
that you can jog the moving part back and forth
across the limit switch so that the contacts can
be activated. You would most likely perform this
dynamic check after you had tested the opera-
tion of the contacts and actuated the limit switch Figure 17.
manually without machine movement. When DYNAMIC CHECK
performing dynamic tests, always be aware of • Should Be Performed After
electrical and mechanical hazards by exercis- You Test The Operation Of The
Switch Contacts Manually
ing extreme caution (see Figure 17).
• Be Aware Of Electrical And
Mechanical Hazards
If the limit switch is exhibiting intermittent mal-
functions, check the speed of the machine travel
across the limit switch. If the travel is too fast,
the closure of the contacts may not be long
Figure 18.
enough in duration to allow proper operation.
To solve this problem, you may add additional
cam length to prolong the contact closure time.
PRESSURE SWITCHES
Pressure switches are commonly used in the

operation of motors associated with the control
of fluid transmission such as air, water, oil or
gas (see Figure 18). These switches respond
by opening or closing contacts to pressures
ranging from half pound per square inch or psi
to pressure over 15,000 psi’s. Courtesy of Allen-Bradley

Pressure switches are represented by the sym- Figure 19.

bols shown in Figure 19 for the normally opened
PRESSURE SWITCHES
and normally closed configurations. The opera-
tion of pressure switches is basic in nature, in PS NORMALLY OPEN
spite of the sophisticated methods and accu-
racy of the components used for the measure-
ment of the fluid pressure. Although it is not
PS
our intention here to discuss the components NORMALLY CLOSED
and mechanisms used, let’s mention them

briefly so that we can get familiar with their
names and characteristics.
Pressure switches use different actuating Figure 20. PRESSURE ACTUATORS

mechanisms to turn the switch contacts on (Fig- • Diaphragms - Low Presure
(150 psi or less)
ure 20). Among the most common ones, we
• Bourdon Tubes - Very Sensitive
have diaphragms, Bourdon tubes, bellows and
(50-15,000 psi)
pistons, each of them providing certain char-
• Bellows - Medium Pressure
acteristics. For example, the diaphragm type is (150-3500 psi)
used to sense relatively low pressures not ex- • Pistons - Long Life
ceeding 150 psi’s. Bourdon tubes are very sen- (15-15,000 psi)
sitive mechanisms used in pressure switches
ranging in measurement from 50 to 15,000 NOTES
psi’s. Bellows pressure switches are used in
medium pressure applications ranging between
150 and 3500 psi’s, such as in hydraulic sys-
tems. The piston type pressure switch, which
has a long life expectancy, is used when the
pressure to be measured ranges from 15 up to
15,000 psi’s (see Figure 20). As its name im-
plies, it uses a piston to deflect or move the
state of the contacts, as we’ll see.
Pressure Switch Operation
In simple terms, the operation of the pressure

switch consists of the fluid pushing the mecha-
nism as the pressure increases. This mecha-
nism pushes a calibrated pressure spring which

then activates the contacts of the switch. The Figure 21.

amount of required pressure to activate the TO SWITCH
CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY
switch can be selected by adjusting the spring
tension (see Figure 21). ADJUST
SPRING
TENSION
Assume that in a typical application we have a
ATMOSPHERIC
pressure switch connected to a hydraulic cylin- PRESURE
der line. As shown in Figure 22, as the supply

oil in the line flows, the cylinder is expanded FLUID PRESSURE
and starts to provide pressure. At this time, the
hydraulic line pressure increases. When the
Figure 22.
pressure in the line reaches a preset level, as
adjusted by the spring setting, the switch con- PS
tacts will be activated and the indicating pilot
light will be on. Typically, pressure switches are PISTON
used in this type of control circuit to switch on

and off motors driving the hydraulic pump in- SUPPLY
stead of just providing indication of reached
RETURN
pressure.
Pressure Differential
Figure 23.
The switch mechanism is designed so that it
will not activate the switch contacts on and off
at the same pressure (see Figure 23). In other
words, if a switch is set to turn on at 100 psi, it
will not turn off when it returns to 100 psi, but
instead it will turn off at 90 psi, giving a pres-
PRESSURE
sure differential of 10 psi (see Figure 24). This FLUID PRESSURE INCREASE
avoids chattering in the switch from the open-

ing and closing of the contacts right at the same Figure 24.
pressure.
100 psi
DIFFERENTIAL
Let’s take this simple example. Assume that we PRESSURE
10 psi
have an air compressor whose motor is being
controlled by a pressure switch which turns on 90 psi
every time the air pressure in the air tank drops
PRESSURE

below 70 psi and that we want to turn off the

compressor when the pressure reaches 100 Figure 25.
psi (see Figure 25). To implement this, we sim- PS MOTOR

ply set the cut-in pressure at 70 psi and the cut
out pressure at 100 psi, giving a differential
pressure of 30 psi. When the pressure is be-
ON OFF
low 70, the motor will be on and will turn off DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE
when the pressure switch reaches 100 psi. The 30 psi
motor will turn on again when the pressure falls
below 70 psi. This differential can be adjusted 70 psi 100 psi
IN OUT
in the field.
We know that the operation of a pressure switch

is simple in nature; however, when electricians
and technicians have to install these devices, NOTES
they need to be familiar with the specifications.
These include the range which specifies, for
example, a switch to be used between 40 and
100 psi, and the adjustable differential which
indicates the span of pressure for the cut-in and
cut-out pressure values. For instance, a 40 to
100 psi switch may have from 5 to 20 psi ad-
justable differential. The repetitive accuracy is
the ability that a switch has to repeat its set
points at cut-ins and cut-outs. For industrial
applications, this range is within plus or minus
1% of the maximum operating pressure. An-
other specification which is also important to
note is the type of fluid for which the switch is
designed to be used and the environment,
whether it is corrosive or hazardous.
Installing Pressure Switches
The installation of a pressure switch is divided

into two parts; first a test to set the pressure
and, second, the actual field wiring connections.

The pressure test should be performed with the

switch connected to a pressure source and an Figure 26.
ohmmeter connected to the contact assembly
to test continuity at the pressure detection point PRESSURE
ADJUSTMENT
(see Figure 26). If the application you have is
for detection of an increased pressure point, 200 psi
for example, to detect 200 psi, you would turn

on the pressure source to 200 psi and adjust
the switch setting to 200 psi until the contacts PRESSURE
INDICATOR
close as indicated by the ohmmeter. After you PRESSURE SOURCE
GAUGE
have set the contact activation pressure, then
200
you can adjust the differential pressure by low- DIFF
ering the source and calibrating the pressure
switch to the desired cut-out pressure.
Figure 27.
If your application calls for a low pressure con-
trol, like in the previous case of our compres-
sor that we wanted on when the pressure
dropped to 70 psi, you need to test the switch
by increasing the pressure to a value larger than
the target-on pressure plus the differential (see
Figure 27). In this case to a pressure greater
than 100 psi’s, so let’s take 125 psi and start PRESSURE
INDICATOR
lowering the pressure, while adjusting the PRESSURE SOURCE
GAUGE
switch, until it reaches 70 psi which is when the
contacts should close. Then you proceed to in-
crease the pressure and adjust the differential
until it gets to the cut-off point; in our compres-
Figure 28.
sor example 100 psi.
After you have adjusted the pressure range and ELECTRICAL

differential settings, then you can proceed with WIRING
the field wiring according to the wiring diagrams

(see Figure 28). Make sure, after installation
and wiring, that you cycle the process or ma- PRESSURE
GAUGE
chine to insure that the proper settings are op-
erating correctly. It is generally recommended
for monitoring and troubleshooting purposes PRESSURE LINE

Figure 29.
that you include a pressure gauge in the line PRESSURE

ELECTRICAL GAUGE
where the pressure switch is located. WIRING
Troubleshooting Pressure Switches

PRESSURE LINE
The troubleshooting of a pressure switch in- PS
volves the cycling of the machine to the cut-in

and cut-out pressure points. This is the case if PRESS
it is performed dynamically or if done in a bench IN OUT
test (see Figure 29).

Figure 30.
It is important that you determine if the switch TO
POWER L2
is being activated by placing an ohmmeter to
the common or return L2 line and the load side
of the switch (see Figure 30). While cycling the
pressures, check the readings at the line-in-
stalled pressure gauge to make sure the pres-
sures are correct. If the switch is good, a volt-
PRESSURE LINE
age reading should take place. If not, then a
fault occurs in the contact assembly or in the
mechanism of the switch which will need to be Figure 31.
FLOW
replaced. ADJUSTMENT
TO ELECTRIC
CIRCUIT
FLOW SWITCHES
ARM
Flow switches, as the name implies, are used PADDLE

in applications requiring the sensing of pres- LIQUID
FLOW
ence or absence of fluid flow (see Figure 31).
The fluid can be air, water, oil or gas. Flow
switches, represented by the symbol shown in
Figure 32.
Figure 32, are available with a normally open FLS NORMALLY
OPEN
or normally closed contact configuration. Note
that the symbol of the flow switch is a small
flag at the bottom.
FLS NORMALLY
In the normally open flow switch, the contacts CLOSED
will close when there is fluid flow, while in the

normally closed flow switch, the contacts will Figure 33.
open when flow is detected (see Figure 33).

FLS1
The lever or paddle in the switch is activated
(Figure 31) when flow is present and can over-
come the spring tension in the switch which ac-
tivates the contact assembly on or off. This
spring tension is adjustable in most flow FLS2
switches and allows the electrician or techni-
cian to adjust the switch for specific flow. Flow
switches which do not provide adjustment of
the spring mechanism may allow you to bend
or cut the paddle at specific lengths to allow for
a measurement. The shorter the paddle, the Figure 34.
less sensitive the switch; therefore, requiring
more flow to activate the switch. FLS
FAN
MOTOR
Flow switches are used in many applications
ranging from the detection of air flow in a vapor VAPOR
exhaust environment controlling a fan motor to COLLECTION
the detection of cooling water flow in a machine HOOD
(see Figure 34). In the exhaust example, if the

flow is continuous, the alarm will not be
indicated because the switch will be opened;
if the flow stops, then the switch goes back to
its normally closed state and the alarm will be
indicated (see Figure 35). Figure 35.
Installing and Troubleshooting

Flow Switches
Flow switches are available in many NEMA ALARM

FLS
standards, such as waterproof, oil-tight or ex-
plosion proof. The installation of a flow switch,
like in the case of pressure switches, consists
of two parts. The first one being the physical
placement and setting of the flow switch and
the second one, the actual field wiring.

During the installation, you must make sure that Figure 36.
the paddle section of the switch is placed in
the proper direction of flow, since they are de-
signed to detect flow in only one direction; oth-
erwise, the switch could be damaged.
0
After installing the switch with power removed, Ω
you may place a meter set for ohms reading

and adjust the spring mechanism of the switch
as the fluid begins to flow, making sure that,
when the flow arrives to its target value, the
contacts in the switch will close and you will
read zero ohms in the meter (see Figure 36). Figure 37.
Be aware that the deeper the flow switch’s
paddle is into the flow, the more fluid turbulence
it will cause. If you are placing flow meter
indicators or gauges in the flow path, it may be
necessary to place them before the switch
where the flow is not so turbulent and a proper
reading can take place (Figure 37).
After the switch has been installed, you should

go ahead and perform the field wiring of the
switch to complete its installation.
During the troubleshooting of a flow switch, you Figure 38.

must make sure that, to test opening or closing
of contacts, you have fluid flowing through the L1 L2
system so that you can properly test the switch.
If you have flow in the system, you can place

the voltmeter between the common L2 and the
supply side L1 of the switch to verify that there
is power. If there is target flow, the load side of
the switch should also read voltage because LIQUID
the contacts should have closed due to flow FLOW
(see Figure 38). If the contacts don’t close when

Figure 39. FLOAT SWITCH

flow is present, there is a possibility that there
FS NORMALLY
could be a problem with the paddle which acti- OPEN
vates the switch or that it is stuck with debris or

other elements in the system. The contacts, of
course, could be faulty because of corrosion or FS NORMALLY
CLOSED
other causes and should be inspected. Just
bear in mind that, if the switch is not detecting
flow, the detection mechanism could be the
cause and that, when determining this prob-
Figure 40.
lem, you must make sure that there is indeed
flow in the system.
FLOAT SWITCHES FLOAT
Float switches, sometimes called level switches,

are used to measure and detect the level of
granulars and liquids in a system. Float switches
are represented as shown in Figure 39, where
the float device is represented by the ball-like
shape of the switch. Like other pilot devices, Figure 41.
CONTACTS
float switch contact assemblies are available in
the normally open and normally closed configu-
rations and abbreviated with the FS letters. The COLLARS
operation of a float switch is simple in nature
and can be seen everyday in the regular toilet CIRCUIT
CONNECTORS FLOAT
operation (see Figure 40). In an industrial ap-
plication, the switch is set by adjusting the col-
lars of the mechanism so that, when in the ap-
propriate position, the float would operate the Figure 42.
contact assembly (see Figure 41). CONTACTS
A normally open float switch will close its con-

tacts when the liquid level is reached, thus COLLARS
making the arm push the contacts to a closed CIRCUIT FLOAT

CONNECTORS
state. If we were using the normally closed con-
L1 L2
tacts of the switch, the reverse would have hap-
pened (see Figure 42).

The most common float switches provide an Figure 43. Figure 44.
arm and counterweight system which attach

CHAIN OPERATED
to the switch mechanism through the collars SINGLE PULLEY
COUNTER
(see Figure 43). Some of these switches may WEIGHT
have one pulley to guide a chain operated

switch, and sometimes there may be two pul-
leys (see Figures 44 and 45).
There are float switches which are intended to

be used in closed or sealed tank enclosures in
CHAIN
which case the switch is installed by mounting OPERATED
DOUBLE
it through the wall of the tank (see Figure 46). PULLEY
FS
SEALED
TANK
Troubleshooting Float Switches
If there is a problem with a float switch, the first

thing to do is to make sure that the float mecha-
nism is operating properly. The contacts in the
Figure 47.
switch cannot be activated if the mechanism in
the float assembly doesn’t move far enough to
trip the contacts. If there is a problem with the
travel section you need to adjust it. Once this
has been done, you can proceed to test the
contacts with either a voltmeter for voltage pres-
ence or with power off, you may check for a
Figure 48.
continuity reading (see Figure 47).
TO PUMP
One note of caution is that if you are trouble- PUMP

MOTOR
shooting and operating a float switch manually L1 L2

PUMP
FS
in a motor pump system (Figure 48), you need
MOTOR
to remember that some pumps require liquid
flow during operation, otherwise they could be Figure 49.
damaged if operating dry during the tests. So
make sure, if this is the case, that the pump
circuit continues to activate or pump liquid into
the system by having enough liquid supply (see
Figure 49).

Figure 50.
TEMPERATURE SWITCH
TEMPERATURE SWITCHES
NORMALLY
OPEN
A temperature switch is another pilot device

which is used extensively in industrial applica-
NORMALLY
tions. These devices respond to target tempera- CLOSED
tures by opening or closing the switch contacts.

Temperature switches are represented by the
Figure 51.
symbols shown in Figure 50, for a normally
open and normally closed configurations. Let’s TO CIRCUIT
now look briefly at some of the temperature type

operators.
The most common types of temperature de- BIMETALLIC STRIP

tectors are the bimetallic, the sensing bulb or
capillary tube, and the thermocouple type which Figure 52.
may be used in a solid state temperature con- TO CIRCUIT
trol unit.
Bimetallic actuators (Figure 51) are composed

of a metal strip made out of two different met-
als bonded together. This metal, when exposed BIMETALLIC STRIP
to heat, expands causing it to bend into an arc

which forces a set of contacts to close (see Fig- Figure 53.
ure 52). To control the temperature range, a
TO CIRCUIT
spring is added to the switch (see Figure 53).
Bimetallic switches are limited to the current SPRING
ADJUSTMENT
they can carry and are relatively slow in action
and are not as popular in industrial applications.
BIMETALLIC STRIP
The sensing bulb, also known as a capillary

tube, is perhaps the most common tempera- Figure 54.
ture switch used in industry. The sensing area SWITCH
is composed of a bulb filled with a liquid which BELLOWS

is connected by a capillary tube to a switch
which is pressure sensitive (see Figure 54). The
activator of the switch can be a bellows, a dia-
phragm or a Bourdon tube similar to those used CAPILLARY TUBE LIQUID

in pressure switches. When the temperature

rises in the bulb, the liquid inside the bulb will Figure 55.
increase in pressure which will cause the acti-
THERMOCOUPLE
vator, in this case the bellows, to close or open
the switch contacts. The greatest advantage of
the capillary tube switch is that it can be MATERIAL A
mounted away from the bulb and therefore from
the actual source of heat where switch lubri-
cants could be affected. HOT
MATERIAL B JUNCTION
The thermocouple type is made of two differ-
ent wire materials joined at a point called the
hot junction (see Figure 55). These are made
with different types of metal combinations ac-
Figure 56.
cording to the temperature range in which they
will operate. Thermocouples have a fast re- SWITCH CONTACTS
sponse to temperature changes and its tem- DETECTION
perature detection is provided by a small cur- AREA
rent increase in the thermocouple circuit . Al-
TO
though this detection is analog in nature, the CIRCUIT
thermocouple generally forms part of a solid
state temperature control device which acti-
vates contacts internally into an open or closed
state after the detection of the temperature
setting (see Figure 56). This control device re-
quires power to operate and its wiring connec- Figure 57.
tion can be represented as shown in Figure 57.

L1 WIRING DIAGRAM L2
If the temperature setting is reached, the nor-
mally open contacts will close and the normally
closed will open, indicating the temperature tar- PL
get is reached. Solid state temperature con-
trollers may also use, in addition to the ther-
mocouples, RTD’s or resistance temperature
LADDER
detectors and thermistors. Temperature PL
TS
switches are available in ratings capable of
measuring from -300 degrees Fahrenheit all the
way to 1300 degrees Fahrenheit.

Installing and Troubleshooting

Temperature Switches Figure 58.
TEMP TEMP
One of the most important details to keep in SWITCH SWITCH
mind during the installation of a temperature
switch is to place the sensor close to the heat
HEAT
source where it can monitor the temperature SOURCE
and also where it will not be damaged by ex-
cessive heat. This information is generally pro-
vided by the manufacturer, along with other CAPILLARY
placement recommendations. BULB
If you are using a capillary tube, remember that

the bulb sensor must be mounted in a position
in which the bulb liquid will not fall directly into Figure 59.
the sensing mechanism. This position is usu- TO SUPPLY TO LOAD

VOLTAGE CIRCUIT
ally horizontal or vertical (Figure 58) so that the
liquid in the bulb will be located at the bottom
so that only the vapor pressure due to the tem-
perature increase will be the one pushing the
diaphragm, Bourdon tube or bellows mecha-
nism. After the physical installation of the switch,
CAPILLARY TUBE LIQUID
you can connect the field wiring in the same
manner as other pilot devices (see Figure 59).
Remember that some switches may also re-
quire the L1 and L2 connections for power. Figure 60.
If there is a fault in the temperature switch, there L1 TS PL L2
could be a problem in either the actual tem-

perature detection device or in the contact as-
sembly (see Figure 60). During troubleshoot- L1 L2
ing, it is important to determine if the tempera-

ture has indeed changed enough to trigger the DETECTION
FOR 200˚C
switch. If there is enough temperature change,
you may use the standard voltmeter procedure
200˚C ?
and, if required by a solid state controller, check
the power to the switch, as well as the connec-
tions in the supply side of the contacts and in
the load side, having one of the meter probes Figure 61.
L1 TS PL L2
in the common L2 line (see Figure 61).
If the contacts are not closing when the tem- L1 L2
perature is increased, you may need to also

check the temperature detection device and
replace it if necessary.
FOOT SWITCHES
Figure 62. FOOT SWITCH
A foot switch, as the name implies, is activated
FTS
NORMALLY
by the operator stepping onto the switch as- OPEN
sembly. This switch operation is similar to a push
button except that the foot is used. FTS
NORMALLY
CLOSED
The foot switch is represented by the symbol
shown in Figure 62, for the normally open and Figure 63.
normally closed configurations. When operated,
the normally open contacts of the switch will L1 L2
close and will open again when the foot is re-
PL
leased from the switch (see Figure 63). FTS
The foot switch is used in applications which

require the operator to use his hands, such as
in the case of the unloading parts from a con-
NOTES
veyor or during the use of manual stitching or
stapling machines.
Foot switches come in three type styles which

are the open, covered and enclosed. Basically
all are the same except that the covered and
enclosed prevent any objects from falling on
the switch and activate its operation.
PROXIMITY SWITCHES
Proximity switches are used in a variety of stan-

dard and harsh environment applications re-

quiring the detection or presence of parts with- Figure 64.
out physical contact. Proximity switches are rep- NORMALLY OPEN
resented by the symbol shown in Figure 64, for

a normally open and normally closed configu-
rations. The diamond-like symbol around the
NORMALLY CLOSED
standard limit switch representation indicates
a solid state type of switch contact closure.
The general operation of the proximity switch

is basic. When a part gets close in proximity to Figure 65.
PRS
the switch, the switch will detect it and will open
or close its contacts (see Figure 65).
There are two basic types of proximity switches,

one is the inductive type and the other is the
capacitive type.
Figure 66.
The inductive sensor is designed to detect fer- Oscillator
rous type materials. The inductive proximity Circuit
switch uses what’s known as the Eddie Cur-

rent Killed Oscillator, or ECKO, principle of
operation. Basically, this method uses an induc-
tive oscillator to create an RF or radio frequency
field out of the end of the sensor (see Figure
66). Eddie currents are formed in the metal part Figure 67.
and cancel or kill the RF field at the oscillator, TRIGGER AND
SWITCH
which is detected by other switch components
and contacts are closed or open (see Figure
67).
Capacitive proximity switches can be used to

detect all materials and are suitable in the
detection of fluids and granulars. The capacity Figure 68.
DIELECTRIC
switch operates in a similar fashion as the
inductive type, except that the oscillating
circuit uses one-positive and one-negative ca- POSITIVE
pacitor plates separated by a poor conductor
called a dielectric (see Figure 68). When power NEGATIVE

is applied, a high frequency field is created simi-

lar to that of the inductive switch. Any changes Figure 69.
in dielectric field in the outside of the sensor

would be detected and the switch would react
by changing states to its contact output (see
Figure 69).
Target and Environmental Considerations

Figure 70.
Inductive proximity switches are designed to
MATERIAL DETECTION CHART (INDUCTIVE)
operate with ferrous metals, mild steel being
the perfect setting, while other nonferrous met- 400 Series Stainless Steel......115
als, such as copper, aluminum, and brass do Cast Iron................................. 110

Mild Steel................................100
not fare as well. In fact, aluminum detection dis-
300 Series Stainless Steel...... 70
tance drops to about 35% of that of mild steel Brass...................................... 40
(see Figure 70). Aluminum............................... 35
Copper.................................... 30
The capacitive switch is susceptible to ambi-
ent conditions such as humidity because of its
sensitivity space. Some of these capacitive
Figure 71.
proximity switches, such as the shielded type
SIZE OF SENSING FACE
can, in turn, create false triggering of the switch.
Therefore, under these conditions, care must
be exercised during initial installation and ad-
justments.
The bigger the sensor side of the switch, the

farther away a detection can be made. The area
of the sensor is directly proportional to the dis-
tance of detection (see Figure 71).
These switches are also designed to detect a Figure 72

SIZE OF TARGET
proper size target at a particular distance (Fig- (Target Same Size as Face)
ure 72). If the target is reduced in size, the
switch will detect the target much closer to the
sending end. A 25% reduction in target size
could mean close to a 50% reduction in sens-
ing distance.

Installing and Troubleshooting Figure 73.
Proximity Switches L1 PRS L2
Proximity switches must be adjusted to detect

a part at a particular distance, and it is advis-
able that this adjustment be done prior to the
actual field wiring. Once the adjustment is done,
then the field connections can take place (see
Figure 73).
If there is a problem with the switch detection,

it may not necessarily be the contacts or the
sensor itself (see Figure 74). For example, if Figure 74.
the frequency of detection becomes too fast

when using an AC proximity switch, you may
require a DC switch which can detect objects
at a much faster rate. Also remember that the
size of the part being detected plays a role in
the detection. If you need to troubleshoot the
switch for proper operation, make sure that
when making electrical checks, you use cau-
tion and the proper sensing devices in size and
material for which the switch was set. This way
NOTES
you can make sure if the switch is electrically
and sensing-wise working OK.
PHOTOELECTRIC SWITCHES
Photoelectric switches are used in applications

to detect or sense the presence of a part in a
manner similar to proximity switches, except
that the photoelectric switch uses a beam of
light to detect their presence or absence. These
pilot devices can perform this detection at con-
siderable distances without touching the part
being detected.

Photoelectric devices are also very versatile Figure 75.

PES
and rugged and can withstand harsh environ-
NORMALLY OPEN
ments.
PES
Photoelectric switches are represented by the
NORMALLY CLOSED
symbols shown in Figure 75, for a normally
open and a normally closed type switch.
Figure 76.
Nowadays, there are two basic kinds of photo-
EMITTER RECEIVER
electric switches which are the modulated light
source and the fiber optic type. Both of these
offer three basic design types which are the
through-beam or direct scan, the retroflective L1 PES L2
scan and the diffuse and specular scan which PL
are used according to the application need.
The through-beam sends a beam of light to a

receiver which, when broken by a moving part,
Figure 77.
will trigger a change in the state of the switch EMITTER
(see Figure 76).
RECEIVER
The retroflective scan (Figure 77) sends a scan REFLECTOR
that is reflected back to the switch. When the L1 PES L2

PL
beam is broken, the switch is activated. One
advantage of this type is that it only requires
the wiring of one single unit while the align-
ment of the reflector may be non-critical.
Figure 78A. Figure 78B.

The diffuse scan reflects a perpendicular beam
of light in a diffuse manner off non-shiny or dull
EMITTER
surfaces and is reflected onto a receiver which EMITTER
is set at a predetermined angle, usually 45 de- RECEIVER RECEIVER
grees, to pick up any diffused reflections (see

Figure 78). The scanning distances of this type
of device are generally limited to no more than
six inches.

The specular scan sends a beam to a shiny

surface which reflects it to a receiver which is Figure 79A.
placed at an angle (see Figure 79). Note that EMITTER RECEIVER
the positioning of the source and receiver be-
comes critical and must be precise. When the
beam is broken or reflected, as in this case,
then the switch is activated.
Fiber Optic Photoelectric Switches
Fiber optic photoelectric switches are also avail-

able using the same type of scan techniques.
Fiber optics, though, offer advantages because
Figure 79B.
they can be placed in very tight spaces where
EMITTER RECEIVER
detection is required, while its switch base as-
sembly can be mounted elsewhere. In this type
of switch, the receiver and emitter controls are
located in the same enclosure, with the fiber
optic cables, either one or two, going to the
detection area. A B
To select the proper photoelectric switch, you

must determine the object to be detected, the
distance where the source is to be located from
the receiver, the response time of the detec-
tion, and the ambient of operation (Figure 80). Figure 80.
Manufacturers of photoelectric switches can

provide you with important application informa-
tion on the selection of the proper switch.
During the installation of the switch, it is impor-

tant that the sensor and receptacle are mounted
in a solid manner to a support bracket to avoid
misalignment due to vibration. You can also test,
after wiring, breaking the beam of light and
measuring the voltage at the contacts’ termi-
nals for proper operation of the contacts and
the detection.
Most of the problems associated with trouble- NOTES

shooting a photoelectric switch involve the
source and reflector not being aligned or being
knocked out of alignment. Another problem
may be that the target part is not in front of the
reflector, or that the part is too small for detec-
tion. If the light detection is OK and the con-
tacts do not activate, you will need to test the
contact terminals with a voltmeter to check for
voltage (Figure 81). If moisture develops inside
the contact assembly, a corrosion of contacts
Figure 81.
may have occurred and the contact assembly
would need to be changed. L1 L2
PLUGGING SPEED SWITCHES EMITTER REFLECTOR
Plugging switches are used to stop or brake a

motor rotation in a quick and fast manner. This
switch is also called a zero speed switch be-
cause it detects the rotation of the motor at zero
speed or when it is close to stopping. In fact,
the word plugging, as used in motor controls,
Figure 82. Courtesy of Allen-Bradley
relates to the stopping of a motor. A plugging
switch is attached to the shaft of the motor pul-
ley, turned by some part of the rotating equip-
ment, and its shaft rotates with that of the mo-
tor. Figure 82 shows several types of plugging
switches. Inside the switch, there are two sets Base 3 Point Flange 4 Point Flange
of double-pole/double-throw contacts which Interchangeable Mounting Brackets
open and close according to the direction of
the shaft rotation. The mechanism that actu- Figure 83.
ates these contacts is a centrifugal switch which
REV
we’ll see in operation in a second.
The plugging zero speed switch is represented

by the symbol shown in Figure 83, represent-
ing a circular arrow indicating a rotating type
activation switch. In chapters 8 and 9, we’ll FWD

cover in detail some of the uses and applica-

Figure 84.
tions of this speed switch in the stopping of
motors. Here, however, we’ll cover what a plug-
ging switch is and how it operates. L1 REV L2
REV
We can graphically represent the speed of

a motor, as shown in Figure 84, where the FWD
motor can go to full forward or reverse speed,
FWD
according to a motor control circuit. If we have
FULL REV ZERO FULL FWD
a plugging switch attached to the shaft of a SPEED SPEED SPEED
motor, the centrifugal force created by the

REV FWD
rotation of the shaft will cause the forward set CONTACTS CONTACTS
CLOSE CLOSE
of contacts to close once the motor starts to go
forward. The speed or RPMs at which the switch
will close is adjustable. Let us assume that the
NOTES
contacts close around the dotted line represen-
tation for the forward and reverse motions as
shown in Figure 84.
Once the motor starts and passes the forward

speed setting, the forward contacts will close.
If the motor is stopped, the switch contacts will
be off after the motor is slowed down at this
trigger speed.
The simple operation of the plugging switch is

used in interlocking circuits whenever we want
to stop a motor very rapidly by reversing the
direction of the motor. When we reverse the di-
rection, the motor will obviously stop faster be-
cause it is going backwards.
The section between zero speed and the speed

at which the switch closes during forward will
allow the control circuit to detect when the mo-
tor is almost at rest and disconnect the circuit
which caused the motor to go into reverse.

NOTES
Again, we’ll see a lot more on this application
later on.
The use of this switch has many applications

in conveyor systems, where you may want to
avoid the coasting of a motor carrying parts
and would rather want the conveyor to go to a
sudden stop. This also applies in emergency
stop circuits where a motor would be brought
to a fast stop when necessary.
REED SWITCHES Figure 85.

SEALED GLASS CAPSULE
Reed switches are fast operating, single-pole,

single-throw switches with a set of normally
open contacts enclosed in a sealed glass or
plastic capsule (see Figure 85). Reed switches SPST
may be represented by the symbol shown in SWITCH
N.O. CONTACTS
Figure 86 or the normal contact symbol with
the words Reed on top. Figure 86.
The Reed switch closes when an external mag- L1 L2
net gets closer to the Reed contacts in the glass REED

tube, where the magnetic field created by the
magnet causes the two contacts to close. This
makes the Reed switch ideal for proximity and REED
motion detection applications (Figure 87). One
of the greatest advantages of Reed switches,
Figure 87.
in addition to their fast response, is that they
can operate unaffected by dirt, humidity or MAGNET
fumes because of their sealed construction.
They are capable of handling the current to

drive solenoids, motor starters and other elec- L1 L2
tromagnetic devices. However, you must not
exceed, under any circumstances, the values
specified by the manufacturer.


TIMERS
TIMERS INPUT TIMERS INPUT
Timers are used extensively in industrial con-

trol applications to provide time delay action.
This action is seen in the timer’s contacts clos- ON - OFF -
ON - Delay OFF - Delay
ing or opening after a delay. Delay Delay
There are two types of timers—one called ON- Figure 90. TIMER SYMBOL
delay and the other one OFF-delay. The ON- TR
delay timer, as its name implies, has its con-
tacts react after the timer has been turned on,
while in the OFF-delay timer, its contacts react Timers Have Time Delayed Contacts
after the timer has been turned off (see Figure

88). The delay in the ON-delay timer occurs af-
Figure 91. ON - DELAY CONTACTS
ter the turning on, while in the OFF-delay, the
NORMALLY
delay occurs after the turning off (see Figure OPEN
89).
NORMALLY
A timer is represented by the symbol, shown in CLOSED
Figure 90, which is similar to a relay coil sym-

bol, as we’ll see in the next chapter. According
Figure 92. OFF - DELAY CONTACTS
to the timer, whether it is an ON or OFF-delay,
NORMALLY
it will have what’s called timed delay contacts. OPEN
The ON-delay timer contacts are represented
in Figure 91 for the normally open and normally
NORMALLY
closed. The OFF-delay timer contacts are rep- CLOSED
resented in Figure 92, also for the normally

open and normally closed. The difference be-
Figure 93. ON - DELAY OFF - DELAY
tween the two, and actually what differentiates
the two, are some parts of their symbols which, N.O.
if put together, represent two half arrows point-

ing in different directions (see Figures 93, 94A,B). N.C.
In the ON-delay case, these contacts can be

Figure 94A. ON - DELAY OFF - DELAY
seen reacting in the upward direction, which
means that they react on the off to on transition
of the timer when the timer is turned on. In the
OFF-delay, the action is represented when the
input of the timer goes down to off. We’ll touch Figure 94B. ON OFF
more on these representations in a second.
In addition to the time delay contacts, the ON

and OFF-delay timers also have instantaneous
contacts which open or close as soon as the
timer is energized (see Figure 95). For example,
if the limit switch closes, in Figure 96, it will
turn the timer on to start timing and its instan- Figure 95.
taneous contacts will close immediately. The ON - DELAY OFF - DELAY
TR TR
delay contacts will close later, as we’ll see
shortly .
Understanding ON-Delay and OFF-Delay
The understanding of the ON-delay and OFF-

delay operation is important because, regard-
Figure 96. L1 L2
less of the timer you use, the behavior of their LS TR
respective delay contacts will be the same. Let’s

TR PL1
start first by looking at the ON-delay timer.
As we mentioned earlier, the ON-delay timer
TR PL2
begins timing as soon as there is power conti-
nuity at its input (see Figure 97). Once the timer
has timed out for a specified time amount, their
normally open, time-delay contacts will close. Figure 97. Figure 98.
We can see this response even more clearly in

L1 L2 ON
the so-called timing diagram. When the input LS TR TIMER INPUT
to the timer goes from off to on in an ON-delay OFF

DELAY
timer, the timer starts to time and its contacts TR PL ON
will close after a specified delay (see Figure OFF
98). The delay contacts will continue on until

the input to the timer is removed, at which point
the timer will reset. Remember that the instan- Figure 99.
taneous timer contacts would have closed as ON
soon as the timer input was energized and will TIMER INPUT
OFF
reset as soon as power is removed from the
TR ON
timer’s input (see Figure 99).
OFF

The normally open contacts of an ON-delay Figure 100. L1 L2

LS TR
timer are also called normally open, timed-
closed because, after the delay, they will close. PL
TR
They are normally open and close after the
delay.
NORMALLY CLOSED-TIMED OPEN
OPEN AFTER DELAY
The normally closed contacts, also called nor-

mally closed, timed-open, open after the ON- Figure 101. ON
delay (see Figure 100). Before the input to the TIMER INPUT
OFF
timer is on, the normally closed contacts of the DELAY
timer will be closed (see Figure 101). When ON
power is applied to the timer, the timer starts OFF

timing and the contacts remain closed and will
open when the delay has elapsed. That’s why
they are also referred to as normally closed, Figure 102. BEFORE AFTER
DELAY DELAY
timed open because they are closed and open
after the timed delay. When the input to the timer
is removed, the normally closed contacts will
go back to their normal state which is closed.
Remember that the symbol with its half arrow,
Figure 103. OFF - DELAY
(Figure 102) indicates the direction movement OFF
of the contact after the delay has passed. In
ON
this case, it went from closed to open. DELAY
ON
The OFF-delay timer contacts operate similarly
OFF
to the ON-delay, except that the timed contacts
will open or close after the timer’s input goes
from on to off (see Figure 103). If the input to Figure 104. TIMER INPUT
timer is off and goes to on, the timer will be on OFF

DELAY
and will start timing after its input is removed or
off. After this delay, its respective delay con-
TIMER START CONTACTS
tacts will react by opening or closing (see Fig- ON TIMING OPEN OR
CLOSED
ure 104).
The normally open contacts of an OFF-delay Figure 105. Figure 106.

NORMALLY OPEN- BEFORE TIMER AFTER
timer are called normally open, timed open be- TIMED OPEN TIMER IS ON DELAY
IS ON
cause they will open after the delay, as can be
OPEN CLOSED OPEN
seen by the arrow in its symbol (see Figure 105
and 106).
Before anything happens with the limit switch Figure 107.
open, the timer contacts are open (see Figure L1 L2

107 and 108). When the limit switch closes, the LS TR
time delay contacts will close and the timer will
be on but will not start timing the delay. When
the input to the timer is off because the limit TR PL
switch opens, the timer will start timing the de-
lay. The normally open contacts at this point
are still closed. After the timer has timed out
the delay, the contacts will go back to their nor-
mally open state, essentially resetting them- Figure 108.
selves. ON
TIMER INPUT
In the timing diagram, shown in Figure 108, we OFF
can see this more clearly. Before the timer is DELAY
energized, the contacts are open. After it is on, ON
the contacts will close and stay on. When the
timer’s input is off, it starts timing and after the OFF
delay, the contacts will go back to open.
The OFF-delay timer’s normally closed con- Figure 109.

tacts, also called normally closed, timed closed BEFORE TIMER AFTER
TIMER IS ON DELAY
operate in a similar fashion (see Figure 109). IS ON
Remember that its name and symbol imply that CLOSED OPEN CLOSED
these contacts will close after the delay has
elapsed.
When the timer’s input is off and has not been

energized, the normally closed delay contacts Figure 110.
will be closed (see Figure 110). When the
ON
timer’s input is energized, the normally closed
TIMER INPUT
contacts will open or be off immediately, just
OFF
like an instantaneous normally closed, and will DELAY
be open as long as the timer’s input is on. When
ON
the input is removed and goes to off, the timer
starts timing the delay. The contacts at this point
OFF

are still open. After the delay, the contacts will

Figure 111.
go, or reset to, their normal state and close.
L1 L2
Additional Timer Circuit Codings LS TR
There are some codings added to timer circuits,

especially to the loads they control, which give TR PL
the electrician or technician important informa-
tion on the operation of that load from the timer
control point of view. This allows you to better
“see” the circuit and what the state of the load
should be, according to the timer control (see Figure 112.
Figure 111). TIMER INPUT
The timer has three segments or sections as-

sociated with it which exist before it is turned
BEFORE DURING AFTER
on, while it is turned on and timing, and once it
has timed out. They are called reset, timing, and RESET TIMING TIMED-OUT
timed out, respectively (see Figure 112). These

three sections are identified by the symbols for
the ON-delay and OFF-delay shown in Figure
Figure 113.
113. Note that the point of the triangular shapes RESET TIMING TIMED-OUT
are directed in the same manner as the arrows
ON - DELAY X O O
of their corresponding switches.
When a signal is on during that time, it is repre- OFF - DELAY O X X

sented by an X while, when it is off, it is repre-
sented by an O.
Figure 114.
In the circuit of Figure 111, you would have the
coding shown in Figure 114 where the pilot light L1 L2
load is controlled by the ON-delay timer. The TR
LS
light is off during reset when the timer is not
on, and will continue off during the ON-delay
TR PL
timing. Once the delay has elapsed or timed
out, the light will be on.
O O X O O X

For an OFF-delay timer, the coding is shown in

Figure 115.
Figure 115. Before the timer is on, the light is
off; when the timer is turned on, the light will be L1 L2
on immediately. When the timer goes to off and LS TR
starts the OFF-delay timing, the contacts still
remain closed and will open after the delay is
TR PL
completed. As can be seen in Figure 115, in
the OFF-delay timer, the contacts return auto-
matically to their normal state after the delay. O X X O X X
For this reason, the last pictorial symbol is rep- X
resented with a square instead of a down-point-

ing triangle. This square represents automatic
resetting in a timer circuit. NOTES
Types Of Timers
There are three basic types of timers which are:

the pneumatic, the synchronous motor or elec-
tromechanical, and the solid state.
Pneumatic timers use a flexible diaphragm

which contains or seals the air in a chamber.
The timer delay is implemented by controlling
how fast the air is allowed to pass in or out
through an opening. By adjusting this opening,
the timer can be set to variable time delay set-
tings (see Figure 116). Figure 116.
The electromechanical or synchronous motor

timer, as its name implies, uses a synchronous
motor to turn a shaft at a predetermined speed.
This speed can be adjusted, therefore creat-
ing a variable delay setting timer.
The solid state timer utilizes electronic circuitry

to create and control the time delay. This type
of timer is extremely accurate, generally in the
AIR INLET
range of one-tenth of a second.

Figure 117.
All of these timers operate in a very similar TIMER
1 CLUTCH 2 LIGHT
manner when it comes to timing operation. How-
ever, the synchronous motor timer, which is M
10 11 A
widely used, has two instantaneous contacts 9
C 12
and two delay contacts (see Figure 117). The 8 4 3
6 5
7
clutch controls the two instantaneous contacts
INSTANTANEOUS DELAY
while the motor controls the two-delay contacts. CONTACTS CONTACTS
The light incorporated in the timer is lit when Figure 118.

the motor is on and is timing. 1 CLUTCH 2 LIGHT
M
11
The number one and eleven terminals in the A
12
diagram are jumped together in the field to pro- 9
10
C 4 3
vide power to the motor once the timer is turned 5
8
6
on (see Figure 118). This can be seen in the 7
terminal connections for this timer, where the

6
Figure 119. 7
jumper and the power connections are made 5
8 B
(see Figure 119).
C 4
M
9 3
You may see this timer connected in a circuit as
10 2
shown in Figure 120, where the dotted lines rep-
11 1
resent the timer, and several terminals are con- 12 A
nected to the loads, in this case lights. You may FIELD JUMPER
also see it connected as shown in Figure 121, Figure 120.

L1 L2
as if the clutch and motor were two separate 1 2
devices. Note that we can also specify the state 11

M
A
of the loads accordingly. 9 10

C
12 0-0-X
3 PL1
4
6 8 5 X-X-0
7 PL2
In this configuration (reference Figure 121), as 0-X-X
PL3
soon as the timer is on, the clutch will be on X-0-0
PL4
and the instantaneous contacts will change
positions. The motor starts timing because it has Figure 121.
L1 L2
power from the contact 11 to 12 and, when it CLUTCH
1 2
times out, it disconnects itself from timing and 11 A
M
12
PL1
contact connection 11-12 goes to 11 A, and 4- 3 O O X
4
5
5 go to 4-3. These two are the delay contacts. PL2
X X O
The contacts will continue in this state until the 9

10
C
PL3
O X X
power to the clutch in the timer is removed. 6

8 PL4
X O O
7

Troubleshooting Timers Figure 122.

6
7 5
8 B • PROPER
Most of the problems associated with the REFERENCE
C 4
troubleshooting of timer circuits involve the M WIRING AND
9 3 CONECTIONS
proper reference wiring and connections and
10 2
this should be the first thing to check (Figure
11 1
122). Make sure that the instantaneous con- 12 A
tacts are not used in place of the delay con- FIELD JUMPER
tacts and vice versa (see Figure 123).
Figure 123.
The same applies to the type of timer being L1 L2
used, whether it is an ON-delay or an OFF-de- LS TR
lay. The timer value of preset time adjustment

TR PL1
for the delay must be correct. If it is is not prop-
erly set to your needs, it will not open or close
its timed contacts at the right time and the cir- PL2
TR
cuit will obviously malfunction. In synchronous
and solid state timers, make sure that the AC
type receives the L1 and L2 power (see Figure
124), and the DC type uses the correct plus
Figure 124.
and minus voltages (Figure 125), and that all 6
L1 7 5 L2
these are properly wired according to their wir- 8 B
ing diagrams. C
M
4
9 3
10 2
If the timers have already been in operation,
11 1
and for some reason fail, check first for broken 12 A
wires or connections to their loads, or failures L1 L2

of the loads themselves. If you identify the prob-
lem with the timer itself, then you’ll need to re-
place it. Figure 125.
+DC NC2 -DC

COUNTERS NC1 5 NO2
4 6
NO1 3 7 -
Counters are used in numerous industrial ap-
8
plications to count parts being made, parts +
2
1
passing through a conveyor, cycles of a punch

press, and more. There are two types of CONTACT
counters used nowadays – the electromechani- INPUTS

cal counter and the solid state counter. Both

Figure 126.
counters can operate as an up counter or as a
down counter and their count up or down val- L1 1 2 L2
ues, called preset count, can be adjusted. The

M
contacts of counters can be either instanta- 11 A
9
neous, like in the case of timers, or count con- 10 12 0-0-X
C 3 PL1
tacts which energize when the preset value is 6 8
4
5 X-X-0
reached. 7 PL2
0-X-X
PL3
The electromechanical counter contains a X-0-0
PL4
standard clutch and motor clutch, each one
controlling two sets of switches (see Figure
126). The switch contacts from the clutch con-
trol the instantaneous action, while the count Figure 127.
contacts are controlled by the motor clutch. The
pilot light shown in the circuit indicates when L1 1 2 L2
the counter is enabled or ready to count.

M
11 A
9
The counter’s clutch input must be on in order 10 12 0-0-X
C 3 PL1
to allow the counter to count (Figure 127). Once 6 8
4
5 X-X-0
this input is on, the counter will count every 7 PL2
0-X-X
time the count input goes from off to on. In an
PL3
up-counter, the motor count contacts will close X-0-0
PL4
once the accumulated number of counts equals
the preset value. In a down-counter, the con-
tacts will close when the preset value is dec-
rement to zero. The counter can be reset to Figure 128.
zero in an up-counter or to the preset value in

L1 L2
a down-counter if the counter’s clutch input is LS
ENABLE 2
1
removed. The preset value is generally ad-
PES
justed at the front of the counter. There are two INPUT 12
PL1
settings or indicators, one to indicate the pre- 7
6
set selection and one which indicates the ac- 3
8 4
cumulated count. The Xs and Os representa- A C 5 PL2
tion of timers can also be used to indicate the B 9 10
11
on and off status of the loads during reset,
counting enable, and counted out (Figure 128).

Figure 129.
The solid state counter functions in a very simi-
SOLID STATE COUNTER
lar manner as the electromechanical with the
INHIBIT INPUT
only difference being that it may have an addi- 2
COUNT
tional input to the counter (see Figure 129). This 5
input is usually called inhibit. The inhibit input, ENABLE C B
A
when on, makes the counter ignore the count
7 4
input signal or bypass those counts (reference
1
Figure 130). When the up or down-counts are
9 6
obtained, then the count contacts will open or
3
close.
In this chapter, we have covered a tremendous

Figure 130.
amount of information on operation, installa-
tion and troubleshooting of most of the sens- PRESET COUNT = 3
ing switches you’re bound to find in industrial ENABLE
controls. In the next chapter, we’ll cover the 1 2 3 4 5
electromechanical and magnetic switches used
COUNT
in control systems.
INHIBIT
OUTPUT

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.- Limit switches are composed of an

______ and ______.
a– External sensor
b– Actuator Figure 1
c– Electrical Contacts
d– Spring
2.- Identify the type of limit switches shown Figure 1

in Figure 1 according to their actuators.
a– Roller Arm (lever type)

b– Top Plunger
c– Wobble stick or lever
3.- True/False. The plunger type actuator is

used whenever linear operation is neces-
sary for detection.
4.- True/False. Limit switches are only avail-

able as normally open devices.
5.- True/False. Limit switch symbols differ de-

pending on the type of actuator.
6.- A ______ limit switch is a switch which

has force applied to its contacts keeping
it closed without any machine movement
or motion. When the force is removed, the
contacts open.
a– Normally closed
b– Normally open
c– Normally open– held closed
d– Normally closed– held open

7.- In Figure 2, indicate each of the travel po- Figure 2

sitions. TRIP
TRIP TRAVEL
POSITION
a– Rest
b– Pre-travel (trip travel)
c– Over-travel
d– Differential travel (reset travel)
TOTAL
8.- Pressure switches open or close their con- OVER
TRAVEL
TRAVEL
tacts in reaction to pressure, and can have
as measurement method(s) ______.
a– Diaphragms
b– Bourdon tubes
c– Bellows
d– Pistons RESET
POSITION
DIFFERENTIAL
(RESET)
e– All of the above TRAVEL
9.- True/False. If a pressure switch is set to

turn on at 100 psi, it will also turn off when
it returns to 100 psi.
10.- The installation of a pressure switch is di-

vided into two parts: ______ and ______.
a– Pressure connection
b– Test to set pressure
c– Check of the switch
d– Actual field wiring Figure 3
11.- In Figure 3, indicate which is the normally FLS

open (N.O.) and the normally closed (N.C.)
flow switch.
a– N.O. FLS
b– N.C.
c– Not applicable
d– Not applicable

12.- Flow gauges should be placed ______ the

flow switch because of potential ______
created by the switch.
a– After
b– Before
c– Turbulence
d– Blockage
13.- True/False. Float switches can be found

with more than one pulley mechanism.
14.- Match the following.
a– Sensing bulb ______ Actuators composed of a metal

strip made of two metals bonded
b– Bimetal together.
c– Thermocouple ______ Also known as capillary tube
______ Made of two different wire

materials.
15.- True/False. The most important detail in the

installation of a temperature switch is the
fact that it is placed close to the heat source.
16.- The two most common types of proximity

switches are the ______ and the ______.
a– Sealed
b– Inductive
c– Capacitive
d– Detecting

17.- The ECKO principle of operation is based

on an inductive oscillator which creates a
______ used to detect a part.
a– Radio frequency
b– Voltage
c– Current
d– Detection field
18.- The ______ proximity switch is used to

detect metal parts while the ____ is used
to detect all materials.
a– Sealed
b– Inductive
c– Capacitive
d– Detecting
19.- True/False. The bigger the sensor side of

the switch, the farther away a detection
can be made.
20.- Of the three types of photoelectric

switches which is the one that gives the
advantage of only wiring one single unit
instead of two?
a–The through beam or direct scan

b–The retroreflective scan
c–The diffuse and specular scan
21.- Most of the problems that are encountered

during the troubleshooting of photoelec-
tric switches deal with ______.
a– The target part is not in front of the

receiver.
b– The target part is too small.
c– The source and reflector/receiver not
being aligned.
d– The source and reflector/receiver gets
knocked out of alignment.
e– All of the above.

22.- For the plugging switch shown in Figure

4, circle in the diagram the state of the Figure 4
switch at the points 1 and 2.
L1 REV L2
REV
23.- The ______ timer opens/closes its time-
delay contacts once the timer has been
energized and the delay has passed. The FWD
______ timer opens/closes its time delay
contacts when the timer’s input is removed FWD
and the delay has passed. FULL REV ZERO FULL FWD
SPEED SPEED SPEED
a– Fast delay REV FWD

b– On-delay CONTACTS
CLOSE
1 CONTACTS
CLOSE
2
c– Off-delay ON ON
d– Slow delay OFF OFF
24.- Match each of the following timer symbols

Figure 5
in Figure 5 and alternate names with their
proper names and equivalents.
a– Normally closed–Off-delay
b– Normally open–On-delay
c– Normally open–Off-delay
d– Normally closed–On delay
____Normally open–Time open

____Normally open–Time closed
____Normally closed–Time closed
____Normally closed–Time open
25.- In an off-delay timer, as soon as the timer

is energized its ____ contacts close while
its ______ contacts are open after the
timer is de-energized and ______ once the
off delay expires.
a– Normally closed time delay

b– Normally open time delay
c– Reset to off
d– Reset to on

ANSWERS
1.- b– Actuator
c– Electrical Contacts
2.-
a– Roller Arm b–Top Plunger c–Wobble Lever
3.- True
4.- False. They come with both normally open
and normally closed contacts.
5.- False
6.- c– Normally open—held closed
7.- TRIP
TRIP TRAVEL
Rest POSITION OVER
TRAVEL
TOTAL RESET
DIFFERENTIAL
TRAVEL POSITION
(RESET)
TRAVEL
8.- e– All of the above
9.- False
10.- b– Test to set pressure
d– Actual field wiring

11.-
a– N.O. (Normally Open) FLS
b– N.C. (Normally Closed) FLS
12.- b– Before
c– Turbulence
13.- True
14.- a– Sensing bulb ___b__ Actuators composed of a metal

strip made of two metals bonded
b– Bimetal together.
c– Thermocouple ___a__ Also known as capillary tube
___c___ Made of two different wire

materials.
15.- True
16.- b– Inductive
c– Capacitive
17.- a– Radio frequency
18.- b– Inductive
c– Capacitive
19.- True
20.- b–The retroreflective scan

21.- e– All of the above
22.-
L1 REV L2
REV
FWD
FWD
FULL REV ZERO FULL FWD
SPEED SPEED SPEED
REV FWD
CONTACTS
CLOSE
1 CONTACTS
CLOSE
2
ON ON
OFF OFF
23.- b– On delay
c– Off delay
24.- __c__Normally open–Time open b

__b__Normally open–Time close
__a__Normally closed–Time close
__d__Normally closed–Time open d
a
25.- b– Normally open time delay
a– Normally closed time delay
d– Reset to on

MODULE
CHAPTER 4 4
L1 L2 L3
CON
AUX
H
H 480
VOLTS
H
Chapter 4—Electromagnetic Control Switches
OVERVIEW
In this last chapter dedicated to control switches,

you will learn about how these elements are used
to control field devices.
You will learn about the application and uses of

control relays, contactors, magnetic motor start-
ers, solenoids and their uses in valves. Addition-
ally, you will be exposed to all protective type
switches which include fuses, circuit breakers and
motor overload heaters and contacts. Trouble-
shooting of these components is also presented
for each of them.
OBJECTIVES
• Define electromechanical switches, their use

and application.
• How control relays are used and the princi-

pal components that form them.
• The difference between relays, contactors

and starters.
• How to read solenoid valve diagrams.
• The difference between one-way, two-way,

three-way and four-way valves.
• What protection fuses, circuit breakers and

motor overloads offer and their proper uses
and applications.
• Troubleshoot all these control components

INTRODUCTION Figure 1.
ELECTROMAGNETIC
In this chapter we are going to cover electro- DEVICES
magnetic switches and their uses and opera-
tions in motor control circuits. We’ll also cover E/M LOADS
protective type switches used, as their name
implies, to protect electrical circuits and the ma-
chinery controlled by these circuits. So let’s start
by defining these control elements. Figure 2.
CONTACTS
Electromagnetic devices are used in electrical

control systems to switch, either directly or in-
directly, the on-off operation of lighting and
power loads such as motors (see Figure 1).
These devices are called electromagnetic be-
cause they use a magnet and electrical power
to actuate the switching mechanism. The elec- RELAY COIL
tromagnetic control devices we’ll cover include
control relays, contactors, magnetic motor start-
ers, and solenoids. The protective switching Figure 3.
devices include fuses, circuit breakers and CLAPPER TYPE

STATIONARY
motor overloads. CONTACTS
MOVABLE
CONTROL RELAYS CONTACTS
COIL
Control relays, or simply relays, are magneti-
ARMATURE
cally operated switching devices used for a wide
MAGNET
range of control applications. A relay consists
of an electromagnet (Figure 2), or the so-called
coil, which moves an armature to open or close Figure 4.
one or more sets of normally open or normally HORIZONTAL ACTION TYPE

closed contacts.
MOVABLE
CONTACTS
COIL
Regardless of the many relay designs in the
market, the operation is basically the same (see
Figures 3 and 4). When voltage is applied to
the relay, the coil will attract the armature and MAGNET ARMATURE
cause the open contacts to close and the closed STATIONARY
CONTACTS

CR1
contacts to open. Relays and their normally Figure 5.
RELAY
open and closed contacts are shown in Figure 5.
CR1-1
A relay may have several normally open and
N.O.
normally closed sets of contacts available, all
CR1-2
controlled by the same coil (see Figure 6). N.C.
These control relays are normally used in elec-

CR1
Figure 6.
trical circuits to provide control of loads as well
as to provide interlocking of control circuits, CR1-1
where the coil’s contacts are being used in other

CR1-2
circuits; for example, driving the logic of a timer
and turning a pilot light on (see Figure 7). When CR1-3
the relay is energized, it contacts will open and CR1-4

close until the coil is de-energized.
Figure 7.
L1 L2
Relay coils are available in many control volt- LS CR
ages, from 6 to 600 volts AC and from 6 to 240

CR TR
volts DC. Commonly used control relays are
rated for continuous current per pole at 10 to CR PL
25 amps.
Latch/Unlatch Relays
Figure 8.
Another widely-used relay is the latch/unlatch LATCH / UNLATCH
type, is illustrated in Figure 8. This relay differs CRL
from the standard coil in that, if power is re-

moved from the coil, its contacts will remain in CRU
the same state. For example, in Figure 9, if the
limit switch LS1 closed, the relay’s normally
IF POWER IS REMOVED TO COIL
open contacts will close and the normally closed CONTACTS STAY THE SAME
will open. If the power is removed, the contacts

Figure 9.
will stay in the same state until the limit switch
L1 L2
LS2 closes, thus energizing the unlatch coil. At LS1 CRL1
this time, the contacts will go to their original CRU1

LS2
state.
CR1-1 PL1
The latching relay is particularly useful in an CR1-2 PL2
application where the state of the latch output

is maintained during a power failure so that ,

when power returns, the contacts would be in Figure 10.
the same state (see Figure 10). There are other L1 L2

CRL1
types of relays, such as the general purpose LS1
plug-in and the solid state type. The general

purpose can be used as a control relay or to CR1-1 PL
control the state of a small fractional horse-

power motor and can handle up to 10 amps for LS2 CRU1
AC and DC resistive loads and up to 6 amps
for AC and 7.5 for DC inductive loads.
Figure 11.
The solid state relay uses electronic circuitry to SOLID STATE RELAY
detect the input control voltage and also to INPUT SOLID STATE
switch the voltage source to the load (see Fig- + CIRCUITRY SWITCH L1
ure 11).
Troubleshooting techniques of electrical circuits - L2

LOAD
with control relays are covered in detail in Chap-
ter 7; however, it is important to mention some
potential problems that can occur and which
Figure 12.
are important to identify and easy to fix.
L1 120 VAC L2
LS CR
As we know, control relays must receive power
in order to actuate their contacts. If power is
CR PL
not present, the contacts will not open or close.
So the first thing to check is to make sure that
the proper voltage is getting to the relay (see
Figure 12). By proper, we mean the voltage at
which the relay coil is rated; in this example,
120 volts AC. You can measure with a voltme- NOTES
ter between L1 and L2 to insure that the source
voltage is present. If the voltage is less than
120 volts, the relay may not be able to pick up
and operate the contacts. In fact, if the voltage
fluctuates, being at 120 sometimes and drop-
ping at others, it will result in an intermittent
problem. This could happen if the transformer
does not have the proper KVA rating, as we’ll
see in Chapter 7.

If you suspect that the relay is bad, you could Figure 13.
replace it and check its contacts under a static

mode; that is, without power applied if the relay
has a manually operated button. If so, you can 120 VAC
push the button and use a meter set to ohms
and test the relay for continuity. If the relay is
good, the meter should show very low resis-
tance; if it is bad, the meter will show an open
condition, thus indicating a lack of continuity.
Bear in mind that it is possible for the relay to

operate some of the contacts and still have NOTES
other contacts faulty (see Figure13). This could
occur because the contacts may not be seat-
ing properly on the contact assembly point or
the contact point may be pitted from excessive
arching. Therefore, you should check all the
contacts in the relay assembly and replace
those which are bad.
If the relay uses a plug-in type socket, make

sure it is properly seated, or mounted, so that
the connections are making good contact. Re-
member that a lot of relays may look very simi-
lar and, when an electrician or technician
changes one, it must be of the same type. Oth-
erwise, the contacts may be normally closed
when they should have been normally open and
vice versa.
MAGNETIC CONTACTORS
Magnetic contractors, as the name implies, also

actuate their contacts by energizing a magnetic
coil. In fact, contactors operate in a very similar
fashion as control relays, except that relays are
used for general purpose control switching of
light duty loads while contactors are used for

Figure 14.
the switching of lighting systems, heaters, trans-
former loads (which are inductive), and other
capacitive loads (see Figure 14).
Although there are several types of contactor

assembly designs, all of them operate in a very
similar manner (see Figure 15). When voltage Figure 15.
TO
L1 LOAD
is applied to the magnetic coil, the armature is STATIONARY
CONTACTS
attracted and forces the movable contacts to L2 SUPPLY

MOVABLE
make connection with the stationary contacts. CONTACTS
CONTROL COIL
VOLTAGE
ARMATURE
Magnetic contactors are available for single- INPUT
MAGNET
phase and three-phase AC voltages as well as
for DC voltages (see Figure 16). Contactors for
each of these three categories are rated ac-
cording to NEMA to specify the size of the load AC/DC MAG
CONTACTOR
NEMA SIZES
they can handle safely by each contact in the CONTACTORS
contactor. The sizes range from 00 to 9, ac- 00 5

SINGLE THREE DC 0 6
cording to the horsepower of the load and the PHASE AC PHASE AC VOLTAGE 1 7
voltage being switched (see Figure 17) when 2 8
3 9
NEMA SIZES
you need up to 45 amps continuous current (see 4
LOAD RATING
Figure 18). This contactor could be used in a
15 or 25 horsepower load application of a 208/
240 or 480/600 voltage system, respectively. Figure 18. NEMA RATINGS (AC)
The single-phase NEMA 00, 0, 1 and 2 ratings SIZE CONT.
POWER (HP)
AMP. SINGLE
are only available to 120 and 240-volt systems RATING
3 PHASE
PHASE
120V 208/240 480/600 120V 240
from 1/3 to 7-1/2 horsepower. 3/4 1
00 9 11/2 2 1/3
0 18 2 3 5 1 2
1 27 3 71/2 10 2 3
The standard rating available for DC contactors 2 45 - 15 25 3 71/2
are from size 1 to 9 with current capacities rang- 3 90 - 30 50 - -
ing from 25 amps to 2500 amps (see Figure

NEMA RATINGS (DC)
19). Figure 19.
POWER (HP)
SIZE AMP.
120V 240V
1 25 3 5
Contactor Connection 2 50 5 10
3 100 10 25
4 150 20 40
The coil in the contactor indirectly controls the 5 300 40 75
6 600 75 150
operation of its load. That is, when the coil is 7 900 110 225
8 1350 175 350
turned on, its high power contacts close, there- 9 2500 300 600

Figure 20. L1
fore providing power to its load. For example, L2
L3
in a three-phase, three-pole contactor (see Fig-
CONTROL
ure 20), connected to a three-phase heater, will 120 V
give power to the heating elements once there

H
H 480
is control power to the coil. This control power VOLTS
H
may be 120 volts AC while the power provided
to the heaters through the power contacts could Figure 21.
CON
be 480 volts. CONTACTOR
REPRESENTATION
Contactors are represented in ladder diagrams

as shown in Figure 21, very similar to the relay Figure 22. L1 L2
representation Its power contacts, however, are CON
not represented in the ladder diagram (see Fig-

ure 22), but in another electrical diagram called
CON
the wiring diagram (see Figure 23). These
contactors also have what’s known as auxiliary
contacts which react in the same manner as
control relay contacts and are not part of the Figure 23. L1 L2 L3
power contacts circuit (see Figure 24). WIRING
DIAGRAM
We could graphically represent the contactor

circuit of Figure 20 in Figure 25, where the
POWER
three-phase power lines are being switched to CONTACTS
the heater. When the switch closes, the TO LOAD
contactor’s coil is energized, thus closing its

Figure 24. L1 L2 L3
power contacts and turning on the heater. The
auxiliary contacts of the coil will also close
which, if connected to a light, will make it light
AUX C
up.
Differences Between AC and DC Contactors TO LOAD
Figure 25.
L1 L1 L2 L3 L2
Even though AC and DC contactors operate in
a similar manner, there are some differences CON
between the two. In DC contactor applications, AUX
we may switch only one of the power lines, thus

requiring only one set of contacts, or a contactor H
H

Figure 26. + -
having only one pole (see Figure 26). In three-
phase circuits. it is necessary to switch all three
lines, thus requiring three poles (see Figure 27).
The magnetic or coil assembly of a DC CON C
contactor is made of solid steel instead of lami-
nated steel, as in the case of the AC contactor,
the reason being that DC current only flows in
one direction continuously and doesn’t create ONE POLE SWITCH
Eddie current problems.The other major differ-
ences are the electrical and mechanical require-
ments to suppress the “arcing” created during Figure 27.
L1 L2 L3
the opening and closing of the contacts. We’ll
touch on this subject next.
ARC Suppression and Protection CON C
Although the contacts in contactors are con-

structed of strong cadmium oxide and silver THREE POLE SWITCH
materials to fight corrosion and wear, they are
still subject to arcing that is present during the
opening and closing of the contacts (see Fig- Figure 28.
ure 28). This electric arc is created because,
during the closing or opening of the contacts,
there is a very short time in which the contacts
are neither closed nor open and the breaking
of the current, which causes heat in the con-
tacts, creates enough, so to speak, “metal va-
pors” between the gaps of the contacts which
are still trying to conduct current (see Figure
Figure 29.
29), thus creating the arc. This arc can continu-
ously create heat which can eventually dam-
age the contact surface.
Since prolonged arcing can damage the con-

tacts, the sooner this arcing is extinguished, the
longer the contactor will last. There are several
methods used to suppress the arcing.

Figure 30.
Suppression of DC arcing is harder to elimi-
SUPPRESSION OF DC
nate because the DC supply continuously pro- ARCING IS HARDER
vides flow of current in one direction instead of
fluctuating (see Figure 30). like AC does, be-
CONSTANT
tween positive and negative (see Figure 31). CURRENT
The DC arc will last until the two contacts are FLOW
so far apart that the arc extinguishes itself and,

therefore, there is more gap in between the two
contacts (see Figure 32). In contrast, AC arcs
are self-extinguishing, thus having smaller
Figure 31.
space between contacts (see Figure 33). So
SUPPRESSION OF DC
AC contactors tend to run with less heat than ARCING IS HARDER
DC contactors and have an increased contact
life. AC CURRENT
FLUCTUATES +
+ AND –
Arcing is much more pronounced during the -
opening of the contacts because current is al-
ready flowing through the contacts, although it
can also occur during the closing of contacts.
There are three basic suppression methods
used to extinguish and minimize arcing and all
electricians and technicians must be aware of
them. Contactors provide, in one way or an-
other, different types of arc protection, such as LESS SPACE
BETWEEN CONTACTS
arc chutes, and arc traps sometimes incorpo-
rated in the cover of the contactor. The idea
behind the chutes and traps is to confine, di-
vide and limit the arc as much as possible to a
Figure 34.
position away from the contact surface, thus
ARC -
providing an area in the contactor where the
arc can be extinguished without damage to the
contactor. Contactors may also provide a DC
magnetic blowout coil for arc extinguishing (see
Figure 34). These blowout coils produce a mag-
CONTACTS
netic field across the pole as current flows
BLOW-OUT
through the coil. This field interacts with the MAGNETIC
+ COIL
FIELD
arc pushing up or blowing out the arc into the

arc chute where it is enlarged and extinguished Figure 35. MOVEMENT DUE TO
MAGNETIC FIELD
(see Figure 35). When a contactor has blowout

coils, its power contacts are illustrated as in
Figure 36.
It is important to note that contactors should

not be operated without their arc suppression
elements because damage can occur to the Figure 36. BLOW-OUT COIL
REPRESENTATION
contactor or to the machinery or loads it is con-
nected to (see Figure 37). During preventive
maintenance, make sure that the arc suppres-
sion features of the contactor are present and
working properly without any damage (see
Figure 38).
Figure 37.
• CONTACTORS
Troubleshooting contactors is done similarly
SHOULD NOT BE
to relays (see Figure 39). You need to make OPERATED WITHOUT
sure that the coil is being energized and that THEIR ARC SUPPRESSION
the auxiliary contacts, as well as the power • DAMAGE CAN OCCUR
contacts are responding to the coil’s

Figure 38.
energization. • CHECK SUPPRESSION
FEATURES DURING
PREVENTIVE
MOTOR STARTERS
MAINTENANCE
Motor starters are one of the most widely used

L1 L2 L3
control devices in industry. As its name implies, Figure 39.
L1
they are used to control the on/off state of mo-
tors in a manner similar to the operation of 120V
AUX
C
contactors. In fact, the main difference between L2
motor starters and contactors is the use of TO LOAD
added protection devices for the motor to avoid

overcurrents which could damage the motor
under overload conditions (see Figure 40). Figure 40. CONTACTOR
L1 L2 L3
There are two types of motor starters—the AUX C
manual motor starter and the magnetic motor

starter. The manual motor starter functions like OVERCURRENT
a switch which will connect the power lines to PROTECTION

the motor by the activation of the switch which Figure 41.

MOTOR STARTER
closes the contact; the magnetic starter func-
M
tions like the magnetic contactor, which uses a
coil to activate the contacts. Both classes of
starter have overload protection for the motor.
Figure 42. L1 L2 L3
A little later in this chapter, we are going to cover
more on overloads in detail, but here we’re go-
ing to go over their responsibility in a starter AUX M
which forms part of a motor control circuit.

OVERCURRENT
PROTECTION
The representation for motor starters in a lad-
der diagram is shown in Figure 41, while its
power contacts are represented as in Figure
42. Motor starters also have auxiliary contacts Figure 43. L1 L2
which are used for interlocking connections with M
start/stop circuits and other components in a

ladder diagram (see Figure 43). The power con- M
tacts are generally represented in a wiring dia-
gram where they connect to the motor being
controlled.
Figure 44.
As we mentioned earlier, starters provide pro-
tection to the motor with overload relays which
OL
are represented by the symbol shown in Fig-
ure 44. These overloads are encountered be-
low the contactor section of the starter. The
overload relay controls a normally closed con- Figure 45.
tact which is called the motor overload contact.

The graphic representation of a magnetic L1 L2 L3
starter and its overloads is illustrated in Figure
45, where the power contacts are shown at the
top and the overloads are shown right below. AUX
The L1, L2 and L3 lines in a 3-phase voltage

OL
system will be connected to the top of the starter
while the bottom will go to the motor terminals
M
marked T1, T2 and T3. The coil of the starter,
which energizes the power contacts and the

auxiliary contacts are shown in Figure 46, while

the normally closed overload contacts are
Figure 46. L1 L2 L3
graphically represented in close proximity to the
overload coils.
In fact, the graphic representation shown in Fig-

AUX
ure 45 follows very closely the actual location
of the components that form the motor starter.
At the top we have the line power terminals, OL
below the coil, and the auxiliary contacts in
between. The power contacts are sort of be-
hind while the overload relays and the normally M
closed overload contacts are right below.
Types of Magnetic Motor Starters
The overload protection ladder diagram repre- Figure 47.

sentation is shown in Figure 47, where the nor- L1 L2
mally closed overload contacts are right after
the starter coil. These contacts will open if the LS M OL
overload relay detects that there is an overload
situation which is causing the motor to pull more
current. This can happen, as we’ll see in later OVERLOAD
chapters, if the motor is experiencing a locked PROTECTION
rotor situation, in which case the motor must
be disconnected from the circuit; otherwise, it
could burn out.
Figure 48.
In the ladder circuit (see Figure 48), the motor
starter will be on if the limit switch closes. Note L1 L2
that the normally open auxiliary contacts close
M OL
and turn the pilot light on. The power contacts LS
will close, providing power to the motor as soon
as the starter coil is energized. If the motor pulls
too much current, the overload relays will trip M PL
and open the normally closed overload contacts
which, in turn, disconnect the motor from the
circuit. Later, we’ll see this overload operation
in more detail.

Figure 49.
There are several types of magnetic motor start- L1 L2 L3
ers which are the full-voltage, the combination

starter, the reversing starter, the two-speed 480V
starter, and the reduced voltage starter. SYSTEM
The full-voltage starter is perhaps the most

commonly used in industry. This motor starter
is also called across-the-line because it
M
switches the full voltage to the motor once the
starter coil is energized (see Figure 49).
Figure 50.
In the same cabinet or enclosure, combination L1 L2 L3

starters provide a magnetic starter combined
FWD REV
with a disconnect switch which can be fused or 1 2 3 1 2 3
non-fused (see Figure 50). This arrangement, R

F
provided by manufacturers, allows for a quick
and convenient installation of a motor control
in a single enclosure. Start/stop push buttons OL REVERSING
are also available in the front of the cabinet. STARTER
M
Reversing starters are available for applications
which require reversal of motor rotation, that
is, forward and reverse. You can recall when
we were talking about plugging switches, that NOTES
we can reverse the direction of a 3-phase mo-
tor by simply switching two of its lines. The re-
versing starter provides the hardware to imple-
ment this reversal. This starter is composed of
two contactor sections with their respective
auxiliary contacts. These sections are used to
switch the phases to the motor. The starter also
provides the overload protection for the motor.
The two-speed motor starter, as its name im-

plies, provides two complete starters, that is,
with two contactor sides and two overload re-
lay assemblies to control two-speed motors

(see Figure 51). These speeds are low and high. Figure 51.
Reduced voltage starters are available to con-
trol and allow a motor to start at a lower speed L1 L2 L3
and then switch it to full speed. There are many

advantages in using this acceleration method.
H 1 2 3 1 2 3
There are four basic types or designs of re- L
I O
duced voltage starters. These are the auto
G W
transformer, primary resistor, wye-delta and H
part winding, each one providing advantages
and disadvantages according to the application.
We’ll see a lot more on the use of these start- TO MOTORS TO MOTORS
HIGH SPEED LOW SPEED
ers and their control circuits in Chapter 9. TERMINALS TERMINALS
Installation and Wiring
Figure 52.
The wiring connections made during installa-
tion of a motor starter must follow the manu-
• MAKE SURE THAT THE
facturers wiring diagram specifications. As we
PROPER VOLTAGE PHASES
know, ladder diagram descriptions will serve
ARE CONNECTED
little purpose, if any, during the wiring and in-
stallation of a motor starter. Many times, espe- • AN UNPREDICTED REVERSAL
cially applications requiring multiple motors to OF PHASE CAN CAUSE
control a line, all starters are housed in motor SERIOUS DAMAGE AND/OR
control centers where they are easily accessed INJURY
and available for troubleshooting.
Of most importance during the installation is to

make sure that the proper voltage phases are Figure 53.
connected to the proper terminals. Remember L1 L2 L3
that the reversal of phases can cause a motor
to change rotating direction and during startup
this could cause damage to equipment or in- 3
jury to personnel (Figure 52).
AUX
Most motor starters are supplied from manu- 2 OL

facturers with some prewiring(Figure 53). These
include the wire that goes from one side of the

starter coil to the normally closed overload con- Figure 54.
tacts and from the other side of the overload

contact to the return or L2 terminal connection
on top of the starter. The other prewired con-
nection is from one side of the auxiliary con-
tacts labelled terminal 3 to the coil. This side of
the coil is where control power is connected to
turn the starter coil on. As will be seen in later
chapters, these connections save a lot of time
VOLTAGE
during installation of three-wire motor control
circuits.
SOLENOIDS Figure 55.

COIL
Solenoids are simply defined as an electromag-
net with a plunger which is actuated when volt-
age is applied (see Figure 54). The solenoid
mechanism is widely used in a variety of com-
ponents; for instance, in the actuation of
contactors, relays and timers, where a plunger
actuator pushes or pulls contacts to make a
connection (see Figure 55). Solenoids are rep-
resented by the symbol shown in Figure 56. We Figure 56.
SOLENOID SYMBOL
generally refer or associate solenoids with other SOL
devices, such as a solenoid clutch or a sole-
noid valve. In fact, solenoid valves are used ex-
tensively in industrial applications. There are
• SOLENOID CLUTCH
several types of solenoid action; however, the
• SOLENOID VALVE
most common one is the horizontal type move-
ment (see Figure 57). This solenoid is com-
posed of a iron rod plunger which is free to move Figure 57. COIL
inside a coil. When voltage is applied and cur-
rent flows through the coil, a magnetic field
causes the plunger to move and align itself with VOLTAGE
the coil. Spring tension is added to the sole-
noid so that when power is removed, the plung-
ers goes back to its off center position.
PLUNGER

The solenoid coil “pulls” more current when it Figure 58.

is first energized (see Figure 58). This current
is called the in-rush or pull current. Once the IN-RUSH
coil has been energized, the coil current drops 10 AMPS
by a factor of 6 to 10 times. This current, which
CURRENT
keeps the plunger in the center, is called the
sealed-in or holding current.
HOLDING
1 AMP
As an electrician or technician, you will be called
VOLTAGE
upon to replace or troubleshoot control com-
ponents which may have a solenoid incorpo- TIME
rated into them. Therefore, it is a good idea to

have some guidelines on the application of a
proper solenoid. Figure 59.
SOLENOID USED IN VALVES

First you must determine if the solenoid is used
to push or pull and the length of the stroke. The SOLENOID
use of the shortest possible stroke length will ACTUATOR
maximize the solenoid performance and will
give a faster operating rate. You must also find IN OUT
the amount of force that needs to be executed
by the solenoid and select the proper model
from the manufacturer. You also need to select VALVE
(OPEN/CLOSE)
the solenoid for the proper duty cycle—that is,
if the operation requires 120 cycles per minute,
you’ll need a solenoid that can perform at least Figure 60.
this duty. You’ll also need to specify the type of

mounting for your application and the type of VOLTAGE
environmental conditions.
Solenoids and Valves
The use of solenoids in valves is perhaps one FLUID

of the most common applications of solenoids
(see Figure 59). Take, for example, the simple
case of a unidirectional or one-way valve to cut
INLET OUTLET
fluid on or off in a system (see Figure 60).

Figure 61.
This solenoid may have a spring retention which
causes the plunger to close against the seat of REPRESENTATION
the valve preventing fluid from passing. When
power is applied, the plunger will be pulled back
and the valve would open. This valve is called
a one-way valve because the flow of fluid is only
SOLENOID VALVE
in one direction. There is one inlet and one out-
let, and fluid goes from the inlet to the outlet.
Let us look briefly at a solenoid valve. We know

Figure 62.
that a solenoid is represented by the symbol B A B A
shown in Figure 61, while a valve is represented
as illustrated in Figure 62. The solenoid part of
the valve is added to the left and represented
SPRING
by the block with a diagonal line rectangle. If SOL P T P T
the solenoid valve is spring loaded, the spring WHEN SOL WHEN SOL
will be represented at the right. As you can see, IS ON IS OFF
the arrows show direction of flow; the right side
of the valve represents the state or direction of
the valve when the solenoid is off, while the left
Figure 63. A P B
section represents the direction of flow in the
valve when the solenoid is on (see Figure 62).
A solenoid valve is said to have inlets and out-

let ports (see Figure 63). Inlets can also be SOL
called pressure ports (P) because that’s where OFF
EXHAUST OR
the pressure oil or air of a hydraulic or pneu- T TANK
matic equipment is connected. Some outlets

can be called “exhaust” ports for air or “tank” NOTES
for oil where the release pressure is directed
from, for example a piston cylinder. These ex-
haust or tank ports can be represented as
shown in Figure 63.
In this valve, when the solenoid is off (Figures

62 and 63), the inlet port labelled P is routed to
the A outlet and the B outlet is routed to the

exhaust or tank. This action is maintained by

the spring which holds the solenoid valve spool. Figure 64.
A P B
When the solenoid is energized (Figures 62 and

64), the spool allows the inlet port to connect
to the B outlet and the A outlet will connect to
the tank. Note that the solenoid pushes the
spring. SOL EXHAUST OR
ON T TANK
As can be seen in the valve (see Figure 63 and
64), in the off state, the pressure inlet goes to
A and B goes to tank. In the on state, the pres-
sure goes to B and A goes to tank. This valve is Figure 65. 4 2
said to be a four-way valve because flow takes
place in four directions. It is also a two-position
valve because the solenoid and spring combi-
nation enable the valve to be in either of two 5 1 3
positions. P
There are two-way, three-way and four-way

Figure 66.
valves among the most popular in industrial
controls. The term “way” deals primarily with the AIR
number of flow directions the valve can have.

In a lot of cases, manufacturers will provide a AIR
four-way valve which could be used as a two- 4 2
way or as a three-way.
As an example (see Figure 65), let’s take a two- 5 1 3

P
position, four-way, five ports valve to operate as a AIR PRESSURE
two-way valve controlling air into a system.
Figure 67.
As a two-way valve (see Figure 66), the pres-
sured air is supplied to the inlet port (port 1) and
goes to the air system through port 2, while the
other 3 ports are plugged. When the solenoid is 4 2
off (Figure 66), air is flowing to the system. When

the solenoid is on (Figure 67), the air is switched
5 1P 3
off and blocked (blocked at port 4). There are
AIR PRESSURE

two ways because the inlet one can go to the

Figure 68.
outlet 2 or the inlet one can be blocked.
AIR
Suppose now that we wanted to use this valve
4 2
as a three-way, in an application which uses
an air cylinder whose piston is used to push a
bad part off a conveyor, and that the cylinder is
5 1 3
returned back to its off position by a spring (Fig- P
ure 68). If we want to connect it so that air will AIR PRESSURE
pass whenever the solenoid gets activated, we

Figure 69.
would connect it as shown in Figure 69. When
the solenoid is off, (Figure 68) the inlet goes to
outlet 2 which is plugged, and the outlet 4 is
AIR
routed to outlet 5 as an air exhaust where the
4 2
air inside the cylinder can be released. When
the solenoid is energized, the air inlet is redi-
rected to port 4 where the air will push the pis-
5 1 3
ton in the cylinder, compress the spring and P
AIR PRESSURE
push the part off the conveyor. When the sole-
noid is turned off again, the valve redirects the
air inside the cylinder to port 5 and the spring Figure 70.
pushes the piston back where the air goes to

the exhaust, thus returning the pushing arm. EXIT AIR
IN
There are 3 flow directions, one for each way.
4 2
If the cylinder had required air on the return

movement instead of using a spring, we would 5 1 3
P
have used a four-way valve (see Figure 70). In
AIR PRESSURE
this case, when the solenoid is off, the inlet is
providing air to outlet 2 which provides air to
push the piston back. The outlet 4 is being sent Figure 71.
to exhaust outlet 5. When the solenoid is on
AIR
(Figure 71), the air inlet is routed to outlet 4, IN
EXIT
thus pushing the cylinder’s piston. The outlet 2 4 2
is now redirected according to the valve to ex-

haust port three. The valve directs flow in four
5 1 3
ways. P
AIR PRESSURE

Other valves use two solenoids which are Figure 72.
spring-return-to-center (see Figure 72). These SOL B A B A SOL

operate the spool of the valve, thus allowing 1 2
another position of the valve where the inlet and
exhaust are not directed anywhere and the
other outlet ports are closed, making it a cen-
P E P E P E
tered by-pass valve. When solenoid 1 is ener-
IN IN IN
gized, the other one is not and the valve con-
nects the inlet (P) to B, and A to the exhaust
port. When the solenoid 1 is off and 2 is on, the
valve switches the inlet (P) to A, and B to the Figure 73.
exhaust port. The springs return the spool to TO

the center position for both solenoids when they CONTROL
CIRCUIT
are both off.This valve is a 4-way, 4-port, 3-po-
SOL
sition valve.
Installing and Troubleshooting a Solenoid L2

L1 L2
SOL
The installation of a simple plunger type sole-
noid is very easy since only two wires are re-
quired (see Figure73). For solenoid valves, the
first step during installation is to make sure that
the body of the valve is properly seated and
installed. Some valves required that they be NOTES
mounted in certain way or direction, as indi-
cated by some arrows in the device. This may
be needed since they may use gravity to help
the opening or closing of valve ports.
After the valve base is installed, the solenoid

coil can be placed over the plunger and the field
wires can be terminated.
Power to the solenoid should not be applied

unless it has been already properly mounted
on the valve plunger. Otherwise, the current will
burn up the coil.

Figure 74.
If you suspect a problem with a solenoid valve, L1 L2
you should try to feel or hear the “click” associ- SOL
ated with the plunger movement as the sole-
noid is energized and de-energized. The fluid
flow should also be changing direction. To check
for voltage to a valve, you can use a voltmeter
to see if proper power is getting to the solenoid
(see Figure 74). If there is power (Figure 75)
and the valve doesn’t change in spite of receiv-
ing the right voltage, it could be that the valve
is corroded and requires replacement or per-
haps that the fluid pressure is too much for the Figure 75.
valve spool to switch, in which case you’ll need

another type of valve.
POWER
Let’s now turn our attention to protective type
switches which, as the name implies, protects • VALVE IS CORRODED
circuits and equipment from potential damage.
• FLUID PRESSURE IS
TOO HIGH
FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS
The distribution of electrical power in a plant NOTES

can be very involved and complicated. And the
circuits being supplied are subject to destruc-
tive overcurrents and short circuits.
To protect these circuits and the power system

from blackouts, prolonged downtime, as well
as from safety and freedom of fire hazards,
fuses and circuit breakers are widely used... But
how do they protect and what do they protect?
Let’s first define what an overcurrent is.
An overcurrent is a result of an overload cur-

rent or a short-circuit or ground fault current.
The overload current is an excessive current,
relative to the normal operating current, which

is confined to the normal conductive path pro- Figure 76.

vided by conductors, other components and
loads, such as motors, that form part of the
power distribution system (see Figure 76). We’ll
cover overload protection of motor loads in a OVERLOAD
little while. A short-circuit or a ground fault cur-

rent is an excessive current which flows out-
side the normal conducting path (Figure 77).
While overloads are most often at no more than

6 or 10 times the normal current levels, short-
circuit currents can be hundreds of times that
of the normal operating current. This high cur- Figure 77.
rent, if not cut off in a matter of a few thou-
sands of a second, will cause damage and de-
struction where severe insulation damage can
occur. Additionally, it can cause melting of metal
and conductors, vaporization of metal, ioniza-
tion of gases and arcing, all of which can result
in a fire.
Fuses
Fuses are used to reliably protect a circuit in

which a short-circuit fault can occur. This pro-
Figure 78.
tection is supplied by the design built into the
fuse which quickly disconnects the power be-
ing provided to a system. Fuses are represented FUSE SYMBOL
by the symbol shown in Figure 78, which is a
close resemblance of its original look. F
As we’ll see in later chapters, inductive loads,

such as squirrel cage motors, will pull between
6 to 10 times the amount of full-load, normal
current when they are first started. For example,
a 200-volt, 10 horsepower motor will pull 193.2
amps for a short duration before it reaches its

full-load amperage current (see Figure 79). In Figure 79.

CURRENT
this case, it pulls 6 times its full-load current. L1 L2 L3 193.2A
When this circuit is protected with fuses against

SWITCH
short circuits and ground faults (Figure 80), the 32.2
3O
fuse must be able to allow this overcurrent situ- 200V
ation without breaking or disconnecting power MOTOR
STARTER
to the motor circuit .
10 HP
There are single element and dual element

fuses each one used in particular applications.
The single-element fuse also called a non-time- Figure 80.
delay fuse, is made of one conducting element CURRENT
193.2A
L1 L2 L3
which has one or more links enclosed in a tube
or cartridge surrounded by arc-quenching filler SWITCH
32.2
material. 3O
200V
MOTOR
Under normal operation, the fuse conduces STARTER
current simply by acting as a conductor (see
10 HP
Figure 81). If an overload occurs and persists
for a short interval, the temperature created by
the overcurrent reaches a level which melts the
link and a gap is formed, thus breaking the cir- Figure 81.
cuit.
Whereas overload currents are normally in the M

one to six or, as in motors 6 to 10 times the
normal current, short-circuit currents are quite
high (see Figure 82). These single-element
STARTER
fuses may be subjected to short-circuit currents
of 50,000 amps or higher. The response to
Figure 82.
these currents must be extremely fast to avoid
L1 L2 L3
serious damage and run the risk of fire. In fact,
the response of a fuse must be within a matter SWITCH
of a few milliseconds, in the event of a large SHORT
ground fault. The single element fuse, when
MOTOR
exposed to these short circuit conditions, will STARTER
10,000
have all of its links melt simultaneously. The
short-circuit current is cut off in less than 1/2 AMMETER

cycle or about 8.3 thousands of a second, long Figure 83.

before the short-circuit current can reach its full SINGLE
value. ELEMENT
STARTER M
Single element fuses provide excellent short RATED 10 HP
circuit protection (Figure 83). However, tempo- 40A
rary and harmless overloads, like those created 193.2A
by motors, may cause nuisance openings, un- 64.2
less the fuses are oversized. This will happen
32.2 OVERLOAD
because, if a fuse is sized to protect a motor
circuit, it will trip during the inrush current
generated at the start (see Figure 83). On the
other hand, if the fuse is allowed to withstand NOTES
the inrush current, it will not provide adequate
protection when a motor is running at full load
current. For example, if the 10-horsepower
motor circuit is fused to the maximum inrush
current of 193.2 amps, it runs the risk of being
burned out if an overcurrent exists at, let’s say,
double its full load current for a period of time
(see curve in Figure 83). The single element
fuse must be sized higher than the full load
current of a motor in a circuit to allow the motor
to start. The proper sizing of non-delay time
fuses is specified according to the National
Electric Code which we cover in Chapter 6.
To protect conductors and circuits from short

circuit and ground faults, we can also use dual-
element time delay fuses. These fuses offer an
additional feature of not only protecting against
short circuits, but they also can protect motors
from overcurrents due to stalling, overload, worn
bearing, improper voltage, single phasing and
other possible causes.
The dual-element time delay fuse works in the

following manner: It has two distinct overload
and short-circuit elements built in. If the fuse Figure 84.
experiences a short circuit overcurrent, the fuse CURRENT

will separate the links in the same fashion as L1 L2 L3 193.2A
the single element did. If the fuse experiences

an overload condition for 10 seconds, at about SWITCH
32.2
5 times the value of the rated fuse, the over- 3O
200V
load element will snap out of the connector, thus
disengaging the fuse from the circuit. MOTOR
STARTER
This fuse allows motor protection from overload- 10 HP
ing. For example, if we had a dual element fuse

rated at 40 amps protecting a circuit of our 10-
horsepower motor, we could sustain the over- Figure 85.
load inrush current of 193 amps for a little over
10 seconds before the fuse would open (Fig- DUAL STARTER
ELEMENT
ure 84).
In normal motor control circuit applications, the M

dual-element, time-delay fuse could serve as
an invaluable motor-running backup protection
BACK- UP
to the motor starter overloads (Figure 85). This PROTECTION STARTER
could be of particular help if a phase is lost or if PROTECTION
the magnetic starter’s overload contacts fail to
open, but the power contacts remain closed NOTES
because a severe overload has melted the con-
tacts. In this case, the backup protection pro-
vided by the dual-element fuse will save the
motor and circuit.
If, during troubleshooting, a fuse is found to be

open, it is a good idea to have it cut in half with
a saw and determine if the cause of the open-
ing was due to a short circuit or an overload.
This could help tremendously to determine the
source of a problem.

Figure 86.
Fuse Curves
6
As you’ll see later in Chapter 6, when we talk
CURRENT
about the National Electric Code, non-time de-
3 300%
lay and dual-element, time-delay fuses are
rated, under normal conditions, in the range of
300 and 175 percent of the full load current of
motors. This gives, for example, a non-delay
TIME
time fuse only three times its rating to allow for
the start of a motor (see Figure 86). And we
know that a motor may take at least six times Figure 87.
the full load current when it is first started. The
reason is that fuses do not open instantly at a 100,000
CURRENT IN AMPERES
current just above the fuse rating.
10,000
3,000
As the graph in Figure 87 describes a single- 1,000
500 TIME-DELAY
element and dual-element, time-delay fuses,
100
NON-TIME DELAY
rated at 100 amps, it will take 10 seconds for
.2
the time-delay to open at a current of 500 amps, 10
.01 .1 1 10 100 1,000
whereas it will take 2 tenths of a second for the TIME IN SECONDS
non-delay fast acting fuse. You could use a non-

delay fuse to protect a circuit if the motor in-
rush current could be sustained by the fuse NOTES
during the inrush time. If the motor current
passes this limit, the fuse will open. If this is the
case, you may use a little larger fuse, up to 4
times the full load current according to code,
instead of three times, to protect the circuit.
Otherwise, you’d be better off selecting a dual-
element, time-delay fuse and provide adequate
time for the inrush current.
Other Advantages of Dual Elements

in Motor Control Circuits
Let’s take a quick example using both single-

element and double-element fuses for our 10

Figure 88.
horsepower, 200-volt motor (see Figure 88).
STARTER
SWITCH
This motor has a full load amperage rating of F
32.2 amps. According to the National Electric M
Code, as we’ll see in Chapter 6, we could se- 10 Hp, 200V

32.2 FLA
SELECTION
lect a single-element, non-time-delay fuse of SINGLE-ELEMENT DUAL-ELEMENT
90 amps to protect the circuit, according to rule (NON-TIME DELAY) (TIME DELAY)
90A 40A
430-52 of the code. The fuse curve shown in (NEC 430-52) (NEC 430-32)
• NO MOTOR O/L • MOTOR O/L
Figure 89 for this non-time delay should be PROTECTION PROTECTION
enough to let the motor start for a short dura-
tion. Remember that fuses, according to the Figure 89.
curves, can allow motors to start if the motor
start-current curve does not trip the fuse. This
CURRENT
90 amps fuse does not provide protection for
the motor under overload (shown in dotted line
FUSE
in the motor curve of Figure 89). Therefore, it OVERLOAD
MOTOR CONDITION
would require overload protection at the starter.
TIME
If we want to use a dual-element, time-delay
fuse to protect the motor from overload, as well
Figure 90.
as the circuit from short circuits, we would se-
STARTER
SWITCH
lect, according to Article 430-32 of the code, a F
40-amp fuse. This fuse will protect the circuit M

against short circuits, allow the motor to start
600% MOTOR
when it pulls the starting inrush current, and
CURRENT
DAMAGE CURVE
protect it from overload conditions. In fact, if TIME
100% DELAY
motor overload relays are used in the motor OVERLOAD CURVE
HEATER CURVE
control circuit, the dual-element fuses will serve TIME
as running motor backup protection in case the
overload relays are the wrong size or fail to
Figure 91.
operate. The graph illustrated in Figure 90 STARTER
SWITCH F
shows the motor damage curve and the pro-
tecting curve provided by the motor overload 100A
M
90A
heaters. The dual element curve is shown as NON-TIME PROTECTION
DELAY
backup protection. Additionally, the disconnect SWITCH STARTER
F
switch used in the dual-element circuit will be
M
of smaller current-carrying capacity than the 60A
40A
one in the 90-amp circuit, therefore reducing TIME DELAY PROTECTION
BACK-UP
space and money (see Figure 91). Remember, PROTECTION

a disconnect switch rating must be equal to or NOTES

larger than the amperage rating of the fuse pro-
tecting the circuit.
Fuse Types
There are several types of fuses available ac-

cording to the base it mounts in or the socket
or adapter, as well as the interrupting current
ratings. The basic division of fuse sizes is for
600 volts or less and the other for voltages
above 600 volts.
Among fuses, there are also “classes”, such as

H, K, R, G, J, L and T which are rated for spe- Figure 92. CONNECTED
cific voltages and currents, depending on your CB
application. These fuses will be placed in their
respective holders. For example, these class R
rejection clips will accept only class R type
fuses.
DISCONNECTED
Circuit Breakers
CB
A circuit breaker, as defined by NEMA, is a

device that opens and closes a circuit by non-
automatic means if used as a disconnect, or
that opens the circuit automatically on a prede-
termined overcurrent created by an overload
Figure 93.
or a short circuit. The circuit breaker trips a
mechanism inside which disconnects the cir- CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
INTERUPTER BREAKER
cuit from the overcurrent condition (see Figure (NON-AUTO) (AUTO)
92). The basic part of a circuit breaker, namely
L1
a circuit interrupter, is shown in Figure 93 for a
three-pole circuit. This section of the breaker, L2
which is the non-automatic, is followed by the
automatic breaker section representation. L3

Figure 94. TRIP

DISCONNECT ELEMENT
Circuit breakers use two types of tripping ele- L1
ments, a bimetal or thermal and a magnetic L2
and, in some cases, both. These devices may L3

INVERSE TIME
trip in an instantaneous manner or in what’s – THE HIGHER THE CURRENT
THE LESS TIME TO TRIP
called “inverse time” fashion (see Figure 94).
The inverse time simply means that the time it 20A
Figure 95. L1
takes the breaker to trip is inversely proportional
L2
to the amount of current. The higher the cur-
rent, the less time it takes to trip. For instance, L3
CURRENT
a 20-amp breaker may take several minutes to 25A
CURRENT
trip a current of 25 amps (Figure 95). Whereas, 50A
if the same breaker is subject to a 50-amp cur- Figure 96.

rent, it will trip in a fraction of a second. TRIP
BAR
TRIP
BAR
TO TO
LOAD LOAD
The bimetal breaker responds in an inverse time LINE LINE
manner. As the current passes, it bends the CURRENT

500%
bimetal and makes it trip (see Figure 96). The 135%
10 SEC TIME 30 MIN

magnetic type has an electromagnet element
which responds to a high current generated by
Figure 97.
a short circuit. The activation in a magnetic
breaker is instantaneous (see Figure
97). LINE
TO
LOAD LINE
TO
LOAD
CURRENT
Therefore, the most desirable is the breaker with TRIP

POINT
bimetal and magnetic mechanisms (see Fig- .01 1 10 SECONDS
ure 98). One element that responds to time de-

lay and one that responds instantaneously. The Figure 98.
symbols shown in Figure 99 represent the ther-
mal-magnetic circuit breaker. Note that one side LINE
TO
LOAD
represents the bimetal or thermal mechanism MAGNETIC

CURRENT
250%
while the other one represents the magnetic THERMAL
component. .01 60 SECONDS
Figure 99. L1
OVERLOADS
L2
L3
As we have mentioned before, motors are re-
THERMAL-MAGNETIC
quired to have protection against overload situ- CIRCUIT BREAKER

ations when the motor draws excessive current Figure 100.

for a period of time (see Figure 100). By draw-
STARTER
ing excessive current, we don’t mean when it SWITCH F
first starts off where the inrush current is ex- M
pected. This excessive current occurs when the
motor is overloaded due, perhaps, to a motor
CURRENT
MOTOR
stopping rotation because of a jamming condi- PROTECTION
CURVE
tion in the line. When overloading occurs in a
motor, it will produce overheating, resulting in
TIME
a deterioration of its insulation, and cause dam-
age to the motor. A motor can also overheat if it
is started and stopped too frequently.
Figure 101.
OVERLOAD
To meet the protection requirements of a mo- SYMBOL
tor, overload relays provide: 1—a time delay to
allow the harmless temporary overcurrent dur-
ing start up; 2— tripping capability of the motor
circuit once a dangerous level of overcurrent OL
has been detected for a period of time and 3—
they provide a means for resetting the circuit.
Figure 102.
SINGLE DOUBLE THREE

Overload relays are represented by the sym- POLE POLE POLE
bol shown in Figure101, although you’ll also see
them represented with the S symbol. Overloads
illustrated in Figure 102 are available for single-
pole, one-phase, for two-pole, also one-phase,
and for three-pole, three-phase motor circuits.
M M M
There are two main types of overload relays:
the mechanical, operated by a heater element,
and the solid state.
Overload Components and Operation OVERLOAD RELAY
LINE
HEATER
LINE
HEATER
• MEASURE HEAT
The assembly of the overload relay is formed GENERATED BY
by the heater coil, also called overload heater OL
CONTACTS
CURRENT
and the contact mechanism (see Figure 103).

Although there are different types of heaters TO MOTOR TO MOTOR
by different manufacturers, all of them work

under the same principle of measuring the heat Figure 105.

HEATER SOLDER
generated by the current passing through (see LOAD TERMINALS
Figure 104). There are two design types which

RESET
are commonly used. These are the eutectic
OPERATING
melting alloy and the bimetal overload relays. SPRING
RESET
The eutectic melting alloy overload uses a RATCHET PAWL
heater element which surrounds a solder-like

mechanism that holds the pin of a rachet wheel
Figure 106. RACHET
element (see Figure 105). The term eutectic PIN SOLDER
simply means low-melting temperature solder.
When excessive current passes through the
heater, the solder will melt and will transform
into a liquid state very quickly without going RACHET
WHEEL
through a plastic range (see Figure 106). This
HEATER
will cause the rachet wheel to release a pawl it
is holding. Once the pawl is released with pres-
HEATER SOLDER
Figure 107.
sure of the loaded spring, the normally closed
LOAD TERMINALS
contacts will open (Figure 107). When the sol-
RESET
der-like melting alloy has cooled down to a solid
state, the overload relay contacts can be reset OPERATING
SPRING
to the normal state. If you try to reset it while the RESET
alloy is still liquid, the contacts will open because

the rachet will not be able to hold the pawl mecha-
nism.
Figure 108. LOAD
HEATER TERMINALS
The bimetal overload relay operates in a very
similar manner, except that it uses a bimetal BIMETAL
strip made of two bonded metals which expand OPERATER
with heat (see Figure 108). This heat is the re-

sult of overload current created by the heater CONTROL CIRCUIT
TERMINALS
element and transferred to the bimetal element.
Figure 109. LOAD
When the overload condition is detected, the HEATER TERMINALS
bimetal element will bend and open the nor-

mally closed overload contacts. (Figure 109) BIMETAL
OPERATER
After the bimetal has cooled off from the heat DEFLECTION
WITH TEMP.
created by the current, it may return to its origi- INCREASE
nal position automatically or manually, depend- CONTROL CIRCUIT

TERMINALS

ing on the assembly. It is important to mention

that the automatic resetting feature of these
overloads is restricted, according to Article 430-
Figure 110.
43 of the National Electric Code, because of
potential damage to personnel and equipment
due to an automatic restart of a motor (Figure
110).
These overload relays will disconnect the mo-

tor from the circuit as soon as the heater coils
detect enough current to disengage the nor-
mally closed contacts (see Figure 111). There-
fore, it is of extreme importance that the heater
elements be properly sized. We’ll see more on
Figure 111.
this in a short while.
The solid state overload relay in a motor circuit

TO
is represented by the symbol shown in Figure CONTROL
112. This overload relay provides the same ac- CIRCUIT
tion as the heaters. It detects overcurrents by
sensing the AC current magnetically from the
motor leads which pass through its current M
loops. This overload assembly provides auto-
matic reset, therefore making necessary addi-
tional circuitry to provide for the manual reset.
The greatest advantage that it provides is that Figure 112.
ELECTRONIC
this assembly is unaffected by ambient tem-
OVERLOAD RELAY
perature as heater coils are, thus eliminating
nuisance tripping during hot days.
Sizing Proper Heater Coils

M
The National Electric Code specifies the
amount of protection that must be provided to
a motor. For example, a three-phase, AC in-
duction motor with a service factor of 1.15 would
required, according to code, three overloads

selected to trip at no more than 125% of the Figure 113.
motor’s full load current rating. "A" Underwriter's Requirements

"B" Melting Alloy With 'H' Heaters (Standard Trip)
"C" Bimetal With 'E' Heaters (Standard Trip)
The selection of the heater component part is
your responsibility and its sizing is indeed of
tremendous importance. The standard tripping
% of Trip Current
curves of heater elements are specified at an
ambient temperature of 40 degrees Celsius to
correspond with the temperature at which most
motors are specified for ambient conditions.
Underwriters Laboratory requires, at a tempera-
ture of 40 degrees, that an overload relay trip
in 4 hours of operation at 100% the trip cur-
rent, in 8 minutes at 200%, and in 30 seconds
at 600% (see Figure 113). Figure 114.
Heater elements are rated by NEMA accord-

ing to the amount of time it will take to melt the
alloy when the motor is drawing 6 times the full
load current. These heaters are grouped in three
categories which are class 10, class 20 and CLASS
class 30. The class 10 will melt the alloy in 10
second, the class 20 in 20 seconds, while the
class 30 will melt it in 30 seconds (see Figure
114).
NOTES
Class 10 heaters should be used in applica-
tions to protect hermetic motors like compres-
sors in air conditioning systems, submersible
pumps and other motors with short locked-ro-
tor times. The class 20 heaters are the most
popular, being used in general applications,
while the class 30 should be used in motor ap-
plications with high inertia loads, such as driv-
ing grinding wheels, fly wheels and others.
Manufacturers provide tables which give you a
reference for the use of the proper heater for a
motor pulling the indicated amount of current.

Just make sure that the heater you are refer- Figure 115.
TOTAL HEAT REQUIRED TO TRIP OVERLOAD RELAY
encing to the table has the proper current for it,
whether it is already calculated at 125% the HEAT GENERATED
HEAT BY MOTOR CURRENT HEAT
full load current or if it is calculated without the GENERATED GENERATED
BY MOTOR BY MOTOR
125% required by the code. CURRENT CURRENT
AMBIENT
Effects of Ambient Temperature HEAT
AMBIENT
HEAT
Thermal overloads are sensitive, as we have A B C
AMBIENT
HEAT
mentioned, to heat and they do get affected by
the ambient temperature. For example, if the
total heat required by the overload relay to trip Figure 116. LOAD
HEATER TERMINALS
is represented as in Figure 115 (left), and the
ambient temperature creates part of the heat,
BIMETAL
then the rest of the heat is left for overcurrents
due to an overload. If the motor draws the full
load current for a long period, the overload re-
lay will trip. Now, if the ambient heat is as shown
in the middle of Figure 115, then the overload Compensating Bimetal Strip
will trip at less overcurrent, creating a nuisance LOAD
Figure 117.
tripping. Conversely, if the ambient heat is as HEATER TERMINALS
much as shown at the far right of Figure 115,

then the amount of heat necessary by the BIMETAL
heater will be as much as indicated at the top

right of Figure 115, however, requiring more cur-
rent than necessary to protect the motor. This
can result in the burning of the motor due to
Compensating Bimetal Strip
overheating because of too much current. Figure 118.
Multiplier For Ultimate Trip Current
1.3
Bimetal overloads may provide a compensat- 1.2
ing bimetal strip which is added to the assem- 1.1
bly (see Figure 116). This compensating strip 1.0
allows the relay to adjust (Figure 117) for
0.9
changes in ambient temperature “at the loca-
0.8
tion” of the overload assembly, which is usually
0.7
close to the motor starter.
0.6
The curve shown in Figure 118 indicates the 0.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
relationship of ambient temperature versus the Ambient Temperatrue Degrees C

trip current. For example, at 40 degrees C, a NOTES

trip current of 10 amps will trip the heater, while
at 60 degrees, the same heater will trip at 8
amps. At 20 degrees, the heater will trip at about
11.5 amps. A compensating overload relay will
make the curve essentially flat across the dif-
ferent temperatures.
Therefore, if you have an application where the

motor is in a constant ambient and the over-
load is in a varying ambient, you should use a
compensating overload relay.
In this chapter, we have covered important in-

formation about electromagnetic control
switches which control and activate loads. We
will also explain the protective switches which
are used to protect conductors from short cir-
cuits and ground faults, as well as to protect
motor from overcurrents due to overloads. The
information learned so far will be of tremendous
help for you in the upcoming chapters.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.- True/False. Electromagnetic devices use a

magnet and electric power to actuate a
switching mechanism.
2.- ______ consists of a coil which moves an

armature to open or close one or more sets
of normally open or normally closed con-
tacts.
a– Motor starters
b– Relay
c– Solenoid
d– Dual-element fuse
3.- ______ relay differs from the standard coil

in that, after power is removed, its contacts
will remain in the ______ state.
a– Opposite
b– Latch/Unlatch
c– Two-way
d– Same
4.- True/False. The latching relay is used when

we want to maintain the output latched dur-
ing a power failure.
5.- The first thing to do when troubleshooting a

relay is:
a– To change it because it does not work.
b– To check that proper voltage is getting to
the relay
c– To place it in another circuit to see it it
works.
d– To remove it, clean it and place it to see
if it now works.

6.- Control relays are normally used to provide

______.
a– Extra power when needed due to their

special construction.
b– Protection against arching.
c– Fast speed reaction time
d– Interlocking of control circuits.
7.- True/False. It is possible for a relay to oper-

ate some of its contacts while others are
faulty.
8.- Arcing is much ______ pronounced during

the opening of the contacts because cur-
rent is already flowing through the contacts.
a– Less
b– More
9.- The two types of motor starters are ______

and ______.
a– Manual
b– Cadmium oxide
c– Magnetic
d– Anti-arcing
10.- ______ provide protection to the motor with

overload relays.
a– Contactors
b– Starters

11.- Also called across-the-line starter. The

______
a– Two-speed starter
b– Full-voltage starter
c– Reduced-voltage starter
d– Multi-channel voltage starter
12.- Which one is the symbolic representation

of a solenoid? ______
a–
b–
c–
d–
13.- Match the following terms:
a– Inlet ports ______ Pressure ports

b– Outlet Ports ______ Exhaust ports
14.- The valve shown in Figure 1 is a ______. Figure 1

4 2
a– Two-position, three-way, four ports
b– Four-position, Four-way, four ports
c– Two-position, four-way, five ports
d– Five-position, four-way, four ports 5 1 3
P

15.- True/False. An overcurrent is a result of an

overload current or a short-circuit or ground
fault current.
16.- The main reason fuses are used is to pro-

tect ______.
a– A motor from overloads

b– A circuit from short-circuit faults
c– The entire branch circuit
d– The main switchboard
17.- ______, also known as non-time delay fuse.
a– Single element
b– Dual element
c– Two-way
d– Full-load amperage
18.- True/False. Dual-element time-delay fuses

could also be used to protect conductors
and circuits from short circuit and ground
faults.
19.- ______ is a device that opens and closes a

circuit by non-automatic means if used as a
disconnect.
a– A solenoid
b– A circuit breaker
c– A current-carrying capacity switch
d– A thermal overload

20.- Circuit breakers use two types of tripping

elements which are ______ and ______.
a– Bimetal or thermal
b– Class R rejection clips
c– Magnetic
d– Static
21.- True/False. The activation in a magnetic

breaker is instantaneous,
22.- Overload relays are used to protect ______.
a– A motor
b– A circuit
c– A branch circuit
d– A complete busway
23.- True/False. The eutectic melting alloy over-

load uses a heater element which surrounds
a solder-like mechanism that holds the pin
of a ratchet wheel element.
24.- ______ This assembly is unaffected by

ambient temperature.
a– Heater coils overload relay

b– Solid-state overload relay
c– Closed-end overload relay
d– Cadmium-oxide overload relay
25.- True/False. When a motor is in a constant

ambient and the overload is in a varying
ambient temperature, you should not use a
compensating overload relay.

ANSWERS
1.- True
2.- b– Relay
3.- b– Latch/Unlatch
d– same
4.- True
5.- b– To check that proper voltage is getting to it
6.- d– Interlocking of control circuits
7.- True
8.- b– More
9.- a– Manual
c– Magnetic
10.- b– Starters
11.- b– Full-voltage starter
12.- c–
13.- a– Pressure ports

b– Exhaust ports
14.- c– Two position, four way, five ports
15.- True
16.- b– A circuit from short-circuit faults

17.- a– Single element
18.- True
19.- b– A circuit breaker
20.- a– Bimetal or thermal

c– Magnetic
21.- True
22.- a– A motor
23.- True
24.- b– Solid-state overloads relay
25.- False. You should always use compensat-

ing relay when ambient temperatures are
different. This way you will avoid unneces-
sary tripping and still provide protection to
the motor.

Chapter 5—Understanding Electrical Control Circuits
MODULE
CHAPTER 5 5
L1 L2 L3

T1 T2 T3 162
OVERVIEW
This chapter explains electrical control circuits

and how to apply them in a circuit.
This chapter explains ladder, wiring, and lay-

out diagrams, how to read them and properly
document them. During the discussion of lad-
der diagrams, you are presented with the in-
put-logic output components of all circuits and
the way to implement desired control outputs.
This chapter discusses the addition of memory

to a circuit, interlocking and the interpretation
of more complex control circuits.
OBJECTIVES
• Define the components of a control cir-

cuit.
• Know the representation and use of lad der,

wiring and layout diagram.
• Understand in detail ladder diagrams, their

basic rules and representation.
• The AND-OR-NOT logic components of a

control circuit and how to use this logic to
implement a circuit.
• How to add memory to a circuit.
• Know sealing circuits, ands the use of me-

chanical, push button and contact interlocks.
• Properly design and implement layout dia-

grams.

NOTES
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we’re going to cover the control

circuits which utilize all the devices we have
studied in the previous three chapters. In fact,
all these devices are the ones which, when in-
terconnected, form a control circuit. But what
do we mean by a control circuit? What is a con-
trol circuit?
A control circuit is any circuit which has as its

load device the operating coil of a magnetic
motor starter, a magnetic contractor, a relay, a
pilot light or any other load, such as a solenoid.
It is also, in general, a circuit which exercises
control over one or more other circuits.
The elements of a control circuit include all the

equipment and devices which are involved with
the function of the circuit itself.
These elements also include conductors, race-

ways, source of energy supplying the circuit,
overcurrent protecting devices, all the relay
coils, contactors and starters, as well as all
switching devices which govern the operation
of the machine or process being controlled.
These control circuits are represented in elec-

trical drawings or diagrams which essentially
give you the complete storytelling of the pro-
cess or machine control. From the sequence
of operation and instructions to the location of
the components which form the control circuit.

These diagrams are called Figure 1.
• Ladder or line diagrams LADDER DIAGRAM

• Layout and connection diagrams
• Wiring diagrams STEP 1
In this chapter, we’ll cover the ladder and lay-

STEP 2
out diagrams while the wiring diagram will be
covered in the next chapter, primarily because
it relates more to motor starters and motor con-
trols.
Ladder diagrams got their name because they

show the sequence of operations in separate Figure 2.
lines which resemble the look of the rungs of a
ladder as we know them. One step from the L1 L2
top leads to the next step down and so on (see
CR
Figure 1).
The ladder diagram provides two important

pieces of information, the first one being the
power sources, and the second one how the
current flows through the various parts of the
circuits such as contacts, limit switches, push
buttons, etc.
Figure 3
A ladder diagram is intended to give you the L1 L2 L3
basic operation of the control system (see Fig-
ure 2). A layout and connection diagram gives
the physical placement or location of all the
components in a control panel, while a wiring
diagram, shown in Figure 3, for a magnetic
starter, is intended to show you the actual physi-
cal relationship of all the various devices that
form the control system. Note that the heavy
lines are used to represent power circuits while
the thin lines are used for control circuits. We’ll
go over wiring diagrams in more detail in the
next chapter. T1 T2 T3

Let’s go now into more details about ladder dia- Figure 4.
grams and some basic rules that must be fol-

lowed in the implementation and interpretation L1 L2 L3
of electrical control ladder diagrams.

CON C
In fact, when you are reading or interpreting THREE POLE SWITCH
ladder diagrams, it is important that you under- REPRESENTATION

stand these basic rules. There may be many
TO TO
ways to connect or wire a circuit, but in the elec- L1 LIGHT
SOLENOID VALVE
trical industry there is an established set of sym-
bols universally known and rules on how these
ladder circuits must be laid out.
Figure 5.
LADDER DIAGRAMS
L1 L2
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
In previous chapters, when we explained each
of the components used for control, we de-
scribed the symbols that were used for their
representation in control circuits—in other
words, in ladder diagrams (see Figure 4).
PUSH BUTTON PB1 PILOT LIGHT PL1
First, let’s look at a very simple ladder circuit in

pictorial form in which we have a normally open
push button connected to a pilot light (see Fig- NOTES
ure 5). One side of the push button is connected
to the power side which is L1, while the other
part of the push button is connected to the load.
In this case, the light. The pilot light, in order to
complete the circuit, must be connected to the
L2 line.
In this simple pictorial ladder circuit, shown in

Figure 5, we can see that if the push button is
pressed, it will provide power to the light via the
connecting wire and therefore turn the light on.
If the push button is released, then the light will
lose its power and will turn off. When there is
power going from L1 to L2, connecting or giv-
ing power to each device, we say that there is
power continuity in the circuit.

Figure 6.
In fact, continuity is said to exist if there is a L1 L2
POWER CONTINUITY
power path from left to right (see Figure 6).
POWER PATH
We know that it would be very difficult to repre-
sent all the control devices in a pictorial man-
ner, and that is why we use their appropriate
symbols in an electrical ladder diagram.
By simply replacing each of the components, Figure 7.

in Figure 7, in this case the push button and L1 L2
POWER CONTINUITY
the pilot light, by their respective symbols, we
would obtain a cleaner, more descriptive cir-
cuit (see Figure 8). This control circuit is under-
stood in the same manner; if the push button is
pushed, it will provide power continuity to the PUSH BUTTON PB1 PILOT LIGHT PL1
light which will glow. If the push button is re-

leased, the light will be off. In the ladder dia-
grams in Figure 8, we place a large, bold node
where there are actual wiring connections when Figure 8.
two wires cross each other. L1 L2
This is also better shown in the ladder circuit of PB1 PL1

Figure 9, where the contacts CR1-1 are con-
nected across the start push button.
PUSH BUTTON PILOT LIGHT

Let’s now go over some of the basic rules that
have been established throughout the years on
electrical ladder diagrams.
Figure 9.
Basic Rules of Electrical Ladder Diagrams
L1 L2
It is important for electricians and technicians

PB1
to master the reading, interpreting and keep- PB1 CR1
ing of the basic rules we’re about to cover so
that everyone at your plant can follow a stan-
dard format.
CR1-1

Among these basic rules we have: NOTES
• The use of one load per ladder

diagram line
• The requirement that loads be
connected to the L2 line
• That control and switching devices be
connected between the hot, or L1,
and the operating coils or loads
• That each line be numbered for easy
reference in the ladder diagram
One Load Per Line
The one load per line rule simply states that

only one load may be connected between L1
and L2 for each line. For instance, if we have a
simple switch controlling a light and also a
heater, we would not connect the switch to the
Figure 10.
light and to the heater as shown in Figure 10.
In here, two loads, the light and the heater, are ONE LOAD PER LINE
both in the same ladder line between L1 and
L1 120 VOLTS L2
L2. The desired function in here is that both
loads are turned on when the switch is closed.
So, to properly apply the one load per line rule,
H
we would have to redraw the circuit as shown
in Figure 11, where there is only one load per
line between L1 and L2. When the switch is
closed, both loads will be energized or turned
on.
Figure 11.
In the configuration shown in Figure 10, when
ONE LOAD PER LINE
the switch closes, neither of the two loads will
receive the entire 120 volts which are required L1 L2
for proper operation and, therefore, will result

in a fault.
H
In the correct configuration, as shown in Fig-

ure 11, both loads get full voltage between L1
Figure 12.
and L2 which is required to properly operate.
LOADS CONNECTED TO L2
If we place a voltmeter across each of the loads,
L1 L2
we would read 120 volts AC. S1 SOL1
Loads Connected to L2
PB1 CR1
As can be seen so far, all the loads, such as
control relays, pilot lights and solenoids are
connected to L2, completing the circuit from L1
through the control and switching devices such
as limit switches, push buttons and relay con- Figure 13.
tacts (see Figure 12). The reason why loads
are connected to L2, and not as illustrated in
L1 L2
Figure 13, is because we always want to switch SOL1 S1
the power or hot lead to the loads for safety
reasons, as opposed to switching the return line
as described in Figure 12. In Figure 13, the so-
lenoid is always powered, waiting for a switch
connection to the return L2 line.
One small exception to the rule, that the loads Figure 14.
be connected in the ladder diagram directly to LOADS CONNECTED TO L2

L2, is in the case of motor starters (Figure 14). L1 L2
MOTOR
S1 STARTER
The graphic ladder diagram representation for
the coils of motor starters is slightly different
than a regular control relay simply because of OVERLOADS
the overload contacts.
We know that magnetic motor starters contain Figure 15.

the normally closed overloads which are indi- OVERLOAD
L1 CONTACTS L2
rectly connected to the coil through some wires
placed when the starter was manufactured. M
S1
To get a better idea, let’s look at a simple, single-
phase manual starter with overloads. In the one-
phase motor starter shown in Figure 15, we can

see that the pilot devices are connected to the Figure 16.
motor and to L2 through the overloads to com- LOADS CONNECTED TO L2

plete the circuit.
L1 L2
S1 OL
It would be logical to represent the ladder dia- M
gram equivalents of this circuit as shown in Fig-
ure 16, where the overloads follow the switch.
However, in control circuits with overloads, the
Figure 17.
ladder representation is shown as in Figure 17,
where the overloads are shown after the motor
load. L1 L2
S1 OL
M
As we’ll see later on, the decision that governs
the response of a load is represented on the
left side of the load in the ladder diagram. The
overloads do not really decide on whether to
turn on or off the motor load, but rather they
monitor in a protective manner the operation Figure 18.
STARTER
of the motor. That’s why, if we represent the COIL
overloads on the right of the motor, the motor
is really the one which controls the status of
the overloads. If the motor starts to pull to much OLs
current, an overload will trip and its contacts
will open.
The number of overload contacts between the Figure 19.

starter coil and L2 depend on the type of starter L1 L2
and the power used in the circuit (see Figure

M
18). For instance, a three-phase starter may
have three normally closed overload sets of
contacts in a ladder diagram, as illustrated in
Figure 19. To avoid confusion and simplify the
labeling in a ladder diagram, we represent Figure 20.
L1 all L2
these overloads as shown in Figure 20, where
S1 OLs
the mark all OLs or all overloads are repre-
M
sented from the starter coil to the L2 connec-
tion.

Figure 21. DEVICES BETWEEN L1 AND LOADS
L1 L2
Control Devices Between L1 and Loads PB1
PL
All the control switching or pilot devices that PB2
determine the operation of an operating coil,

control relay, or a load are connected and
shown in a ladder diagram from L1 (Figure 21).
Figure 22.
L1 PB2 L2
These devices are wired in several “logic” con- PB1 MCR
1
figurations, as we’ll see later, so that the proper 2
MCR1
PB3 TMR1
PS1
activation of the load or control devices is 3
TMR1
achieved. For instance, either of the two push 4
10 SEC
FS1
buttons in Figure 21 will turn the light on when 5
TS1 SOL1
pushed. Regardless of how all the devices are CR1

6
arranged in a circuit, they must be connected TMR1 CR1 LS1 SOL2
7
between L1 and the loads. CR2
8
CR1 TMR2
Each Line Numbered 9
CR3
10
TMR2 PS2 CR2 SOL3
Each line in the ladder diagram is identified or 11
referenced by a line number (see Figure 22). CR2-1 LS2

12 M
These lines are marked one, two, three and so
on depending on the size of the control sys-
Figure 23.
tem. These lines start at the top and read down L1 PB2 L2
PB1 MCR
in the circuit. A line can be a complete path 1
MCR1
from L1 to L2, each line, of course, containing 2
3
a load. Note that lines three and four have the PB3 TMR1
PS1
4
same load, and two different line numbers are TMR1 10 SEC
5
assigned because there are two complete paths FS1
TS1 SOL1
to the timer, from L1 to L2. An independent line 6
CR1
number will also be assigned to a set of con- 7
tacts, coming perhaps from a master control 8

TMR1 CR1 LS1 SOL2
relay (see Figure 23). Line numbering is impor- CR2

9
tant for understanding the function of a circuit CR1 TMR2
because it will reference also the use of control 10

CR3
relay contacts in a circuit used for interlocking. 11

TMR2 PS2 CR2 SOL3
We’ll see more on this a little later. 12
CR2-1 LS2
13 M

It has been proven that following and sticking NOTES

with standard ladder diagram rules are of tre-
mendous benefit when interpreting a control
circuit. This is especially true when the circuit
you are reviewing or troubleshooting has all its
references up to date. There are situations,
however, in which changes to a machine must
be performed and you may be assigned to the
task of making changes to a control circuit of a
particular machine, or even design from scratch
such a control circuit. In this case, not only fol-
lowing the rules of ladder diagrams will be help-
ful, but also a knowledge on how to generate
and create the outputs necessary for proper
operation. With this in mind, let’s look at the
composition and creation of control output
based on desired inputs or situations.
SECTIONS OF A CONTROL CIRCUIT
A control circuit is composed of three basic sec-

tions:
• Input section
• A logic or decision section
• Output section
From L1 to L2, these sections can be repre-

sented as in Figure 24, where one or more con-
Figure 24.
trol and switching devices will control the ac-
tion of a load.
L1 L2
Input Section INPUT LOGIC OUTPUT
The input signals that are used in the definition

of a ladder circuit can be generated in a manual
or automatic manner. By manual, we mean that
the input signal is activated by a person such

as an operator. These include push buttons, foot

Figure 25.
switches, selector switches and others (see
Figure 25). INPUT SECTION
L1 L2
• MANUAL
An automatic signal generation is one which –OPERATOR INPUT LOGIC OUTPUT
corresponds to the input information provided ACTIVATED

by sensing switches which give position, vol- • AUTOMATIC
ume and flow or other kinds of relevant infor- –PROCESS/MACHINE
ACTIVATED
mation about the process or machine.
Figure 26.
For instance, a float switch (Figure 26) which is
activated automatically when water reaches a
desired level can be considered an automatic
control. TANK
OF
FLOAT WATER
Regardless of whether these signals are SWITCH
manual or automatic, they do not operate as
an output load, thus they perform no work. They
simply provide information—input information
to be used to make a decision on the behavior
of an output control. Figure 27.
Logic Section
LOGIC SECTION
• DECISION L1 L2
The logic section of a circuit is considered as MAKER
INPUT LOGIC OUTPUT
the decision maker where, depending upon how • OUTPUT
we want an output to take place, the wiring or WIRING
interconnections of the input signals will be
performed. We’ll cover in detail this area in a
little while (see Figure 27).
Figure 28.
Output Section OUTPUT SECTION

• RESPONSE OF
The output action is the result of a circuit re- A CIRCUIT
L1 L2
sponding to the input conditions to render, ac- TO INPUT
CONDITIONS INPUT LOGIC OUTPUT
cording to a logic, an output device which per- AND LOGIC
forms an action, whether directly or indirectly • DIRECT OR
(see Figure 28). INDIRECT ACTION

Direct action outputs include control relays, Figure 29.

solenoids, pilot lights and others which are ac- L1 L2
tually operated directly from the input signals
according to a logic sequence. These outputs MOTOR
STARTER
perform the work in a direct manner.
STARTER
TO
Indirect action includes devices such as mag- LOGIC
netic motor starters and high current heating
elements.
L2 POWER TO
MOTOR
This output action is indirect because, like in
the case of a motor starter, even though the
starter coil is energized, it is not the one which
actually starts the motor that causes output Figure 30.
work. The coil, when energized, makes the

L1 CR L2
contacts of the starter close so that the motor
starts (see Figure 29).
(H)
In the case of a heating element (see Figure
30), the heater control relay is the one which CR
TO
activates the heater to provide work—in this LOGIC H
case, to raise the temperature.
Regardless of whether the output control is L2 POWER TO

direct or indirect, the loads are activated by HEATER
the control circuit through the reading of input
signals and the definition of its logic decisions. Figure 31.
CONTROL CIRCUIT LOGIC

L1 L2
M
Logic, as used in control circuits, can be de-
fined as the necessary arrangements of input
signal conditions that need to take place to
cause a control output. This arrangement is
implemented by the interconnecting wires of
the circuit (see Figure 31).

Figure 32.
It is obviously apparent that the organization L1 L2
and documentation of the control circuit will DEVICES
define how complicated it will be for someone
else to figure out what you have done. LOGIC OUTPUT
AND
There are three basic types of logic functions

which are the AND, OR and NOT. These func-
tions nearly cover all of the possibilities you may
encounter in a control circuit.
Figure 33.
AND PB1
The AND logic function simply states that for PB2

an output to occur, all of its input signals must
provide power continuity from L1, or in other
words, all the input signal devices must be con- PL
ducting current (see Figure 32).
For instance, assume that we want the pilot Figure 34.
light, the output, to turn on by the input signals L1 L2

provided by the push button PB1 and PB2 (see
PB1 PB2 PL
Figure 33). An AND function will be used if we
want the light to be on if PB1 AND PB2 are
pushed at the same time, thus providing power
continuity to the load. This AND logic simply
PB1 AND PB2
dictates that, if both push buttons are providing
power, the light will turn on (see Figure 34).
If we added another AND input signal condi- Figure 35.

tion to this circuit, such as a pressure switch L1 L2
(see Figure 35), it would mean that the pilot
light will be on if both push buttons provide PB1 PB2
PS1 PL
power and also if the limit switch is closed. This
AND logic says that all three elements are wired
in series for the output to occur. As you can
see, the devices form the logic by the way they THREE DEVICES IN SERIES
are wired or connected.

Figure 36.
OR
L1 L2
The OR logic function describes the result of DEVICES
an output if at least one of its input signal con-
LOGIC OUTPUT
ditions provide a path from L1 to the load to L2 OR
(see Figure 36).
For instance, the OR logic in Figure 37 simply

states that, if PB1 or PB2 is pushed, then the
Figure 37
light will turn on. The wiring configuration de-
L1 L2
scribed by the OR function in this ladder dia- PB1
gram circuit of Figure 37 is said to be a parallel PL
connection of the two push buttons, or that PB1 1
PB2
and PB2 are in parallel. Note that the connec-
tion from PB2 in line two to PB1 in line one is
2
shown by a node to indicate a junction of wires
or conductors.
The OR function in fact implies that (see Fig- Figure 38.

ure 38), if one or more of the input signals pro- L1 L2
vides power from L1 when activated, then the
output will be energized. 1
2
Most control circuits will be a combination of
AND logic with OR logic to control an output. 3
Logic as shown in Figure 39, which in this case
drives a pump’s motor starter, is created ac- 4
cording to the need that you have or better said
yet, according to the necessary conditions that
must be present to activate the pump motor. Figure 39.
The logic of this circuit can be read simply by AND / OR COMBINATION

L1 L2
saying that the pump will be on if the tempera-
PB1
ture reaches the right level, thus activating the M
TS1 FLS
temperature switch TS1 to provide power AND

FTS
if the flow switch is activated, then the logic will
be ready to turn on the pump if the push button
PB1 is pressed OR if the foot switch is acti-

vated. Notice that the logic simply follows what Figure 40.
we want to happen or, in other words, the con- PB1

ditions that we want in order to turn on an out- AND MOTOR
PB2 OR ON
put.
LS1
So, if you are modernizing or revising a control

Figure 41.
circuit for the activation of an output device, just L1 L2
PB1
write down using the AND and OR logic to set LS1 PL
up the conditions (see Figure 40).
CR1
NOT
The last logic function is the NOT function. In

the previous AND and OR functions we used Figure 42.
devices as input signals which were in the nor- L1 L2
mally open state. That is, the devices were nor- LS1 PB1 PL
mally open contacts or limit switches (see Fig-

ure 41). CR1
However, we could have also used normally

closed devices. The NOT logic simply uses the
normally closed state of the input device (see Figure 43.
L1 L2
Figure 42). PB1 PL
For instance, the pilot light in Figure 43 will be

on if the push button PB1 is NOT pushed or
activated. Since this push button is normally
closed, power will be passed from L1 so that Figure 44.
the light is turned on.

IS NOT
Another way to look at a normally closed de-
vice is that it is not normally open. In a ladder
control circuit, an output will be on if the “sig-
Figure 45.
nal” is not present or the “event” is not happen-
L1 L2
ing (Figure 44). LS PL
For example, in Figure 45, the light will be on if

the event that triggers the limit switch does not

happen. If it happens, then the switch will open Figure 46.

L1 L2
START
and the output will turn off. The input signal must STOP PB2
PL
PB1
remain closed, providing power from L1.
LS1
The NOT function is used a lot in control cir-
cuits because a lot of devices we use, we want
in the normally closed position (see Figure 46).
Figure 47.
For instance, all stop push buttons are normally
closed. So that, if someone pushes it, it will
break or stop power continuity to the circuit.
Control Circuit Example Using

AND, OR, NOT Logic
We have available normally open and normally

closed contacts from switches, push buttons,
Figure 48.
limit switches and other devices, and depend-
ing upon what you want to do and how you are
going to do it, you’d have to determine which
contacts you will use (see Figure 47). Let’s take
an example we see every day when we go to
work and implement the logic circuit.
When we open the door of the car, the light

Figure 49A.
inside turns on and it turns off when we close
the door. We know that in the door there is a
small switch which is pushed when the door is
closed and is released when the door opens
(see Figure 48).
?
If, from this switch, we have available a double
pole, single throw, double break set of contacts, Figure 49B.
one normally open and one normally closed
(Figure 49), which one would we choose to
implement the logic and come up with a ladder
control circuit which simulates the car door light
circuit?...Let’s see.

If the switch is pushed, the normally open con- Figure 50.
tacts will close while the normally closed will

L1 L2
open. This will happen if the door is closed be-
cause it would push the switch.
Now, to clarify our thoughts, we need to think

that we want the light on when the switch is not
pushed because the door is open so we would
connect the normally closed to the light (see
Figure 50). Every time the door is open, the
switch will be released and the light will be on.
If the door closes, then the switch will be pushed Figure 51.
and the normally closed contacts will open, thus

disrupting or breaking power to the light. We L1 L2
could very easily make this circuit operate in LIGHT
DOOR 1
all the doors of our family car (see Figure 51).
The logic or decisions to be made simply states
that, if any of the doors open, meaning an OR DOOR 2
condition for the doors, then the light will be

turned on. DOOR 3
As you can see, we created a control circuit DOOR 4

according to the “needs” for the desired opera-
tion of the output.
This circuit could very well be used in a control Figure 52.

panel which contains the electrical components
that form a control circuit. L1 L2
DOOR PANEL
SWITCH LIGHT
We could further enhance the circuit by saying 1
that, if the panel door is open, we want, in addi-
tion to the light being on, to cut off the power to CR1
any other part of the circuit (see Figure 52). 2
This can be simply done by adding a control 3 CR1-1
relay, let’s call it CR1, in line 2 and using its

TO REST OF CIRCUIT
normally closed contacts to provide the L1

power to the rest of the circuit (see Figure 52). Figure 53.
If the door is closed, the switch will be pushed,
L1 DOOR PANEL L2
opening the switch contacts; thus CR1 will de- LIGHT
SWITCH
energize and its contacts CR1-1 will remain
1
closed, providing L1 power. If the door opens,
there is power to CR1 and the normally closed CR1
2
contacts will now open disrupting power.
OFF T/S CR2
3
But what if your boss asks you what happens if
someone needs to troubleshoot the circuit with
4 CR1-1 CR2-1
the door open and needs the power?
TO REST OF CIRCUIT
If the door opens, we need to bypass the power
that has been cut off by the contacts of the con-
trol relay CR1 (see Figure 53). This can be done NOTES
by placing another set of contacts in parallel to
CR1-1. By creating a signal (line 3 in Figure
51) that says we want to troubleshoot the sys-
tem, even though the door is open, we can
control these contacts. If we add another con-
trol relay CR2 and we label the parallel con-
tacts CR2-1, we can create the bypass and
control it with a signal from a selector switch
inside the panel which creates the signal
troubleshoot. If the selector switch is in the
troubleshoot position, the relay CR2 will ener-
gize and the contacts CR2-1 will close, thus
passing L1 power to the rest of the circuit. If
the troubleshoot switch is not selected, CR2
will be de-energized and the CR2-1 contacts
will open.
The selector switch for troubleshooting may be

a key operator selector switch to provide for
authorized use only.

ADDING MEMORY TO A CONTROL CIRCUIT
Most of the control circuits you find in industry Figure 54.

must add a way of remembering the state of a
device or in other ways to add memory to a L1 L2
circuit so that proper operation occurs. To un- START
M1 OL
derstand it in a simple manner, let’s take this PB1
next example.
If we want to have the magnetic motor starter

in Figure 54 turn on when the push button is
pushed, we can simply have it connected as
shown in the Figure where the push button is
driving the logic of the starter. Every time the
push button is pressed, the motor will run. How-
Figure 55.
ever, if the push button is released, the motor
L1 L2
will be dropped and stop running. So, if we
START
wanted to keep the motor running when we PB1 M1 OL
push the start push button, we would have to
add memory, so to speak, to the circuit so that
it remembers that the start push button was M1
2 3
pressed once.
AUX
In order to add memory to the push button cir-

cuit, we must add a set of contacts in parallel
to PB1 (see Figure 55). To accomplish this, we
use the auxiliary set of normally open contacts
Figure 56.
available from the starter at terminals two and
L1 L2
three. This set of contacts close once the starter
START
coil is energized and remains closed as long M1 OL
PB1
as the starter coil is on, thus providing memory
that the starter coil is on (Figure 56). If the push
button is released, there’s still power continuity M1
2 3
from L1 to the starter because the contacts M1
will “seal” around PB1. This circuit, however, has AUX
to be modified so that the motor can be stopped

because, as it is right now, there is no way to Figure 57.

stop the motor, except by turning some main
L1 L2
circuit breaker off.
START STOP
M1 OL
PB1 PB2
To be able to stop, we simply add in the series
a normally closed push button PB2 which we’ll
call stop (Figure 57). There may be, depending
M1
on your application, more than one stop push 2 3
button in the circuit (see Figure 58). Some may
AUX
be normally closed rope switches or other
emergency stop push buttons which can stop
the motor also. This is very common in indus-
try and is a very good practice on the part of
Figure 58.
electricians and technicians working at the
plant.
L1 L2
START STOP STOP
Let’s take the simple start/stop motor circuit
M1 OL
from the beginning when everything is off (see PB1 PB2 PB3
Figure 58). If we push the start push button,

there is power from L1 to the starter, thus turn-
M1
ing the starter on, in which case, its contacts 2 3
M1 will close sealing PB1. If the start push but-
ton is released, the M1 contacts will continue AUX
to provide power to the starter. This circuit re-

members that PB1 was pressed once.
NOTES
To stop the motor, we simply have to push PB2
momentarily to break the power continuity to
the circuit and therefore turn the starter off.
Once the starter is off, its M1 contacts will go
to their normal state, the normally open, thus
not providing memory or a seal around PB1.
The motor will not turn on until the start push
button is pressed once again.
To this motor control circuit, you could easily

add an indicator light which will be on when-

ever the motor is turned on. If the motor is off, Figure 59.
L1 L2
then the light will also be off (see Figure 59).
START STOP STOP
M1 OL
PB1 PB2 PB3
You may encounter or have to modify many
motor control circuits in the plant to include
several start or stop circuits, the so called mul- M1 PL
2 3
tiple start/stop (see Figure 60). This simply
AUX
means that you can start or stop a particular
motor from different locations. When any start
push button is pressed, the starter will be en- Figure 60.
ergized, seal the circuit, and turn the motor on. L1 L2
PB1 OL
If you want, you may have motor indicator lights PB5 PB6 PB7 PB8 M1
1
routed to where each start/stop circuit is physi- PB2
PL1
cally located so that any operator may know if 2
PB3
the motor is on. 3 PL2
PB4
PL3
4
To review some of these circuits, let’s take an
M1
PL4
example of a motor control circuit which our 5
boss tells us needs to be modified (see Figure
61).
Figure 61.
L1 L2
START 1
In the circuit of Figure 61, we have two inde- STOP 1
M1 OL
PB1 PB2
pendent motor starters being controlled by two 1
separate start/stop circuits. We are told that we M1

2
need to modify the circuit so that the second
STOP 2 START 2
motor starter, M2, does not start unless M1 is M2 OL
PB3 PB4
already on, and that the start/stop circuits for 3
M2 should stay the same, so that we could stop M2

4
M2 without stopping M1. However, if we stop
M1, both motors should stop.
Figure 62.
We can easily accomplish this by knowing that, L1 L2
STOP 1 START 1
at the point with the shaded area in Figure 62, PB1 PB2
M1 OL
1
the circuit provides information with memory
M1
that M1 is running so, if we connect our first 2
line of our M2 starter circuit line 3 to this point,

we would get available power for M2 only if M1 STOP 2 START 2
M2 OL
PB3 PB4
is on. Remember, the seal contacts M1 are pro- 3
M2
viding power when M1 is on. 4

In Figure 63, we could start M2 by pressing its Figure 63.

start push button at any time after M1 is on. If
L1 START 1
L2
the stop push button corresponding to M1 is STOP 1
M1 OL
PB1 PB2
pushed, then both circuits will drop. If M1 is not 1
on, pushing the start button of M2 will not do M1
2
anything. This type of circuit can be called
a sequential motor circuit because it will start
STOP 2 START 2
M2 in sequence after M1. M2 OL
PB3 PB4
3
As we have seen, the logic in a control circuit M2

4
determines or defines how an output or load is
going to be turned on or off, according to a
need. When you are working on an electrical
NOTES
control circuit, you must understand the opera-
tion of the machine or be able to read the con-
trol diagram and find out about the machine
operation and how to fix a problem if neces-
sary. In dealing with all this, you will find cer-
tain circuits, especially in the control of motors,
known as interlocking circuits.
INTERLOCKING CIRCUITS
Interlocking can be defined as the means by

which a device is actuated by the operation of
some other device to which it is associated (see
Figure 64). Interlocking is used in a variety of
circuits but it is very frequently used in motor
control circuits to prevent, for instance, a com-
mand for a motor to go forward and reverse at Figure 64.
the same time. INTERLOCKING

CR
You’ll find three types of commonly used inter-
locking techniques. These are:
CR
• Mechanical type interlock
• Push button interlock
CR
• Auxiliary or control relay
contact interlock
Mechanical Interlock Figure 65.

L1 L2
FWD
Mechanical interlocks are generally found in ST0P F OL
magnetic reversing starters which allow the

F
control circuit to direct the motor in a forward or
reverse direction. This mechanical interlock is REV
R
usually factory installed by the starter manu-
facturer and is represented in the ladder dia- R
gram by dotted lines between contactors (see

Figure 65). The interlock is made up of a me-
chanical linkage placed in such manner and po- Figure 66.
sition that makes it impossible to close both
starter controls in the forward and reverse state PUSH BUTTON INTERLOCK
at the same time.
Push Button Interlock
The push button interlock is another common

technique of protecting two circuits from being
on at the same time (see Figure 66). This inter-
lock is provided by a double circuit push but-
Figure 67.
ton, having one set of contacts normally open
L1 L2
and another one normally closed. FWD
OL
ST0P REV F
1
In a forward/reverse motor control circuit, these F

2
push buttons are connected as shown in Fig-
ure 67. In line one, the normally closed reverse R
3
in series with the normally open forward allows
R
the forward starter to turn on when the forward 4
push button is pressed. If the reverse push but-

ton is pushed, then the forward circuit will break Figure 68.
and the reverse starter will be turned on.
L1 L2
FWD
ST0P F OL
Note that this push button interlocked motor
control circuit provides instantaneous change F
from forward to reverse and vice versa without REV

having to stop the motor, whereas the mechani- R
cal interlock circuit shown in Figure 68 would R

require the operator to first stop the ongoing Figure 69.

direction of the motor before reversing the
motor).
A word of caution (Figure 69) should be men-

tioned here dealing with the rapid reversal of a
motor under full load. In many instances, mo-
NOTES
tors and the equipment that provide power,
cannot withstand a rapid or sudden reversal of
direction; therefore, you must exercise care to
determine under what load conditions you may
execute a rapid motor reversal. You must also
consider types of breaking methods that may
or must be provided to slow the machine to a
safe speed before reversal. We’ll cover more
on motor breaking techniques later in other
chapters.
Auxiliary Contact Interlocking

Figure 70.
L1 L2
Another method of interlocking is provided by FWD
F OL
STOP
auxiliary contacts in control relays. This inter- 1
locking method is also referred to as electrical
F1
interlocking. These auxiliary contacts are also 2
available in most motor starters to provide sec- REV

R
ondary interlock backup, even if mechanical
3
interlock is already provided.
R1
4
In a motor control circuit as shown in Figure

70, without mechanical interlock, we would add Figure 71.
in series the auxiliary relay contacts R2 of the L1 L2
FWD
OL
reverse starter in line one and the auxiliary re- STOP R2 F
1
lay contacts F2 of the forward starter in line
F1
three (see Figure 71). These contacts will pre- 2
vent the forward and reverse starters from be- REV

ing on at the same time. F2 R
3
R1
4

NOTES
When no push button has been pressed, both
of the auxiliary contacts, R2 and F2 will re-
main in its normal state, which is normally
closed. If the operator pushes the forward push
button, there will be power continuity from L1
to the forward starter, its sealing contacts F1
will seal around the forward push button and
the auxiliary normally closed F2 contacts in
line 3 will open because the starter coil is en-
ergized. These F2 contacts, now opened, will
block any reverse push button activation of the
reverse starter.
If we wanted to reverse the motor, the opera-

tor would have to stop the motor so that the
F1 seal is broken and the normally closed F2
auxiliary contact is back to its closed state.
Then, the operator can press the reverse push
button to reverse the motor direction.
As you can see, interlocking forms an impor-

tant part of control circuit design and trouble-
shooting. These interlocking circuits are used
extensively, not only in motor control circuits
but in many other machine control circuits Figure 72.
where one event must prevent another one
L1 DOOR PANEL L2
from happening or if you want a condition to SWITCH LIGHT
happen only when another one occurs. Let’s
take a quick look at a previous example.
CR1
OFF T/S
A while ago we had the control circuit shown CR2
in Figure 72, where the light inside a panel
BYPASS
would turn on and the power to the rest of the CR2-2
circuit would be removed if the door was open
releasing the door holding switch. An additional CR1-1 CR2-1
selector switch was added which would allow BYPASS
an electrician to troubleshoot the circuit while

the door was open because power could be Figure 73.

bypassed to the rest of the control circuit.
L1 DOOR PANEL L2
SWITCH LIGHT
In this circuit, however, if we close the panel
door and forget to turn off the bypass power, CR1
the next time we open the door the power will OFF T/S CR1-2
still be on because CR2 is energized. CR2
BYPASS
CR2-2
We can solve this problem by adding some in-
terlocking and using a two-position selector
CR1-1 CR2-1
switch that has a spring return so that it acts BYPASS
as a momentary switch which goes back to off
after being turned to troubleshoot.
NOTES
The modified circuit shown in Figure 73 will pre-
vent the bypass power from remaining on once
the door has been closed; when the door opens,
the contacts CR1-2 close to allow for bypass
power to occur. Once the selector switch is mo-
mentarily put in troubleshoot, CR2 will turn on
and seal the selector switch with contacts CR2-
2 and provide bypass power. If the door is
closed, the contacts CR1-2 reset the bypass
coil and the bypass power.
As you can see, a simple interlocking and

memory addition can make a big difference to
the desired action and improvement of a con-
trol circuit. Additionally, the components or con-
trol devices that you use during the design or
modification of a control circuit are also impor-
tant because, like in the case of the spring re-
turn switch, they will allow the circuit to be imple-
mented.
Let us now turn our attention to the interpreta-

tion of more complex ladder diagrams.

INTERPRETING MORE COMPLEX NOTES

LADDER DIAGRAMS
We have previously covered some simple con-

trol circuits and the rules that we must follow to
properly keep a ladder diagram in order so that
other technicians and electricians can read it
and troubleshoot it without getting a headache
and blame you for it.
Control circuits tend to be larger and more in-

volved than a simple 3 or 4-line diagram. But
bear in mind that, if you keep all information in
proper order, troubleshooting and understand-
ing a ladder diagram is done one line at a time
and will not be cumbersome. But before get-
ting to analyze a larger control circuit, let’s re-
view another rule that applies to ladder dia-
grams – which is the numerical cross-referenc-
ing of devices.
The numerical cross-reference of devices is of

extreme importance because it allows you to
quickly locate a device connection.
There are basically three devices or elements

that are cross-referenced in a circuit. These are
the normally open contacts and normally closed
Figure 74.
contacts of coils and the referencing of me-
chanically linked control devices, such as limit
CR1
switches and others.
Cross Referencing Relay Contacts

CR1-1 CR1-3
As we know, relays, contactors and motor start-
ers usually have more than just one set of aux-
iliary contacts which are used for memory and CR1-2 CR1-4
interlocking purposes in the control circuit (see
Figure 74). These contacts may not, however,

appear or be shown in a close location or prox- Figure 75.

L1 L2
imity to its reference coil (Figure 75), but rather CR1
these contacts may appear at different and far

away locations in the ladder diagram (Figure
CR1-1
76), thus making it difficult for the electrician or
technician to follow the effect of a control relay
being energized and its reference contacts
opening and closing and interlocking other cir- Figure 76. L1 L2
cuits in the diagram. CR1
1
2
3
To reference contacts from coils, timers, etc., 4
5
6
we place the line location number on the right 7
8
hand side, next to the element being refer- 9 CR1-1
10
enced, where the element’s contact is being
used (see Figure 77). If the contact element
being used was a normally closed, we would
Figure 77. L1 L2
indicate it by placing an underline to the refer- 1
CR1
(10)
ence line number (see Figure 78). 2
3
4
5
6
For example, in Figure 79, the timer TMR1 con- 7
8
tacts are used in lines 2 and 5. Note that in line 9 CR1-1
10
2, the contacts are instantaneous contacts used
to seal PB1, while the contacts in line 5 are
normally open on-delay timer contacts. The Figure 78. L1 L2
CR1
same applies to all control relays in the dia- 1 (10)
2
gram. 3
4
5
6
Cross Referencing Mechanically 7
8
CR1-1
Linked Devices 9
10
In the case of mechanically linked contact ele-

ments, the representation generally used in- Figure 79. L1
TMR1
L2
PB1 PS1
1 (2,5)
volved the use of dotted lines (see Figure 79). 2
TMR1 3 SEC
FS1 TS1 SOL1
In here, we would know that the limit switch 3
CR1
4 (5,7,9)
LS1 has two sets of contacts, one normally 5
TMR1 CR1 LS1
SOL2
CR2
open in line 5 and one normally closed in line 6 (9)
CR1
TMR2
7 (9)
7. This representation shows the electrician or 8
CR3
TMR2 PS2 CR1 CR2
SOL3
technician that this limit switch has an action 9

on two ladder diagram circuits. If LS1 in line 5

Figure 80.
closes, then the contacts in line 7 will open. Con-
START
versely, if the contacts in line 5 open, then its L1 PB1 STOP
PB2 CR1 L2
1
mechanically linked contacts in line 7 will re- CR1
2
main closed. Temp
CR1 CR2
TS3
3
PL1 Ready
However, the type of mechanical representa- 4
tion, that uses the dotted line, is useful, as long Level
FS4 CR2 CR3 SOL1
5 Open
as the two or more contact elements are not
PL2
separated by an enormous number of lines (Fig- 6 #1
Level
ure 80). It would not be logical to have one set 7 FS5 CR2 SOL2
Open
of contacts in line let’s say 3, (in this case, the CR3

8
temperature switch TS3) and the other one in
PL3
line 10 shown with a dotted line linkage. Instead, 9 #2
Temp
you may find and use the type of nomenclature CR1
TS3
10
next to the timer contacts in lines 3 and 10 of
Figure 81, where it indicates the location of its H
mechanically linked contacts. In line 3, we can

see that the temperature switch TS3 has an-
other set of contacts normally closed in line 10.
Note that we also include the underline bar if Figure 81.
the elements being referenced are normally L1
START
PB1 STOP
CR1 L2
PB2
closed. Conversely, in line 10, the temperature 1
CR1
switch shows that there is another set of nor- 2
CR1 Temp CR2
mally open set of contacts in line 3. 3
TS3
10 PL1 Ready
4
LAYOUT AND CONNECTION DIAGRAMS Level
SOL1
FS4 CR2 CR3
5 Open
PL2
The layout and connection diagram provides 6 #1
electricians and technicians with the physical Level

FS5 CR2 SOL2
7 Open
control panel location of the components used
CR3
in the ladder diagram. Therefore, before we can 8
start selecting an appropriate panel or enclo- 9

PL3
#2
sure for the control circuit components, we must CR1 Temp
TS3 3
know the number and size of the components 10
we’re using. Then we can begin a preliminary H

panel layout. Let’s go over a simple example
since it is better to explain it as we go along.
Let’s assume that we have the ladder control Figure 82.

L1 L2
PB2
circuit as shown in Figure 82, and now we need PB1 CR1
to put it physically together. We are going to

PL1
use a control transformer for the 120 volts CR1-1
power between L1 and L2.
CR1-1 CR2
LS1
We can start the layout by assigning areas that PL2

CR2-1
will be used by the components we have in the
CR2-2
circuit (see Figure 83). That is, the control re- TMR1
lays, the transformer, the fuse block and the

SOL
disconnect means. We can create a layout skel- TMR1 LS2
eton by positioning the components, and leav-

PL3
ing spaces for future expansions if necessary.
We are going to use control relays with two
normally open set of contacts for this particu-
Figure 83.
lar application. As you can see, the inside panel TRANS- FUSE
FORMER DISCONNECT
conduits will be used to route each of the con- 1 2
nections to the terminal block on the left. 3
4
5 CONTROL CONTROL
6 RELAY RELAY
The control sensing devices, such as the limit 7

8
switches, that are mounted on the machine will 9 TIMER
RELAY
SPARE
10
also have their wires brought into the panel’s 11
terminal block (see Figure 84).

Figure 84.
In the panel layout, we would place the com- PB1 PB2 SOL1
LS1
ponents as in Figure 85, so that we could route

the wiring according to the terminal blocks. The PL1 PL2 PL3
terminal block labels where each component LS2
will be wired will be determined from the as-

DMCorp
signment of connections in the ladder diagram.
From the ladder in Figure 82, we can say that

Figure 85.
for the L1 power we’ll be using terminal block
F L1 L2 L3 DISC
label number 1 (see Figure 85) and for the re- H1
X1
H2
X2
U
S
E
turn L2 we’ll use terminal block number 2. 1 2
3
4 C C
5 R R
Because there will be many wire connections 6
1 2
7
going to L1 and L2, we’ll assign a block to each 8
9 SPARE
with several terminals with label one and two 10 TMR
11
as shown in Figure 85.

Figure 86.
The rest of the wiring connections will be as- L1 L2
signed as we go through each circuit (see Fig- PB2
PB1 CR1
1 3 4 2
ure 86). That is, one side of PB1 will be wired
to terminal 3, which also connects the sealing
PL1
contacts CR1-1 and PB2. The other side of PB2 CR1-1
2
will go to terminal 4, which connects to the other
side of CR1-1 and to one side of CR1 and to CR1-1 CR2
1 5 LS1 6 2
one side of PL1. The other sides of the coil CR1
and the light PL1 are connected to terminal 2. PL2
2
CR2-1
The rest of the control circuits would follow in
the same manner. CR2-2
1 TMR1
7 2
In the panel, the wire connections are repre-

sented as shown in Figure 87, where each wire TMR1 LS2 SOL
1 8 9 2
will be sent to the terminal locks via the con-
duits. PL3
2
In the machine diagram (see Figure 88), we

would also signify the terminal destination to
each of the control devices being used in the Figure 87.
circuit. These being the limit switches and the F L1 L2 L3 DISC
H1 H2 U
S
solenoid. As can be seen, the routings go to X1 X2 E
1 2
the terminal numbers assigned in the ladder 3
4 C C
diagram of Figure 86. 5 R
1
R
2
6
7
8
As you can see, a properly documented layout 9 SPARE
10 TMR
diagram can be of tremendous help during the 11
installation and troubleshooting of a control cir-

cuit. You would immediately know where each
device is connected or terminated. Figure 88.
PB1 PB2
SOL1
9,2 LS1
TO 1, 3 TO 3, 4 TO 5, 6
This chapter covered some important control
circuit topics that will certainly help you to not PL1 PL2 PL3
4,2 6,2 9,2 TO 8, 9
only understand control circuit ladder diagrams, LS2
but will also help you considerably during DMCorp
troubleshooting of a system or making circuit

changes to an existing machine.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.- True/False. A control circuit is a circuit which

exercises control over one or more other cir-
cuits.
2.- ______ provides you with information on

power sources and how current flows
throughout the circuits, such as contacts,
limit switches, push buttons, etc..
a- Wiring diagrams
b- Ladder diagrams
c- Layout diagrams
d- Busway diagrams
3.- True/False. If continuity exits in a path from

left to right, the load would be energized.
4.- In a ladder diagram line you may use

______. (More than one may apply.)
a- Only one load per line.

b- As many as possible if the circuit can
handle it.
c- Loads must be connected to L2.
d- Control switching devices must be con-
nected between L1 and the loads.
5.- True/False. In a ladder diagram, it is a good

idea to identify or reference a line by a num-
ber.

6.- A control circuit is composed of ______,

______, ______ basic sections.
a- Output section
b- Logic section
c- Interface section
d- Input section
7.- Which figure represents the correct way

of showing the overload relay in a motor
circuit? ______.
L1 L2 L1 L2
a- S1 OL b- S1 OL
M M
8.- ______ is considered as the decision

maker where the interconnections direct
how the output is to behave.
a- Input section
b- Output section
c- Logic section
d- Interface section
9.- Match the following appropriately:
a- Direct action outputs

b- Indirect action outputs
______ Control Relays

______ Solenoids
______ Magnetic motor starters
______ Pilot lights
______ High current heating elements

10.- The ______ logic function states that for

an output to occur, all of its input signals
must be providing continuity.
a- NOT
b- OR
c- AND
d- NOR
11.- The ______ logic function uses the nor-

mally closed state of the input device.
a- AND
b- NOT
c- OR
12.- The Figure 1 represents the use of the Figure 1

L1 L2
______ concept. PB1
PL
a- AND PB2
b- NOT
c- OR
13.- To ad memory to a push button, we add

a set of contacts in ______ to it.
a- Series
b- Parallel
14.- True/False. In Figure 2, the motor will only Figure 2

run as long as the start push button is L1 L2
repeatedly pressed to insure interlocking. START STOP STOP
M1 OL
PB1 PB2 PB3
M1
2 3
AUX

15.- ______ can be defined as the means by

which a device is actuated by the opera-
tion of some other device to which it is
associated.
a- Circuit actuation
b- Circuit interlocking
c- Circuit completion
d- Circuit modulation
16.- The three most commonly used types of

interlocking are ______, ______ and
______.
a- Mechanical
b- Push button
c- Sequential
d- Auxiliary or control relay contact
Figure 3
17.- The Figure 3 is an example of ______ in-
L1 L2
FWD
terlock which protects two circuits from F OL
ST0P REV
being on at the same time. 1
F
2
a- Mechanical
b- Push button R
3
c- Sequential
R
d- Control relay contact 4
18.- True/False. Selector switches can be used

for troubleshooting because they can by-
pass power to the rest of the circuit.

19.- If a contact element being used were a

normally closed, we would indicate it by
______.
a- Placing an asterisk next to it.

b- An underline to the reference line number.
c- Circling it in the reference line.
d- Highlighting it.
20.- ______ provides you with the physical

control panel location of the components
used in the ______.
a- Ladder diagram
b- Layout diagram
c- Auxiliary control diagram
d- Busway diagram
21.- ______ are generally found in magnetic

reversing starters which allow the control
circuit to direct the motor in a forward or
reverse direction.
a- Push button interlocks

b- Mechanical interlocks
c- Busway interlocks
d- Sequential interlocks
22.- True/False. Logic can be defined as the

necessary arrangements of input signal
conditions that need to take place for a
desired control output.

23.- In Figure 4 , the purpose of the contacts Figure 4

labelled R2 and F2 is that they will ______. L1 L2
FWD
F OL
STOP R2
a- Provide the circuit with a rapid reversal. 1
b- Prevent the forward and reverse start- F1

2
ers to be on at the same time.
REV
c- Make the circuit. F2 R
3
24.- True/False. In Figure 5, the operator can R1

4
change the direction of the motor by sim-
ply pressing the desired push button to
forward or reverse. Figure 5
L1 L2
FWD
25.- True/False. The cross-referencing of me- ST0P F OL
chanically linked devices with the dash line
method is only useful if the contact ele- F
ments are not separated by too many lad-

REV
der lines. R

ANSWERS
1.- True
2.- b- Ladder diagrams
3.- True
4.- a- Only one load per line

c- Loads must be connected to L2
d- Control switching devices must be
connected between L1 and the loads.
5.- True
6.- a- Output section

b- Logic section
d- Input section
L1 L2
7.- b- S1 OL
M
8.- c- Logic section
9.- a–Control relays

a–Solenoids
b–Magnetic motor starters
a–Pilot lights
b–High current heating elements
10.- c- AND
11.- NOT
12.- c– OR

13.- b- Parallel
14.- False. For the motor to run, the push

botton needs to be pushed only once,
where the circuit will be interlocked. The
motor will run until a stop pushbotton is
pressed
15.- b –Circuit interlocking
16.- a- Mechanical
b- Push button
d– Auxiliary or control relay contact
17.- b– Push button
18.- True
19.- b- An underline to the reference line num-

ber
20.- b- Layout diagram

a- Ladder diagram
21.- b- Mechanical interlocks
22.- True
23.- b– Prevent the forward and reverse starters

to be on at the same time
24.- False. This is a compelling circuit in which

the operator must first stop the motor be-
fore the motor can be reversed.
25.- True

MODULE
CHAPTER 6 6
FUSE =
200A + 40A =
240A REQUIRED
300% x 40 = 300% x 65 =
120A 195A
USE 125 A FUSE USE 200 A FUSE
CODE J
30 HP 50 HP
FLA = 40A
M1 M2 FLA = 65A
Chapter 6—Introduction to AC and DC Motors and Motor Control Circuits
OVERVIEW
This sixth chapter will introduce you to AC and

DC motors and their respective motor control
circuits. In here you are presented with the
important National Electric Code Article 430.
You will be presented with information on how
to properly design and implement a safety con-
trol circuit.
Control circuits are presented along with wiring

diagrams for motor controls using magnetic
starters. You will learn about the different types
of three-phase Wye and Delta motors, single-
phase and DC motors. Power factor is defined
and explained and you are presented with meth-
ods for correcting power factor problems.
OBJECTIVES
• Understand and apply Article 430 of the

NEC.
• Read and understand motor nameplates.
• Define locked-rotor amperage.
• Choose and select proper circuit compo-

nents according to code.
• Control motor operation via motor control

circuits.
• Define what are two-wire and three-wire

control.
• Properly use control transformers in a

circuit.
• Define the different types of AC (three

phase and single phase) and DC motors.
• Define power factor and how to properly

correct power factor problem.

INTRODUCTION NOTES
In Chapter 6, we’ll explore some important
details that deal with motor controls. We’ll start
with a general review of Article 430 of the
National Electric Code and then we’ll progress
into some important information needed for the
specification and implementation of motor con-
trol circuits.
We’ll also discuss some of the different types of

AC and DC motors available and an overview of
the methods used in their control. It is in this
chapter where we’ll conclude our discussion on
diagrams with the wiring diagrams utilized mainly
with motor control circuits.
NATIONAL ELECTRIC CODE—ARTICLE 430
The National Electric Code or NEC was drafted

by the National Fire Protection Association with
the objective of standardizing the construction,
installation and identification of electrical equip-
ment. One of the principal objectives was to
also create a standard for which safety and fire
prevention situations were a primary ingredient
in any properly followed electrical installation.
Article 430 is a section of the NEC which covers

electric motors—more specifically, motors,
motor circuits and motor controllers.
Typical characteristics of circuits, such as wire

and motor sizes, temperature operating envi-
ronments, type of motor winding insulation, and
many other parameters are within the scope of
Article 430. If you have a motor in your plant,
you must follow the rules of Article 430 of the
NEC. Additionally, make sure that you also

Figure 1.
430 - 1
adhere to any other local and state electrical
General Part A
code regulations in addition to the ones pre- Requirements for over 600 volts, nominal Part J
Protection of live parts all voltages Part K
sented by the NEC. Grounding Part L
Tables Part M
To Supply
Motor Feeder Part B
It is not our objective here to go into extreme Sec. 430-23 and 430-24
430-25 and 430-26
detail on the code, but to give you an overview
Motor Feeder Part E
of Article 430 and also to give you an inside look Short-Circuit and Part E
Ground-Fault Protection
at how you can better understand it and get
information from it. Motor Disconnecting
Means
Part H
Motor Branch-Circuit
Article 430 starts with a section named 430-1 Short-Circuit and
Ground-Fault Protection Part D
which is titled Motor feeders and branch cir- Motor Circuit Conductor Part B
cuits. Motor Controller Part G

Motor control Circuits Part F
Motor Part C
This first section presents a diagram title 430-1 Overload Protection
(Figure 1) which essentially gives you a word Motor Part A

Thermal Protection Part C
diagram of a motor circuit, beginning at the
Secondary Controller Part B
feeder or voltage supply source. This diagram Secondary Conductors Sec. 430-23
Secondary Sec. 430-23
shows each applicable part of the code which Resistor and Art. 470
deals with each section of the motor control Reprinted with permission of NFPA
circuit. For instance, part H deals with motor

disconnecting means, while part B deals with Figure 2.
TO MAIN POWER
SERVICE
motor circuit conductors (feeders). This dia-

gram is essentially a complete reference guide MOTOR FEEDER
OVERCURRENT
to your motor control circuit. PROTECTION
FEEDER
CONDUCTORS
FEEDER TAP
In fact, diagram 430-1 resembles the way we CONDUCTORS
BRANCH CIRCUIT
represent , in general, a motor circuit where we OVERCURRENT
PROTECTION &
have power from the feeder, branching out to DISCONNECTION
MEANS
the motor (see Figure 2). Article 430 simply BRANCH CIRCUIT
CONDUCTORS
specifies what type of conductor, motor protec- REMOTE STOP-

START STATION
MAGNETIC
CONTROLLER
tion, the correct wiring, etc., that you must

CONTROL CIRCUIT MOTOR
implement in your control circuit. CONDUCTORS OVERLOAD
PROTECTION
M M
#1 #2
SECONDARY
Let’s take, for example, part F of the Article 430 CONTROLLER
SECONDARY
CONDUCTORS
SECONDARY
RESISTORS

which deals with motor control circuits (see Figure 3.
Figure 3). This part F comprises from section

430-71 to 430-74 in the NEC book. In part, it Motor Controller Part G
Motor Control Circuits Part F
basically defines what the NEC considers a
correct or incorrect method of wiring and pro-
tecting the control circuit of a motor to avoid SECTIONS
turning on a motor if a ground fault occurs. 430-71 TO
430-74
An occurring ground fault (see Figure 4) will
cause the motor to start by completing the Figure 4.
current path from L1 to the return. This start
could create a severe potential safety problem. INCORRECT WIRING METHOD
The motor could not be stopped unless it is L1
turned off at the disconnect. L2 M

L3
MS
In contrast, by following the code, the wiring of GROUND
FAULT
the same control circuit will not allow a ground HERE
START
fault to turn the motor on (Figure 5). If we trace STOP
MS
the ground fault’s current path in this diagram, MS
GROUNDED
NEUTRAL
we’ll see it flowing from the hot to the return
through the fuse. In this circuit, the fuse will
open due to the short circuit current from the hot
Figure 5.
to the return.
CORRECT WIRING METHOD
If the ground fault had occurred at the other end L1
of the start push button switch, the fault would L2 M
blow the fuse once the push button is pressed L3
MS
because the short circuit path from the hot to the
GROUND
return would be complete. This is just one FAULT
HERE
example where the National Electric Code, START
STOP
when followed, provides safe operating meth- MS
MS
ods in controlling electric motors to prevent
damage to equipment and injury to personnel.
HOW TO READ MOTOR NAME PLATES

Figure 6.
All manufacturers of electrical motors are re-
BRYAN MOTOR CONTROLS
quired to provide a motor nameplate on each AC MOTOR
motor they supply (Figure 6). These name FRAME TYPE INS CLASS I.D. NO
182T P B P18G11D CY
plates provide all the motor data pertinent to
H.P. RPM VOLTS AMPS HZ S.F.
that motor’s operational characteristics. The
7.5 1740 230/460 22/11 60 1.15
nameplate contains information about the mo- DESIGN: B CODE: J PHASE: 3
tor design, motor type, the type of frame, the 4 5 6 4 5 6
DRIVE END BEARING 30BCOZXPP3M

manufacturer’s model number, the horsepower, OPP. END BEARING 25BCOZXPP3M
7 8 9 7 8 9
the RPMs or revolutions per minute, the num- AMB: 40˚C DUTY: CONT.
1 2 3 1 2 3
ber of phases, the frequency, that is, 50 or 60 LOW V HIGH V
cycles or Hertz, the voltage, amperage or cur-

rent, operating temperatures, rating and code.
NOTES
To understand it better, let us go over the motor
nameplate for the motor shown in Figure 6 and
get all the characteristics and specs on it.
The manufacturer’s frame style is 182T which

conforms to the NEMA system of standardiza-
tion of motor mounting dimensions, the type of
winding wire insulation class B which specifies
the maximum temperature range of 130 de-
grees C or 266 degrees F. To the right we see
the manufacturer’s I.D. number. Right below
we note that this is a 7-1/2 horsepower motor
which operates at 1740 RPMs. This motor
speed includes what is called slip which is the
difference between synchronous speed and
actual rotor or the actual motor speed. For Figure 7.
example (Figure 7), a four-pole motor would
have a synchronous speed of 1800 RPMs while
its full load speed is 1740 which indicates 60
RPMs below its synchronous speed or a 3.33%
slip.
The operational voltage of this motor is for

either a 230 or 460 volts terminal hook-up and

Figure 6 continued. . .
the maximum current or full load current or
amperage is of 22 amps for a 230 volts or 11 BRYAN MOTOR CONTROLS
AC MOTOR
amps for a 460 volts operation. This motor is to FRAME TYPE INS CLASS I.D. NO
operate at 60Hz frequency with a Service Fac- 182T P B P18G11D CY
tor or SF of 1.15. The service factor is a mea- H.P. RPM VOLTS AMPS HZ S.F.
sure of the motor overload capacity that was 7.5 1740 230/460 22/11 60 1.15
DESIGN: B CODE: J PHASE: 3
designed into the motor. A service factor of 1.15 4 5 6 4 5 6
tells us that this motor can deliver 15% more of DRIVE END BEARING 30BCOZXPP3M 7 8 9 7 8 9
OPP. END BEARING 25BCOZXPP3M
the rated horsepower as noted in the name- 1 2 3 1 2 3
AMB: 40˚C DUTY: CONT.
plate, without damage to the motor from over-
LOW V HIGH V
heating. So this motor could deliver up to 8.63
horsepower if overloaded. This allows you to
safely use this motor in an application which
NOTES
may require, let’s say, 8 horsepower.
In the third line of the nameplate, we have the

design of the motor, the code of the motor, and
the specification that this is a 3-phase motor.
The design, or motor design, is a NEMA speci-
fication and the manufacturer must meet these
specifications in order to mark its motor with the
appropriate reference letter A, B, C or D. This
NEMA standard allows motors from several
manufacturers to be compared on the same
basis for specific applications. In this motor, the
design B implies that it has a low to medium
starting torque and a slip of usually less than 5%
at full load. Design type B motors are generally
used in fans, blowers and centrifugal pump
applications.
The code J refers to the Locked-Rotor KVA per

horsepower the motor can withstand. The
locked-rotor current or amperage or LRA, is the
amount of current that a motor will require when
power is first applied to the motor and the rotor
and shaft start to turn. This current can gener-

ally be from 5 to 8 or even 10 times the full load Figure 8.

LOCKED - ROTOR
current; however, it lasts for only a few seconds • Overloaded
• Jamms Rotor
until the rotor starts rotation. • Motor Can Burn Up
A locked-rotor situation can also occur when a

motor is loaded so heavily that the shaft cannot
turn, thus jamming the rotor in a locked position
drawing excessive amounts of current which, if
not protected, could cause the motor to burn up
(Figure 8).
The locked-rotor current code is used in table

430-7(b) of Article 430 of the NEC which speci- Figure 9.
Table 430-7(b)
fies a locked-rotor KVA value per horsepower
Code Letter Kilovolt-Amperes
between 7.1 and 7.99 for a code J motor (see per Horsepower with Locked Rotor
A 0 3.14
Figure 9). B 3.15 3.54
C 3.55 3.99
D 4.0 4.49
E 4.5 4.99
The name plate also indicates that this motor’s F 5.0 5.59
surrounding ambient temperature is 40 de- G 5.6 6.29
H 6.3 7.09
grees centigrade. The Duty or duty cycle is J 7.1 7.99
K 8.0 8.99
continuous, meaning that this motor can oper- L 9.0 9.99
M 10.0 11.19
ate for continuous hours at a time. Other types N 11.2 12.49
P 12.5 13.99
of duty are intermittent and heavy duty which R 14.0 15.99
include jogging and plugging duty. Intermittent S 16.0 17.99
T 18.0 19.99
duty motors include frequent start and stop U 20.0 22.39
V 22.4 and up
operations and allow the motor to heat up Reprinted with permission of NFPA
because it will draw up to the locked rotor

current every time it is started. NOTES
We may also see in nameplates a wiring dia-

gram of the electrical connections necessary
for the proper use of either of the dual voltage
connections. We’ll see more on this later on.
One of the most important considerations in

motor installations is the sizing of the various
components in the motor circuit, assuming, of
course, that the motor itself has been properly

sized for the machine load in horsepower, speed Figure 10.

and torque.
TO MAIN POWER
SERVICE
Such considerations as wire size, motor con-
tact ratings, adequate fusing, proper overload
protection and other operating parameters must
be selected to ensure that they meet the Na-
tional Electrical Code and the NEMA require-
ments for enclosures of motor control compo-
nents. So let’s go ahead and look at how we go
about sizing these components by assuming
M
that the motor we'll be looking at has been sized
in horsepower for the application and all we
need to do first is to provide the correct compo- Figure 11.
nent specifications for its control circuit. Table 430-150. Full-Load Current*
Three-Phase Alternating-Current Motors
Induction Type Synchronous Type
Squirrel-Cage and Wound-Rotor †Unity Power Factor
MOTOR CIRCUIT SIZING Amperes Amperes
HP 115V 230V 460V 575V 2300V 230V 460V 575V 2300V
1/ 2 4 2 1 .8
What we’re going to be concerned with, accord- 3/ 4 5.6 2.8 1.4 1.1
1 7.2 3.6 1.8 1.4
ing to the diagram in Figure 10 which relates to 1 1/ 2 10.4 5.2 2.6 2.1
2 13.6 6.8 3.4 2.7
Article 430, will be the conductors going to the 3 9.6 4.8 3.9
branch circuit, the disconnect and overcurrent 5 15.2 7.6 6.1

7 1/ 2 22 11 9
protection and the necessary overloads for the 10 28 14 11
15 42 21 17
motor which will be located in the motor starter. 20 54 27 22
25 68 34 27 53 26 21
30 80 40 32 63 32 26
This motor will be used in its own branch circuit 40 104 52 41 83 41 33
50 130 65 52 104 52 42
and will be the only one, for now, being tapped 60 154 77 62 16 123 61 49 12
75 192 96 77 20 155 78 62 15
from the feeder through the gutter. 100 248 124 99 26 202 101 81 20
125 312 156 125 31 253 126 101 25
150 360 180 144 37 302 151 121 30
Circuit Protection–Conductors 200 480 240 192 49 400 201 161 40
For full-load currents of 208- and 200-volt motors, increase the corresponding
230-volt motor full-load current by 10 and 15 percent, respectively.
*These values of full-load current are for motors running at speeds usual for
To find out the conductor size for this motor, belted motors and motor with normal torque characteristics. Motors built for
especially low speeds or high torques may require more running current, and
which will be used in a 230-volts source, we multispeed motors will have full-load current varying with speed, in which case
have to know the full load current which is, from the nameplate current rating shall be used.
†For 90 and 80 percent power factor, the above figures shall be multiplied by 1.1
the table 430-150 in Article 430 (see Figure 11), and 1.25 respectively.
The voltages listed are rated motor voltages. The currents listed shall be
22 amps at 230 volts. From Article 430-22, we permitted for system voltage ranges of 110 to 120, 220 to 240, 440 to 480, and
550 to 600 volts.
find that a branch circuit conductor supplying a
single motor shall have an ampacity, or current Reprinted with permission of NFPA

carrying capacity, of no less than 125% of the Figure 12.
motor full load current rating. In this case, the Table 310-16. Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductors
Rated 0-2000 Volts, 60˚ to 90˚C
value is 22 amps from the table times 1.25 Not More Than Three Conductors in Raceway or Cable or Earth
(Directly Buried), Based on Ambient Temperature of 30˚C (86˚F)
which tells us that our branch circuit conductor Size Temperature Rating of Conductor, See Table 310-13 Size
must be capable of handling 27.5 amps. Once 60˚C

(140˚F)
75˚C
(167˚F)
85˚C 90˚C
(185˚F) (194˚F)
60˚C
(140˚F)
75˚C
(167˚F)
85˚C 90˚C
(185˚F) (194˚F)
we have this value, we find, from table 310-16 TYPES

†RUW, †T,
TYPES
†FEPW,
TYPES TYPES TYPES TYPES TYPES TYPES
V,MI TA, TBS, †RUW, †T, †RH, †RHW, V,MI TA, TBS,
AWG AWG
†TW, †UF †RH, †RHW, SA, AVB, †TW, †UF †RUH, †THW SA, AVB,
on ampacities of conductors (Figure 12), the MCM
†RUH, †THW, SIS, †THWN, SIS,
MCM
†THWN, †FEP, †XHHW, †RHH,
appropriate conductor size for the current of †XHHW,
†USE, †ZW
†FEPB,
†RHH,
†USE †THHN,
†XHHW*
†THHN,
27.5 amps. Since there are none at 27.5 Amps, †XHHW*
COPPER ALUMINUM OF COPPER-CLAD ALUMINUM
we would choose the next one capable of 18
16
....
....
....
....
....
18
14
18
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
14 20† 20† 25 25† .... . . . . . . . . .... ....
handling this current which is 30 amps and 12
10
25†
30†
25†
35†
30
40
30†
40†
20†
25†
20†
30†
25
30
25†
35†
12
10
8 40 50 55 55 30 40 40 45 8
corresponds to a size 10 gauge. 6 55 65 70 75 40 50 55 60 6
4 70 85 95 95 55 65 75 75 4
3 85 100 110 110 65 75 85 85 3
2 95 115 125 130 75 90 100 100 2
1 110 130 145 150 85 100 110 115 1
The type of conductor may vary according to 0 125 150
175
165
190
170
195
100
115
120
135
130
145
135
150
0
00
00 145
000 165 200 215 225 130 155 170 175 000
the use. For instance, if we chose a 10-gauge 0000 195 230 250 260 150 180 195 205 0000
250 215 255 275 290 170 205 220 230 250
type RUW, it could be used in dry and wet 300
350
240
260
285
310
310
340
320
350
190
210
230
250
250
270
255
280
300
350
400 280 335 365 380 225 270 295 305 400
locations and the outer covering would provide 500 320 380 415 430 260 310 335 350 500
600 355 420 460 475 285 340 370 385 600
a moisture resistant, flame retardant covering. 700
750
385
400
460
475
500
515
520
535
310
320
375
385
405
420
420
435
700
750
800 410 490 535 555 330 395 430 450 800
900 435 520 565 585 355 425 465 480 900
1000 455 545 590 615 375 445 485 500 1000
1250 495 590 640 665 405 485 525 545 1250
Fuse Protection For Branch Circuit 1500 520 625 680 705 435 520 565 585 1500
1750 545 650 705 735 455 545 595 615 1750
2000 560 665 725 750 470 560 610 630 2000
CORRECTION FACTORS
Ambient For ambient temperatures over 30˚C, multiply the ampacities shown above by the appropriate Ambient
The branch circuit protection against short cir- Temp.˚C correction factor to determine the maximum allowable load current. Temp.˚F
31-40 .82 .88 .90 .91 .82 .88 .90 .91 86-104
cuit and ground fault protection are found in 41-45
46-50
.71
.58
.82
.75
.85
.80
.87
.82
.71
.58
.82
.75
.85
.80
.87
.82
105-113
114-122
51-60 .... .58 .67 .71 .... .58 .67 .71 123-141
Part D of Article 430, specifically in section 430- 61-70 .... .35 .52 .58 .... .35 .52 .58 142-158
71-80 .... .... .30 .41 .... .... .30 .41 159-176
52. This section states that the protecting de- † The load current rating and the overcurrent protection for conductor types marked with an
obelisk (†) shall not exceed 15 amperes for 14 AWG, 20 amperes for 12 AWG, and 30
vice, either fuse or circuit breaker, shall be amperes for 10 AWG copper; or 15 amperes for 12 AWG, and 25 amperes for 10 AWG
aluminum and copper-clad aluminum.
capable of carrying the starting current of the *For dry locations only. See 75˚C column for wet locations.
motor or, in other words, the locked rotor current.

Reprinted with permission of NFPA
The necessary protection is obtained when the

protective device has a rating which does not
exceed the value given in table 430-152 of the
NEC. For this particular motor, assuming that
we’re going to be using across-the-line full
voltage starts and that our motor is a code J, we
get into the row which corresponds to the code
J motor (Figure 13). If we use a time delay fuse,

Figure 13.
Table 430-152. Maximum Rating or Setting of Motor Branch-Circuit
we need to rate it at 175% of the full load current Short-Circuit and Ground-Fault Protective Devices
of 22 amps or 1.75 times 22 which gives us 38.5 Percent of Full-Load Current
Dual
amps. Element Instan-
Nontime (Time- taneous *Inverse
Delay Delay) Trip Time
Type of Motor Fuse Fuse Breaker Breaker
This calculation implies that we need a 38.5 Single-phase, all types
No code letter..................... 300 175 700 250
amps fuse. According to table 240-6 of the code All AC single-phase and
polyphase squirrel-cage and
(Figure 14), which deals with standard sizes synchronous motors† with
full-voltage, resistor or reactor
starting:
and ratings of fuses and circuit breakers, we No code letter..................... 300 175 700 250
Code letter F to V................
find that there is no 38.5 amp fuse. However, Code letter B to E................
300
250
175
175
700
700
250
200
Code letter A....................... 150 150 700 150
Article 430-52 provides Exception #1 (Figure All AC squirrel-cage and
synchronous motors† with
15), which states that if we can’t find the exact Autotransformer starting:
Not more than 30 Amps
fuse, the next standard size should be used; in No code letter..................... 250 175 700 200
More than 30 Amps
this case, 40 amps. With a 40-amp fuse, the No code letter..................... 200 175 700 200
Code letter F to V................ 250 175 700 200
motor branch circuit and the 10-gauge RUW Code letter B to E................
Code letter A.......................
200 175 700 200
150 150 700 150
conductor will be protected. Note that this pro- High-reactance squirrel-cage
Not more than 30 Amps
No code letter.....................
tection is against short circuit and ground faults, More than 30 Amps
250 175 700 250
No code letter.....................
not to protect against motor overloads. Wound-rotor–
200 175 700 200
No code letter..................... 150 150 700 150
Direct-current (constant voltage)
Not more than 50 hp
Motor Overload Protection No code letter..................... 150 150 250 150
More than 50 hp
No code letter..................... 150 150 175 150
Article 430-32a, part one, states that this motor For explanation of Code Letter Marking, see Table 430-7(b).
For certain exceptions to the values specified, see Sections 430-52
shall be protected by an overload device de- through 430-54.
*The values given in the last column also cover the ratings of nonadjustable
inverse time types of circuit breakers that may be modified as in Section 430-52.
signed to trip at no more than 125% of the motor †Synchronous motors of the low-torque, low-speed type (usually 450 rpm or
lower), such as are used to drive reciprocating compressors, pumps, etc.
name plate full current, namely in this case, that start unloaded, do not require a fuse rating or circuit-breaker setting in
excess of 200 percent of full-load current.
1.25 times 22 or 27.5 amps. Note that this Reprinted with permission of NFPA
overload protection is designed to protect the
Figure 14.
motor, not to protect the circuit against ground Table 240-6
faults or short circuits, that’s the function of the STANDARD AMPERE RATINGS
fuse or breaker.
The standard ampere rating for fuses and
inverse time circuit breakers shall be
considered 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60,
It is also important that, when you get the full 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225,
250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 600, 700, 800,
load current of the motor, you get it from the 1000, 1200, 1600, 2000, 2500, 3000, 4000,
5000, and 6000.
nameplate and not from the NEC tables, since
Reprinted with permission of NFPA
this number may differ and, if this is the case,
Figure 15.
the one from the nameplate is the one to use. ARTICLE 430-52
EXCEPTION #1 ...if you can't find the

exact fuse, then next standard
size should be used

STARTERS AND CONTACTORS

Figure 16.
As discussed in previous chapters, motor start- ON

ers and contactors (Figure 16) are used in
motor control circuits to respond to the com-
mand to turn a motor on by passing the power
through its contacts to the motor.
START
6 12
Starters and contactors are basically the same, STOP
ON OFF
the only difference being that contactors don’t
have thermal overload protection and starters T1 T2 T3
do (Figure 17).
There are two basic types of starters:
• Manual
Figure 17.
• Magnetic
As we have seen before, manual starters are

operated on and off manually by an operator,
while the magnetic starter is operated by a coil
CONTACTOR
inside the starter. SECTION MAGNETIC
STARTER
Nema Starter Selection

OVERLOAD
SECTION
Just like the case for proper selection of compo-
nents based on the National Electric Code, the
selection of starters in a motor circuit is done
NOTES
according to NEMA standards for AC and DC
motors. These standards are based on the
horsepower of the motor and the current re-
quirements.
For our 7-1/2 horsepower motor, we would

choose a NEMA size one starter according to
the table (Figure 18). Note that the current
rating shown in the NEMA table is for each
individual contact of the 3-phase contactor. The

Figure 18.
600 VOLTS MAXIMUM
Maximum Horsepower Maximum
Rating 2 Horsepower
NEMA Contin-
Size uous Full load current must not Rating For
Amp- exceed the "continuous Plugging
Rating Ampere Rating" Service 1
Single 3 or 2 Single Three

Volts Phase Phase Phase Phase
120 1 /3 3 /4 - -
208 - 1 1/2 - -
00 9 240 1 1 1/2 - -
480 - 2 - -
600 - 2 - -
120 1 2 1
208 - 3 - 1 1/2
0 18 240 2 3 1 1 1/2
480 - 5 - 2
600 - 5 - 2
120 2 3 1 2
208 - 7 1/2 - 3
240 3 7 1/2 2 3
1 27 - - 5
480 10
600 - 10 - 5
120 3 - 2 -
208 - 15 - 10
2 45 240 7 1 /2 15 5 10
480 - 25 - 15
600 - 25 - 15
120 - - - -
208 - 30 - 20
3 90 240 - 30 - 20
480 - 50 - 30
600 - 50 - 30
120 - - - -
208 - 50 - 30
4 135 240 - 50 - 30
480 - 100 - 60
600 - 100 - 60
120 - - - -
208 - 100 - 75
240 - 100 - 75
5 270 480 - 200 - 150
600 - 200 - 150
208 - 200 - 150
240 - 200 - 150
6 540 480 - 400 - 300
600 - 400 - 300
208 - 300 - -
240 - 300 - -
7 810 480 - 600 - -
600 - 600 - -
208 - 450 - -
240 - 450 - -
8 1215 480 - 900 - -
600 - 900 - -
208 - 800 - -
240 - 800 - -
9 2250 480 - - -
1600
600 - 1600 - -

size 1, rated at 27 amps, is capable of connect- Figure 19.

ing the three separate 27-amp wires to the 3-
phase motor. START
6
STOP
Component Sizing Summary 5 2
1
MOTOR
Let’s now summarize the steps that are taken
when we’re putting together a motor branch 4 3
circuit (see Figure 19). Assuming that we al-
ready have a given motor with the required
horsepower, voltage, torque for a particular
application, the steps in the selection of compo-
Figure 20.
nents can be summarized as follows: (see
Figure 20)
1 Branch Circuit Conductors
At 125% Of FLA
1 – Select the branch circuit
conductors rated at least 125% 2 Branch Circuit Protection
of the motor full load current. From Ground Faults And
Short Circuits
2 – Select the branch circuit 3 Appropriate Controller
protective device to protect the (Starter/Contactor)
motor circuit from ground faults 4 Overload Protection
and short circuits. For Motor For LRA
5 Disconnect Means
3 – Select an appropriate controller
suited to the load and to the 6 Manual Or Automatic
supply system. Control Circuit
4 – Select the overload protection

NOTES
required for the motor load to
protect up to and including the
locked rotor current.
5 – Select the disconnect means to

disconnect both motor and
controller from all ungrounded
supply conductors.
6 – Select the remote control circuit

for manual operation or
automatic operation of the coil if
a magnetic controller is used.
More Than One Branch Circuit From A Feeder

Figure 21.
If more than one branch circuit is connected to
a feeder (see Figure 21), you should pay atten-
tion to the size of the feeder conductor and also FEEDER
to the protection against ground fault and short
BRANCH
circuit at the feeder. CIRCUITS
For this example, let's assume that we have two

M1 M2
460-volt motors connected to this feeder (Fig-
ure 22), one being a 30 horsepower and the
other one a 50 horsepower, and that we have Figure 22.
already calculated its branch circuit require-
#0 TW
ments and now we need to calculate the proper 125A
FEEDER
40 + 65 +
CAPACITY
feeder protection and conductor size. .25 x 65 =
121.25A
According to the code, the feeder conductor

shall be capable of handling the sums of all the CONDUCTOR CONDUCTOR
full load currents in the branches, plus 25% 125% x 40A = 125% x 65A =
50A 81.25A
CODE J
more of the full load current of the largest
30 HP M1 M2 50 HP
branch circuit capacity. Therefore, to get the FLA = 40A FLA = 65A
maximum current for the feeder, we would have

the 40 amps from the branch of the 30-horse-
NOTES
power motor, plus the 65 amps of the 50 horse-
power motor totalling 105 amps, to which we
need to add 25% of the 65 amps of the largest
branch or 16.25 more amps. So the total will be
105 plus 16.25 or 121.25 amps capacity. For
this amperage, we will need, according to table
310-16 (see Figure 12) of the code, a size 0 TW
conductor which can handle up to 125 amps.
To select the proper protection for the feeder,

Article 430-62 states (Figure 23), in simple
terms, that the protection shall be calculated by Figure 23.
using the largest fuse size in the branch circuit FEEDER PROTECTION
(430-62)
and add to this value the full load current of all
"Use Largest Fuse in
other branches. Branch Circuit and Add the
FLA of All Other Branches"

In this case, if we’re using non-time delay fuses Figure 24.

for these motor circuits, their fuses would have
been calculated at 300% their full load current FUSE =
200A + 40A =
for a code J motor (Figure 24). The 30 horse- 240A REQUIRED
power needs a 120 Amp fuse so we use a 125

Amp fuse and the 50 horsepower will need a
195 Amps fuse so we’ll use a 200 Amp fuse.
300% x 40 = 300% x 65 =
120A 195A
USE 125 A FUSE USE 200 A FUSE
Therefore, according to the rule, we have the CODE J
largest protection which is the 200 Amp fuse 30 HP M1 M2 50 HP

FLA = 40A FLA = 65A
value plus the sum of the other branches’ full
load current–in this case the 40 Amps–for a
total of 240 Amps. For feeders, there is no NOTES
exception to go to a higher fuse value if the fuse
requirement is not standard. In this case, we are
required to use the next lower value, which is a
225 Amp fuse.
CONTROLLING MOTOR OPERATIONS
In chapter five, we covered control circuits and

how arranging the components and field de-
vices according to some logic in a ladder dia-
gram created the sequence of control for a
circuit. Most often the control of circuits involves
the control of motor operations from a simple on
and off control to controlling the speed of the
motor and the reversing of motor direction.
In this section, we’ll see how we can create a

safer control circuit, understand wiring diagrams,
and the use of two- and three-wire control
circuits.
In chapters 8 and 9, we’ll cover in detail some

other important control circuits that are used to
reverse circuits for single-phase, three-phase
and DC type motors and also how we connect

and control reduced AC voltage starters. Let’s Figure 25.
now look at how we go about creating a safer L1 L2

CONTROL VOLTAGE
control circuit. 120 VAC
START
Safer Control Circuits—Control Power STOP OL
M
MOTOR
STARTER
In all the control circuits we have seen so far, M1
(Figure 25), we have indicated the power to be

between L1 and L2 and we usually would show Figure 26.
or indicate the voltage between the two lines for 240V

L1
OR L2
M
example, 120 volt AC. This voltage we actually 480V L3
MOTOR
SUPPLY
call the control power, or control voltage.
START OL
STOP
L1
M
In many instances, we have applications using 120V MOTOR
SUPPLY STARTER
voltage supplies to motor circuits with 240 and L2
M
480 volts AC (Figure 26). In cases like this, you

may want to use lower voltage levels like 120 Figure 27.
volts or lower for the control circuit for safety L1
480V L2
reasons. If a separate power source is being SUPPLY L3
M
MOTOR
brought for the control circuit, then it must also
H1 H2 H3 H4
have its own disconnect means.
However, a lot of times what is done is to reduce

X1 X2
the load supply voltage for use in the control
circuit using a control transformer as shown in Figure 28.
240V / 480V
Figure 27.
H1 H2 H3 H4
These transformers have dual primary voltages

of 240/480 volts with secondaries of 120 volts
(Figure 28). Depending on how you connect the 120V
X1 X2
primary section, you will be able to transform
240 volts to 120 volts or from 480 volts to 120 Figure 29.
240V 480V
volts, a 2 to 1 and 4 to 1 ratio, respectively
(Figure 29). H1
H2 H3
H4 H1
H2 H3
H4
Control transformers are relatively small and

compact and are connected to the L1 and L2
supply lines of the motor power circuit in the 120V 120V
X1 X2 X1 X2
2:1 4:1

primary side (Figure 30), while the secondary Figure 30.
side is connected to the control circuit, usually L1

through a fuse. L2
M
L3
Control transformers are designed to handle
480V
the high current inrush requirements of control
relays, contactor and starter coils, solenoids
and other control devices. It is, however, highly
recommended that when mounted, you leave L1 L2
sufficient air space around the transformer to 120V

dissipate the heat. Also, be aware that the
primary wiring of 480 volts, for example, is not
easily accessible to a person who may be
troubleshooting the control circuit. Figure 31.
L1
These control transformers eliminate the need L2
480V M
of bringing an additional power source to the L3
control circuit (Figure 31). By adding the control
L2
transformer, we also eliminate the need of a 120V L1
separate disconnect means. Note that, in the
diagram (Figure 32), the transformer’s primary
connections are made “after” the disconnect M
means in the power circuit. Disconnecting the
motor control circuit will also disconnect the
motor load.
Wiring Diagrams Figure 32.
L1
In previous chapters we discussed the electri- L2

480V M
cal symbols and connectivity of control devices L3
and put them to work in ladder diagrams. Those
diagrams showed us a way of determining and
referencing very quickly how a particular con- L1 120V L2
trol circuit will operate. We mentioned also that

another way to represent parts of the operation M
was using wiring diagrams.
Wiring diagrams, unlike ladder diagrams, are

intended to show the actual connection and Figure 33.
placement or location of components as close

as possible, including the power circuits. Wiring
diagrams are extremely useful to electricians
and technicians while troubleshooting or de-
signing a control system since they provide a
CONTACTOR
road map of the actual wiring. This is not more SECTION MAGNETIC
true than in motor control circuits which, of STARTER
course, use magnetic starters and other control

devices.
OVERLOAD
SECTION
Magnetic Starter Wiring Diagram
As we mentioned, the wiring diagram illustrates

as close as possible, the location of the wiring
connections. In the starter (Figure 33), for ex-
Figure 34.
ample, you will find a wiring diagram as illus-
L1 L2 L3
trated (Figure 34) which shows all the connec-
tions to the starter in addition to the location of
the components within the starter. The symbols
in the wiring diagram show the location of these
components in the same manner where you
would find them if you were looking at the starter
from top to bottom.
From the top you have the three terminals that T1 T2 T3

connect to L1, L2 and L3 (Figure 34). Immedi-
ately below the power terminals you will find Figure 35.
another three terminals shown in smaller circles.
L1 L2 L3
These terminals represent, and are used for, L1
the wiring connections of control circuits or the
L2
control transformer which provides power to the
TO CONTROL
circuit (Figure 35). CIRCUIT
OR
TRANSFORMER
Right below, we find the actual contacts that will
turn the motor load on and below we have
another set of terminals which are normally
used when we have reversing circuit connec- T1 T2 T3

tions as we’ll see in later chapters. These can Figure 36.

L1 L2 L3
be considered power connecting terminals, as
opposed to control circuit terminals.
Under the second set of power terminals, we

find the starter coil (Figure 36) represented in
the diagram in the middle cross section which is
the location where you will actually find it in the
starter. Also shown are the two terminal con- T1 T2 T3
nections that are used in the wiring of the
Figure 37. L1 L2
control circuit, which are used in the ladder
diagram (Figure 37). When the coil is ener- OL
M
gized, the motor load contacts close which, in
turn, start the motor.
On the left of the coil (Figure 38) are located the

Figure 38.
auxiliary contacts, commonly used as interlock- L1 L2 L3
ing or sealing contacts. The terminals are la-
belled 3 and 2. Depending on the starter, you
may also have another set of auxiliary contacts
3
normally open or normally closed, illustrated in 5
2
Figure 38, with terminals 5 and 4. On the lower
4
left you’ll also find the normally closed overload
contacts (Figure 39).
T1 T2 T3
Depending on the starter, you may find three Figure 39.

L1 L2 L3
sets of overload contacts, one for each heater
coil (Figure40). If this is the case, you would
connect or wire them in series if they do not
3
come internally connected. Although most over- 5
load assemblies provide one set of normally 2
4
closed contacts for all three power line circuits,
OL
if there is an overload in any of the three lines,
T1 T2 T3
the overload contacts will be tripped.
Figure 40. TO
COIL
OL1 OL2 OL3
At the right of the overload contacts in the
diagram are represented the overload heaters
which control the overload contacts (Figure 39). TO L2

Figure 41.
Finally, below the heaters, you’ll find the termi- L1 L2 L3
nal connections T1, T2 and T3 that would be

connected to the motor load. In this case, the
connections will be for a three-phase motor. 3
2
Most of the time, you will find starters that come
with some pre-wired control circuit connections
which are done at the time of manufacturing
T1 T2 T3
(Figure 41). These include one side of the
Figure 42.
starter coil to terminal 3 of the auxiliary contact.
L1 L2
This connection will also be represented in the
wiring diagram (Figure 42).
START
STOP OL
Another connection might be from the back side M
of the coil, so to speak, to the one side of the M
overloads (reference Figure 41). The other side 2 3
of the overload will be connected to the L2 line

in the control circuit, just as it is represented in
the ladder diagram. Figure 43. L1 L2 L3
Wiring Diagram and

Ladder Diagram Example
As an exercise, let’s come up with the wiring

diagram for a 2-horsepower, three-phase, 120 T1 T2 T3
volt motor shown in Figure 43, whose operation
Motor
and control is represented by the ladder dia- 2Hp, 120 VAC, 3O
gram of Figure 44.
Figure 44.
L1 L2
In the wiring diagram (Figure 45), we would
bring one side of the stop push button to the L1 START
STOP OL
connection in the starter. Note that the connec-
M
tion is made to the small circle terminal to
denote a control circuit connection. M
2 3

The other side of the stop is connected to one

side of the start push button which side is also Figure 45.
connected to the number 2 terminal which cor-

responds to the auxiliary set of contacts in the
starter. These contacts are labelled M in the Start
Stop
ladder diagram (Figure 44) where the numbers 3
2 and 3 of the starter connections are also
2
included. One side of the start push button will
be wired to the number 3 terminal of the auxil-
iary contacts. From the ladder diagram we see
that the connection from terminal 3 is also wired
Motor
to the starter coil. The other side of the coil goes
to one side of the overloads and, from the other
side of the overloads, we connect to L2 to Figure 46.
complete the circuit.

L1 L2
The two wire connections, from terminal 3 to the

START
coil and from the coil to L2 through the over- STOP OL
loads, could already be wired in the starter M

when it was shipped from the manufacturer. PL
M
2 3
If we added a pilot light in the ladder diagram
(see Figure 46) to indicate a “motor on” condi-
tion, we would include it in the wiring diagram
(see Figure 47) coming from a this point in the
push button terminal or the point at the terminal Figure 47.
number 3 connection of the starter. We are

connecting it to the push button terminal since
we only have one wire connected to this point, Start
Stop
and we have two at terminal 3. The other side of 3
the pilot light will be wired to L2 in the starter to
2
complete the circuit resembling the same
connection as in the ladder diagram. Every time
the start push button is pressed, the motor will
start and the pilot light will be lit.
Motor

We can see that it is easier or more convenient

to follow the sequence of operation of a control NOTES
circuit in the ladder diagram of Figure 46, rather
than in the wiring diagram of Figure 47; how-
ever, if you are troubleshooting the circuit and
the motor load, it is better seen in the wiring
diagram, which described precisely where you
would have to look in the starter for the compo-
nents to test. Both circuit diagrams, however,
are useful when troubleshooting.
If this motor had been a high voltage motor of,

let’s say 480 volts (Figure 48), then we would
have used a control transformer for the power to
Figure 48.
the control circuit and the connections would
have been also represented in the wiring dia-
H2 H3 L1 L2 L3
gram. The power now would be reduced from H1
H4
480 volts to 120 volts. This transformer will most X1 X2
likely also be located in the same enclosure Start

Stop
3
where the starter is housed. Note that we have
also added overcurrent protection for the con- 2
trol circuit using a fuse. This fuse could have

been placed in other locations using other meth- T1 T2 T3
ods, depending on the local, state or NEC rules.
Motor
Two-Wire and Three-Wire Control NOTES
During the designing or troubleshooting of a

control system, you will encounter two types of
circuits which are commonly known as two-wire
and three-wire controls. These two circuit names
may be referenced by some equipment manu-
facturer, or by the maker of some motors and
motor starters. We actually have covered these
circuits without having to describe them with the
two-wire or three-wire control nomenclature.
However, we want to go over them here to avoid
any misunderstandings and/or problems, es-

NOTES
pecially when you are troubleshooting a system
and find these circuits described somewhere in
the wiring or ladder diagrams. So let’s take a
look at these circuits.
Two-Wire Control
Two-wire control circuits are used in applica-

tions where the system operation is automatic
and does not require operator intervention (Fig-
ure 49). This control circuit is called two-wire
because only two wires are connected to a coil
in a motor starter (see Figure 50), thus making
the control circuit appear as one circuit in series
driving the logic to a coil.
Figure 49.
Two-wire control circuits are generally used in L1 L2

circuit applications, which are controlling a load
POWER
device at a remote or distant location. For
example, in the control of pumping stations,
HVAC systems, compressors, line pumps, and FLOAT OL
others. SWITCH
M
Because of the way a two-wire circuit operates

(Figure 49), it is said that this circuit provides
low voltage release but no low voltage protec-
tion. This simply means that, in the event of a Figure 50.
POWER
power loss occurrence in the control circuit, the
contactor in the starter will be de-energized or,
L1 L2 L3
in other words, create the low voltage release
from the control circuit and will re-energize if the TWO
WIRES 3
control device, in this case the float switch, is
still closed when the power comes back to the 2
control circuit. There is no low voltage protec-
tion because there is no way for an operator to OL
intervene or reset the circuit if a loss of power T1 T2 T3
has occurred. Therefore, you must be cautious
Motor
(Figure 51) when troubleshooting two-wire cir-

cuits because, if you disconnect the control Figure 51.

power and the control elements driving the two-
Caution When
wire circuit are still closed, the coil will be picked
up as soon as you put power back on. There is Troubleshooting!
no reset to provide the low voltage protection in
the control circuit.
This is primarily why this circuit is used in

applications that require automatic action for a
motor to go back on after a power failure. Such
as in the case of the control of an air compressor
or fan in an HVAC system. Figure 52.
As we can see in the wiring diagram of the pump L1 L2

circuit (Figure 50), there are only two wires
connected or driving the logic of the coil in the
START
starter. Note also that in a two-wire circuit, STOP OL
terminal two of the starter is not used. M
M
Three-Wire Control
2 3
The three-wire control circuit (Figure 52), as its
name implies, uses three wires to connect to
the coil of the motor starter. In fact, the extra
wire is the one that connects the auxiliary con-
tacts which seal the start push button, as can be Figure 53.
seen in the wiring diagram of Figure 53. This is THREE POWER
actually the circuit which we first discussed in WIRES
L1 L2 L3
Chapter 5 as having the function of adding
memory to a circuit. Start
Stop
3
In Figure 53, we can see the three wires that go
2
to the starter. Three-wire control does provide
both low voltage release and low voltage pro- OL
tection. If the control power is lost, the starter T1 T2 T3
coil will drop, therefore turning off the motor,

Motor
providing the low voltage release. If the control
power comes back up, then the circuit will not

Figure 54.
turn on the motor unless the operator again START
presses the start push button; so this circuit is
2
providing the low voltage protection by not
allowing the motor to turn back on automatically 3
without operator intervention. 1
STOP
The three-wire circuit can also be visualized in
PUSH BUTTON
the standard push button station (Figure 54) STATION
used for three wire control where there are
three terminals for the three wires. Terminal Figure 55.
THREE POWER
one goes to L1 and terminals 2 and 3 go to the WIRES
L1 L2 L3
auxiliary set of contacts in the starter. This
START
typical push button station, as we know, would
be represented in a wiring diagram as shown in 3
Figure 55. Note that the two push buttons are 2
STOP
surrounded by a dotted line to signify a three-
wire control push button station. OL
T1 T2 T3
There are some other three-wire control push Motor

button stations that may incorporate additional
components such as a JOG selector switch Figure 56.
(Figure 56) to implement the motor JOG func- START
3
tion. In the circuit shown in Figure 57, the
JOG RUN
selector switch would be used to run the motor
in the standard manner when the switch is set 2
to RUN;and the start is pushed.
1 STOP
If the switch is in the JOG position, then the
motor will only be able to turn on when the push Figure 57.
button is pressed. As soon as it is released,
L1 L2
then the motor will be off, thus allowing the
motor to JOG every time the start push button
START
is pressed. The JOG selector essentially elimi- STOP OL
nates or breaks the memory effect that the M

JOG RUN
sealing auxiliary contacts provide.
M
2 3

This push button station with a JOG will be
represented in a wiring diagram as illustrated in Figure 58.
L1 L2 L3
Figure 58. As you can see, this circuit still
represents a three-wire control circuit.
START
3
TYPES OF AC AND DC MOTORS J R M
2
In this section, we’re going to cover briefly how

AC and DC motors operate, the major compo- STOP
T1 T2 T3
nents that form the motors and the type of
connections that are found. So let’s start by Motor
looking first at AC motors.
NOTES
AC Motors
AC motors are more commonly and widely

used than DC motors in industrial applications
and are available for 3-phase and 1-phase
supply voltage systems. Most single-phase
motors are less than 3 horsepower. On the
other hand, 3-phase motors are available in a
range from a few horsepower all the way to
several thousand horsepower.
Figure 59.
3-Phase Motors 3O MOTOR
The three-phase motor, as its name implies, L1

operates from a 3-phase supply voltage (Figure L2
M
59). This type of motor is said to be an induction L3
motor because the voltages, when applied,

induce a magnetic field which makes the inside
STARTER
motor components rotate the shaft of the motor
(Figure 60). You can remember from Chapter 1 Figure 60.
L1
how electrical power was generated from an A1
alternator by transforming mechanical degrees B2 C2

S
into electrical degrees. Well, a motor does the L2
SHAFT
opposite–it transforms electrical degrees into N
mechanical degrees which are seen when the C1 B1
motor’s shaft is rotating. A2

L3
Three-phase AC motors, as we’ll see later, are

Figure 61.
also represented by the Wye and Delta configu-
rations (Figure 61). They perform the inverse WYE PHASE
A
function of an alternator or generator system. L1 T1 PHASE
L2 T2 B
L3 T3 PHASE
The 3-phase induction motor (Figure 62) is C
primarily composed of these three basic parts: MOTOR STARTER
PHASE
• Stator DELTA A
L1 T1
• Rotor PHASE
L2 T2 B
• End Plates Brackets L3 T3
PHASE
C
MOTOR STARTER
The stator is the stationary part of the motor
and, therefore its name, and consists of several
Figure 62.
parts, including the frame type, according to
NEMA standards. The stators consists of a
group of individual coil windings (Figure 63)
where the rotor will rotate once the voltage is
applied. These windings will be connected to
the motor starter terminals.
The rotor, as its name implies, is the rotating

part of the motor and is constructed from either
coils of wire wound on laminated steel or it can
be made from all laminated steel without any
wire coils. If a motor’s rotor has wire coils, it is
called a wound rotor motor. A laminated motor Courtesy of Relience Electric
rotor (Figure 63), which is most popular nowa-

days, is called a squirrel-cage motor because
the design resembles the cage used for a pet
Figure 63.
hamster and the like and, therefore, its name.
ELECTRO-MAGNETICS
The end plates or brackets house the bearings

for the motor which, depending on the size, will
use sleeve-type bearings if it is a small frac-
tional horsepower motor or will use ball bear-
ings if it is a larger motor. Sleeve bearings
ROTOR
require periodic lubrication and some ball bear-
STATOR
ings in small motors will be what’s called perma-

nently lubricated, while the larger motor’s ball Figure 64.

WYE CONNECTION
bearing will require periodic lubrication. These T1
end plates are mounted on both ends of the

T4
motor and are held in place by bolts and nuts
T7
tightened and secured to the stator frame.
T9 T8
The squirrel-cage, wye wound, dual voltage T6 T5
motor has 9 terminal leads from the end of its T3 T2
HIGH VOLTAGE
coils for field connections (Figure 64). These
terminals are numbered clockwise, starting at Figure 65.
WYE CONNECTION
one, two, three, and so on. The terminal con- T1
nections T1, T2 and T3 from the starter are T4

connected to the T1, T2 and T3 of the motor. T7
The other connections are wired as shown in

Figure 64 for a high voltage configuration. T6
T9 T8
T5
T3 T2
LOW VOLTAGE
For a low voltage configuration (Figure 65), we Figure 66.
would connect T1, T2 and T3 to the starter and TO L1
also with terminals 7, 8 and 9, respectively.

Terminals 4, 5, and 6 will be tied together,
essentially making a smaller wye as illustrated
in Figure 66. You can recall from our motor
example that the nameplate had two terminal TO L3
TO L2
configurations, one for the low voltage and one
for the high voltage. Figure 67.
DELTA CONNECTION
T1
The squirrel-cage, dual-voltage, delta wound

motor, (Figure 67), has 9 terminal leads. This T9 T4
T6 T7
nine-lead delta motor configuration also repre-
sents the terminal in number order in a clock-
wise direction, starting at T1, T2, and so on to T3 T8 T5 T2
HIGH VOLTAGE
T9. For a full voltage configuration, we would
connect the terminals shown in Figure 67, where Figure 68.
the T1, T2 and T3 terminals are connected to DELTA CONNECTION
T1
the motor starter’s T1, T2 and T3 connections.
T9 T4
For a low-voltage configuration (Figure 68), we T6 T7
LOW
would connect terminals 1, 6 and 7 together; 2, VOLTAGE
4 and 8 together and 3, 5 and 9 together.

T3 T8 T5 T2

As we’ll see later, interchanging two of the three
terminal leads that go to a three-phase motor Figure 69.
will result in a change in direction of the motor L3 L1

rotation from clockwise to counter-clockwise or, in L2 L2
other words, from forward to reverse (Figure 69).
M
L1 L3
1-Phase Motors
MOVE FORWARD
Single-phase motors (see Figure 70) are used MOVE REVERSE
most frequently in applications requiring a frac-
tional horsepower motor or in applications where
there is a need for a motor and there is no three- Figure 70.
phase power available. 1O MOTOR
The single-phase motor also has a stator, a L1

rotor and the end plates which form the brack-
ets of the motor. These components are very M
L2
similar to the three-phase motors, except that it
may have some additional components or other
modifications.
The stator is formed by two windings (Figure Figure 71. FINE

71), namely, a start winding and a run winding. GAUGE
WIRE
The start winding is used because single-phase
motors are not self-starting on their run wind-
RUN START
ings like the three-phase motors. The start
winding is formed by fine-gauge wire and is
LARGER
used to create a very strong magnetic field to GAUGE
WIRE
start the motor. The run winding is made of
larger wire and ranges between 12 to 16-gauge
wire.
Figure 72.
If, when troubleshooting, you cannot tell imme-
diately which one is the starting and which one
is the run winding, you may place an ohmmeter
and measure the resistance of the two windings
(Figure 72). The one with the most resistance
reading will be the start winding because it has
OHM METER MOST RESISTANCE START
more wire turns than the run winding. LEAST RESISTANCE RUN

When the motor is first started, both windings, in Figure 73.
parallel, are energized and only the run winding

will be on once the motor has achieved approxi-
mately 75% of its speed (see Figure 73). The
1O
RUN START
start winding will be out because a centrifugal POWER
switch will detect the 75% speed and disconnect
the start winding.
The rotor is very similar to the one in the three-

phase motor and is also called squirrel cage for Figure 74.
the same reason. The end plates secure the
motor to the frame.
The terminals in single-phase motors have a

standard method of identification. They may
have four or eight terminals (Figure 74). If it is a
dual voltage single-phase motor, the running
winding will have four terminals connected for SINGLE VOLTAGE
115 volts as shown in Figure 75, or as illustrated
in Figure 76 for 230 volts. Figure 75.
T5
T1
The start winding may also show four terminals,
of which 6 and 7 are connected together and5 T2
T6
START
1O RUN T7
and 8 go to power. Terminals 5 and 8 of the start POWER T3
winding are in general represented in red and T4
T8
black, respectively.
DUAL 120/240 VOLTAGE
If you are troubleshooting a single-phase motor

because it is humming and doesn’t start unless
you rotate its shaft, then the cause of the prob- Figure 76.
T5
lem is the centrifugal switch not operating cor-
T1
rectly or an open in the start winding.
T2
T6
START
1O RUN T7
There are several types of single-phase motors, POWER T3
the most common being the split-phase motor. T4
T8
Others are the capacitor type motors.
DUAL 120/240 VOLTAGE

The split-phase motor is essentially the one we

have been talking about, and which does not NOTES
have any “capacitors.” This motor provides the
lowest starting torque of all single-phase mo-
tors and operates only on induction to start and
run. It is very inexpensive and is available in
many frame types suitable for mounting in most
machinery.
The capacitor motor is a single-phase motor

and can be anywhere from 1/8th horsepower to
10 horsepower and has an additional capacitor
component in series with the starting winding.
This capacitor helps the motor provide more
Figure 77.
torque at start than the split phase. MORE TORQUE
AT START C
Among the most common capacitor motors, we

1O
have: POWER
R S
• Capacitor Start
• Permanent Split Capacitor CAPACITOR START
• Capacitor Start-Capacitor Run
Figure 78.
The capacitor start motor (Figure 77) has a C
capacitor added to the start winding, which will

be cut off once the motor gets to 75% of full 1O
R S
speed. POWER
A permanent split capacitor motor (Figure78) is

one that has a permanent capacitor in the PERMANENT SPLIT CAPACITOR
series with the start winding. This motor will

keep both windings on during operation. Figure 79.
CS
The capacitor start-capacitor run motor (Figure

CR
79) is a modification of the capacitor start which 1O
R S
POWER
adds yet another capacitor in parallel to the start
winding which provides the motor with better
torque characteristics when the motor is oper-
CAPACITOR START – CAPACITOR RUN
ating at full speed. At 75% of full speed, the

starting capacitor will be cut off while the run- NOTES

ning capacitor will still be connected to the start
winding to provide additional torque. This motor
basically provides the capabilities at start of the
capacitor start motor and of the permanent split
motor at full speed.
DC Motors
DC motors are generally found in applications

requiring adjustable speed and simple torque
control. Such applications include cranes,
elevators, printing presses and many others.
DC motors are composed of three basic as-

semblies which are:
• Armature
• Motor Frame
• End Plates or Brackets
The armature consists of rotating windings while

the frame holds stationary windings. The end
plates hold both sides of the motor.
Three are three basic types of DC motors,

namely:
• Series DC Motor Figure 80.
• Shunt DC Motor
SERIES DC MOTOR
• DC Compound Motor
The series DC motor is characterized as a

provider of high starting torque and is able to ARMATURE
move large shaft loads when it is first energized.
In the Series DC Motor (Figure 80), the series

S2 A1 A2 S1
field windings, which are composed of heavy
+ DC VOLTAGE -
gauge wire, are connected in series with the

armature winding. The wires coming from the Figure 81. SERIES FIELD
series field are labeled S1 and S2 and the
armatures are labeled A1 and A2. The electrical S2 S1
+ A2
representation of this motor is given by the
DC
circuit shown in Figure 81, where the series field POWER
ARMATURE
is also shown in series with the armature. A1

-
The shunt DC motor (Figure 82) has its field
winding, which is made up of many turns of Figure 82. SHUNT DC MOTOR
small gauge wire, connected in parallel to the
armature. This motor has a very low starting
torque which requires a small shaft load; at full ARMATURE
speed, this motor will remain rather constant. F2 F1
Note that the terminals coming from the shunt A2 A1
field are labeled F1 and F2. The armature and

+ -
field can be controlled by two different power
sources, in which case the motor can be speed-
Figure 83.
controlled by changing the field current. The
F2
circuit shown in Figure 83 represents a typical + A1
shunt DC motor with the same DC power source. DC SHUNT

ARMATURE
POWER FIELD
A2
The DC compound motor (see Figure 84) is a - F1
combination of a series motor and a shunt
motor. It has a series field winding which is
connected in series with the armature and a Figure 84.
SHUNT FIELD
shunt field connected in parallel with the arma-
SERIES FIELD
ture. This configuration allows the compound
ARMATURE
motor to provide high starting torque and good
speed regulation. The circuit representation of
this motor is shown in Figure 85. F2 S2 A1 A2 S1 F1
POWER FACTOR + -
We are going to turn our attention to briefly Figure 85.

discuss power factor, define it, see how it is S2 S1
corrected and what you need to look for and be F2 SERIES

+ A2
aware of when dealing with power factor modi- DC SHUNT
fications in a motor control circuit. So let’s start POWER
ARMATURE
A1
by looking at what’s power factor.
- F1
Power factor could be defined as the percent-

age ratio between the true power in kilowatts Figure 86.

and apparent power in Kilo–Volts Amperes or WHAT'S POWER FACTOR?
KVA (Figure 86). This difference is basically PF=

TRUE POWER (KW)
APPARENT POWER (KVA)
seen in the way the power company reads the
true power from watt meters as opposed to the
apparent power used. But what causes this?
Figure 87.
WHAT CAUSES THIS?
VOLTAGE
As we know, AC circuits have two components,
CURRENT
current and voltage (Figure 87), and most de-
vices we see and use in the plant, such as
solenoids, relays, transformers, motor coils and
others provide inductive loads in the AC system
due to the reactance of these devices. This VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
IN PHASE
inductance creates a phase difference (Figure
88) between the voltage and current or what’s
known as a lag which is calculated in electrical Figure 88. WHAT CAUSES THIS?
VOLTAGE
degrees and is called a phase angle. We’ll learn
later that this phase angle has a direct relation- CURRENT
ship with power factor. But what has this to do

with power? PHASE
ANGLE IN
DEGREES
Power is defined as voltage times current in DC CURRENT LAGS VOLTAGE AND
system (Figure 89), while in a single-phase AC IS OUT OF PHASE
system the voltage times the current times the

trigonometric value of the phase angle which is Figure 89.
the cosine of the phase angle PA.
POWERDC= VDCX IDC
In a three-phase system, power changes slightly POWER1Ø= V X I X Cos PA

because the voltage is defined as the voltage POWER3Ø= VP-N X I X Cos PA
from phase to neutral, as opposed to the phase-
to-phase voltage which is delivered, for ex- Figure 90.
460V WYE MOTOR
ample, to a wye motor. Remember, a 460-volt
A
motor receives 460 volts from A to B, B to C and
C to A (Figure 90 ). Because we have three 460 V 460 V
phases, the power will be three times the phase

to neutral voltage times the current times the
cosine of the phase angle.
C B
460 V

From Chapter 1 (see Figure 91) we know that
the phase-to-phase voltage is equal to 1.73 Figure 91.
times the phase-to-neutral, so the phase to POWER3Ø= VP-N X I X Cos PA
neutral is equal to the phase-to-phase divided
by 1.73. VPHASE-PHASE = 1.73 x VPHASE-NEUTRAL
Replacing this value in the power formula we VPHASE-PHASE

= VPHASE-NEUTRAL
deduce that power is 3 times the voltage phase- 1.73
to-phase divided by 1.73 times the current
VPHASE-PHASE
times the cosine of the phase angle. This comes POWER = 3 X X I X Cos PA
1.73
out to be 1.73 times the phase-to-phase voltage
times the current times the cosine of the phase = 1.73 X VPHASE-PHASE X I X Cos PA
angle. Figure 92.
If there is no phase angle (Figure 92), the power POWER = 1.73 X VP-P X I X Cos PA
=
in a 3 phase will be 1.73 times the voltage times 0°
the current times the value of the cosine of the = 1.73 X VP-P X I X Cos 0°
phase angle difference which will be the cosine
= 1.73 X VP-P X I X 1
of zero degrees which is one, therefore making
= 1.73 X VP-P X I
the true power be the same as the apparent
TRUE POWER = APPARENT POWER
power. To see this more clearly, let’s take an
example. Figure 93.
PF CALCULATION
Let’s take a 460-volts (Figure 93), 3-phase, 20 • 460 V MOTOR
horsepower motor which draws 21 amps at full • 3O
• 20 HP
load and we’re told that there is a 30-degree
• 21 FLA
phase angle due to inductance. The power
• 30˚ PA
(Figure 94) will be 1.73 times 460 times 21
times the cosine of 30 degrees which is 0.866
Figure 94.
for a total of 14, 472 watts or 14.47 kilowatts. T POWER =1.73 x 460 x 21 x Cos 30˚
This is the true power for the motor. =1.73 x 460 x 21 x 0.886
=14,472 WATTS =14.47 KW
The apparent power will be 1.73 times 460 A POWER =1.73 x 460 x 21
times 21 for a total of 16,711 Volts Amperes or =16,711 VA =16.71 KVA
16.71 KVA.
Figure 95. TRUE POWER (KW)
The ratio between these two gives us 0.866 or PF =
APPARENT POWER (KVA)
86.6% (Figure 95), which is the power factor.
This number is actually the cosine of the phase 14.47
= = 0.866 OR 86.6%
angle, which is the power factor. 16.71
!
=
Cos 30˚
If we measured with a watt meter in front of the

motor, we would read a true power of 14.47 Figure 96. 100

kilowatts or 86.6% of the apparent power of 90
% POWER FACTOR
80
16.7. Power companies do not like plants that
70
run at below a 90% power factor so they charge
60
a premium rate for the power they deliver to 50
your equipment. 40
30
20
This example demonstrates a power factor
10
problem which is very common in AC squirrel- 0
25 50 75 100
cage induction motors and is the biggest cause % LOAD
of power factor problems. In fact, as the load of
the motor decreases (Figure 96), its power
factor decreases tremendously, so sizing the Figure 97. POWER TERMINALS
right motor for an application and keeping bal-

anced loads is a definite thing to keep in mind. FUSES
BLEED OFF
RESISTORS
Power Factor Correction

CAPACITORS
CAPACITOR
Power factor problems caused by inductive HOUSING
loads can be corrected or improved by adding

capacitive reactance to the system. This is
accomplished with the use of commercially
available power factor capacitors.
Figure 98. CORRECTION
The circuit diagram of these capacitive devices

POWER
is described in Figure 97. This circuit includes SOURCE MOTOR
discharge resistors to bleed off the power stored

in the device when power is removed.
PF
CAPACITOR
The correction provided by the capacitor is
toward the source of power (Figure 98), so if we Figure 99.
CORRECTION
put it right before the motor (see Figure 99), the
correction will take place toward the starter L1
circuit and to the supply source. This correction L2

M
L3
will decrease the current coming into the starter
from the power source which means that the
overloads will have to be adjusted to a new
ADJUST OL FOR
lower current value in order to protect the motor. LOWER CURRENT

The percentage of current reduction is given by Figure 100.

commercial tables like the one shown in Figure
Motor 3600 RPM 1800 RPM
100, where they are stated as a percentage Rating Capacitor Reduction Capacitor Reduction
Hp Rating in Line Rating in Line
reduction in current, according to the motor KVAC Current KVAC Current
horsepower, and RPMs. If our 20 horsepower Percent Percent
motor were running at 1800 RPMs (synchro- 5 1 9 2 16

7 1/2 1 8 2 13
nous speed), the current going into motor after 10 2 8 2 13
15 4 8 4 13
power factor correction would be reduced by 20 4 7 5 9
9%.
However, if the capacitors are connected be- Figure 101.

tween the overloads and the starter contacts CORRECTION
(Figure 101), the reduction in current, due to
power factor correction, will be from the over- L1
loads to the power source. The overloads will L2
see a full load current without reduction, there- M
L3
fore not needing a reduction in the sizing of the
overloads. If the capacitor is added before the
starter contacts (Figure 102), both the starter
and overloads will see full load currents.
Keep in mind where the capacitor correction is

Figure 102.
placed in case you need to change one so that
CORRECTION
the proper motor protection is kept.
L1
In this chapter, we have covered some impor-
tant introductory topics on motor controls and L2
M
the precautions you must take in following the L3
proper National Electrical Code rules. In chap-
ters 8 and 9, we’ll cover in detail more on DC
and AC motor control circuits.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.- True/False. The National Electric Code or

NEC outlines all the standard(s) and pre-
ventive measures that must be followed in
any properly executed electrical installation
2.- Some typical characteristics of circuits that

are outlined in the NEC include ______.
a– Temperature operating environment

b– Type of motor winding insulation
c– Wire and motor sizes
3.- As shown in Figure 1, if a ground fault Figure 1

occurs, ______.
a– The motor will not start L1
b– The motor will start L2 M

L3
MS
4.- Every electrical motor in a plant must have
GROUND
______. FAULT
HERE
START
STOP
MS
a– The manufacturer’s name on it MS
GROUNDED
b– The type of motor it is NEUTRAL
c– The nameplate
d– The rating and code
5.- The ______ is a measure of the motor

overload capacity that was designed into
the motor.
a– Overcurrent capacity
b– Slip
c– Service factor
d– Service power

6.- True/False. The slip is the difference be-

tween synchronous speed and actual rotor
or the actual motor speed.
7.- ______ is the amount of current that a motor

will require when power is first applied and
the rotor and shaft start to turn.
a– Open end current

b– Full end current
c– Back end current
d– Locked-rotor current or amperage
8.- True/False. The locked-rotor current may

be as much as 2 to 5 times the full load
current.
9.- True/False. Starters and contactors are ba-

sically the same, but starters have thermal
overload protection and contactors don’t.
10.- Starters come in two basic types that are the

______ and ______.
a– Magnetic
b– Centrifugal
c– Manual
d– Isolated
11 – The ______ starter is operated by a coil

inside.
a– Magnetic
b– Centrifugal
c– Manual
d– Isolated

12.- Based on the NEC, when we select branch

circuit conductors, they must be rated at
least ______ of the motor full load current.
a– 100%
b– 150%
c– 125%
d– 115%
13.- True/False. According to the NEC code, the

feeder conduction shall be capable of han-
dling the sums of all the full load currents in
the branches, plus 25% more of the full load
current of the largest branch circuit.
14.- True/False. For feeders, there is no excep-

tion to go to a higher fuse value if the fuse
requirement is not standard.
15.- ______ diagrams are used to show the

actual connections and placement or loca-
tion of components as close as possible,
including the power circuits.
a– Ladder
b– Wiring
c– Power
d– Plant
Figure 2
16.- In Figure 2 , the normally closed contacts
L1 L2 L3
are ______.
a– Control contacts
b– Overload contacts 3
c– Interlocking contacts
2
d– Power contacts
T1 T2 T3

17.- True/False. Two-wire circuits provide low

voltage release but no low voltage protec-
tion.
18.- True/False. Three-wire circuits provide no

low voltage release and low voltage pro-
tection.
19.- Most single-phase motors are ______.
a – Between 1-20 HP
b – Less than 3 HP
c – Up to 50 HP
d – Up to 10 HP
20.- AC motors are primarily composed of

______, ______ and ______.
a– Stator
b– Cage
c– Rotor
d– End plates
21.- Identify each of the two diagrams in Figure Figure 3 WYE CONNECTION
T1
3 as a high voltage or low voltage connec-
tion a– T4
T7
22.- When troubleshooting a single phase

motor, if you cannot tell which one is the T9 T8
T6
starting and the run winding, you may T5
T3 T2
place an ohmmeter near them and the one
WYE CONNECTION
with the most resistance is the ______. T1
a – Start winding T4
b – Run winding b– T7
T9 T8
T6 T5
T3 T2
LOW VOLTAGE

23.- The start winding in a single phase motor

will be out when a centrifugal switch de-
tects approximately ______ of the motor
speed.
a – 50%
b – 35%
c – 75%
d – 90%
24.- The ______ DC motor is characterized by

providing a high starting torque and is able
to move large shaft loads when it is first
energized.
a– Shunt
b– Compound
c– Series
25.- True/False. Power factor can be defined

as the percentage ratio between true power
in KW and apparent power in KVA.

ANSWERS
1.- True
2.- d– All of the above
3.- b– The motor will start thus creating a po-

tential hazard. This motor will not be able to
stop unless it is disconnected from the main
disconnect switch.
4.- c– The nameplate
5.- c– Service factor
6.- True
7.- d– Locked-rotor current or amperage
8.- False. It may be as high as 6 to 10 times the

full load current.
9.- True
10.- a– Magnetic
c– Manual
11.- a– Magnetic
12.- c– 125%
13.- True
14.- True
15.- b– Wiring
16.- b– Overload contacts

17.- True
18.- False. They provide both.
19.- b– Less than 3 HP
20.- a– Stator
c– Rotor
d– End plates
21.- WYE CONNECTION

WYE CONNECTION
T1 T1
a– T4 b– T4
T7 T7
High Voltage Low Voltage

T9 T8 T9 T8
T6 T5 T6
T5
T3 T2 T3 T2
LOW VOLTAGE
22.- a– Start winding
23.- c– 75%
24.- c– Series
25.- True

MODULE
CHAPTER 7 7
Chapter 7—Preventive Maintenance and Electrical Control Circuit Troubleshooting
OVERVIEW
In this seventh chapter, you are presented with
the important topic of preventive maintenance
and electrical troubleshooting.
Preventive maintenance approaches, guidelines

and scheduling are presented, as well as meth-
ods of “engineering” preventive maintenance into
control circuits and the plant’s electrical power
distribution network.
Troubleshooting is presented with three ap-

proaches: to the power source, the control circuit
and the power circuit. Several methods are ex-
plained which allow you to troubleshoot short cir-
cuits and component failures. Also explained are
the causes of why motors fail.
OBJECTIVES
After reviewing this seventh chapter, you should

be able to:
• Provide the necessary guidelines and pro-

cedures to implement a preventive mainte-
nance program.
• To engineer preventive maintenance.
• Prevent and detect phase imbalances and

phase losses in the plant.
• Troubleshoot control circuits due to short

circuit or component failure problems.
• Understand why motors fail and prevent

motors from failing.
• Recognize potential motor failure symptoms.

INTRODUCTION
This seventh chapter is perhaps one of the most

important since it will focus on keeping the
equipment in your plant running. In here, we’ll
also cover “how to find” the solution to the prob- Figure 1.
lems found when troubleshooting the equip-

ment and the circuits that form the system. By P.M.
TROUBLE-
????
SHOOTING
now, we have already covered a tremendous ????
amount of information which will help you un-
PREVENTIVE
derstand the operation and control of electri- ????
cal circuits. In here, we’ll go over two major ar-

eas which are Preventive Maintenance and
Troubleshooting. So let’s start by looking first
at preventive maintenance.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
What is preventive maintenance? We probably

have asked ourselves that question before
many times (Figure 1).
The key word here is preventive which, if we

look in the dictionary, implies preventing some-
thing from happening (Figure 2). And mainte- Figure 2.
nance simply relates to maintaining something

in working order, whether it is plant equipment
WORD
or our own car, before it breaks down. If some-
thing brakes down, we are not maintaining it,
we are “repairing it.”
PREVENTIVE:
PR EV EN TI VE
...Preventing Something
Preventive maintenance consists of inspecting, From Happening
cleaning, replacing and in some cases moni- MAINTENANCE:
toring components before they fail or break ...Maintaining in
down. The successful operation of a plant re- Working Order
quires minimizing the time a machine is down
and avoiding something we can really measure,
dollars lost to the company.

Preventive Maintenance Objective NOTES
A preventive maintenance program has many

objectives, the first one is to make sure that the
equipment is kept in good condition to ensure
uninterrupted operation for as long as possible.
Second, to keep the equipment operating at the
highest efficiency. For example, by keeping a
motor's bearing lubricated so that there is not
too much friction. Third, to protect the equip-
ment from environmental hazards which could
impair its performance and fourth, one of the
most important objectives which is often ne-
glected, to keep good records and documenta-
tion of what has been done.
Preventive Maintenance Guidelines
To properly implement the physical aspect of a

preventive maintenance program, we must have
a set of guidelines of what’s going to be done
and when.
A preventive maintenance program should in-

clude the following:
• Inspection of components
• Cleaning
• Lubrication
• Adjusting and tightening
Inspection
During the inspection, you should pay atten-

tion to and take note on all observations made
to the equipment. Inspection can take place
under a dynamic mode or a static mode. Dy-
namic simply means that the equipment is run-

NOTES
ning with power applied, where you can, for
example, hear noise or feel overheating from
motors. Under the static mode, the machinery
does not have power applied and is the perfect
time to look for loose parts, location of dirt ac-
cumulation and any other signs of abnormali-
ties. Inspection should be the first thing to do in
a preventive maintenance program and its im-
portance cannot be overemphasized.
Cleaning
Just like we like to keep our automobiles clean

on a Friday night, keeping the plant equipment
clean from dirt inside and out makes it more
pleasant to work with. Additionally, if the equip-
ment is clean, it will help ventilation, avoid over-
heating and downtime.
Cleaning can be simply done by removing or

blowing dirt with low pressure dry air. However,
to avoid problems, cleaning should be one in a
static mode. During cleaning, also make sure
the equipment is kept dry. Moisture can cause
corrosion and rust and also potential short cir-
cuits.
Lubricating Equipment
Lubricating equipment undoubtedly represents

an important part of a routine preventive main-
tenance program. The lubrication of motor bear-
ings and other rotating equipment will help
eliminate excessive wear and tear, as well as
heat in motors.

NOTES
Adjusting and Tightening
Because we have tremendous vibration in a

plant environment, tightening of loose connec-
tions is a must. Loose connections can cause
tremendous intermittent problems which are
extremely hard to troubleshoot. Preventing this
will make troubleshooting easier. All equipment
must also be adjusted periodically after being
in operation. These adjustments, of course,
have to be in line with the equipment man-
ufacturer’s specifications.
Preventive Maintenance Schedule
Preventive maintenance should be performed Figure 3.
based on a calendar schedule or based on the S M T W T F S

equipment running hours (see Figure 3). In fact,
• CALENDAR
it may be based on both situations and take SCHEDULE
18
the worst case when necessary. For instance,
perform a preventive maintenance in a line ei-
ther after 200 hours of operation of a particular
motor or every 30 days, whichever comes first. HRS • EQUIPMENT
3 9 5 4 RUNNING
Don’t forget that the most important key word METER HOUR
in a preventive maintenance program is pre-
vention, so stick to your program (see Figure 4).
Figure 4.
This means that we can prevent or minimize
potential problems in electrical control systems WORD
before they occur and get the useful life of
equipment to be maximized. You don’t want ei-
ther to overdo it because this will keep the STICK TO YOUR P.M.
PREVENTATIVE
equipment down at unnecessary times when it PROGRAM SCHEDULE

should be producing goods. The preventive
maintenance guidelines are your first line of
troubleshooting defense against problems.

Figure 5.
Engineering Preventive Maintenance
Into Control Systems
Another way we can improve our preventive

maintenance program is by engineering pre-
ventive maintenance into our control systems
themselves in order to detect problems before
they happen. For example, let’s look at a
method of engineering preventive mainte-
nance into our plant electrical power circuit.
Courtesy of Time Mark
NOTES
By adding power monitors (see Figure 5) to
our electrical distribution system, we can de-
tect around the clock, 24 hours a day, every
day, conditions that could damage equipment
and which could go undetected until equipment
failure finally occurs. These conditions include
the detection of:
• Phase imbalances
• Phase loss
• Phase reversals
Phase Imbalance
In a three-phase system, a phase imbalance

can occur when single-phase loads are added Figure 6.
to their circuits (see Figure 24), for example in
PHASE IMBALANCE
the case of motors, where several single-phase L1
motors are loaded into the same phase. L2
L3
This phase imbalance could easily happen
when we are going through an expansion and N
careful attention to balancing loads has not

taken place. For example, in Figure 6, we have
three motors, of which two single-phase are M M M
pulling voltage from L1.

The phase imbalance creation causes three- Figure 7.
phase motors to run at higher temperatures

than specified which soon will result in insula-
tion breakdown. The main problem is that a
phase imbalance is not easily detectable when
it happens or is happening.
By including a phase monitor device (see Fig-

Courtesy of Time Mark
ure 7) in the control circuit, we could detect a
Figure 8.
phase imbalance when it first starts to occur L1
TO
and, therefore, take action and solve the im- L2
MOTORS &
LOADS
balance situation (see Figure 8). This is pre- L3
ventive maintenance engineering; engineering N
control circuits to monitor and prevent poten- PHASE

MONITOR
tial maintenance downtime due to equipment
ALARM
failure. If you have phase imbalances, you would
Figure 9.
have to switch single-phase loads (Figure 6) to
PHASE BALANCED
other phases to balance the circuit and correct L1
the problem (Figure 9). L2
L3
Phase Loss N
A phase loss can be considered as the worst

case of phase imbalance and is called single M M M
phasing. This condition results in the total loss
Figure 10.
of one phase and can have serious repercus-
L1
sions (see Figure 10). For one, it can go unde-
L2
tected for a while, perhaps long enough to burn
L3
out a three-phase motor. A three-phase motor
will continue to run, even if it is missing one L3 LOST
phase because it will draw the current neces-

sary from the other two lines. Thermal overloads
M1 M2 M3
are not always capable of preventing damage
under single-phasing conditions. Figure 11. L1
V
V
L2 M
Often this condition will not be detectable by V
measuring the voltage at the terminals of the L3
motor because the open winding in the motor
PHASE ANGLE
is generating a voltage very close to the lost INCREASES

phase voltage (see Figure 11). This condition Figure 12.
creates a phase angle increase which can be L1

detected by a power monitor device which can, L2
in turn, prevent equipment failure (see Figure 12). M
L3
By installing a power monitor as preventive

POWER
maintenance engineering in an important mo- MONITOR
MONITOR
tor circuit (Figure 13), we could prevent a ma-

jor fault from occurring and allow maintenance PM1 PM2
personnel to go right to the solution of the prob-

Figure 13.
lem. If a phase is lost or is imbalanced, the
power monitor contacts will open and break the L1 L2
motor circuit and signal an alarm.
START
PM1 STOP OL
Phase losses can also occur during an over- M

M
load condition in a single-phase system which
causes a fuse to blow when a three-phase cir- PM2 ALARM
cuit is hit by lightning or because of other me-
chanical failure. Starting a three-phase motor
under these conditions could also damage the
motor. Figure 14.
A A
Phase Reversal
A reversal in phase happens if any two phases

become reversed and can cause serious dam-
age to machinery and personnel. This can hap- B B
pen if a transformer or other power distribution C C
equipment is being replaced or added to exist-
ing machinery and its phase sequence was not
reinstated in exactly the same manner (see Fig- Figure 15.
ure 14). If this is the case, a short circuit will L3

occur when the equipment is put in line. L2
M
L1
Reversing phases will also result in reversing
the direction or rotation of motors which, if not ROTATION
properly controlled, could create serious injury
to personnel and damage to equipment (see
Figure 15).

Using a phase rotation meter (see Figure 16), Figure 16.
you could prevent a problem by determining L1

T1
that the voltage phase sequence is correct L2 T2
M
before the equipment is energized. The tester L3 T3
shown in Figure 38 has three color leads, one
for each phase, L1, L2 and L3. When each T1 L1
phase is connected to the correct lead, the T2 L2
appropriate light indicator will turn on. If it T3 L3
doesn’t, it means that it is not the appropriate
phase.
NOTES
TROUBLESHOOTING
In spite of all the preventive maintenance we

perform on the plant floor, there will definitely
be times when something goes wrong and the
equipment is down. The solving of the prob-
lem generally calls for the attention of every-
body, simply because “there is no production
going on and money is being lost.”
To solve the problem, we must troubleshoot

the system and bring it on line as soon as pos-
sible. Troubleshooting can be very rewarding
indeed, getting the feeling of solving a prob-
lem. However, to accomplish our task, we’d
have to adhere to a procedure and the appli-
cation of several techniques.
There are really only two parts to troubleshoot-

ing. The first one is finding the problem and
the second one is correcting the problem. Gen-
erally, finding the problem takes the longest
time and the correction the shortest.

Figure 17.
There are two ways to try to find a problem
(see Figure 17); one is by a “shotgun” method
in which we hope to hit it by luck or by guess-
SELECTIVE
ing or we can go through a selective and ratio- SHOT-GUN APPROACH
nal process following an approach program. To MAYBE IT'S... LET'S START
??? AT THE MAIN
speed up the finding of the problem we can I GUESS IT'S... POWER INPUT
?? FIRST...
define three major areas for focusing our
troubleshooting attack:
• Troubleshoot the source of power

• Troubleshoot the control circuit
• Troubleshoot the power circuit of the
motor and the actual motor itself
Trougleshooting The Power Source
The main thing to check in this area is that

power is available to the control circuit and
equipment (see Figure 18). We must remem- Figure 18.
ber that in the plant the source of power for the

system in question may be fed from other parts
in the busway in the power distribution system.
To check for power in our feeding circuit (see

Figure 19), we would place a voltmeter between
L1 and L2 and read the voltage and make sure
this is close to the line voltage that is to be sup-
plied by the distribution system. In fact, the volt-
age should be within 10% of the rated voltage.
Figure 19.
Then we check between L1 and L3 and be-
tween L2 and L3. All three voltages should be POWER CHECK
close in readings. If all voltages are present, L1
FUSE
F1
then you should check for a grounded enclo- L2 FUSE
F2
sure by connecting the voltmeter between one L3 F3
FUSE
of the lines, for instance L1 and an unpainted VOLTS AC
metal part of the enclosure. If the enclosure is PANEL
properly grounded, then a voltage reading will

be seen.

The next step to check is the status of the fuse Figure 20.
or breakers (see Figure 20). We already know POWER CHECK

L1 F1
that there is power available and need to make FUSE
L2 F2
sure that it is being passed to the system. Break- FUSE
ers generally provide trip indicators to show that L3 F3

FUSE
it has tripped. With the disconnect closed, we VOLTS AC
need to check the fuses or breakers using a

PANEL
crisscross method.
To test the fuse F3, we would place one side of

the voltmeter on the power side of L1 and the Figure 21.
POWER CHECK
other to the load side of F3. If there is a line
L1 F1
FUSE
voltage reading, the fuse F3 is OK. To check
L2 FUSE
F2
F2 (Figure 21), we simply place the voltmeter
L3 F3
on the load side of F2. Again, if a reading is FUSE
VOLTS AC
present, F2 will be good. To test for F1 (Figure
22), we would place one side of the voltmeter
PANEL
on L2 or L3, and the other one on the load side
of F1. Again, if a reading is present, then the
fuse is OK. If no voltage is present, then the
fuse is blown or bad. Don’t forget to check all of Figure 22.
POWER CHECK
them because there could be more than one
L1 F1
FUSE
fuse blown.
L2 FUSE
F2
L3 F3
You can also check fuses in a static mode with- FUSE
out power by performing a continuity test with VOLTS AC
the meter set for ohms check (see Figure 23).

PANEL
With the meter set for the lowest resistance
measurement, you should read close to zero
to indicate that the fuse is OK. If it reads a large
Figure 23.
number or infinity, it means that it is not good FUSE
or, in other words, that the fuse is open. It is

good practice to check a new fuse for continu- OHMS
ity to make sure it is good when you are replac-

ing it for a bad one. Ω
It is important to start with the power check

because you may have power to the control cir- CHECK NEW FUSES!

cuit and not have power for example in Line 3 Figure 24.
of Figure 24. If a motor were being driven, a L1
single-phasing problem could be occurring; L2
we’ll see this later.
M
L3
If the power to your control circuit is down, it

could be an indication that one of the lines feed-
ing it is not receiving power. L1 L2
CONTROL
VOLTAGE
One quick way to know if power is available or
Figure 25.
if a fuse has been blown is by engineering a
L1
preventive maintenance circuit like the one
shown in Figure 25, which simply indicates that L2
power is available. However, this does not indi-
L3
cate whether this is the correct amount of volt-
age because there could be a phase imbalance
and the light could still be partially lit. This does
indicate though that the fuses are OK.
NOTES
Another way of engineering an indication of
fuse status is by using a overcurrent protection
chapter (such as the Bussman Optima). If a
line fuse is blown, its indicating light will be on.
If a fuse needs replacing, you can simply re-
move it by pulling the front case and replacing
the fuse.
Troubleshooting the Control Circuit
If, after replacing one or more blown fuses, the

system continues to blow them again, then it Figure 26.
could a short between the fuse protection after
L1 F1
the disconnect and the fuse protection of the FUSE
next circuit (see Figure 26). L2 FUSE

F2 TO NEXT
CIRCUIT
L3 F3
FUSE
Troubleshooting a control circuit may not be as
complicated and difficult as it might appear at
first glance, as long as we keep our technique SHORT
CIRCUIT
according to a step-by-step procedure.

First of all, we need to have an updated and Figure 27.

correct version of ladder diagrams, wiring dia- TO TROUBLESHOOT WE NEED:
grams and of the layout of components in the
•Correct Version of
enclosure, including the terminal locations
-Ladder Diagrams
which are connected to devices (Figure 27). If
-Wiring Diagrams
we don’t start by having this, our task will be -Layout of Components
much more difficult, perhaps by a factor of one
hundred or more! Figure 28.
L1
L2
It is better to identify the area in which a prob- L3
H2 H3
lem may have occurred or where the symptoms POWER H1 H4
seem to be (see Figure 28). This, in turn, can X1 X2
give us further direction into finding the prob-

lem. In a control circuit, there are two main ar-
M
eas to investigate, namely the power section of
CR
the circuit and the logic section or the ladder
circuit part. LOGIC
Troubleshooting Control Circuits

Figure 29.
“Power Section”
L1
L2
L3
The power section of the control circuit must H2 H3
H1 H4
be checked to ensure that incoming power is
X1 X2
available to the circuit and that the transformer
is operating correctly (see Figure 29). To per-
M
form this check, we first disconnect power to
the ladder circuit so that, if a short was the prob-
lem, it cannot occur during this check.
First we would check the incoming power (see Figure 30.
Figure 30) to the primary of the transformer by L1

testing the L1 and L2 voltage across the H1 L2
and H4 terminals of the transformer. If the volt- L3
H1 H4 480 V
age is correct, in this case 480 volts, then we
F1 120 V
would check the secondary for the proper volt-
age across the X1 and X2 terminals of the trans- X1 X2
120 VOLTS AC
former. If the voltages are correct, in this case
120 volts AC, the transformer is working OK. If
not, the transformer is faulty and requires re-
placement.

Next we would check the fuse protection to the NOTES

control circuit. With the disconnect closed, we
measure the voltage from the load side of the
fuse to the X2 side of the transformer. We
should read close to 120 volts AC. If no voltage
is read, then the fuse is bad. To make sure that
voltage is present after the disconnect, we could
also put the voltmeter lead in the supply side
of the fuse to insure that the disconnect is in-
deed OK.
If the fuse is blown, we would need to replace

it. However, this condition could indicate that a
possible short or ground fault could have oc-
curred in the control circuit, thus blowing the
fuse, or that the KVA power of the transformer
was too small for the number of loads in the
circuit. As we know, a transformer is rated for
a specific KVA which is the voltage times the
current it can supply (see Figure 31). The loads
of the control circuit may be composed of a
Figure 31.
number of relays, counters, timers, starter coils,
solenoids and others which could overload the KVA = V X I
transformer and reduce the voltage and in-
crease its current to a point which could even Amps
blow the fuse. Volts
Although overloading the transformer seldom K Means In 1,000
occurs when a control system is first designed,
we need to keep track of the devices we add to
the circuit; for example, during an expansion of Figure 32.
a system. If our 120 volts transformer is rated

at 2.4 KVA (see Figure 32) it is capable of de- i.e. 2.4 KVA=2,400 VA
livering 20 amps without exceeding its capac- For 120 Volts There Is A
ity. If the sum of all the devices on at the same
Supply Of 20 Amps
time exceeds 20 amps, we will see faults in the
system.

Troubleshooting Control Circuits NOTES

“Logic Section”
Troubleshooting the logic section of the control

system usually entails solving two possible
problems, one being a short in the control cir-
cuit and the other one being the troubleshoot-
ing of the operation of the circuit because of
some component malfunction. So let’s start by
finding out how we go about locating a short in
a control circuit.
Finding a Short Circuit
A short circuit condition is perhaps one of the

most difficult problems to find. Some of us may
be familiar with the electrical problems we have
with our cars and, when we take it to a me-
chanic, he tells us that he thinks it is a short
Figure 33.
and that he can’t find it! Well, in a control sys-
tem, we have to find it and to do this we’re go-
ing to create a logical method. L1 L2
Let’s assume that we have a circuit like the one

PB2
PB1 OL
shown in Figure 33, with two ladder rungs that
M1
control two 3-phase squirrel-cage motors and M1
that we checked the power to the circuit and
found a blown fuse and we suspect that a short PB4 OL
PB3
is present, although through initial inspection M2
M2
we could not find it visibly in any of the compo-
nents.
The first thing we’ll do is to disconnect power Figure 34.
and change the fuse. We’ll also remove all the

power going to our motors or remove the mo- L1
tors (see Figure 34) and other rotating equip-
L2
ment which may be controlled from this circuit. M
What we’ll have to do next is to find out which L3
circuit contains the short. To do this, we’ll dis-

connect each circuit from L1 and connect only Figure 35.
the first one to power (see Figure 35). Then

we’ll turn the disconnect on to give power to L1 L2
this circuit. If the circuit blows the fuse right
away, we’re lucky, we found that our first rung
PB2
is the one containing the short. If it doesn’t, then PB1 OL
we would energize the circuit by pushing the M1

M1
start PB2 which, in turn, should turn our starter
on. But not our motor. Remember, we put it off PB4
PB3 OL
line for safety reasons during troubleshooting.
M2
If our circuit works and does not blow the fuse, M2
then this is not the circuit with our problem. So
we move to the next ladder circuit in the dia-
gram.
Figure 36.
We could remove the power to the first one or
leave it on. In this case, we’ll leave it connected
L1 L2
to L1 (Figure 36). So we disconnect power to
the circuit, wire the second rung to L1 and close
the disconnect and see if the fuse blows. If it PB2
OL
PB1
does right away, then our short may be in the M1
section around the normally closed PB3 and M1
before PB4 and contact M2 because, without
energizing the circuit, a path to ground was PB4 OL
PB3
found. In our example, let’s say that it didn’t blow M2
the fuse. M2
The next thing is to energize the circuit and, in

this case, as soon as we push the start push NOTES
button, the circuit blows the fuse so here is
where our problem short lies.
What we have to do next is to find out what is

making this connection go to ground. Since we
cannot test this short condition with power on,
we’ll have to go into a static test or a test with-
out power. We remove the disconnect and re-
place the fuse. Then we’ll take the meter and

Figure 37. L1 L2 L3
set it for an ohms resistance or continuity read- PB4
ing. To do this, let’s look at the wiring diagram 3
of this motor circuit for a moment (Figure 37). 2

M
PB3
OL
Our problem lies around the shaded area of
Figure 38; any of these wires or connections Motor
may be going to ground, thus creating the short.

Figure 38.
What we need to check is from each of the L1 L2 L3
PB4
points right after PB4, the screw connection
3
from PB3 of the auxilary contacts and right af- 2
ter the terminal 3 connection for continuity to a PB3

M
ground to find out which is the point grounding OL
the system.
Motor
So we’ll look at this in a layout diagram shown

Figure 39. TERMINAL POINT
in Figure 39, where the push button is wired to TO
PB4 COIL
a terminal point. Again, our problem is around 3
M2
2
the shaded area shown in Figure 40. To con-
tinue the test, we have to remove the connec- UNPAINTED
PANEL GROUND
tion from the auxiliary contacts so that we iso-
late the push button for a check to ground (Fig-
ure 41).
Figure 40.
TO
We place the meter at the terminal connection PB4
3
COIL
M2
(see Figure 41) with one of the meter’s probe 2
and to ground with the other probe. If an infinity

UNPAINTED
resistance reading takes place, then the push PANEL GROUND
button is not connected to ground. On the other

hand, if the reading shows zero resistance, it
means that this terminal point or the push but- Figure 41.
TO
ton is making contact to ground and, therefore, PB4 COIL
3
M2
it is shorting our circuit, so we would have to 2
check for a connection at the terminal point and

also check at the push button to see if some- UNPAINTED
PANEL GROUND
thing is touching a ground or the enclosure.

If we can’t find anything wrong with this point, Figure 42.
then we would have to reconnect the auxiliary

contacts (see Figure 42), remove the connec- TO
tion to the starter coil, and try to find a connec- PB4 COIL
3
tion to ground using the continuity test. To do M2
2
this, we would place the meter from terminal 3
to ground and, if the resistance was zero, then
our short will be around the auxiliary contacts
UNPAINTED
in the starter. If not, we would reconnect the PANEL GROUND
coil connection (see Figure 43) and perform
the continuity test at the coil section.
The key in finding a short is to isolate the prob-

lem and then try to find out exactly which ele-
Figure 43.
ment is causing it and replace it, or check if
some part of its circuit, including the wire, is
3
touching a ground point.
M2
2
It is a good idea also to place a clamp meter

(see Figure 44) in the load side of the trans-
former to monitor the current being pulled from
the transformer as the loads are increased dur- OL
ing troubleshooting. In this manner, we can
monitor a transformer overload condition.
For example, if our circuit is pulling too much Figure 44.

current when a circuit is brought in line, then
we could detect that the KVA capacity of the
transformer is being exceeded and a larger KVA L1 L2
rating transformer needs to replace our present
one. This condition could blow a fuse if the
PB2
transformer supplies more current in order to PB1 OL
M1
maintain the KVA power while the voltage M1
drops. Or simply, if the fuse does not blow, some
PB4
circuits will experience a reduction in voltage PB3 OL
and will result, for instance, in dropping some M2

M2
coils and their respective interlockings, thus
creating a malfunction.

If, during our troubleshooting of a short, we find

NOTES
that all the circuits work without blowing the
fuse, we may opt for checking the control cir-
cuit again with the motor loads connected so
that they can be brought on-line one by one.
There could be a possibility that a motor or a
group of motors and their related rotating equip-
ment could cause some connections or control
devices, which may be loose, to short the cir-
cuit due to vibration.
Finding Faulty Components
Another type of troubleshooting deals with the

control circuit operation and the field compo-
nents that form these circuits. The source of
major trouble spots in this case are:
• Loose connections
• Faulty contacts
• Mechanical problems
Another problem, which could hamper your

troubleshooting, may involve the use of incor-
rect wire markers which detail what control el-
ement is connected to which terminal point.
A loose connection problem generally occurs

because of vibration in the machine and in the
panel, thus making the connections loose at the
terminal blocks and at connecting points of field
devices, such as at a push button. It is always
better to use stranded wire instead of solid wire
to prevent a potential connector problem.
A loose connection in a power circuit could

increase local heat which can spread out to
other parts and affect insulation and operating
characteristics of some control elements, for

Figure 45.
instance, overloads. The best solution to this
ACTUATOR
potential problem is to make sure that all com-
ponents are tightly connected when the pre-
ventive maintenance is scheduled.
Faulty component problems appear quite of-

ten in the plant and must be isolated and cor-
rected as we’ll see in a little while. In fact, the CONTACTS
normally closed devices (see Figure 45) cause,
Figure 46.
in general, more problems than others be-
cause they may indicate that they are closed,
but in reality are not conducting current. Also
all contacts that have experienced an overload
or overcurrent condition should be checked for
welding of their contacts.
Weak contact pressure and dirt or an oxide

film on the contact can also prevent it from con-
ducting (see Figure 46). Often, contacts can
be cleaned by drawing a piece of rough pa-
Figure 47.
per between the contacts, but don’t file the con-
tacts because most of them have a silver plate
over the copper which can be destroyed by fil-
ing. This, in turn, will shorten the life of the de-
vice.
Another problem which can be encountered

with mechanical devices used for interlocking
such as in the case of a double-pole, double- Figure 48.
break contact (see Figure 47) is cross-firing. L1 L2
A cross firing situation can occur when one UP UP SOL
contact of the double break travels across to
the opposite contact but remains in its original
position. If both the normally open and the nor-
mally closed contacts are used, it could result
in a malfunction (see Figure 48). DOWN DOWN SOL

Again, the most important objective in trouble- Figure 49.
shooting for an operational fault is to isolate and TROUBLESHOOTING A

LADDER CIRCUIT
identify the problem area. To accomplish this,
we also follow a set of procedures step by step. • Rotating Equipment Must Be Off-Line
Let’s take a look at how we go about trouble-
L1
shooting a control circuit.
L2
M
Troubleshooting a Ladder Circuit L3
The first thing to do is to make sure that all ro-

tating equipment cannot be brought on line dur- Figure 50.
ing the testing of ladder rung circuits (see Fig-
ure 49). Let’s assume that we have a problem L1 L2
in the control circuit shown in Figure 50, which

OL
doesn’t operate when we press any of the start
M1
push buttons. At this point, let us assume that
we have already checked the power and fuses
to the circuit and that there is power between
L1 and L2 as indicated with a voltmeter.
There are two methods we could use, the first

one is by using a fused jumper and the other
one by using a voltmeter and measure for volt- Figure 51.
ages present or for an open circuit. We could,

FUSE JUMPER
of course, use a combination of both if we de-
sired. However, we just need to perform the
tests in a predetermined manner.
FUSE
Jumper Method
The fused jumper method uses a jumper with Figure 52.

a fuse protection (see Figure 51) which can
L1 L2
handle the current for the starter, but is small
START 1
enough to protect the test for a short circuit. STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
M
START 2
By placing the jumper between L1 and the front
connection of the motor starter coil, we’re forc-
M
ing the starter to pick up (see Figure 52). If it 2 3
doesn’t start, then there is a problem from the

starter to the overload’s L2 connection. If the Figure 53. Figure 54.

coil picks up, then we start moving the jumper
L1 L2 L1 L2
to the location right after the first stop push START 1 START 1
STOP 1 STOP 2 OL STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
button, thus connecting the stop 1 PB to the M M
START 2 START 2
starter coil (Figure 53).

M M
2 3 2 3
The starter should continue to be energized be-

cause the normally closed push button is sup-
posed to be providing power. We could even
test the stop push button to make sure that it
Figure 55. L1 L2 L3
Figure 56.
breaks the circuit continuity. START 2 START 2
L1 L2 L3
3 3
2 2
Similarly, we also check the other stop push STOP STOP
2 2
button (stop 2) for power continuity as shown
T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
in Figure 54. If there is no power and the coil is START 1 START 1
Motor Motor
not on, then there could be a problem with this STOP 1 STOP 1
stop 2 push button.
Remember that we are looking at the ladder

diagram. In the wiring diagram (Figure 55) we
could see that a problem with the stop 2 push
button could be between the highlighted points Figure 57. Figure 58.
L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3
in Figure 56. START 2 START 2
3 3
2 2
To test the stop 2 PB, we place the jumper STOP

2
STOP
2
across the two highlighted points (Figure 57) START 1

T1 T2 T3
START 1
T1 T2 T3
and see if there is power; if so, then we place it STOP 1

Motor
STOP 1
Motor
accross the stop 2 PB (Figure 58).
If there is power, then the wiring between the

two stop push buttons is OK and the problem
lies with the stop push button. Figure 59. Figure 60.
L1 L2 L3
L1 L2
If there is power from the jumper at the second START 1
START 2
STOP 1 STOP 2 OL 3
stop push button to the coil, we need to test M 2
START 2
STOP
the start push buttons (Figure 59). If we place 2
M
the jumper at the highlighted points in Figure 2 3 START 1
T1 T2 T3
Motor
60, the coil should energize (same points as in STOP 1
the ladder diagram of Figure 59). If it doesn’t,

Figure 61.
the problem lies between the terminal point at
the start PB and the coil. L1 L2 L3
START 2
3
If the jumper turns the coil on, then we place it
2
at the other end of the start 1 PB and press the
STOP
push button to see if the start push button is 2
bad (Figure 61). If it does work, then we need T1 T2 T3

START 1
to check the other start number 2 push button Motor
STOP 1
and, at this point, find out if it works.
We don’t need to check the auxiliary contact

because the symptom did not say that the mo- Figure 62.
tor would pick up but not seal. If this had been
the case, we would have gone directly to the
auxiliary contacts.
Ω
READ
If any start push buttons seem to be defective,
OHMS
we could check with a meter for continuity. By
placing the meter between the two points shown
in Figure 62, we could find if both contacts are
indeed making contact. If an infinity resistance
Figure 63.
reading takes place once we press the start,
then its contacts are bad and not making con-
L1 L2
nection.
START 1
STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
M
Voltmeter Method START 2
Using the voltage measurement method will

M
also lead to the same problem solution. We 2 3
would start by measuring the voltage between

the two lines to read 120 volts AC (Figure 63).
Figure 64.
Then we make sure that the overloads are OK
by placing a meter between L1 and the load L1 L2
side and supply side of the overloads (Figure START 1

STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
64). We should read voltage on both sides. If M
START 2
no voltage is read on the load side, then we
need to check the connections. If no voltage is
M
read on the supply side, the overload is open 2 3

and needs to be reset or, if bad, needs to be Figure 65.

replaced.
L1 L2
START 1
If we measure from L1 to the load side of the STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
coil, we should see voltage (Figure 65). If not, M

START 2
the wiring connection between the overload and
the coil is not good.
M
2 3
Once we have checked from the coil’s load side

to L2, we move to make tests from L1 to the Figure 66.
supply side of the starter coil, thus checking
the components that make the logic of the cir- L1 L2
cuit. So we start from L2 to the supply side of START 1
STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
the first stop push button and check for volt-
M
age. (Figure 66). START 2
If there is no voltage, a wiring problem exists M

2 3
and we need to check the terminal connections
and check for an open wire. If there is voltage,
then we check the other side of the stop. Again, Figure 67.
we should see power because of the normally
closed push button.
L1 L2
START 1
If we don’t see any voltage, there is a bad push STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
M
button; otherwise, continue to check supply side
START 2
of the second stop (Figure 67) and, if no power
is present there, there is a problem in the wir- M
2 3
ing. If there is power, we need to check the other
side (load side) of the stop 2 to make sure the
push button is operating correctly. If we don’t
see power, then we have a bad normally closed Figure 68.
component. Otherwise, we continue our check
L1 L2
to the normally open start contacts. To perform
START 1
this check, we pretty much do the same. Mea- STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
sure from L2 to the beginning of the circuit to M

START 2
make sure that all the
wiring in between is correct (Figure 68).This M
2 3
will be the case if there is power. If so, we need

to check the other side of the start push button Figure 69.
by pressing the start and reading voltage in our
voltmeter (Figure 69).
L1 L2
START 1
If there is no voltage, there is a problem with STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
the start1 PB. The same test is performed with M
START 2
the other start 2 push button. No need to check
the auxiliary contacts because the problem is
not with sealing, rather, it’s with getting the 2
M
3
starter energized. If we have power from the

start push buttons, then we need to check the
supply side of the coil with one of the start push
buttons depressed (Figure 70). If no voltage is Figure 70.
present, we need to check the wiring in be-
tween. If there is power, then there is a prob-
L1 L2
lem with the starter coil. It may be burned out
START 1
or open and needs to be replaced. STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
M
START 2
The key for success in troubleshooting a con-
trol circuit is to go one step at a time and don’t
M
jump from one point to another without a proper 2 3
method.
CAUSES THAT MAKE MOTORS FAIL
NOTES
In this next section of the program, we’re going
to look at the causes that make a motor fail so
that we are constantly aware of them, espe-
cially when troubleshooting the motors and
their power circuits, as explained in Chapters 8
and 9.
Motors are essentially the workhorse of a manu-

facturing plant. They are designed with the in-
tention of lasting for a long time; just look at the
personal relationship we have in our daily lives
with air conditioning units, refrigerators and
others. They all have motors and are meant to

last. However, due to wear and tear, they even- NOTES

tually will fail due to aging and, when that hap-
pens, we need to replace them.
Unfortunately, not all motors end their lives from

long service. Because of conditions that are
experienced in the plant, many motors have
their working lives reduced or even ended.
These are the matters we must anticipate be-
fore these conditions get to our motors.
Symptoms
Most often motor problems give symptoms of

abnormal operation, such as running very hot,
running noisily, or at a slower speed than nor-
mal and even failing to start. Each of these
symptoms will tell us that the motor is not op-
erating properly and that we must pay atten-
tion before long.
We need to use our smell, touch, ear and feel

senses at all times in order to detect some of
these problems (Figure 71).
The reason why the motor failed is important

because, even if we had to replace it, we need
to ensure that the problem does not stay in our Figure 71.
system. The same thing applies if we need to

change our car tires because they wore out
early; we would need to investigate the rea-
son. If poor alignment was the cause to change
our tires, the new ones are going to experience
the same problem and we’ll be back to square
HOT
one again if we do not fix the alignment prob-
lem. The reason for motor failure should be in-
vestigated and documented in the maintenance
replacement report.

NOTES
Why Motors Fail
We know that regardless of how well built a

motor is, one day it will fail in spite of how well
protected it is. The major cause of motor fail-
ures is related to the deterioration of insulation.
Although most motor manufacturers have at-

tacked this problem, it’s still the weakest link in
any motor. This deterioration in the insulation
is usually caused by excessive temperatures
experienced by the motor and its windings.
The main causes for heat problems in motors

are:
• Excessive loads
• Excessive duty cycle
• High or low line voltages
• Imbalanced voltages Figure 72.
EXCESSIVE LOAD
• Single phasing
• High ambient temperature
• Lack of proper motor ventilation
M
Excessive Load
If the motor is required to do more work than it

is designed for, it will attempt to do it by pulling WORK CURRENT =TEMP
more current, thus resulting in a temperature

Figure 73.
increase (Figure 72). We know that, if an over-
EXCESSIVE LOAD
load condition occurs, the motor’s overload will
disconnect it from the line. However, this should
be the exception, not the rule if it is happening
continuously (Figure 73). In fact, if we have a
M
motor with an automatic overload reset, the
motor can be cycling until enough heat has built
OVERLOAD PROTECTION SHOULD BE
up to deteriorate the motor winding.
THE EXCEPTION, NOT THE RULE

It is a good practice, once we have replaced a Figure 74.

burned out motor, that we measure with a
clamp-on meter the current being drawn by the
new motor (Figure 74). The closer the reading
to the full current rating of the motor, the harder M
the motor is working with that load. If the cur-
rent being drawn is very close to the maximum
current in the nameplate, we perhaps need to
go to a larger motor. This can serve as insur-
ance for later on in case the normal load in-
creases due to changes in pulleys, gear sizes,
or more load resistance caused by wear on the Figure 75.
equipment being driven.
M
M
Excessive Duty Cycle
Excessive turning on and off, or jogging, or re-

versing can be harmful to a motor because, as
ON
we know, it draws more current every time it is
started. This creates heat build-up, because the OFF
continuous self-cooling effect of the motor ro-

tation is lost (Figure 75). If it is necessary to
have a heavy duty cycle, the proper motor
should be chosen to start with and perhaps one
with higher horsepower than required by the load.
NOTES
High or Low Line Voltage
Although motors are very tough, they are sen-

sitive to their rated voltage. They are designed
for operation within a 10% voltage for which
they are rated. A lower incoming voltage has
an effect of lowering the motor’s starting torque
and an increase in full temperature rise.
A higher incoming voltage has the effect of a

higher starting torque and current. This higher
current causes saturation of the iron and a rise
in temperature. If a motor is running at more
than 10% above or below its rated voltage, it

could shorten its life. So when we replace or Figure 76.
install a new motor, make sure you check and

document its incoming voltage to that of the
nameplate. M
Imbalanced Voltage
We already know the problems an imbalanced MEASURE

line can cause and this is especially true with LINE
VOLTAGES
motors. In fact, this can be the silent killer of
motors because it is not easily recognized until
some damage has already taken place.
NOTES
An imbalanced voltage is a source of heat by
creating a current imbalance in the windings.
This in turn also creates the first symptoms of
a decreasing torque, more noise and vibration.
So, to prevent this, which should be done dur-
ing our preventive maintenance, we need to
make sure and document that our phase volt-
ages are very close to each other. This can be
easily done by measuring each line voltage to
a good ground (Figure 76).
Single Phasing
We know that single phasing occurs when one

of the phases is lost due to a blown fuse or
tripped breaker or an open switch or contact. If
a single-phasing problem occurs while the
motor is running, an increase in slip will occur
or, in other words, there will be a decrease in
RPMs at full load. The motor will continue to
run as long as the torque requirements of the
load are not greater than the motor torque. This
condition increases heat and vibration which
will cause severe damage to the motor if not
disconnected promptly.

If the single-phasing occurs with the motor at Figure 77.

rest, then it will most likely not start with a load
and it will give a hum sound if it is started. If an
electrician or technician assumes that the mo-
tor is bad and changes it, the same will hap-
M
pen to the new one. We must check the incom-
ing voltages for a missing phase (Figure 77). A
single-phasing condition at rest could also
cause a 3-phase motor with a small load to start
in either direction which could cause damage
to other equipment.
High Surrounding Temperature

NOTES
Just like in the case of high current, a high sur-
rounding ambient temperature can create the
same unwanted results to a motor. This can
occur because the motor is operating in a tight
location or, if it is subjected to high external or
ambient heat.
One of the major problems is that overloads

do not detect this problem since they are moni-
toring the current for heat creation, not the am-
bient. So if a situation like this persists, the mo-
tor can burn up without detection. We need to
make sure that we know exactly at what ambi-
ent temperature the motor will be working so
that it doesn’t exceed its rating.
Lack of Proper Ventilation
Insufficient ventilation can occur to a motor

when the air passages within the motor are
clogged with dirt or other material and prevents
or blocks the natural cooling effect of the mo-
tor. The motor under these conditions can reach
high temperatures without increases in current
which means that it can go undetected until it

is too late and burn out. This should be an ex- NOTES

tremely rare problem if proper preventive main-
tenance is performed.

tant troubleshooting and maintenance methods
and procedures that will help you bring control
systems back on line and avoid potential prob-
lems by having good maintenance on plant
equipment.
So please, don’t underestimate preventive

maintenance and keep the equipment in good
working order so that, if you do need to trouble-
shoot it, it will be because the life of a control
component has reached its end and was not
forced to it because of neglect.
Figure2

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.- True/False. Preventive maintenance con-

sists of inspecting, cleaning, replacing and,
in some cases, monitoring components be-
fore they fail or break down.
2.- Preventive maintenance should be per-

formed based on ______ or based on
______. In fact, it may be based on both,
taking the worst case scenario when nec-
essary.
a– Calendar schedule
b– Equipment running hours
c– Specific details
d– Equipment breakdown
3.- In Figure 1, if we are not very careful, the Figure 1

following could happen ______
PHASE IMBALANCE
L1
a– Single phasing L2
b– Phase imbalance
L3
c– Phase reversal
d– Phase monitoring N
4.- True/False. A phase loss can be considered

as the worst case of phase imbalance and M M M
it is also known as single phasing.
5.- True/False. Thermal overloads are always

capable of preventing damage under single
phasing conditions.

6.- When troubleshooting for power in our feed-

ing circuit, we would place a voltmeter be-
tween L1 and L2 and the voltage should be
within ______.
a– 10%
b– 15%
c– 20%
d– 15%-20%
7.- If we are checking a fuse (see Figure 2) by Figure 2

placing one side of the voltmeter on the POWER CHECK
L1 F1
power side of L1 and the other to the load FUSE
L2 F2
side of the fuse, we would know that the FUSE
fuse is OK if ______. L3 F3
FUSE
VOLTS AC
a– There is no voltage reading

PANEL
b– There is voltage reading
8.- When a control circuit is down, the first thing

to check is ______.
a– To make sure that all the push buttons

are connected.
b– To make sure that all the fuses are in
place.
c– To check the incoming power to the pri-
mary of the transformer.
d– To check the voltage at the secondary of
the transformer.
9.- True/False. In a control circuit, if we encoun-

ter a short circuit condition and we have al-
ready checked the main fuse, the next thing
to do is to disconnect each circuit and then
connect only one at a time to power.

10.- True/False. The reading of zero resistance

during the check of a set of contacts using
an ohmmeter means that the contacts are
not making a good connection.
11.- A ______ situation occurs when one con-

tact of the double break travels across to
the opposite contact but remains in its origi-
nal position.
a– Shotgun
b– Contact pressure
c– Silver plate
d– Cross firing
12.- In Figure 3 , if you place a jumper as shown, Figure 3

proving that there is power, the motor (M)
will ______. L1 L2
START 1
STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
a– Not start
M
b– Start START 2
13.- True/False. If the motor shown in question M

2 3
12 will not start after the jumper has been
placed as shown, then there may be a prob-
lem from the starter's load side to the
overload’s and L2 connection.
14.- In Figure 3, after we have jumpered from

the supply side of the coil to the load side of
the second stop push button and there is
power to the motor, the next step will be to
check the ______.
a– Start push buttons

b– Overloads

15.- True/False. In Figure 4, if we want to check Figure 4

the overloads to see if they are OK, we
L1 L2
would place a meter between L1 and the
START 1
load and supply side of the overloads; the STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
M
resulting voltage reading should be 120 volts START 2
on only one side.

M
2 3
16.- In Figure 5, if you are testing the top start

push button for ohms continuity, mark where
you would put the voltmeter leads while
L1 L2
keeping the push button pressed. START 1
STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
M
17.- True/False. If a motor is required to do more START 2
work than it was designed for, it will attempt

to do it by pulling more current, thus result- 2
M
3
ing in a temperature decrease.
18.- Motors are generally designed to work

within ______ of the voltage for which they Figure 5
are rated.
a– 15%
b– 12% to 15%
Ω
c– 10% READ
OHMS
d– 20%
19.- When a single-phasing problem occurs

while a motor is running ______ in slip will
occur; that is, there will be ______ in RPMs
at full load.
a– An increase
b– A decrease

20.- In Figure 6, if we measure from L1 to the Figure 6

load side of the coil and we do not see
any voltage, the problem may be ______.
L1 L2
START 1
a– The overloads are open or bad. STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
b– The connection between the overload M
START 2
and the coil is not good.
c– a and b.
M
d– The coil is bad. 2 3
21.- Assume that we have checked the start

push buttons in Figure 6 and found that
we have power continuity, and that we also
checked the supply side of the coil with a
jumper and the coil picked up. However,
the coil does not pick up when the start
push button is pressed and no voltage can
be read with the voltmeter at the supply
side of the coil. The problem in this circuit
may lie in ______.
a– The coil.
b– The wiring between the coil and the
start push button.
c– The overloads.
d– The wiring between the coil and over-
loads.
22.- True/False. If a push button seems to be

defective, we can test it with an ohmme-
ter to see if it is making a good connec-
tion.

23.- If the motor in Figure 7 starts but it does not Figure 7

seal, the problem may be in ______.
L1 L2
START 1
a– Overloads STOP 1 STOP 2 OL
b– Auxiliary contacts M
START 2
c– One of the start push buttons
d– One of the stop push buttons
M
2 3
24.- In Figure 7, if there is power from the jumper

at the second stop push button to the coil,
and we place the jumper as shown in Fig- Figure 8
ure 8 but the coil does not pick up, where
L1 L2 L3
you think the problem lies? The overloads
START 2
and their wiring has been checked and
3
found to be good. 2
STOP
2
25.- In Figure 8, if the auxiliary contacts are sus-
pected to be bad (not sealing), where would T1 T2 T3
START 1
you put the jumper to check if the auxiliary
Motor
contacts are indeed bad once a start push STOP 1
button is pressed?

ANSWERS
1.- True
2.- a– Calendar schedule

b– Equipment running hours
3.- b– Phase imbalance
4.- True
5.- False
6.- a– 10%
7.- b– There is voltage reading.
8.- c– To check the incoming power to the pri-

mary of the transformer.
9.- True
10.- False. When an ohmmeter is used to check

for continuity, a reading of 0 ohms indicates
that a set of contacts are making a good
connection.
11.- d– Cross firing
12.- b– Start
13.- True
14.- a– Start push buttons
15.- False. We should read voltage on both sides

of the overloads. From L1 to the load side
and from L1 to the supply side; remember,
the overloads provide continuity from L2.
16.- The voltmeter, set for ohms, would be placed

accross the terminals of the push button as
illustrated by the graphic at the right.
17.- False. It would result in a temperature in- Ω

READ
crease. OHMS
18.- c– 10%
19.- a– An increase
b– A decrease
20.- c– a and b. Both, the overloads are open or

bad and/or the connection between the
overload and the coil is not good.
21.- b– The wiring between the coil and the start

push button.
22.- True
23.- b– Auxiliary contacts
24.- The problem lies between the wire connec-

tion from the terminal 3 at the auxiliary con-
tacts to the coil or the coil may be bad.
25.- You could place the jumper between termi-

nals 3 and 2 to bypass the auxiliary con-
tacts and press the start push button; if the
coil picks up and remains on when the start
push button is released, them the auxiliaary
contacts are bad.
Note that once you have jumpered the aux-

iliary contacts, that the circuit will be on and
can only be turned off when a stop push
button is held pressed; if released, the cir-
cuit will be back on.

CHAPTER 8 8
MODULE
SHUNT
F F
+ -
Chapter 8—Understanding & Troubleshooting DC Motor Controls
OVERVIEW
In this eighth chapter, you are presented with
the necessary information to understand and
apply DC motors and their control circuits.
This chapter covers the mechanism and ways

to start DC motor and the methods and reasons
why large DC motors are reduced-started.
Acceleration and deceleration methods are cov-

ered, as well as speed control and braking
options. You will also be presented with exten-
sive troubleshooting methods and technicians
used for DC motors.
OBJECTIVES
• Know the differences between the across-

the-line starts and reduced-voltage starts.
• Understand the circuits used for revers-

ing DC motors, including drum switches
and starters.
• Control the speed of DC motors.
• Know the reasons why a DC motor fails

and how to avoid and solve problems.
• Troubleshoot and apply the different

techniques for the series, shunt and com-
pound DC motors.

INTRODUCTION
In this eighth chapter of the program we’re
going to go over DC motors, how they operate, Figure 1.
and the methods used to start them. We’ll also
SERIES
look at the different circuits used to accelerate
and decelerate the speed of the motor. At the S S
end of the chapter, we’ll conclude with the A
troubleshooting of the different kinds of DC
motors. So let’s start by looking at the basic
operation of a DC motor.
+ -
DC MOTOR COMPONENTS AND
SHUNT
OPERATION
F F
In chapter 6 we introduced DC motors and said A
that they are composed of three basic sections
which are the frame, the armature, and the end
plates or brackets. Now we are going to see
them in just a little more detail. + -
COMPOUND
We know that the main stationary electrical
component of a DC motor is the frame to which
the main field assembly is attached. This field F S S F
A
assembly is composed of the so-called poles
which are formed of stamped laminations se-
curely bolted to the frame.
+ -
These field poles are wound with wire to form
the field coils. These coils are the ones that form
the fields represented in the series DC motor, Figure 2.
the shunt DC motor and in the compound DC
STATIONARY
motor (see Figure 1). Note that in the diagram
of Figure 2, the field windings are shown sta-
tionary. A
+
The field poles, attached to the frame, are -
accompanied by interpoles which are posi-
tioned between the field poles and are made up SERIES

of a pole piece and a coil (see Figure 3). These Figure 3.

INTERPOLES
interpoles form an essential part of the field by
providing reduction or elimination of sparking
due to induced voltages created by the arma- A
ture current flowing through the armature coils.
The main rotating component of the DC motor

is the armature (Figure 4) which holds the shaft
of the motor and a cooling fan (Figure 5). The Figure 4.
armature coil is formed by laminated slots which
have been wound through the slots. The ends A
of the coils in the armature are connected to

what’s known as the commutator.
The commutator is made up of many separate Figure 5.

bars or segments which are separated by insu- FAN SHAFT
SLOTS
lators. Each of these bars are connected to the
WINDINGS
armature coils.
The commutator is perhaps the most critical

single part of a DC motor. Its design and manu- CORE
facture must insure a perfectly round, concen- COMMUTATOR
tric and heat stable surface for the brushes to

ride on. The brushes are small blocks of special Figure 6.
INTERPOLE
carbon that function as the interface between WINDINGS
the external power source and the commutator

F1 F2
(Figure 6).
A
These brushes are mounted in brush holders

made of brass with a stainless steel brush finger
+ BRUSH
–
COMMUTATOR
BARS
under spring tension (Figure 7). This spring is
designed to give constant pressure throughout Figure 7.
the life of a brush, regardless of wear. The
brush must be properly seated in the holder and
pressed firmly against the commutator. This
brush holder must have a clearance of about
1/16 of an inch between the commutator sur-
face touching the brush.
COMMUTATOR BARS

Too much space (Figure 8), due to an inclina- Figure 8.

• TOO MUCH
tion of the holder, will cause the brush tip to SPACE
break. If it is too close, it will also cause it to -TIP BREAKS
chatter and burn (Figure 9). If the brush be-

comes broken, there will not be a good contact
between the commutator and the brush and it
will show up as an open circuit condition. A Figure 9.
motor will have an even number of brushes, half

of them connected to a positive terminal and the
• TOO CLOSE
other half to the negative. In general, the num- -TIP CHATTERS
AND BURNS
ber of brushes in a motor equals the number of
field poles.
Figure 10. BRUSHES
These brushes wear out with use and need to
• Wear Out And Need
be replaced once they reach a certain wear Replacement. Check
mark which is located on the brush (Figure 10). Wear Out Mark
When a new set of brushes is installed, it is • When Replace Make

Sure Of Proper Seating
important that the brushes be properly seated To Commutator
to fit on the commutator. The brushes’ wear • Check During P.M.
should be checked periodically during the pre-
ventive maintenance. The brush assembly is Figure 11. ONE TWO
POLE POLE
mounted on the rear end plate for easy reach, + – + –
where an access hole or opening is provided for • ON/OFF DC
MOTOR
motor inspection and for adjustment of the CONTROL
brushes and holders. • MANUAL OR
MAGNETIC
STARTER
DC MOTOR STARTS
TO TO
MOTOR MOTOR
The on/off state of DC motors can be controlled
using two-pole manual or magnetic starters Figure 12.
+ –
(see Figure 11). As we know, the manual starter
is activated by an on/off or start/stop switch,
whereas, the magnetic starter (Figure 12) turns
the motor on and off by closing or opening the
OL
starter contacts. In a DC motor control, it is only
necessary to switch or break one side of the line
power, usually the positive.
M

The magnetic starter, as we know, turns the

Figure 13.
motor on and off by closing or opening the
contacts. This is generally in the standard start/
+ –
DC STARTER
stop ladder diagram or in the wiring diagram
(Figure 13 and 14). START
STOP M1 OL
There are two basic methods used for starting
DC motors, which are M1
• Full-voltage starting
• Reduced-voltage starting
Full-Voltage Starts
Figure 14.
Full-voltage starting is confined to DC motors

+ –
rated 2-horsepower or less, while reduced-
voltage starting is used for the larger motors.
Full-voltage starting (see Figure 15), also called
across-the-line, consists of applying full voltage
to the motor. This can be accomplished with
manually operated switches, manual starters
or magnetic starters for either two-wire or three-
M
wire control circuits.
Reduced-Voltage Starts
Figure 15.
The main reason DC motors above 2-horse-

power are reduced-started is because DC mo- –
tors draw very high current due to the very low DC FULL DC
SUPPLY V VOLTAGE MOTOR
resistance of the armature winding. This low
resistance design is implemented to minimize +
heat losses. If these 2-horsepower or larger DC
motors are started with a full-line voltage, heavy
current flowing through the winding while at rest M
M
might cause permanent damage to the motor.

The simplest form of reduced speed in a DC Figure 16. F

motor is accomplished by placing a variable
resistor or rheostat (see Figure 16) in series R A
with the armature winding or the field winding.
These rheostats are available in a 3-point or 4-

+ DC SHUNT MOTOR –
point starting box, so named because of the
number of terminals used (Figure 17).
Figure 17. RHEOSTATS
The application of a 3-point rheostat reduced- 3 POINT 4 POINT
voltage start is fairly basic. For example, in the
compound DC motor circuit shown in Figure
18, as the moving handle is rotated following
the resistance arc, voltage is applied to the + F A – + F A
motor circuit, thus accelerating the speed of

rotation. Note that the resistance is being var-
ied, therefore implementing a reduced-voltage
start. It starts at a low speed and gradually Figure 18.
increases to full speed as the resistance is
S A
reduced. When the handle is moved all the
way, a coil will hold the handle. In the event that + F A
the circuit is interrupted, the holding coil de- F

+
energizes and the handle is spring-returned to
its original off position. This allows for low –
voltage protection.
Figure 19. S A
REVERSING DC MOTORS – +
Reversing DC motors requires reversal of cur- CURRENT

rent flow through either the armature or the
+ –
field, but not both. If both were reversed, the SERIES MOTOR
net result would be rotation in the original
direction. The de facto standard in industry is Figure 20.
S A
usually to reverse the current through the ar- –
mature (see Figure 19 and Figure 20). Note
that, in DC, the current flows from negative to –
CURRENT
positive.
+ +
SERIES MOTOR

The most common method for reversing DC
motors is using manual starters, magnetic start- Figure 21. SERIES DC MOTOR
ers, or drum switches. REVERSAL
ARM
Reversing With A Drum Switch
The drum switch, which we covered in Chapter SERIES
2, can be used to reverse the series DC motor,

+ –
the shunt DC motor, or the compound DC
motor. The only thing that will vary is the termi-
Figure 22.
nal connection wiring. Let’s take the Series DC ARM
motor and see its drum reversing circuit.
In the forward position the current will flow from SERIES

the negative to the positive through the arma-
ture and the field winding. Once the drum is Forward + –
switched to reverse, the current that flows
through the brushes and commutator will be Figure 23.
reversed, thus reversing the rotation of the ARM
motor.
SERIES
During the forward cycle of the motor, the
current through the armature as indicated by
Reverse + –
the bold lines in Figure 22, and during the
reverse cycle, it goes the opposite way (Figure
Figure 24. DC SHUNT MOTOR
23). The drum switch connections for the rever- REVERSAL
sal of the shunt DC motor and compound DC
motor are shown in (Figure 24).
SHUNT ARM
Reversing with Manual/Magnetic Starters
Reversing DC motors with either manual or + –

magnetic starters follows the same principle, DC COMPOUND MOTOR
which is the reversing of current flow through REVERSAL
the armature. The contact arrangement and A
R
interlocking is basically the same for both start- M
SHUNT
ers. Let’s take a magnetic starter and create the S
E
R
circuit for reversing the rotation of a series DC I
E
S
motor.
+ –

We know that we can control a DC motor by Figure 25.

+ –
breaking only one of the power lines, therefore
requiring only one set of contacts (Figure 25).
However, due to the number of connections
that need to take place for reversing, we’ll need S2 S1 A2 A1
three sets of contacts for each forward and S A

SERIES CONNECTION
reverse starter (Figure 26). We only need,
though, one set of overload relays.
+ –
Figure 26. FWD REV
For the forward direction, we would connect this

wiring diagram as indicated by the thick lines in
Figure 27, where the field is in series with the
armature and the positive is connected to one
side; in this case to the field, while the negative S2 S1 A2 A1
goes to the other side of the armature. The + – + –

S A
remaining contact is used to connect the A2 + –

FWD REV
Figure 27.
side of the armature to the S1 side of the field
winding series.
Forward
To reverse the motor shown in thin lines in

Figure 28, we need to reverse the positive and
negative power lines to the armature. To imple- S2 S1 A2 A1
+ – + –
ment this, we would use the contacts of the S A
reversing starter to redirect the wiring. The side

+ –
A2 of the armature that used to be positive will Figure 28. FWD REV
now be switched to the negative, while the other

Reverse
one will be in series with the field, connected
through the contacts to the S1 side of the
winding. The positive terminal goes to the S2
side of the field. Note that the overload protec-
S2 S1 A2 A1
tion is available for both the forward and reverse + – – +
S A
conditions.
Figure 29. + –
FWD
STOP OL
This magnetic starter configuration may be F
F
controlled by a circuit as the one shown in
Figure 29 where mechanical interlock prevents REV
it from being reversed while in the forward R

motion and vice versa. Or, it may have addi- R

+ –
tional normally closed contacts from the for- Figure 30. FWD
STOP R OL
ward and reverse coils to interlock the two F

F
circuits and make them mutually exclusive as

illustrated in Figure 30. This is a compelling REV
F
R
circuit because the operator is compelled to R
stop it before changing the direction of the

motor.
+ SHUNT MOTOR –
Figure 31. A
A2 A1
Reversing the shunt DC motor (Figure 31) and F
F2 F1
compound DC motor is also very similar and, as
+ –
we’ll see, the main thing to remember is to COMPOUND MOTOR
S1 A2
S2 A1
reverse only the direction of either the field or F2 F1
the armature. In the case of the compound

motors, you’d have to change the direction of
+ – FWD REV
both the shunt and the series fields if the field
Figure 32.
winding is the one having the current being Forward
changed.
For this shunt DC motor circuit (Figure 32), we + + A – –

A2 A1
would connect the forward direction, as indi- F2 F F1
cated by the thick lines, where the positive and

negative terminals are in parallel with the shunt
+ – FWD REV
field and the armature. Note that the shunt field
Figure 33.
connection to F1 is straight from the negative
Reverse
side because it does not need to be switched.
The reverse connection would be implemented,
as shown by thin lines, where the positive and + – A + –
A2 A1
negative terminals are switched to A2 and A1. F2 F F1
In the reversal circuit, note that the positive is

still going to the same terminal, F2, in the shunt + –
Figure 34. FWD REV
field.
The connections for a compound DC motor in

the forward direction follow the same design.
The reversal starter switches the negative ter-
minal from A1 to A2 and the series connection + + – + – –
A
S2 S S1 A2 A1
to the field from S1 to A1(Figure 34).
F2 F F1

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS
As we know, DC motors are used in industrial

Figure 35
applications requiring most of the time variable
speed control and high torque. DC motors can
be controlled from rest or zero speed to full
+
speed. DC motors provide four to five times its
SPEED
rated torque for a short period of time, whereas VDC A F
the AC motor would stall and lock the rotor most –

of the time if its load requires even twice the
rated torque. VOLTAGE
The speed of a DC motor can be changed

(Figure 35) by using a variable source of volt-
age to the armature, where an efficient and
smooth control of speed can be achieved for Figure 36
either reversing or non-reversing duty. Control
S2 S1 A2 A1
of the voltage of the series or shunt fields can A
also be combined with the armature speed S
control. + VOLTAGE –
HIGH TORQUE
Of all DC motors, the series DC motor offers the
poorest speed regulation, but the highest start-
ing torque (Figure 36). As seen in the graph of
CURRENT
Figure 36, the series motor is suitable for low FLA @START
LOW
speed applications which require high torque ARMATURE CURRENT
by heavy loads.
In the Series DC motor, the speed changes as

Figure 37
the torque changes. When the torque is high,
the speed is low. As the load is removed, the
torque is reduced and the speed will rapidly
increase.
This is why a Series DC motor, without a load,

could gain enough speed and be in a runaway
condition and incur serious damage (Figure
37). Therefore, the series motor should always
be connected directly to the load and not through

belts, chains, or any other mechanisms. The

Figure 38
speed of the series motor can be controlled by F
F2 F1
varying the applied voltage. This series motor
speed control is considered relatively poor when A2
A A1
compared to the control achieved in a shunt
motor. Its greatest advantage, however, is the VARM
tremendous high-starting torque it provides.
+ VOLTAGE –
VFIELD
+ VOLTAGE –
The starter motor in your car is a typical ex- HIGH
SPEED
ample of a series DC motor where speed regu- FLA
TORQUE
lation is not as important as the required starting CURRENT
LOW
high torque to crank up the car. ARMATURE CURRENT @ START
The shunt DC motor in contrast provides good

speed-torque characteristics (Figure 38). The Figure39
F
speed in the shunt motor can be regulated by F2 F1
the applied armature voltage or by the applied A2 A1

field voltage. A
If the voltage applied to the armature is re-

duced, the speed of the motor will also be
+ VARM –
reduced (Figure 39). If the field voltage is re- + VFIELD –
duced while the armature is maintained con- VARM SPEED
stant, the speed of the motor will increase. This
increase in speed is due to the reduction of field VFIELD SPEED
strength which reduces the counter electromo-
tive force which is developed in the armature, NOTES
thus allowing the armature to go at a faster
speed.
Once the field voltage is set, it remains fairly

constant, even if the armature current is
changed, thus providing a constant speed. If
the load increases, the current through the
armature will increase and so will the torque.
The speed however, once set by the field volt-
age, will tend to keep the motor at the set speed.

The compound DC motor (Figure 40) combines

the characteristics of the series and shunt mo- Figure 40
F
F2 F1
tors. It provides a compromise in performance
between the other two DC motors by offering S2 S1 A2 A1
A
good starting torque and relatively good speed
stability. The starting torque and speed regula-
tion are not as good if compared to the series + VARM –
and shunt motors, respectively. The speed of + VFIELD –
HIGH
the compound motor can be obtained by regu- TORQUE
lating the applied voltage to the field or to the SPEED

armature in a similar manner as the series and FLA CURRENT
LOW @START
shunt motors. ARMATURE CURRENT
ACCELERATION OF DC MOTORS Figure 41.
We know that, by changing the applied voltage +

to a DC motor (Figure 41), we can control the SPEED
VDC A F
speed of the motor and at the same time pro-
vide a necessary reduced-voltage start to DC –
motors of 2-horsepower or more. VOLTAGE
There are two basic methods to speed or accel-

erate a DC motor. The first one uses a variable Figure 42.
resistance, such as a rheostat or resistor bank
and the second one employs a solid state S A
speed control, utilizing Silicon Controlled Rec-
+ F A
tifiers or SCRs.
F
+
The rheostat method (Figure 42) serves the
dual purpose of reduced-start to accelerate the –
DC motor to the base speed which is the speed
in RPMs at which the motor runs when full Figure 43.
RPMs
voltage is applied to the field and armature
(Figure 43).
BASE
SPEED
This variable resistor is used to bring the motor
from zero speed to full base speed. Note that,
FULL
by reducing the field voltage and maintaining
VOLTAGE

+
the full voltage across the armature (Figure 44), Figure 44.
VFIELD VARM A
you could increase the speed of the motor
above the base speed. BASE –
SPEED +
VFIELD F
VARM
In smaller motors, the acceleration can be ac-
–
complished in two steps (Figure 45) by having VOLTAGE
one set of contacts removed after the start,
F
while larger motors will have a smoother start Figure 45.
with a four-step acceleration circuit (Figure 46). M2

A
As we said, the speed of a DC motor can also R

M1
be controlled with the use of SCRs in a solid
state controller, also called a DC drive. But + –
F
before we look at this method, let us look briefly Figure 46.
at the operation of an SCR. M2 M3 M4
A
SCR Operation M1
R R R
APPLIED VOLTAGE
+ –
An SCR, also referred to as thyristor, is repre-
sented by the symbol shown in Figure 47. It is Figure 47. Figure 48.
formed by three elements which are the anode, SCR SCR DIODE
CATHODE CATHODE
the cathode and the gate. As you can see in
GATE
GATE
Figure 48, it is very similar to the diode we
discussed in Chapter 1, which is used to rectify
AC voltage into DC voltage. ANODE ANODE
In fact, SCRs function very similarly to diodes

Figure 49. SCR
as far as rectification is concerned (Figure 49). • RECTIFIES
• ADDED CONTROL
SCRs, however, provide added control through
CURRENT
THROUGH GATE
the gates. The gate essentially works as a • GATE ACTS AS A
SWITCH
switch which allows current passing from the
Cathode to the Anode to turn on and off (Figure
50). This control allows the SCR to turn on at
Figure 50.
any point in the half cycle rectification from full
to partial conduction of voltage. The firing circuit
controls the amount of voltage conduction of L
GATE O
the SCR by controlling the gate. V FIRING A
CONTROL D

When used in a bridge rectification circuit, the

SCR will vary the amount of DC output voltage Figure 51.
RECTIFIED
(Figure 51). This circuit forms part of a solid VOLTAGE
state speed control. As you can see in Figure
51, the power source for the motor is AC which DC A
VOLTAGE
is being rectified by the bridge in the speed AC MOTOR
controller and at the same time controls the

amount of applied voltage to the motor. As the
GATE SPEED
SCR is fired faster, the voltage will increase, FIRING ADJUSTMENT
CONTROL
while, if it is fired slowly, the voltage will be
reduced (Figure 52).
Figure 52
These drive systems (Figure 53) are usually
used in what is known as a closed loop, where SPEED
a feedback signal, such as that coming from a CONTROL
tachometer, is fed back to a controller, such as
a programmable controller, which makes the
necessary adjustments to the drive’s firing cir- Figure 53
cuit to keep the speed constant if there are any

AC
+
load fluctuations. DRIVE
POWER –
The electronic circuit which forms a DC drive is
a complex control composed of many solid
CON- SPEED FIRING
state components, and troubleshooting it could TROLLER TACHO-
CONTROL
METER
demand a whole program on its own right. Here,
we’re going to cover some basic points to look
for in case a DC motor is not operating correctly
and the drive may be suspicious.
Figure 54
Basic Troubleshooting of an SCR Drive

L1
POWER
+ 0-700V DC
DC
L2
POWER
L3
BRIDGE
BRIDGE
D.C.
– MOTOR
D.C.
In a drive based circuit (Figure 54), three-phase
AC
power may be delivered to a DC drive’s power 120 GROUND
bridge. This power bridge rectifies the AC power VAC +
–
for use by the DC motor. At the same time that ELECTRONIC
ELECTRONIC TACHO
CONTROL
CONTROL
the SCRs rectify the AC voltage, they control BOARD
GENERATOR
BOARD
the amount of voltage applied to the armature,
SIGNAL
thus regulating its speed. This control is pro- RUN GROUND
STOP

SCOPE
vided by an electronic control board which Figure 55 TO
FIRING
controls the firing of the SCRs. CONTROL DC
MOTOR
L1
A1
If a problem is suspected with the drive, in this L2
L3 A
case one which uses a so-called 6 pulse bridge
A2
(Figure 55), the first thing to do is to check for
proper operation of the SCRs, making sure they
are firing and providing power to the motor. To
do this, you can place an oscilloscope across Figure 56. OSCILLOSCOPE
the A1 and A2 terminals of the motor or from the
terminal coming from the power bridge. You
should observe the type of curve shown in
VDC
Figure 56, where all six SCR curves should be
present within a 16.66 millisecond range which
equates to one pulse for each SCR on each half
cycle of the three phases (Figure 57). Make
TIME BASE 16.66 msec
sure the scope is set for at least a 16.66 millisec-
ond scale.
Figure 57.PHASE
All six pulses must be present; if not, one of the A

SCRs is not firing because of a faulty compo- B
nent. If two of the same phases are not firing, it
C
could be due to a loss of a phase. This results
in erratic motor movements and slower speed.
Additionally, the motor will not have a smooth Figure 58.
sound and it will be reflected in its performance. • WHEN MEASURING
VOLTAGE IN A DRIVE
SYSTEM, BE EXTREMELY
If you are testing or measuring voltages in the CAUTIOUS BECAUSE OF
drive system (Figure 58), please be extremely THE HIGH VOLTAGES
PRESENT
cautious because of the high voltages present
in large horsepower motor circuits. Also, be
aware that the DC motor control board is iso- Figure 59. POWER
BRIDGE
lated from the motor power circuit and the D.C.
grounds should NEVER be connected to equip- AC
ment frame or the AC ground (Figure 59). This GROUND
will cause extreme damage to the drive control HIGH VOLTAGE

ELECTRONIC
circuitry. CONTROL
POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE
BOARD

Another signal that is good to check and make

sure is present is the feedback in this example
Figure 60.
from the tachogenerator (Figure 60). This
tachogenerator provides a DC voltage propor- DC
MOTOR
tional to the motor RPMs for use by the drive. In TACHO
GENERATOR
the scope you should see a smooth DC signal +
providing feedback to the electronic control OSCILLOSCOPE
–
board, and that there are not large spikes in the
system induced by electrical noise (Figure 61). DC
DECELERATING METHODS FOR DC MOTORS
Just as important as acceleration, if not more,

are deceleration methods. Deceleration is used
to bring a motor to a complete stop and it uses
control circuits or hardware components to ac-
Figure 61
complish this task. Control circuits provide elec-
DC
trical deceleration by causing regeneration of MOTOR
TACHO
voltage in the reverse direction, while electro-
GENERATOR
mechanical hardware, such as brakes, are used +
to bring rotation to a quick stop as soon as a OSCILLOSCOPE
–
motor is turned off.
DC
There are three basic methods for decelerating

a DC motor using:
• Plugging circuits
• Regenerative braking
• Electromechanical brakes.
Figure 62
Plugging PLUGGING CIRCUITS

We spoke briefly about plugging in Chapter 2
REV
when we talked about plugging or zero speed
switches (Figure 62). The plugging switch, as
PLUGGING
we know, closes in the forward or reverse SWITCH
position once the direction and speed setting of
the rotation is achieved.
FWD

In a simple plugging circuit, as illustrationed in

Figure 63
Figure 63, the plugging switch can be used to
+ R –
implement a quick stop by reversing the motor F
OL
once the stop signal has been pressed. R

F
START
When start is pushed (reference Figure 64), the STOP R
F
motor will start in the forward direction and the F
plugging switch’s forward contacts will close FWD
CLOSE DC MOTOR
and set up the reverse motor to wait for the SPEED
R O F
normally closed forward interlock to be back to
its normal state. This will occur as soon as we Figure 64.
press the stop pushbutton which will reset the + R –
forward starter coil. At this time, the reverse F
OL
R
starter will be energized because there is con- F
tinuity from L1. This continuity is provided by the START
STOP R
plugging switch forward contact which is still
F
closed by the centrifugal force due to the rota- F
tion. The reverse starter will be disconnected as FWD

CLOSE DC MOTOR
soon as the rotation in the plugging switch SPEED
R O F
slows down close to zero speed.
Figure 65.
This type of deceleration can also be used, as

+ FOR –
REV
we’ll see in the next chapter, in AC motors,
STOP OL
except in the single-phase motors which utilize CR
CR
centrifugal switches. CR R
F
REV R
The plugging circuit shown in Figure 65 oper- SPEED
SWITCH
ates in a similar manner but allows plugging a CR F F
R
motor to stop from either direction. The opera- FOR
tion of this circuit is left as an exercise for you.

Figure 66.
+ ANTI PLUGGING –
A slight variation of the plugging circuit is the
SPEED FWD
anti-plugging (see Figure 66). This circuit al- SWITCH R R OL
lows reversal of direction once the rotation STOP F

REV
slows down to a predetermined speed. If the F
R
motor is running in the forward direction, and F
F
stop is pressed, the reverse will not be allowed
until the forward rotation slows enough to close R

the forward contacts in the switch. At this point, NOTES

the reverse can take place.
Regenerative Braking
Regenerative braking, also known as dynamic

braking, is used with DC motor to bring them to
a smooth stop within several rotations. This
method uses, as a principle, the transformation
of the motor to act as a generator. A small
resistor (see Figure 67) is placed in parallel with
the armature which, when turned off, will serve
as a loaded generator that quickly stops the
motor due to the reverse magnetic forces cre-
ated. The braking action of this circuit mini-
mizes as the speed of the motor decreases and,
as a result, it cannot hold the load once the
Figure 67.
motor has stopped. Therefore, friction brakes + –
are generally used along with regenerative brak-
M
ing to help bring the load to a complete stop and START
hold it stopped. STOP M OL
M R
M
A
Electromechanical Brakes
• BREAKING
MINIMIZES
Deceleration of a DC motor to a stop can also be AS MOTOR
F
accomplished with electromechanical brakes, SLOWS DOWN
of which the most commonly used is the friction

brake. The friction brake is solenoid operated
and basically works like an automobile brake Figure 68. + –
system. It is connected across the positive and
negative terminals (see Figure 68) of the motor
in such a way that, if the motor is started, power START
STOP M OL SOL
will be available at the solenoid and the brake BRAKE
shoes will be pulled by the solenoid action, thus

removing all friction from the drum. This allows M
the motor to rotate freely. When power is re-

moved to the motor circuit, the brake solenoid is DC
MOTOR
de-energized and the brake spring is allowed to

apply full force to the brake shoes so that Figure 69.
maximum friction is created and the motor is + –

brought to a stop.
M
The amount of spring pressure is adjustable
through a screw. If set to maximum pressure,
M R
the brake will make the stop very quickly as
SOL
soon as power is removed. If the pressure is BRAKE
reduced, the motor may be allowed to coast
slightly before coming to a stop. The solenoid
friction brake is generally connected to the
motor circuit and rarely to the control circuit to
avoid improper activation of the brake. DC
MOTOR
As mentioned a little while ago, the friction

brake could be used in conjunction with dy-
namic braking to hold the load in position (see
Figure 69). This allows for the brake to have a Figure 70.
longer useful life because it can be set without

maximum pressure so the brake shoes would • DURING P.M. THE
last longer. BRAKE SHOES SHOULD
BE INSPECTED
During preventive maintenance (Figure 70),
the shoes of the brake should be inspected to
insure that they are not worn out, and replaced
if necessary.
Figure 71.
If you need to select a friction brake, it will be

necessary to choose it by taking into account
the amount of torque of your motor (Figure 71).
To obtain this value, you can use the equation
of torque equal to the horsepower of the motor
times the constant 5,252 divided by the speed
of the RPMs at which the motor is operating.
The value of the torque will be in foot-pounds
and the brake’s torque should be equal to or
greater than this value. For example, a 100-

horsepower motor running at 1000 RPMs will NOTES

need a brake of at least 525.2 foot-pounds.
TROUBLESHOOTING DC MOTORS
When a DC motor develops a problem or fault,

the electrician or technician must be capable of
identifying and isolating the program quickly
and getting the operation back in line as soon as
possible. In troubleshooting DC motors, you
have either to attack a problem with a series
motor or a shunt motor; the compound DC
motor is really a combination of the others and
finding its problem is pretty much done in a
similar fashion. So let’s take a look at how we
first approach a series DC motor.
Troubleshooting a Series DC Motor
There are two problems that can occur in a

series motor which could prevent it from start-
ing. The first one is that there could be an open
in one of its windings or between the brushes
and the commutator and the second one is that
no voltage is present at the terminals of the
motor. Another problem that needs trouble- Figure 72.
shooting occurs when the motor is running but
still has problems and the symptom translates S A
into overheating.
Because the field and armature are connected

in series (Figure 72), both coils must operate
properly in order to draw current. If not, the
motor can’t build enough magnetic field to turn CURRENT
the armature and start the motor.
+ –
The second cause for the motor not to start, due

to no voltage at its terminal (Figure 73), will be Figure 73.

S A
due to a line voltage problem in the control
circuit, in the power circuit, or in the supply
source. In this chapter we’re going to cover
troubleshooting of the power circuit and of the
+ NO VOLTAGE –
motor itself. In Chapter 7 we covered trouble-
PROBLEMS WITH:
shooting of power supply sources and of the • CONTROL CIRCUIT
control circuits. • POWER CIRCUIT
• SUPPLY SOURCE
Troubleshooting The Power Circuit and Motor
If there is no voltage at the terminals and there Figure 74A Figure 74B
+ –
is power to the starter coil (Figure 74) points 1 A A + –
A A
and 2), then check the voltage with a voltmeter B B
+ 1 2 B B
set to a DC reading at a terminal point before the POWER
–
C C + 1 2
POWER C C
power contacts (Point A). If there is no power, –
then you need to check the main DC power SERIES DCV

DCV
MOTOR
supply. If you have power in the supply side of + –

SERIES
MOTOR + –
the contacts, then check the load side (Point B).

If there is no power, then there is a problem with
the starter coil and contacts. If there is power Figure 74C Figure 74D
+ – + –
after the power contacts, then check at the point A A A A
before the overloads for voltage (Point C). If no B B B B

+ 1 2
+ 1 2
voltage is present, then there could be a prob- POWER C C POWER C C
– –
lem between the supply side of the overloads
DCV
and the contacts of the starter. Check also to SERIES DCV
SERIES
+ – MOTOR
see if the overloads have been tripped. If so, MOTOR
+ –
you need to reset them and make note that
something in the system has caused them to
trip and you need to investigate it.
Figure 75
OPEN
If there is voltage at the motor terminals (Figure
75), but the motor is not operating, we can
+
assume that the motor has an open in its S
winding or between the brushes and the com- VDC
mutator in the armature. To proceed, you should A
–
disconnect the power to the motor and discon-

Figure 76 DISCONNECT
nect the series field and armature to test for an S A
open condition (Figure 76). S2 S1 A2 A1
ROTATE
By placing the meter (Figure 77), with the selec-
ARMATURE
tion for ohms to read resistance, across the S1
+ –
and S2 terminals of the field, we could test to
see if an open is present. If the ohmmeter Ω
shows an infinity reading, then the series field is + –

open which means that it needs to be rewound
or replaced. If the meter reads an ohms reading
Figure 77.
because there is resistance in the winding, then S A
there is continuity and the series field winding is S2 S1 A2 A1
OK. Regardless of both readings, you should
continue the test and inspect the armature ROTATE
ARMATURE
because, even if the series field was open,
there could still be another problem with the
+ –
armature. Ω
+ –
To test the armature, we place the ohmmeter
between terminals A1 and A2. If the reading
Figure 78.
shows a resistance in ohms, there is continuity.
You should now start rotating the armature
shaft slightly so you can detect possible bad
spots where the commutator may have an open
or the brushes may not be properly seated
(Figures 78 and 79).
If the ohmmeter shows an infinity resistance

reading, an open circuit is detected. Continue
testing the brushes and the commutator visu- Figure 79.
ally for damage. After detecting an open in the

armature coil, you should remove the armature
from the frame for repair. The armature can be
turned on a lathe by a machinist and, if needed,
the brushes can be replaced.
The next problem that we encounter is when the

motor is running and gives us signs of overheat- Figure 80.

ing or not being able to pull its rated load (Figure
80). Because the motor is running and has +
S
proper voltage at its terminals, it is pulling
VDC
current and, therefore, there is not an open in
A
either of its windings. One of the first things to –
check is to inspect the brushes to make sure
they are properly seated and are not damaged.
S A
You can also inspect to see if the field and
S2 S1 A2 A1
armature windings are loose or damaged. And
check the shaft bearings to make sure they are
lubricated and not damaged. If not properly
lubricated, the bearing could be seizing on the
shaft and create friction which develops heat + –
and reduces its capability to pull the load.
Figure 81.
Once you’ve had the motor replaced or re- F
paired, it is important that you monitor again the
current and heat once the motor is reinstalled A
again.
• MOTOR NOT RUNNING
Troubleshooting a Shunt Motor PROBLEMS WITH
–SUPPLY VOLTAGE
–POWER CIRCUIT
The shunt motor also exhibits similar problems • MOTOR RUNS
as the series DC motor (Figure 81). The two –BUT OVERHEATS
main problems occur when the motor is not
running in which case it could be the supply Figure 82.
voltage or its power circuit. If the motor is + –
running, overheating can be exhibited by the MOTOR
motor, thus indicating a potential problem. DOES NOT
START
NO SOUND
If the motor does not start and does not make
any sound (Figure 82), it is most likely due to a
problem with the voltage being supplied to its
DCV
terminals. Check for a voltage and troubleshoot
the power circuit in the same fashion used for SHUNT
MOTOR
+ –
the series DC motor power circuit.

If there is a loud humming sound (Figure 83), it

implies that it is trying to start and has supply Figure 83.
voltage present. First check to make sure that + –
the supply voltage is at the correct level. Other- MOTOR
TRIES TO
wise, the problem most likely lies with an open START
circuit in the field winding. This open circuit can "HUMS"
exist if the field winding draws too much current
or if a short circuit occurs in the insulation in the
coils. DCV
SHUNT
To test the field winding (Figure 84), you must MOTOR
+ –
remove the shunt connection from the arma-
ture. Otherwise, you won’t be able to detect an
open in the field winding because the armature Figure 84.
is connected in parallel and you could read
continuity in the armature. Make sure that you F2 F1
remove the power to the motor circuit before A2 A1

A
starting to test the motor and that you perform
the proper lockout after the disconnect has
been opened so that nobody can turn on power
to the motor while you’re working on it. REMOVE
To test the field wining for an open, we use a

+ Ω –
SET
procedure similar to the one used with the
x10KΩ
series motor. With the meter set for ohms, we
place the two terminals across the F1 and F2
(Figure 85). Make sure that the ohmmeter is set Figure 85.
to a resistance setting of R times 10K ohms
because the resistance of the field winding in a F2 F1
shunt motor is high, due to its winding being
A2 A1
formed by a very long wire. A
If the reading from the meter shows resistance,

SET
then the field winding is good and has continu- x10KΩ
ity. If the reading shows infinity resistance, then
the field winding has an opening and the motor + Ω –
must be repaired or replaced.

The armature should be tested next by placing

the ohmmeter across the A1 and A2 terminals. NOTES
If there is a resistance reading, the armature is
OK. If it shows an infinite resistance, the arma-
ture has an opening in its winding. Make sure
you also check the brushes and commutator to
check for damage and see if the brushes are
worn out or not properly seated. If the commu-
tator is damaged, you can have it turned down
in a lathe by a machinist. If the armature has an
open, you must remove and replace the motor.
In some cases, you may be able to replace only
the armature without removing the whole mo-
tor.
Note that when taking a resistance reading in a

shunt motor (Figure 86), the shunt field winding
resistance will be much larger than the arma- Figure 86.
ture resistance. Conversely, in a series DC WINDING RESISTANCE
motor, the series field winding resistance will be MEASUREMENT
less than the armature winding since the series
field is made of large gauge wire. This small
SHUNT MOTOR SERIES MOTOR
detail will help you identify which wire belongs
to which winding in a DC motor.
If the shunt motor does run but heats up or starts

Ω Ω Ω Ω
to draw too much current, it should be tested for
a loose coil or shorted coil in the field and
armature winding. A loose field can cause the Figure 87.
motor to vibrate and overheat and should be F
checked during preventive maintenance to in-
sure that they do not come loose. The same S
applies to the armature. A
The compound DC motor (Figure 87), as we

know, is a combination of the series and shunt
motors and its troubleshooting should be done
COMPOUND –
using the same methods as the ones used in +

the series and shunt. NOTES

tant information on how to control the starting
speed and direction or rotation of DC motors,
as well as the ways to troubleshoot them. It is
important to always remember to tackle a
troubleshooting problem from the top by listing
the areas which are giving us the symptoms of
abnormal operation. In this manner, we can
find and solve the problem.
Keep in mind that, if a motor has a problem or

burns out, simply replacing it is not a solution;
we must know what the reason was for the
failure; otherwise, our new motor will fail again.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.- The three basic sections of a DC motor are

______, ______ and ______.
a– Starter
b– Armature
c– End plates or brackets
d– Frame
Figure 1
2.- Match the appropriate motor shown in Fig-
ure 1 with their appropiate representation.
S S
a– Series
A
b– Shunt
c– Compound
3.- The main rotating component of a DC + -

motor is the ______.
a– End plates
F F
b– Stator
A
c– Armature
d– Frame
4.- The ______ is made up of many separate + -

bars or segments which are separated by
insulators.
a– Armature F S S F
b– Commutator A
c– End plates
d– Interpoles
+ -
5.- True/False. The brushes are small blocks
of special carbon that function as the inter-
face between the external power source
and the commutator.

6.- There are two basic methods used for

starting DC motors which are the ______
and ______.
a– Full-voltage
b– Rapid
c– Reduced-voltage
d– Slow
7.- True/False. Full-voltage starting is con-

fined to DC motors rated 2 HP or more.
8.- True/False. Reversing DC motors requires

reversal of current flow through either the
armature or the field, but not both.
9.- Of all the DC motors, the ______ motor

offers the poorest speed regulation, but
the highest starting torque.
a– Compound
b– Shunt
c– Series
10.- There are two basic methods to speed or

accelerate a DC motor which are ______
and ______.
a– Rheostat
b– Open voltage
c– Closed voltage
d– Solid state speed control.
11.- True/False. Solid state speed control which

utilizes silicon Controlled Rectifiers or
SCR’s is also known as a DC drive.

12.- In Figure 2, indicate where the following Figure 2

are located. SCR
CATHODE
a– Cathode GATE
b– Anode
c– Gate
ANODE
13.- In Figure 3, when troubleshooting the
SCR’s circuit, if you see all six pulses will
mean that ______. Figure 3
SCOPE
TO
FIRING
a– One SCR is not working CONTROL DC
MOTOR
b– All SCRs are working L1
A1
c– The motor is OK L2
A
d– Frequency is OK L3
A2
14.- A ______ provides a DC voltage propor-

tional to the motor RPMs for use by the
drive.
a– Rheostat
b– Full bridge
c– Tachogenerator
d– Stepper
15.- The three basic methods for decelerating

a DC motor are ______, ______, and
______.
a– Plugging circuit
b– Electromechanical brakes
c– Contact pressure
d– Regenerative braking

16.- The symbol in Figure 4 represents a Figure 4

REV
______.
a– Braking switch
b– Plugging switch
c– Forward/reverse open switch FWD
d– Forward/reverse safety switch
17.- True/False. The anti-plugging circuit shown Figure 5

in Figure 5 allows you to reverse the + ANTI PLUGGING –
rotation of a motor once the motor slows
SPEED FWD
down to a predetermined speed. SWITCH R R OL
STOP F
REV
F
18.- Figure 6 shows the following type of DC R
F
braking: ______.
F
R
a– Plugging circuit
b– Regenerative braking
c– Forward/reverse open loop
d– Forward/reverse safety switch Figure 6
+ –
19.- True/False. The friction brake (Figure 7), M

START
which is an electromechanical brake, is STOP M OL
solenoid operated and basically works like M R
M
an automobile brake system. When power A
is applied to the motor circuit, the break is • BREAKING
not applied, when power is off the break is MINIMIZES
AS MOTOR
applied. F
SLOWS DOWN
Figure 7
20.- Which one of the following equations de- + –
scribes the estimated braking torque?
______.
START
HP x 5252 STOP M OL SOL
a– Torque= BRAKE
RPM
RPM x 5252 M
b– Torque=
Break Factor
DC
c– Torque=HP x 5252 x RPM MOTOR

21.- True/False. When troubleshooting the ar-

mature, it is a good idea to rotate the arma-
ture shaft slightly so that we can detect
possible bad spots where the commutator
may have an open or the brushes may not
be properly seated.
22.- True/False. In a shunt motor, if we want to

test the field winding, we must remove the
shunt connection from the armature.
23.- True/False. The resistance of the field

winding in a shunt motor is very low.
24.- True/False. The resistance of the field

winding in a series motor is less than the
armature winding.
25.- True/False. If a motor makes a loud hum-

ming sound while the proper voltage is
being supplied, the problem most likely
lies with an open circuit in the field wind-
ing.

ANSWERS
1.- b– Armature
c– End plates or brackets
d– Frame
2. Series
S S
A
+ -
Shunt
F F
A
+ -
Compound
F S S F
A
+ -
3.- c– Armature
4.- b– Commutator
5.- True
6.- a– Full-voltage
c– Reduced-voltage

7.- False. Full-voltage starting is confined to

DC motors rated 2 HP or less.
8.- True
9.- c– Series
10.- a– Rheostat
d– Solid state speed control
11.- True
12.- SCR
CATHODE
GATE
ANODE
13.- b– All SCRs are working
14.- c– Tachogenerator
15.- a– Plugging circuit

b– Electromechanical brakes
d– Regenerative braking.
16.- Figure
17.- True
18.- b– Regenerative braking
19.- True

HP x 5252
20.- a– Torque=
RPM
21.- True
22.- True
23.- False. The resistance of the filed winding

is large; the resistance of the armature is
low.
24.- True
25.- True

CHAPTER 9 9
MODULE
M1
L1 T1
M2
T7
T4, T5, T6
M1 T2 T3
L2
M2 INTERNAL
T8 T9
M1
L3
M2
Chapter 9—Understanding & Troubleshooting AC Motor Controls
OVERVIEW
This ninth chapter explains AC motors in detail.

The general operation of three-phase and one-
phase motors is reviewed, as well as the differ-
ent methods for starting AC motors: across-the-
line and the different types of reduced-voltage
starts.
The reversing circuits used for AC motors are

also covered using drum switches and manual
and magnetic starters. Accelerating and decel-
erating circuits are also explained in detail, along
with braking techniques.
This chapter also includes a thorough explana-

tion on troubleshooting AC motors and what
symptoms to look for to avoid motor failures.
OBJECTIVES
After this ninth chapter on AC motors, you should

be able to:
• Know how to implement the different re-

duced voltage starts available for AC
motors.
• Understand the different reversing meth-

ods and circuits used with AC motors.
• Know how AC variable frequency drives

are used to control the speed of AC mo-
tors.
• Check the windings of multiloads Wye and

Delta motors for an open condition.
• Troubleshoot the AC motor power circuit

and the motor itself.
• Understand and recognize the symptoms

an AC motor exhibits when it is having
problems.

INTRODUCTION NOTES
Welcome to Chapter 9 of the program. In this

section we’re going to cover in more detail AC
motors and the different circuits used to reduce-
start, reverse and decelerate them. We’ll also
take a look at some of the methods used for
controlling the speed of the motor. In addition,
we’ll explain in detail the troubleshooting of
single-phase and three-phase induction mo-
tors. So let’s start by reviewing the general op-
eration of AC motors.
GENERAL OPERATION OF AC MOTORS
In Chapter 6 we had an introduction to single-

phase and three-phase motors and the com-
ponents that form them; these being the sta-
tionary part called stator, the rotating part or
the rotor, and the end plates or brackets that
house the bearings of the motor.
An AC induction motor, as its name implies,

works on the induction principle, where the sta-
tor field coil induces current to the rotor. When
this induced current starts flowing in the squir-
rel-cage laminated rotor, a magnetic field is built
and rotation is achieved.
Here there are no brushes to pass current to Figure 1.
the rotating parts as was the case in a DC SPEED OF AN

motor; the current is induced from the stator AC MOTOR
field to the rotor.
OPERATING SPEED = F x 120
The speed of an AC motor is determined by (SYNCHRONOUS SPEED) P
the number of poles that form the stator and 60Hz x 120
=
2
the frequency of the AC voltage coming into
the motor (see Figure 1). The operating speed, = 3600 RPMs

Figure 2.
POLES SPEED
called synchronous speed, is equal to the fre-
2 3600
quency of the voltage times a constant of 120
4 1800
divided by the number of poles of the motor. 6 1200
The result of this synchronous speed is given 8 900
in RPMs. So, for a 60 HZ frequency, a two-pole 10 720
motor will operate at 3600 RPMs, a four-pole 12 600
at 1800 RPMs, and so on (see Figure 2). 14 514
16 450
This formula indicates that the only parameters
Figure 3.
that can be changed in order to vary the syn-
FREQ x 120
SPEED =
chronous speed of the motor are the frequency # OF POLES
of the voltage or the number of poles in the
stator field (see Figure 3). Figure 4.
This is very much unlike the case of a DC mo- +

tor where a voltage variation to the armature or
V A F
field would change the speed. In fact, if the volt-
age to a motor is not within 10% of the rated –
nameplate voltage, severe damage can occur
due to overheating (see Figure 4). This hap-
pens because the torque of an induction motor VOLTAGE VARIATION
varies with the square of the applied voltage. So, CHANGES MOTOR SPEED
if a motor is running at let’s say 80% of its rated

voltage, the torque will be 64% of that at the rated Figure 5.
AC MOTOR
voltage (see Figure 5).
RUNNING AT 80% VOLTAGE
As was briefly mentioned in previous chapters, TORQUE WILL BE
induction motors run below the synchronous REDUCED BY 64%
speed because of losses in the motor. These (0.80) 2 = 0.64
losses occur because the rotor lags the stator's
rotating magnetic field therefore rotating at a Figure 6.
• INDUCTION MOTORS RUN
slower speed. This reduction is called slip and BELLOW SYNCHRONOUS
is represented as a percentage of the synchro- SPEED
–DUE TO LOSSES
nous speed. In fact, slip is necessary for an
induct in motor to operate and provide torque. • REDUCTION IS CALLED SLIP
EXPRESSED AS % OF
Most motors run at between 2 to 10% slip with SUNCHRONOUS SPEED
no load (see Figure 6). –USUALLY 2% TO 10%

Figure 7.
The initial current pulled by a motor when it is LOCKED-ROTOR AMPERAGE
(LRA)
first started is called the locked-motor amper-
age or LRA. It is so-called because this is the
CURRENT
required current that moves through the stator
FULL LOAD AMPERAGE
to start to move the rotor when it is at rest or (FLA)
locked at rest (see Figure 7).

SPEED
As the rotor starts to move, current is induced

and torque begins to buildup. As the speed in-
creases, the current required diminishes until
Figure 8.
full speed is achieved. At this point the current
required is maintained. This current is called MAXIMUM TORQUE
the full load amperage or FLA. As we know,
the locked rotor current or inrush current at start
TORQUE
is about 6 to 10 times that of the full load cur-
rent. The rotor of an induction motor will de-
velop full or maximum torque when the speed
has reached between 70 to 80% of synchro-
nous speed (see Figure 8). SPEED 80% 100%
Differences Between 1Ø and 3Ø Motors

Figure 9.
RUN WINDING
The main difference between single-phase and
three-phase AC motors is that the stator in the ROTOR
START
single-phase motor is composed of two wind- WINDING
ings, one called the start winding and the other
one the run winding (see Figure 9). As we
mentioned in Chapter 6, the start winding is 1O MOTOR
used during the start of the motor, and will be
cut off from the circuit by the centrifugal switch
(Figure 10) once the motor is running around Figure 10.
75% of full speed.This centrifugal switch is gen-

erally mounted on the end of the motor.
RUN START
Single-phase motors, as mentioned before,
come in different types, such as the split-phase

and the capacitor motor. Among the capacitor NOTES

motors, we pointed out the:
• Capacitor-Start
• Permanent Split Capacitor
• Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run
all of which used capacitors to improve starting

torque characteristics.
STARTING AND ACCELERATING

AC MOTORS
There are two ways to start AC motors:
• Across-the-line or full-voltage
• Reduced-voltage
Figure 11.
Across-The-Line Start
Across-the-line starts, also called full voltage

starts, are generally used in small and moder-
ate-sized motor applications, where the torque,
speed and power requirements of the driven
load generally permit a full voltage start. These
starts can be implemented using manual or
magnetic starters.
In the manual starters, the contacts are oper- Figure 12.

ated by a mechanical linkage from the toggle
L1
handle or pushbutton provided with the starter
L2 STARTER M
unit. While in the magnetic starter, the power
contacts are operated by a coil (see Figure 11).
L3
These starters switch the full voltage to the

motor which, of course, makes the motor pull LRA
CURRENT
VOLTAGE
all the locked-rotor amperage at start (see Fig-

ure 12). The across-the-line start method is ba- FLA
sically the one we have been discussing all

along and generally applies to all standard

motors. There is no acceleration to this start NOTES
method. This across-the-line start also provides
100% of its torque at start.
The main advantages of across-the-line starts

are that they are inexpensive, starters are
readily available, installations are easy and
simple to maintain, and they do provide maxi-
mum torque at the start.
The main disadvantages are that they have a

high inrush starting current and the torque may
not be reduced at start in applications which
may require it. For example, in a conveyor ap-
plication, if the motor is started across the line,
the large torque may be too much during the
start and cause a spillage of material.
Reduced–Voltage Starts
The main reason for starting an AC motor at

reduced voltage before accelerating to full
speed is to avoid the high inrush current cre-
ated by the lock-rotor start (see Figure 13). Figure 13.
However, there are additional benefits achieved
by reduced starts, such as less electric power 600%
demand from electric power utilities and the
CURRENT
wear and tear of switchgear equipment due to

the large currents pulled by the motors. This is
specially true in locations where there are a lot
100%
of motors and they are starting and stopping
with frequency. Reduced voltage starts provide
FULL SPEED
smoother transitions in current, torque and
speed of the motor.

Figure 14. TRANSITION

There are five types of reduced voltage starts: 600%
CURRENT
•Primary Resistor CLOSED
•Auto transformer
•Wye-Delta 100%
•Part Winding SPEED
•Solid State Figure 15.

TRANSITION
600%
Each of these reduced starts provides advan-
CURRENT
OPEN
tages and disadvantages. All of these methods,
except the wye-delta, provide closed transition,
100%
which means that power to the motor is not in-
terrupted (see Figure 14). The wye-delta start SPEED
provides an open transition which means that

S1
power is briefly interrupted between the voltage Figure 16.
M R
steps (see Figure 15).
S1
M
Primary Resistor R
M
S1
The primary resistor uses a resistor which is M R
placed in series with the motor starter power

contacts (see Figure 16). These resistors in
Figure 17A. Figure 17B.
this start method are called primary because
PRIMARY RESISTOR START
they are connected to the supply side of the 600
LINE CURRENT
500
motor circuit. The resistors are removed by the
CURRENT %
% 400
65% 65%
bypass start contacts S1 after a time delay. 300
200
42%
100
0 20 40 60 80 100
The primary resistor provides at start about 65% VOLTAGE TORQUE INRUSH
CURRENT SYNCHRONOUS SPEED %
of rated voltage and a starting torque of 42% of

the normal torque (see Figure 17A). The cur- S1
Figure 18.
rent at inrush is limited to 65% of the locked- M R
L1
rotor current. This primary resistor start provides S1
M R
a rather smooth motor start compared to the L2 M
S1
across-the-line (Figure 17B).
M R
L3
L1 L2
When the motor is first turned on (see Figure STOP START
M
OL
M
18), full voltage is applied from the power con- TR
TR S1
tacts at the starter and voltage is created at the

Figure 19.
resistors, thus reducing the amount of voltage S1 S2 S3
going to the motor. At the same time the motor L1

M
is turned on an on-delay timer is energized. The R1 R2 R3
delay timer contacts drive the accelerating S1 S2 S3

M
contactor which controls the resistor by-pass con- L2
M
tacts. Once the time delay has elapsed, the by- R1 R2 R3
S1 S2 S3
pass start contactor S1 will be energized and the M
L3
motor will have the full voltage at its terminals.
R1 R2 R3
As we can see in the graph shown in Figure 17B, Figure 20.

the line current kicks back-up for a short moment L1 L2
START
when the resistors are taken out of the circuit and STOP M OL
the motor is applied with full voltage. M

TR1
3Sec
The number of primary resistors could also be TR1 S1
increased to provide the motor circuit with more

S1 TR1
accelerating steps (Figure 19). Each one would 2Sec
be controlled by a separate or delay timer. TR2

S2
The timing relay is generally set at around 3

seconds for a two-point acceleration with only
one resistor. If more accelerating resistors are Figure 21.
CAUTION!
added, they are set at around two seconds
between steps (see Figure 20). PRIMARY RESISTORS
BECOME VERY HOT
AND CAN CAUSE
A note of caution (Figure 21). Due to of the SEVERE BURNS
amount of current passing through during start,
primary resistors become very hot and can
cause severe burns. So when troubleshooting Figure 22.
this type starter, please be careful.
80%
Autotransformer
65%
VIN 50%
The autotransformer reduced-start utilizes an
VOUT
autotransformer represented by the symbol
shown in Figure 22, to start the motor. This auto-

transformer can be tapped at 80, 65 or 50% of Figure 23. TAPPED TAPPED TAPPED
% AT 80% AT 65% AT 50%
the line voltage. This reduced voltage is the one 64% 64%
passed on to the motor terminals. The au- 42% 42%
totransformer draws less current from the line 25% 25%

than the primary resistor type and is well suited
for reduced voltage applications of motors INRUSH TORQUE INRUSH TORQUE INRUSH TORQUE
CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT
above 10 horsepower. This start also allows for
adjustments of initial voltage by tapping a dif-
Figure 24.
ferent voltage at the transformer. This type of
start is also suitable for long starting periods. 80%
65%
50%
At 80% voltage (see Figure 23), this method
gives 64% of inrush current and 64% of normal
torque. At 65% voltage, the current and torque
are both at 42% while, if tapped at 50% volt- Figure 25. L1
age, the current and torque will be lowered to
T1
25%.
The starter circuit for the autotransformer in-

cludes two contacts which are used to bring T3
T2
the autotransformer on line to provide the volt-
L2 WYE L3
age to the motor. When the motor has had a
partial start, the starter’s full voltage contacts
Figure 26. L1
close to bypass the autotransformer and pro-
T1
vide full voltage to the motor (see Figure 24).
V
OPEN
The wiring diagram for the motor circuit may DELTA T2
V
have three autotransformer legs connected in
V
a wye configuration (see Figure 25) or it may
T3
have an open delta type configuration (see Fig-
L2
ure 26). Note that the three voltages to the
motor are virtually the same and the two-coil
Figure 27.
open-delta configuration usually produces a T1
WYE T2
negligible unbalance in starting voltages. M
T3
The control circuit for the open delta and wye T1
configurations shown in Figure 27 is the same OPEN T2

DELTA M
T3
for both. This circuit is shown in Figure 28.

When start is pushed, the timer TR1 starts tim- Figure 28.
ing and its instantaneous contacts seal the cir- L1 START L2
STOP TR1 OL
cuit; the starting contactor S1 is energized be-
cause there is continuity and all the three power TR1
contacts associated with S1, which are con- TR1 S1 M1
TR1
nected to the autotransformer, close (see Fig-
ure 28 and 29). M1 TR1 S1
As soon as contacts S1 close, contactor S2 is S1 S2
energized, thus closing the S2 power contacts

S2
which connect to the other end of power to the
autotransformer. At this point, the reduced volt-
age from the autotransformer is applied to the Figure 29.
motor. When the time delay has elapsed, the 65%
S2 S1
on-delay timer will be actuated and bring the L1
motor circuit to full voltage. Note that, while the M1

T1
timer’s delay contacts are in the transition of S2 S1
L2
going from open to closed and vice versa to
M1
energize contactor M1 and take out contactor T2
M
S1, the contacts S2 are still connected to the S2 S1
L3
autotransformer and form the only current path
M1
as a reactive inductor to the motor so that a T3
closed transition is maintained (see Figure 29).
This is obtained because the interlocking of coil
S2 is kept by its own contacts in the circuit of NOTES
Figure 28; remember, the S1 contacts are in
transition. When coil M1 is energized, the
contactor S2 is taken out by the opening of the
auxiliary M1 contacts.
Note that the motor starter contactor M1 and

the starting S1 contactor are shown mechani-
cally interlocked. The autotransformer is usu-
ally set for 65% tap at the factory while the tim-
ing relay is set at around 7 seconds for the re-
duced to full voltage transition. This timing can
obviously be adjusted in the field.


Wye-Delta
T1 T1
L1 L1
The wye-delta reduced-start, also called star- T2 T2
L2 L2
delta, is intended for use with wye-delta mo- L3

T3
L3
T3
tors where the motor is started in a wye con-

figuration and then switched to a delta configu- Figure 32.
ration (see Figures 30 and 31). As you can
T1 T1
recall from Chapter 6, 3-phase motors are avail-
T2 T2
able in wye or delta configurations (Figure 32). T3 T3
WYE DELTA
These windings are internally connected and MOTOR MOTOR
the T1, T2 and T3 terminal wires are brought
Figure 33. T6
out of the motor for connection to the motor T1
starter. The wye-delta motor has six leads (Fig-

ure 33), T1 through T6, brought out of the mo- T4
tor. No internal connections are made from the T2

T5
factory, thus allowing the electrician or techni- T3
WYE-DELTA MOTOR
cian to wire the motor in a wye configuration or
a delta configuration. Figure 34. Figure 35.
T6 T6
T1 T1
L1 L1
For example, in a delta configuration of a 208-

208V 208V
volts motor, terminals T1 and T6, T2 and T4, T4 T4
and T3 and T5 are connected together to form L2

T2
T5
L2
T2
T5
T3 T3
the delta connection. The voltage between each L3 L3
DELTA CONNECTION Vp=208 V WYE CONNECTION Vp=208 V

phase is the 208 (see Figure 34).
Figure 36. L1 T1
When the motor is connected as a wye (Figure

VT1-T4
208V
35), having terminals T4, T5 and T6 tied to- T4-T5-T6
gether, the voltage between the phases before L2

T2 T3
the motor will be 208 volts. However, the volt-

L3
age across each winding to the neutral in the VT1-T4 = 208V = 120V
1.73
motor will be 208 volts divided by 1.73 or 120

volts (see Figure 36). The current and the Figure 37. WYE-DELTA
torque in this wye-connected motor will be re-

% 33% 33%
duced to 33% of inrush current and 33% of
normal torque, respectively (see Figure 37).
TORQUE INRUSH
CURRENT

Figure 38.
We can recall these wye and delta voltages WYE DELTA
and current relationship from Chapter 1 when VL=VP x 1.73 VL=VP
we discussed the wye and delta power distri- IL=IP IL=Ip x 1.73
bution (see Figure 38).
By switching between the wye and delta con- T6

T1
T6
L1 T1
L1
figurations in a motor, we can therefore control
the reduced-start voltage, thus also reducing T4 T4
T2 T2
L2 L2
the inrush current (see Figures 39 and 40). This T5
T3
T5
T3
L3 L3
is simply done by interlocking the power circuit WYE CONNECTION DELTA CONNECTION
with additional contactors (see Figure 41). The

control circuit follows the same principle as the
other reduced-starts (see Figure 42). When the Figure 41. L1 L2 L3
start pushbutton is pressed, the timer is ener- M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2
gized and the M1 starter is also energized. The

starting contactor S1 makes the connection
through its own power contacts S1 and starts T1 T6
the motor in a wye configuration. Once the time

S1
delay elapses, contactor M2 closes and the S1
T4 T3
motor is configured as a delta motor, thus hav- S1
T2 T5
ing full voltage across its coils.
Figure 42.
L1 L2
The open transition occurs when the timer con- START
STOP M1 OL
tacts are starting to disconnect the S1 contactor
and the M2 circuit is not yet connecting the M1 TR1 S1 M2
power circuit (see Figure 41). The auxiliary con-

TR1 M2 S1
tacts S1 keep this connection from happening.
This very short delay is necessary to avoid a TR1
short circuit in the power system between L1, 10 SEC
L2 and L3.
Figure 43. L1 L2 L3
The timer delay is usually set at around 10 sec- M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2
onds between the wye start and the delta tran- S2 R S2 R S2 R
sition. There is also a closed transition wye-

delta configuration which is available at an ad- T1 T6
ditional cost. These closed transitions include S1

S1
additional contactors and a resistor bank used T4 T3
S1
for the implementation of the circuit (Figure 43). T2 T5

In the configuration shown in Figure 44, the Figure 44. L1

S2 R
L2
contactor S2 is used to connect the motor in a
delta configuration with a resistor in series with T1 T6
the T4, T5 and T6 terminals. This occurs as S1

soon as the S2 contactor closes, right after the S1
T4 T3
time delay and just before the S1 contactor is S1 S2
T2 T5 R
de-energized, thus not allowing a break in the
L3
transition (see Figure 45). The resistors pre- S2 R
vent the potential short circuit. Right after the

Figure 45. L1 L2
S2 contacts close, the M2 contacts shunt the STOP
START
M1 OL
resistor circuit and connect the circuit in the

M1 TR
delta configuration, taking out the resistors by
S2 M2 S1
de-energizing S2. The result is a starting re-
duced current of 33% of inrush and a smooth TR S1 M2
transition to full speed (see Figure 46). M2 S2
Part Winding
Figure 46. TRANSITION
600%
Part winding is the least expensive of all meth- CURRENT

CLOSED
ods of reduced starts. This type can only be
used with part winding motors which have two 100%
sets of identical windings. These windings are

SPEED
intended to be used in parallel. Most dual volt-
age motors, but not all, can be used as part
M1
Figure 47. L1 T1
winding as long as the lower voltage is used M2
(see Figure 47). T7
T4, T5, T6
The circuit used to control these starts is rather
M1 T2 T3
L2
simple (see Figure 48). Once the start is M2 INTERNAL
T8 T9
pushed, the M1 contactor closes and places L3 M1
M2
the line voltage across one of the two identical
coils. Once the time delay occurs, the other coil
Figure 48. L1 L2
is brought on line by the turning on of contactor
START
OL
M2. M1 acts as the starting contactor while M2 STOP M1
acts as the accelerating contactor. Note that

M1 TR S1 M2
each of the windings in the parallel connections
have their own overload protection shown in TR
Figure 47. 1-1.5 Sec

Figure 49.
As you can see in Figure 49, the voltage is not M1
L1 T1
reduced in this starting method. However, the M2
inrush current is reduced to about 65% and the T7
torque to 48% (Figure 50), the reason being V

that, when only one set of windings is con- T4, T5, T6
nected, less current is drawn because the re- T2 T3

M1
L2
sistance of the single winding is larger than the
M2
resistance of both windings when they are in T8 T9
L3 M1
parallel. Therefore, this starting method is also
M2
grouped as a reduced voltage start. One dis-
advantage of this method is that it is not suited
Figure 50.
for high inertia loads or loads requiring a long 100%
starting period. In fact, if this start is longer than 65%
%
5 seconds, the motor will overheat. The stan-
48%
dard time for the acceleration step set by the
timer is between one and one-half seconds.
VOLTAGE INRUSH TORQUE

Solid State Starters CURRENT
Solid state starters, also called “soft starters” Figure 51.

employ SCRs to implement the reduced volt-
age start. In this configuration (see Figure 51),
two SCRs are paired off to control the AC volt-
+ L
age of each phase. One SCR controls the posi- ONE
O
PHASE A
tive swing of the voltage while the other one
– D
controls the other negative swing.
The control of the SCR’s gate is performed by

Figure 52. M
other electronic circuitry in the starter. Essen-
CURRENT
tially, the SCR’s gate is controlled to let through L1
LIMITING S
part of the AC voltage; in this manner, the mo- FUSE
M CT
tor will see reduced voltage and current (see
Figure 52). L1
S
M
M CT
This type of reduced start control is very simi-
lar in principle to the operation of a DC speed L1
S
CT

Figure 53.
RECTIFIED
drive, where SCRs are also utilized (see Fig- VOLTAGE
ure 53). However, in a DC control, the SCRs

are used in a bridge rectifier configuration of VOLTAGE DC A
AC MOTOR
each of the phases. The AC control is used only
to let part of the AC voltage pass the motor.
GATE SPEED
FIRING ADJUSTMENT
Solid state starters also include current trans- CONTROL
former to feed back voltage and current infor-

mation to the starter’s electronic unit (see Fig- Figure 54.
ELECTRONIC FLA
ure 54). The starter usually provides contact SCR FIRING
FULL
CIRCUITS
VOLTAGE
closures to indicate that the full load current
and full voltage has been achieved. This infor- M SCR FAIL
mation may be utilized in other control circuits CURRENT

LIMITING S
CURRENT
TRANSFORMER
L1
if other motors should be started once full speed
FUSE CT
is accomplished. Other features may include a
contact trip indication of an SCR failure; in this M
case, the motor can be disconnected from the
circuit. Figure 55. L1 L2
START
The solid state reduced-voltage starter (Figure STOP CR
55) energizes the full voltage contacts once it STARTER

CR
is at full speed and disconnects the SCRs from
the motor circuit shown in Figure 52. Some soft
starters may include the contactors and over-
load protection in the same control enclosure, Figure 56.
in addition to the SCR control.
% 70%
The current in these reduced starters can be 49%
effectively controlled from 25 to 70% of the in- 25%

6%
rush current while the torque can be adjusted INRUSH TORQUE
CURRENT
from 6% to 49% of full voltage torque (see Fig-
ure 56). These controls can be adjusted in the Figure 57.
FULL SPEED
starter by modifying a potentiometer or a digi-
SPEED
tal setting. The acceleration to full speed can

be ramp-adjusted from 1 to 30 seconds (see
Figure 57).
0
TIME 30 SEC

Figure 58.
REVERSING AC MOTORS HANDLE END
L1 T1 FORWARD OFF REVERSE

1 2
In many industrial applications, there is a need L2
3 4
T2 1 2 1 2 1 2
to reverse the rotation of an AC motor. We L3

5 6
T3 3 4 3 4 3 4
know, that by exchanging two of the leads in a 5 6 5 6 5 6
3-phase motor and by exchanging the leads of

the start winding in a single phase motor,this
change in rotation can be achieved. The meth- Figure 59. L2
ods employed use drum switches and manual
or magnetic starters.
FWD R S
Reversing 1Ø Motors
L1
Figure 60. L2
In Chapter 2, we covered the operation of drum
switches which have six standard terminal con-
nections (see Figure 58) and, as we know, the REV R S
single-phase motor only needs to have the start

winding terminals exchanged for reversal (see L1
Figures 59 and 60).
Figure 61.
L2
In Figure 61 you can see that there is a jumper 1 2
added between terminals 3 and 5. When the
switch is in forward (see drum switch table in
3 4
Figure 58 for connections in Figure 61), the start R S
and run windings both have the same L1 and JUMPER
5 6
L2 power lines connected. When the switch is
L1
changed to reverse, the run winding still has
the same connections while the start winding Figure 62.
has its L1 and L2 lines reversed. BACK BACK
Remember that clockwise and counterclock-

wise motor rotation is determined by looking at
the motor shaft from the end opposite where
the load is connected to the shaft (Figure 62). FRONT FRONT
ROTATION ROTATION
REVERSE FORWARD

Figure 63. L1 L2
Reversing With Starters

F R
Reversing a single-phase motor requires two

T8
contactors to switch the two lines going to the T4
motor. Reversing these two lines is done very R S

T1
similarly with manual and magnetic starters; the T5
only difference is that, in the magnetic, the coil

Figure 64. L1 L2
activates the power contacts as opposed to a FWD

STOP F OL
manual switch.
F
REV
As seen in the wiring diagram shown in Figure R
63, when the motor is in forward, L1 is directed R
to the T1 and T5 terminals of the run and start

windings, while the L2 is routed to the T4 and
T8. When in the reversal state, only the termi- Figure 65. L1
T1
nals 5 and 8 are reversed. L2

T2
M
T3
L3
The control circuit to reverse a single-phase
FORWARD
motor is similar to DC and 3-phase motors. For
example, the compelling circuit shown in Fig-
ure 64 with mechanical interlock will make the Figure 66. L1
T1
motor go forward when the forward pushbutton L2
T2
M
is pressed. Once the stop is pressed, it will be T3
L3
allowed to reverse.
REVERSE
Reversing 3Ø Motors Figure 67.
L1 1 2 T1
L2 3 4 T2
M
L3 5 6 T3
As we have stated several times, the reversal
of a 3-phase motor can be accomplished by DRUM SWITCH
switching any two of the three phases (see Fig-
Figure 68.
ure 65 and 66). In Chapter 2 we explained how
a drum switch was used to reverse the direc- L1 1 2 T1
tion of a 3-phase motor (see Figure 67). In the L2 3 4 T2

M
L3 5 6 T3
forward position (see Figure 68), L1, L2 and
L1 T1
L3 go to T1, T2 and T3, respectively, while in L2 T2
DRUM SWITCH L3 T3
FORWARD

Figure 69.
reverse, L1 goes to T3 and L3 goes to T1; L2
still goes to T2 (see Figure69).
L1 1 2 T1
Reversing With Starters L2 3 4 T2

M
L3 5 6 T3
The reversal of manual and magnetic starters
is basically done in the same manner. Let’s take L1 T3
L2 T2
the magnetic starter. Where two contactors are DRUM SWITCH L3 T1
REVERSE
used in the reversing starter while one set of
overload relays is used (see Figures 70). In Figure 70.
L1 L2 L3
the forward direction, as you can see in Figure
70 and 71, the F contacts will close as con-
1 2 3 1 2 3
trolled by this non-compelling circuit. As soon F R
as forward is pressed, L1, L2 and L3 are routed
to T1, T2 and T3.
Once reverse is pressed, the R contactor will

energized and the L1 and L3 lines will be redi-
T2
rected to T3 and T1, respectively, therefore T1 M T3
changing the rotation of the motor. This circuit,
Figure 71.
shown in Figure 71, provides double interlock-
ing to prevent the motor from going forward and L1 L2
FWD
reverse at the same time. One is mechanical STOP REV R F OL
provided by the push buttons while the other F
one is electrical, provided by the auxiliary for- REV

FWD F R
ward and reverse contacts.
R
With a slight modification, this control circuit

allows the 3-phase motor toJOG in the forward
Figure 72.
and reverse direction (see Figure 72). When
L1 L2
in RUN, it will act as a forward/reverse control
FWD
with interlocking; while in the JOG position, the STOP REV R F OL
motor will go forward every time the forward JOG

F
pushbutton is pressed. The same applies for
RUN
the reverse JOG. Every time reverse is pushed, REV
R
the motor will rotate in the opposite direction. FWD F

DECELERATION OF AC MOTORS
Figure 73.
Deceleration circuits, as in the case of DC mo- T1

L1
tors, are extremely important when a motor
needs to be brought to a stop quickly. In AC L2
T2
M
motor controls, deceleration involves electro-
mechanical friction brakes, plugging circuits and L3 T3
electric braking.
BRAKE
BRAKE
N APPLIED
Friction Brakes
The use of friction brakes is very similar to the Figure 74.

one we covered in the last chapter with DC L1 R L2
motors. The only difference is that the brake OL
F
coil is placed between two of the phases of the R
motor or, depending on the brakes, between F
one phase, let’s say L1 and neutral (see Fig- START

STOP R
ure 73)–the operation is the same. If the power
F
to the motor is removed, then the spring loaded F
brake will extend the brake shoes and apply
FWD
pressure to the shaft and stop the motor. CLOSE AC MOTOR
SPEED
R O F
Plugging Switches
NOTES
Plugging in AC motor circuits is also basically
the same as we covered in Chapter 8. The AC
motor is brought to a quick stop because of the
change in motor rotation. The circuit also uses
a plugging switch which helps interlock the cir-
cuit so that the forward and reverse direction
of movement can be detected when close to
zero speed (see Figure 74).
Electric Braking
A braking method, which differs from the ones

we have already seen, is the electric braking.
This method employes DC current which is
applied to the stationary winding of an AC mo-
tor after its voltage has been removed.

Figure 75.
Electric braking provides an excellent way to L1
provide braking capabilities to circuits of all

L2 M
types, including high speed and those with high
inertia loads. Maintenance of these braking L3
systems is minimal since no moving parts come DC

VOLTAGE
in contact physically during braking.
Electric braking uses a principle similar to that Figure 76. ELECTRIC

BRAKE
L1 L2
+
of dynamic braking used in DC motors. Once –
an AC motor is turned off, the DC voltage ap-

plied creates a magnetic field in the stator which R
doesn’t change polarity and, once it interacts S
with the rotor, the rotation is stopped quickly 1O MOTOR
(see Figure 75).

Figure 77. ELECTRIC L1 L2 L3
BRAKE
+
This type of braking can be applied to both –
single-phase and three-phase motors. In a

single-phase, the plus and minus terminals of
the braking voltage are switched to the running
and starting windings (see Figure 76). while 3O MOTOR
for the 3-phase motor, the connection is made
Figure 78.
to two of the line phases (see Figure 77). M1
L1
M1
L2 M
The control circuit is fairly basic (reference Fig- L3 M1
BK BK
ure 78); when the motor is started, the timer is BK
turned ON and its OFF-delay contacts close. BK
The M1 contacts provide interlock to prevent L1 STOP START BK M1 OL L2
the brake contacts from turning on the DC M1 TR
power. As soon as the motor is stopped, the TR M1 BK
electric brake will be applied by means of the

brake contacts closing and providing the DC
power to the motor. This DC voltage, as you Figure 79. AC ON
MOTOR
can see, is provided by a bridge rectifier. When OFF
ON
the off-delay elapses (Figure 79), the normally- TIMER
OFF
opened timed open contacts of the timer will ON
TIMER OFF
reset back to their original open state, thus re- CONTACTS OFF
DELAY
leasing the electric brake. BRAKE

ON
BRAKE
BK PERIOD
OFF

SPEED CONTROL OF AC MOTORS Figure 80.

SYNCHRONOUS
= FREEQUENCY x 120
SPEED # OF POLES
As we know, the synchronous speed of an AC
motor can be regulated by either changing the
number of poles in the motor or by varying the Figure 81. 3 PHASE 2 SPEED
1 WINDING VARIABLE TORQUE
frequency of the voltage to the motor (see T4
Figure 80).
T1
T3
To implement the speed control by changing T5

T2
T6
the number of poles requires special three- SPEED L1 L2 L3 OPEN TOGETHER

LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS –––––
phase wound motors called multi-speed mo- HIGH T6 T4 T5 –––––– T1, T2, T3
tors. When implementing the speed control

changing the frequency of the voltage, a drive Figure 82. 3 PHASE 2 SPEED
is used and it is generally referred to as a vari- SEPARATE WINDING
T1 T11
able frequency speed drive.
Multispeed Motors
T3 T7 T2 T13 T17 T12
SPEED L1 L2 L3 OPEN
We know that, by removing poles from the mo- LOW T1 T2 T3, T7 ALL OTHERS
tor, we would increase the speed of the motor; HIGH T11 T12 T13, T17 ALL OTHERS
however, this also means that the motor pro-

vides less horsepower when these poles are
Figure 83. 3 PHASE 3 SPEED
removed. 2 WINDING CONSTANT TORQUE
T4 T11
T3
There are many multispeed motor lead connec- T7 T1
tions that are selected depending on the torque

T5 T2 T6 T13 T12
and horsepower requirements for the applica- SPEED L1 L2 L3 OPEN TOGETHER
tion. These connection arrangements conform LOW T1 T2 T3,T7 ALL OTHERS –––––
2ND T6 T4 T5 ALL OTHERS T1,T2,T3,T7
to NEMA standards (see Figures 81, 82, 83, HIGH T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS –––––
and 84). Figure 85 shows more multispeed

motor connections.
Figure 84. 3 PHASE 4 SPEED
2 WINDING CONSTANT TORQUE
T4 T14
Multi-speed motors are broken down into three T3 T13
T7 T1 T17 T11
classifications which are constant torque, con-
stant horsepower and variable torque. The con- T5 T2 T6 T15 T12 T16
SPEED L1 L2 L3 OPEN TOGETHER
stant torque has its horsepower variable, the LOW T1 T2 T3,T7 ALL OTHERS –––––
2ND T6 T4 T5 ALL OTHERS T1,T2,T3,T7
constant horsepower has the torque variable, 3RD T11 T12 T13,T17 ALL OTHERS –––––
HIGH T16 T14 T15 ALL OTHERS T11,T12,T13,T17

Figure 85.
NOTE: THE FOLLOWING DIAGRAMS ARE TYPICAL MOTOR CONNECTION ARRANGEMENTS,

CONFORMING TO NEMA STANDARDS. NOT ALL POSSIBLE ARRANGEMENTS ARE SHOWN.
3 PHASE 2 SPEED 3 PHASE 2 SPEED 3 PHASE 2 SPEED

1 WINDING CONSTANT HORSEPOWER 1 WINDING CONSTANT TORQUE 1 WINDING VARIABLE TORQUE
T4 T4 T4
1 2 3
T3 T1 T3 T1 T1
T3
T2 T2
T5 T6 T5 T6 T5 T6
T2
SPEED L1 L2 L3 OPEN TOGETHER SPEED L1 L2 L3 OPEN TOGETHER SPEED L1 L2 L3 OPEN TOGETHER

LOW T1 T2 T3 –––––– T4, T5, T6 LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS ––––– LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS –––––
HIGH T6 T4 T5 ALL OTHERS ––––– HIGH T6 T4 T5 –––––– T1, T2, T3 HIGH T6 T4 T5 –––––– T1, T2, T3

SEPARATE WINDING SEPARATE WINDING SEPARATE WINDING
4 T1 T11 5 T1 T11 6 T1 T11
T3 T2 T13 T12 T3 T2 T13 T17 T12 T3 T7 T2 T13 T12
SPEED L1 L2 L3 OPEN SPEED L1 L2 L3 OPEN SPEED L1 L2 L3 OPEN

LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS LOW T1 T2 T3, T7 ALL OTHERS
HIGH T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS HIGH T11 T12 T13, T17 ALL OTHERS HIGH T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS

SEPARATE WINDING 1 WINDING VARIABLE TORQUE SEPARATE WINDING
T1 T11 T1 T5 T1
7 8 9 T11
T2
T4 T4 T2 T14 T12
T6
T3 T7 T2 T13 T17 T12 T3 T13

T3
SPEED L1 L2 L3 OPEN SPEED L1 L3 L2 L4 OPEN SPEED L1 L3 L2 L4 OPEN
LOW T1 T2 T3, T7 ALL OTHERS LOW T1 T5 T2 T6 T3, T4 LOW T1 T3 T2 T4 ALL OTHERS
HIGH T11 T12 T13, T17 ALL OTHERS HIGH T1, T5 T3 T2, T6 T4 –––––– HIGH T11 T13 T12 T14 ALL OTHERS

2 WINDING CONSTANT HORSEPOWER 2 WINDING CONSTANT HORSEPOWER 2 WINDING CONSTANT HORSEPOWER
T4 T11 T4 T11 T1 T14
10 11 12
T3 T1 T3 T1 T13 T11
T5 T7 T2 T6 T13 T12 T5 T7 T2 T6 T13 T12 T3 T2 T15 T17 T12 T16

LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS T4,T5,T6,T7 LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS T4,T5,T6,T7 LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS –––––
2ND T6 T4 T5,T7 ALL OTHERS ––––– 2ND T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS ––––– 2ND T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS T14,T15,T16,T17
HIGH T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS ––––– HIGH T6 T4 T5, T7 ALL OTHERS ––––– HIGH T16 T14 T15,T17 ALL OTHERS –––––

Figure 85 cont...
NOTE: THE FOLLOWING DIAGRAMS ARE TYPICAL MOTOR CONNECTION ARRANGEMENTS,

CONFORMING TO NEMA STANDARDS. NOT ALL POSSIBLE ARRANGEMENTS ARE SHOWN.

2 WINDING CONSTANT TORQUE 2 WINDING CONSTANT TORQUE 2 WINDING CONSTANT TORQUE
T11 T11 T1 T14
13 T4 14 T4 15
T3 T3 T13
T7 T1 T7 T1 T17 T11
T5 T2 T6 T13 T12 T5 T2 T6 T13 T12 T3 T2 T15 T12 T16

LOW T1 T2 T3,T7 ALL OTHERS ––––– LOW T1 T2 T3,T7 ALL OTHERS ––––– LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS –––––
2ND T6 T4 T5 ALL OTHERS T1,T2,T3,T7 2ND T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS ––––– 2ND T11 T12 T13,T17 ALL OTHERS –––––
HIGH T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS ––––– HIGH T6 T4 T5 ALL OTHERS T1,T2,T3,T7 HIGH T16 T14 T15 ALL OTHERS T11,T12,T13,T17

2 WINDING VARIABLE TORQUE 2 WINDING VARIABLE TORQUE 2 WINDING VARIABLE TORQUE
T4 T11 T4 T11 T1 T14
16 17 18
T1 T1 T11
T3 T3 T13
T2 T13 T12 T2 T13 T12 T3 T2 T12

T5 T6 T5 T6 T15 T16
LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS ––––– LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS ––––– LOW T1 T2 T3,T7 ALL OTHERS –––––
2ND T6 T4 T5 ALL OTHERS T1,T2,T3 2ND T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS ––––– 2ND T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS –––––
HIGH T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS ––––– HIGH T6 T4 T5 ALL OTHERS T1,T2,T3 HIGH T16 T14 T15 ALL OTHERS T11,T12,T13

2 WINDING CONSTANT HORSEPOWER 2 WINDING CONSTANT HORSEPOWER 2 WINDING CONSTANT TORQUE
T4 T14 T4 T14 T4 T14
19 20 21 T3 T13
T3 T1 T13 T11 T3 T1 T13 T11 T7 T1 T17 T11
T5 T7 T2 T6 T15 T17 T12 T16 T5 T7 T2 T6 T15 T17 T12 T16 T5 T2 T6 T15 T12 T16
LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS T4,T5,T6,T7 LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS T4,T5,T6,T7 LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS –––––
2ND T6 T4 T5,T7 ALL OTHERS ––––– 2ND T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS T14,T15,T16,T17 2ND T6 T4 T5 ALL OTHERS T1,T2,T3,T7
3RD T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS T14,T15,T16,T17 3RD T6 T4 T5,T7 ALL OTHERS ––––– 3RD T11 T12 T13,T17 ALL OTHERS –––––
HIGH T16 T14 T15,T17 ALL OTHERS ––––– HIGH T16 T14 T15,T17 ALL OTHERS ––––– HIGH T16 T14 T15 ALL OTHERS T11,T12,T13,T17

2 WINDING CONSTANT TORQUE 2 WINDING VARIABLE TORQUE 2 WINDING VARIABLE TORQUE
T4 T14 T4 T14 T4 T14
22 T3 T13
23 24
T7 T1 T17 T11 T1 T11 T1 T11
T3 T13 T3 T13
T5 T2 T6 T15 T12 T16 T5 T2 T6 T15 T12 T16 T5 T2 T6 T15 T12 T16

LOW T1 T2 T3,T7 ALL OTHERS ––––– LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS ––––– LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS –––––
2ND T11 T12 T13,T17 ALL OTHERS ––––– 2ND T6 T4 T5 ALL OTHERS T1,T2,T3 2ND T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS –––––
3RD T6 T4 T5 ALL OTHERS T1,T2,T3,T7 3RD T11 T12 T13 ALL OTHERS ––––– 3RD T6 T4 T5 ALL OTHERS T1,T2,T3
HIGH T16 T14 T15 ALL OTHERS T11,T12,T13,T17 HIGH T16 T14 T15 ALL OTHERS T11,T12,T13 HIGH T16 T14 T15 ALL OTHERS T11,T12,T13

and the variable torque also has the horse- Figure 86. T4
power variable. Some motors provide two T3 T1

6 TERMINALS
speeds, low and high, while others provide four
speeds, such as low, second, third and high– T5 T2 T6
SPEED L1 L2 L3 OPEN TOGETHER

just like the gears in our cars. LOW T1 T2 T3 ALL OTHERS –––––
HIGH T6 T4 T5 –––––– T1, T2, T3
L1 L2 L3
Multispeed motors provide the necessary wir- Figure 87.
ing to allow for proper connection of the poles LO LO LO HI HI HI
at the stator (see Figure 86). These connec- OL OL

LO HI
tions are controlled by using circuit interlockings HI HI
T4
in the control circuit and in the power circuit T1 T2 T3 T6 T4 T5
T3 T1
(see Figure 87). So that the motor is not run at
T5 T2 T6
low and high speed at the same time. These
circuits may look similar to the forward/reverse Figure 88. L1 L2
LOW
controls we’ve talked about earlier (see Figure STOP H LOW OL
88). L
HIGH
L HIGH
For example, the circuit shown in Figure 88 al-
H
lows the operator to start the motor at either of
the two speeds, but he must stop the motor
Figure 89. L1 L2
before changing speed. We can easily modify LOW
STOP HIGH H LOW OL
this circuit so that the operator could change
L
the speed from low to high without stopping
(see Figure 89). L HIGH
Many applications may require low-speed com-

pelling, which means that the motor must start Figure 90.
L1 L2
LOW
STOP LOW OL
at a low speed and then be allowed to acceler- HIGH H
ate to the high speed when required (see Fig- CR1-1 L HIGH
ure 90). In this circuit, CR1-1 contacts prevent H

CR1
L
the high-speed contactor from being energized CR1-2
unless coil CR1 is on. This can occur only if

the low speed is first selected. L1 L2
Figure 91. STOP
LOW
H LOW OL
TR1
Some accelerating circuits like the one shown CR1-1 CR1-2
L
TR1 TR1
in Figure 91, utilize a timer on-delay to bring
HIGH
CR1
the motor to high speed once the low speed
L HIGH
pushbutton has been pressed. This circuit gives CR1-3 TR1

the motor and driven equipment a definite time Figure 92.

to accelerate from low to high speed. If the op- L1 L2
OFF
erator passes the high speed first, the circuit HAND AUTO LOW
HIGH H LOW OL
will still start the motor at the low speed and
L
then increase it to the high speed. HIGH
L
H
Bear in mind that the speed of these motors
could have been controlled automatically by
LOW HIGH
pilot devices. For example (see Figure 92), if SPEED SPEED
PILOT PILOT
the selector switch is in AUTO, the pilot devices DEVICE DEVICE
would control the activation of the low or high

speed. As you can see, this circuit allows the
motor transition to turn from low to high speed
Figure 93.
but not from high to low in either the auto or
FREQUENCY
hand positions.
Variable Speed Drive
The variable speed drive controls the speed of

the motor by providing a supply of phase volt- VOLTAGE
age to the motor at a different frequency. This
AC drive is similar to the DC drive, except that
it changes frequency instead of voltage to con-
trol the speed (see Figure 93).
NOTES
When a variable speed drive is used, the speed
of the motor can be controlled from zero to full
speed very smoothly, also providing soft starts.
Any three-phase squirrel-cage motor can be
used as long as the horsepower is large enough
to move the load and that it doesn’t exceed the
drive size limitations.
These drives also provide capabilities to start

a motor with just enough torque to cause move-
ment of the load. This is the so-called break-
away torque.

One of the most popular methods used in AC Figure 94. AC DC DC AC

L1 SCR DC
L2 BRIDGE VOLTAGE M
drives is with the use of an inverter (Figure 94). RECTIFIER FILTER
INVERTER
L3
In an inverter drive system, 3-phase power is
DC VOLTAGE
received and rectified to a DC voltage and “in- FEEDBACK
SPEED
verted” back to AC at a different frequency. The REF REGULATION
SCR FIRING
FREQUENCY
AND FREQ.
inverter generally uses SCRs which are con- CONTROL
CONTROL
trolled to fire on and off at selected times to

create the “new” AC waveform signal at a new Figure 95. ONE CYCLE ONE
CYCLE
frequency (see Figure 95). This waveform may

not look exactly like the original power signal
(Figure 96), but, as long as it has a sinusoidal
L1
characteristic, it will be sufficient to create a VARIABLE
L2 FREQUENCY M
magnetic field to rotate the motor (see Figure DRIVE
L3
97). There are three of these signals created
by the inverter spaced 120 degrees apart (see Figure 96.
Figure 97). The frequency in the drive is gen-
erally controlled from 0 to 60 hertz, although
some drive may provide from zero to 200 or more
hertz, depending on the design of the drive and
the application. The higher the frequency, the
faster the speed of the motor (see Figures 98,
99, and 100). Figure 97.
TROUBLESHOOTING AC MOTORS
Just as in the case of the DC motors, AC mo-

tors present problems if they are not able to
either turn the shaft when power is applied or if Figure 98. 20 Hz
they have continuous overheating problems

while running. In either of these two cases, we
must find the problem, isolate it and fix it so
that the motor is not damaged.
You can troubleshoot 3-phase and single- 40 Hz 60 Hz
phase AC motors in a very similar manner.
However, since there are few parts that differ
from one another, there are just a few differ-
ences in the tests performed. As we mentioned

earlier, you will troubleshoot the motors using

two methods of attack. One is if you apply Figure 101.
power and the motor does not turn on, and the
other is if there is power and it overheats or
Start
runs in a poor manner. The troubleshooting Stop
methods and procedures explained here are 3
listed in the order they may occur, from the 2

most likely you’re to find to the least likely.
Troubleshooting The Power Circuit

Motor
Before we go into troubleshooting a motor with
power, let’s review a troubleshooting procedure Figure 102.
to a motor with power removed but available
L1 L2
at the starter. We’ll assume that the control cir-
cuit that drives the motor has already been
START
through troubleshooting and is operating cor- STOP OL
rectly, thus providing voltage to the starter’s M
coil (see Figure 101). 2 3
During troubleshooting of the power circuit at

the starter, you must exercise extreme cau-
tion because these circuits can carry large volt-
ages and currents capable of causing severe
harm to personnel if not very cautious.
Figure 103. L1 L2 L3
For simplicity during our procedure of check-
ing the power circuit, let’s remove the sections
which correspond to the ladder diagram con-
trol circuit of Figure 102. With the starter on,
we first start by checking with the meter for
voltage presence in the L1, L2 and L3 lines by
measuring across each (Figure 103). From L1
to L2 from L2 to L3 and L3 to L1. We should
be able to see very close voltage reading
among all three. These line voltages should Motor
also be within 10% of our motor’s nameplate
voltage rating to avoid a high or low voltage
problem.

Figure 104.
If there is no power in either one or all of the

TO
lines, we need to trace back our troubleshoot- MOTOR
STARTER
ing to the supply voltage and fuses that feed
this motor circuit. If, while checking the power, NO
VOLTAGE
you discover that there is no voltage and that
FUSE
one or more of the fuses is blown after the dis-
connect, you can assume that a potential short
has occurred in the circuit or in the motor itself TO CONTROL CIRCUIT
(see Figure 104). Figure 105.
If the power feed has a protected branch cir- TO

MOTOR
cuit for the control circuit as shown in Figure STARTER
104, a short in this area can be eliminated be-
cause it is protected by its own fuses. Note,
• IF FUSES BLOW, THEN MOTOR
however, that this control circuit will have no SHORT COULD BE IN IS NOT
POWER CIRCIUT CONNECTED
power. TO STARTER
• IF DO NOT BLOW, THEN
SHORT COULD BE IN
THE MOTOR
If the fuses are blown (Figure 105), they need
to be replaced before power can be applied
again. If they blow again, then a short circuit is Figure 106. 3O POWER IS OK
present in the power circuit. If the fuses do not L1
T1
blow, then the most likely place the short has T2

L2 M
occurred is in the motor itself. You need to
T3
check the windings of the motor for a ground L3
connection with a meter set for a continuity test.

It is possible that the stator winding in a 3 phase,
or the run or start winding in a single phase, is
touching the frame which is grounded and,
therefore, short circuiting the whole system. This Figure 107.
condition is known as a grounded winding. T1
L1
T2 M
If there is correct power in the 3 phases (Fig- L2
ure 106), then the next thing you need to test T3

L3
are the contacts of the starter. To do this (Fig-
ure 107), we check from L1 to the load side of
the L2 contactor to check for the contacts at
L2. The voltage should be the same as from

L1 to L2 in the supply side. Next we check for NOTES

the contacts in line 3 by placing one side of the
meter to the supply L1 and the other one to the
load side of the contacts at L3. You should read
again the same line voltage. To check the con-
tacts at L1, then we need to check from the
load side of the contacts on L1 to either, the
supply of L2 or L3. Here again, you should see
the same line voltage. If you don’t see the
proper voltage in all lines, something is wrong
with one or more of the contacts. If this is the
case, you must remove power to the motor cir-
cuit and check the contacts by removing the
contact elements from the starter. They may
be making poor contact if there is contact chat-
tering or they may be dirty. If they are dirty, you
should clean them and test them again. If they
are damaged, you’ll need to replace them with
another set of the same rating.
If the contacts are working properly and sup-

plying the proper voltages, then you should
check the overloads. In fact, in a motor control
circuit, if the motor was running and stops, the
first thing that you should check is to visually
see if the overloads have been tripped. This is
usually available at the starter, where an over-
load trip indicator can be visible. If this is the
case, you should wait a couple of minutes and
reset the overloads and start the motor. If the
overloads keep tripping, you may have a prob-
lem with the motor and load which should be
checked, or the heaters may be sized too small,
thus making the motor trip the overloads fre-
quently. The overloads must be sized accord-
ing to the motor’s manufacturer and starter’s
manufacturer specifications and the rules of
Article 430 of the NEC.

When troubleshooting the overloads, you Figure 108.

should take into consideration the ambient tem- TEMP @ TEMP @ = HEATER SHOULD
perature at the starter and at the motor (Figure STARTER MOTOR BE NEXT RATING
108). If the ambient temperature at the starter
is higher than the temperature at the motor, the TEMP @ TEMP @ = HEATER SHOULD
STARTER MOTOR BE NEXT LOWER
heater should be selected with the next higher
rating. If the ambient temperature at the con-
troller is lower than the temperature at the
motor, the heater should be selected with the NOTES
next lower rating.
These temperature considerations will help

balance the heat created by an overload cur-
rent so that the heater melts at the correct tem-
perature, taking into consideration the effect of
the ambient temperature.
If an overload has occurred, you also need to

inspect the starter’s contacts with power off to
check for possible contact welding. If there is
welding due to the extreme current, you need
to replace the contacts.
To check voltage continuity from the contacts

through the overloads to the terminals of the
motor, you should place one side of the meter Figure 109.
on L1 and the other to the load side of the over-
T1
load L2 (Figure 109). If there is voltage, the L1
heaters are OK. The same check is done for T2 M
L2
line 3. We measure from L1 to the load side of
T3
the overload on L3 and, if we see the proper L3
line voltage, then the overloads are good.
To check the overloads in L1, we can take a

voltage reading from L3 to the load side of the
overloads. Again, if there is the proper line volt-

NOTES
age, then the overloads are OK. If any of these
voltage readings that were used to check the
overloads is not correct, you need to remove
power and check the overload heaters for an
open condition which can prevent it from con-
ducing current to the motor.
If the voltage is present at the terminals of the

starter that go to the motor, you need to check
and make sure that the wire connections are
making good contact and that these are not
loose so that we can eliminate the wiring from
the starter to the motor as a problem.
After we have checked for power to the termi-

nals of the motor, we can assume that the power
circuit is in good working order and that we are
faced with the most common problem that oc-
curs in a plant, which is that the motor does not
start when power has been applied to it.
If the motor has voltage at its terminals and has

a humming sound, it indicates that it is drawing
current and has a problem which needs further
investigation. It it does not hum, it indicates that
it is not drawing current so there is a possible
open in its windings. You could use a clamp-on
meter to measure and record the current being
drawn by the motor.
If you suspect an open in its windings, then re-

move the power to the motor and test its wind-
ing with a meter set to a resistance reading to
see if you measure infinity resistance between
its leads. If so, the motor has an open and
should be removed and repaired.

3Ø Motor Draws Current Figure 110.
LINE 1 (T1) 20A

If the motor is drawing current, it will make a LINE 2 (T2) 20A
humming noise. This tells us that there is a LINE 3 (T3) 0A
problem with one of its coils or one of its phase
T1 AO
voltages. You should check the line voltage
again to make sure that one phase has not
T3
been lost and the motor is trying to start single T2
phasing. If all voltages are present at the mo- CO
tor leads, then you need to test to see which
one is not drawing current. With a clamp-on BO
meter, test each line and document their cur-
rent reading. Once you find the line which is
not pulling current (Figure 110), you’ll need to
Figure 111.
test for continuity in the winding.
L1 L2
Before you start the test, make sure that your
INTERNAL
motor has not tripped an internal thermal switch START TEMP
which may be available in some larger motors. STOP SWITCH M1 OL
These switches may be connected in series

with the control circuit to detect an internal over- M1
heating condition of the motor (see Figure 111).
If this is the case, then you should wait for the
motor to cool off before you resume checking.
If your motor had internal thermal switches that NOTES

are constantly tripping, the motor may be cre-
ating extreme amounts of internal heat which
requires attention or it may be exceeding op-
erational temperatures. These could include
problems with ball bearings or faulty coils in
the motor. Additionally, you should check for a
possible mechanical bind on the load or to see
if the load is out of alignment. Both conditions
could cause an increase in current that gener-
ates heat which, in combination with a hot am-
bient temperature, could add to make the in-
ternal temperature switch trip.


To test for continuity in the windings, you’ll need
to remove power to the motor and disconnect
CO T1
the wires to the motor from the starter (see REMOVE
T3
POWER TO
Figure 112). With meter set for ohms reading, MOTOR
BO AO
we begin the test (see Figure 113). If you read Ω
T2
an infinity resistance measurement, the coil is
open and needs to be removed and repaired
(see Figure 114). For a dual voltage delta mo- Figure 114. Figure 115.
tor (Figure 115), you have to test the three cir- T1 COIL T1
CIRCUIT
1
cuits that form the delta voltage. For instance, INFINITY
RESISTANCE
T9 T4
MEANS OPEN
you would put the meter leads between T4 and COIL
COIL T6 T7
CIRCUIT
T1 and see if there is continuity, and between 2
T8 T5
T3
T2
T1 and T9 to check also for continuity (see Fig- T2 T3 COIL
CIRCUIT
3
ure 116). The same applies to other circuits. If
it is a single-voltage delta motor, you will sim-
ply measure from T1 to T2 and T1 to T3 and T2 Figure 117.
Figure 116.
to T3 for continuity (see Figure 117).
T1 T1
In a dual voltage wye motor, the continuity test

T9 T4
is performed in a similar manner, except that T6 T7
you’ll have four circuits instead of three, as in T8 T5

T3
the delta motor’s case (see Figure 118). Here T2
T2 T3
you’ll measure for continuity between T1 and

T4 (Figure 119), T2 and T5, T3 and T6 and then Figure 118. Figure 119.
from T7 to T8, T8 to T9 and T7 to T9. If any of T1 T1
COIL
CIRCUIT
these windings show infinity resistance, then 1
T4 T4
COIL T7 T7
there is an open in that winding. CIRCUIT
2
T9 T8
T6 T5 T9 T8
T6 T5
If the motor is a single-voltage wye, then the COIL
CIRCUIT
3
COIL
CIRCUIT
T3 T2 4 T3 T2
measurement of continuity will be done be-
tween T1 and T2, T2 and T3 and T1 and T3
(see Figure 120). This method can also be used Figure120. Figure 121.
when testing for shorted windings, except that T1
you would measure each of the terminals in T1
Ω
the delta or wye motor to a ground; for example, Ω
to the grounded frame of the motor. If there is T2

T3
continuity, then there will be a short in the mo- T2 T3
tor (see Figure 121).

If a single-phase motor has power applied at

its terminals, it will be humming, indicating that
Figure 122.
it is drawing current (Figure 122). Since there
is only one-phase voltage at its terminals, it can M T5
L1
be assumed that all its control circuits are work-
ing properly because the starter coil is main- T1
taining the motor energized (Figure 123). 1O R S
VOLTAGE
T4
M
The hum indicates a problem with the start or L2
the run windings since the motor will not start if T8
one of them is not working. The probable cause
can be an open in one of the windings. To check
for an open, we would disconnect power to the
motor and test the leads T1 to T4 for continuity Figure 123.
in the run winding (see Figure 124). If there is L1 L2
an infinity resistance reading in the meter, then
there is an open in the winding. Otherwise, the
START
coil is good. Next we need to check the start STOP M OL
winding from lead T5 to T8.
M
When testing the start winding for continuity, if
the motor is a single-phase capacitor motor,
you will need to use a jumper and jump or by-
pass the capacitor so that a continuity test can
be made (Figure 124). If there is an open, you
should first check the centrifugal switch for an
Figure 124.
open or malfunction. You need to measure with JUMPER
a meter across the switch for continuity. If the M T5
L1
switch is good, then the open would be in the
winding; if the switch is not good, you need to T1
replace it and test the winding again to ensure R S
proper rewiring and that the winding itself does T4
M
not also have an open. L2
T8
If any of the windings are open, the motor would Ω
need to be replaced. If the windings were both

good, the potential problem may lie on the shaft
or on a binding load, thus not allowing the mo-
tor to start.

Remove the load from the shaft and start the Figure 125.
motor. If the shaft does not rotate, then you
need to check the bearings. If the shaft rotates
T1
when started, you need to check the load’s
bearings and make sure that the load capacity
is not being exceed for the motor. T2
1Ø and 3Ø Motors Start and Work,

But Not Right T3
You may find, while doing routine preventive

maintenance or general equipment checkouts
Figure 126.
during normal operations, that a motor is not
running properly and is overheating.
In a 3-phase motor, this could be caused by a

loss of a phase due to open wires in the power
circuit, an open in the motor windings, or a
blown fuse in the power circuit (see Figure
125). In fact, a phase loss can happen after a
storm which has knocked out a line coming
into the plant or even by lightning striking a
utilities’ transformer bank (see Figure 126). If
the motor is overheating due to these condi-
tions, it will not start if it is turned off. In fact, it LINE KNOCKED OUT
should be turned off as soon as possible be-
cause, otherwise, it will burn out. Then you can
investigate the problem further. Figure 127.
The 3-phase motor can also be overheating if T1
the bearings are not properly lubricated in the

motor or at the load’s side. V = LOW
If there is a low voltage across the three volt- T2

age problem is corrected at the plant (see Fig- T3
ure 127). Other reasons that will cause a mo-
tor to overheat include improper field wiring, a

loose coil in the motor, or if the load is too large Figure 128.
L1
for the motor application. If the field wiring for T1
a 3-phase dual voltage motor is connected for

DUAL
T4
the wrong voltage, it will translate into an over- VOLTAGE T7
heating problem. You should make sure that MOTOR
the motor’s terminals are properly connected

L2 T9 T8
for dual voltage operation. For instance, in Fig- T6 T5
ure 128, the L2 line is wrongly connected to T9

T3 T2
instead of to T3, and T6 and T9 need to be L3
together.
Figure 129.
If a single-phase motor develops a heat prob-
lem after a start, you should check to see that
the centrifugal switch is disengaging the start
winding once the motor speed has reached VOLTAGE R S
75% of full speed. If the start winding is not
taken out , it will create heat (see Figure 129).
Like in the case of a 3 phase, a low voltage in

the plant can also create an increase in cur-
Figure 130.
rent intake by the single-phase motor, thus also
L1
resulting in an increase in temperature (see
Figure 130). V M
L2 208V
Lack of proper lubrication in the motor bear- MOTOR
ings or at the load can also contribute to over- VOLTAGE
LESS THAN
heating. If the motor has not been properly
208 MINUS 10%
sized, being either too small or too large for
the load can also create overheating in the
NOTES
motor.
In this chapter, we have covered the methods

and circuits used for controlling the operation
of AC motors. These included the reversing of
motor direction and the full and reduced voltas
recording and maintaining good record-keep-
ing, will help you immensely in solving prob-
lems and bringing the equipment back on line.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.- True/False. In an AC motor the current is

induced from the stator field to the rotor.
2.- The speed of an AC motor is determined

by the number of ______ that form the sta-
tor and the ______ of the AC voltage.
a– Value
b– Frequency
c– Poles
d– Brushes
3.- The operating speed, also known as syn-

chronous speed, is equal to ______.
a– Operating Speed=Frequency x 120 x Number of Poles
Number of Poles x 120

b– Operating Speed=
Frequency
c– Operating Speed= Frequency x 120

Number of Poles
d– Operating Speed= Frequency x 120 x 2
Number of Poles
4.- True/False. The torque of an induction motor
varies with the square of the applied voltage.
5.- The current that is maintained at full speed

is called ______.
a– Locked-motor amperage
b– Full load amperage

6.- The main difference between single-phase

and three-phase AC motors is that the sta-
tor in the single-phase motor is composed
of two windings called ______ and ______.
a– Start
b– Centrifugal
c– Stationary
d– Run
7.- In Figure 1, indicate where in the graph are Figure 1

the Locked-Rotor Amperage and Full Load
Amperage located.
8.- True/False. Torque is usually achieved when

the motor reaches 90%-99% of maximum CURRENT
synchronous speed.
9.- True/False. The main advantages of across-

the-line starts are that they are inexpensive, SPEED
installations are easy and simple to main-
tain, and they do provide maximum torque
at the start.
10.- There are five types of reduced voltage

starts which are ______, ______. ______,
______ and ______.
a– Auto transformer
b– Part winding
c– Wye-delta
d– Power start
e– Primary resistor
f– Solid state

11.- The ______ uses a resistor which is placed

in ______ with the motor starter power con-
tacts.
a– Parallel
b– Series
c– Primary resistor
d– Auto transformer
12.- The Figure 2 depicts the ______. Figure 2
a– Instant reversal start S2 65%

L1 S1
b– Auto-transformer reduced start
c– Across-the-line start M1
T1
d– Part winding and solid state S2 S1
L2
M1
13.- The ______ reduced start has two sets of T2
M
identical windings. S2 S1
L3
M1
a– Wye-delta T3
b– Part winding
c– Primary resistor
14.- True/False. When using the part winding

reduced start, the inrush current is reduced
to 65% because only one set of windings is
connected and less current is drawn be-
cause the resistance of the single winding
is larger than the resistance of both wind-
ings when they are in parallel. Figure 3
L1 L2
15.- True/False. The reversal of a three-phase FWD

STOP F OL
motor can be accomplished by switching
any two of the three phases. F
REV
16.- True/False. In Figure 3, if the motor is run- R
ning forward, you can reverse it by just

R
pressing the REV push button.

17.- When we remove poles from a motor, we

would see a (an) ______ in speed and also
______ horsepower.
a– Increase
b– Decrease
c– Less
d– More
18.- True/False. Low speed compelling refers to

the fact that the motor must start at a low
speed and then be allowed to accelerate to
a higher speed when required.
19.- True/False. Is the circuit shown in Figure 4 Figure 4

a low-speed compelling circuit? L1 L2
LOW
STOP HIGH H LOW OL
20.- The so-called ______ is just the right L
amount of torque to cause movement of a
CR1-1 L HIGH
load.
H
L CR1
a– Centrifugal torque CR1-2

b– Breakaway torque
c– Starting torque
d– Overload torque
21.- When troubleshooting overloads, we must

pay attention to the ambient temperatures
at ______ and at ______.
a– Main disconnect
b– Starter
c– Main branch circuit
d– Motor

22.- If you suspect an open in the motor’s wind-

ing, then, after power has been removed,
you should check with an ohmmeter to see
if you measure infinity between its leads. If
the motor has an open, then ______.
a– There is an infinity resistance.

b– There is no resistance.
23.- True/False. Low voltage across the phases

cause a motor overheat.
24.- A single-phase motor would experience

overheating if the ______ is not taken out.
a– Run winding
b– Start winding
c– Overload winding
d– Centrifugal winding
25.- True/False. Motors should be properly sized;

that is, not too small or too big for the load.

ANSWERS
1.- True
2.- c– Poles
b– Frequency
Frequency x 120
3.- c– Operating Speed=
Number of Poles
4.- True
5.- b– Full load amperage
6.- a– Start
d– Run
7.-
LOCKED-ROTOR AMPERAGE (LRA)

CURRENT
FULL LOAD AMPERAGE (FLA)
SPEED
8.- False
9.- True
10.- a– Auto transformer

b– Part winding
c– Wye-Delta
e– Primary resistor
f– Solid state

11.- c– Primary Resistor

b– Series
12.- b– Autotransformer reduced start
13.- b– Part winding
14.- True
15.- True
16.- False. The motor must be stopped first. This

is a compelling circuit.
17.- a– Increase
c– Less
18.- True
19.- True
20.- b– Breakaway torque
21.- b– Starter
d– Motor
22.- a– There is an infinity resistance.
23.- True
24.- b– Start winding
25.- True

MODULE 10
L1 L2 L1 L2
PB1 PL1
10 11 20
10 20
20 100
LS1
11
20 101
Chapter 10—Use, Application & Troubleshooting of Programmable Logic Controllers
OVERVIEW
In this tenth chapter of the program, you will be
presented with an introduction to programmable
controllers, or PLCs, and how this control equip-
ment is used in industry to implement electri-
cal and motor control circuits.
You will be presented with information on how

PLCs operate and interface with control devices
and how a PLC is programmed to implement
the functions of hardwired circuits.
OBJECTIVES
After you have reviewed this chapter, you

should be able to:
• Explain how a PLC works and the differ-

ent components that form a PLC.
• Understand the binary concept and the

octal numbering system.
• Define scan.
• Figure out how a PLC references or ad-

dresses input and output devices.
• Comprehend the binary concept and the

octal numbering system.
• Grasp how input/output modules oper-

ate and interface.
• Know how to implement basic discrete

program functions in a PLC.
• Troubleshoot the input/output system of

a PLC.

INTRODUCTION NOTES
Welcome to the tenth chapter of our program.

Here, we’re going to introduce you to program-
mable controllers and their application in elec-
trical controls. So let’s go ahead and define what
a programmable controller is.
Programmable controllers, formerly called pro-

grammable logic controllers or PLCs for short,
can be defined as solid state devices, mem-
bers of the computer family capable of storing
instructions to implement control functions such
Figure 1.
as sequencing, timing and counting, arithmetic
PROCESS
and data manipulation to control machines and OR
processes. MACHINE
In simple terms (see Figure 1), a PLC mea- MEASURE CONTROL
sures or senses signals coming from the ma-

chine or process and, through an internal pro- PROGRAMMABLE
PROGRAMMABLE
CONTROLLER
CONTROLLER
gram, provides control back to the machine or
process.
Figure 2.
A PLC can be thought of as an industrial com-
puter with a specialized input and output hard-
O
ware that makes it ideal for interfacing with field I
CENTRAL U
N
control devices like limit switches, selector PROCESSING T
P
UNIT P
switches, push buttons, etc. U
U
T
T
S
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION S
A PLC is composed of two basic sections, the Figure 3.

CPU
Central Processing Unit or CPU and the Input/
Output or I/O Interface System (see Figure 2).
As you can see, the I/O system is the one which PROCESSOR MEMORY
connects to the field input and output devices.
The CPU (Figure 3) is formed by three compo-

POWER
nents which are the processor, the memory SUPPLY
system and the PLC system power supply.

Figure 4.
The operation of a PLC is rather simple. It first
reads the input status of the control devices con- LS
CPU M
nected to its input interfaces; then provides the
input status information to the CPU, which ex- PB
SOL
ecutes the control instructions similar to an elec-
trical ladder diagram and then outputs the re-
sult status to the output interfaces (see Figure LS PL1
4). The process of reading the inputs, execut-
ing the control program and updating or writing
the information to the outputs is called scan-
ning or simply the scan (see Figure 5). A PLC
Figure 5.
can perform a scan in a matter of milliseconds
or one thousandths of a second. This scan is READING INPUTS
composed of two actual scans which are the I/
O scan and the program scan (see Figure 6),
EXECUTING THE
and can be graphically represented as illus-
CONTROL PROGRAM
trated in Figure 7, where the inputs are read,
the program is executed, and the outputs are
updated according to the control program. UPDATING OUTPUTS
PLC Classification
SCAN
PLCs are available in many sizes to accommo-
Figure 6.
date different applications. The sizes of PLCs
are generally dictated by the number of field TOTAL = I/O + PROGRAM
devices that can be connected to its input and SCAN SCAN SCAN
output system in a particular application.
Based on this classification, PLCs range from

very small, or what’s known as micro PLCs, Figure 7. UPDATE OUTPUTS
which handle up to 32 inputs and outputs. Then
there are small ones which handle from 32 to
128 I/Os, next we have the medium sized PLC
which handles from 64 to 1024 I/Os, the large READ
which covers from 512 to 4096 I/Os and the INPUTS
very large, which are categorized by being ca- EXECUTE

pable of handling between 2048 and 8192 field PROGRAM

devices (see Figure 8). As you can see, the Figure 8.
overlapping areas A, B and C are additional
COMPLEXITY AND COST

features that may be encountered in the lower 5
sized PLC but that are common in its larger C
4
counter part. For example, area A includes
B
small PLCs which have additional capabilities 3
found in medium sized PLCs. As the system A
gets larger, the cost increases and so does it 2
1
computational power. 32 64 128 512 1024 2048 4096 8192
I/O COUNT
Ladder Diagrams and the PLC Figure 9.

IN PLC OUT PL1
PB1
The ladder diagram has been and will be to a
certain extent the traditional way of represent- PB2
PL2
ing electrical sequences of operations as we

have seen them throughout our program. SOL
LS1
In the hardwired circuits, the electrical wiring is

connected from one device to another accord-
Figure 10.
ing to a logic or sequence of operation. In a
L1 L2
PLC, the devices are connected to the input PB1
PL
interfaces, while the outputs are connected to LS1
the output interface (see Figure 9). The actual

wiring of the components is done electronically
inside the PLC through the control program LS2
using the familiar ladder diagram symbols.
For instance, the simple electrical ladder dia-

gram shown in Figure 10, in which the pilot light Figure 11.
is on if PB1 closes and LS1 closes or if LS2 INPUTS PLC OUTPUTS

L1 L2 L1 L2
closes and LS1 is closed, can be implemented
PB1
in a PLC by first connecting the control devices PB1 LS1 PL PL
to the input interfaces (see Figure 11); that is,

the push button PB1 and the limit switches LS1 LS1 LS2
and LS2 and the output devices, in this case,

the pilot light to the output interface. In the LS2
middle, we have the control program which rep-
resents the CPU or the PLC itself. Note the simi-

larity of the two wiring configurations. The dif- Figure 12.

ference is that one is done hardwired and the
one in the PLC sort of softwired.
INPUTS OUTPUTS
The operation in the PLC will be the same if
PB1 is closed and LS1 is closed because the
PLC will read the status of the inputs, pass them
to the program and close their corresponding
contacts which will turn on the internal coil out- NOTES
put representing the pilot light. The PLC then
will send this information to the output module
which, when received, will turn on and the pilot
light will be lit.
In PLCs, the input modules and outputs mod-

ules are represented as shown in Figure 12.
As we’ll see later, the input devices, when con-
nected to the input module, are set to have an
address by which they are known to the pro-
cessor when it is executing the control program.
The same applies to the outputs.
Benefits of Using PLC's

Figure13.
Some of the benefits PLCs offer include the

smaller space or footprint they occupy (Figure
13), the modular architecture of input and out-
put modules which allow it to virtually interface
with all field devices and, perhaps the most im-
portant of all benefits, is its reprogrammability
which simplifies changes and modifications in
the field.
PLCs make installation of control systems much

easier to implement while their maintenance is
minimal. PLCs are truly workhorses on the plant
floor, capable of withstanding relatively high
humidity and temperatures encountered in the
Courtesy of Omron Elecctronics
rugged industrial environment.

Figure 14.
Binary Concepts
BINARY CONCEPT
Programmable controllers, just like any com-
puter, can only understand ones and zeros,
• PLCs UNDERSTAND 1's AND 0's
therefore the mane binary for two numbers, one
and zero. One for a condition that shows it is • 1 = CONDITION IS PRESENT
present, such as a light on, and a zero for a • 0 = CONDITION NOT PRESENT
condition not present, like the light being off
(see Figure 14). In fact, when we look at per-
sonal computers or copiers, we generally see Figure 15.
a one or a zero to illustrate the on or off status TO A PLC:
in the switch. Without much thinking, we place
the switch to the one to turn it on and to the 1 = VOLTAGE
(ACTIVATED, HIGH, CLOSED)
zero to turn it off.
0 = NO VOLTAGE
To a PLC, a one represents a voltage and a (DEACTIVATED, LOW, OPEN)
zero represents no voltage. We also use the

representations of activated, or high or closed,
Figure 16.
to signify a one and deactivated or low or open
to signify a zero (see Figure 15). INPUTS PLC OUTPUTS
L1 L2 L1 L2
For example, in Figure 16, if PB1 was pushed PB1
PB1 LS1 PL PL
the input module will read its status by reading
a one which signifies the push button on con-
LS1 LS2
dition or the presence of power at the input’s
module terminal.
LS2
Number Systems Used in PLCs
PLCs may also use a number system which

may be different from our normal everyday use
Figure 17.
of the familiar decimal number system (Figure
17), which includes the numbers 0 through 9. NUMBER SYSTEMS
In fact, binary is the most simple of all number
USED IN PLC'S
systems, only having two numbers, the 0 and
the 1. The decimal number system is often used • DECIMAL (0 THROUGH 9)
in PLCs, along with another popular number
• OCTAL (0 THROUGH 7)
system which is called octal. The octal system
uses numbers 0 through 7.
Figure 18. Figure19.

In decimal we count 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on to 9
and then we start again 0, 1, 2, etc. with a one DECIMAL OCTAL
0 0
in front which makes it 10, 11, 12, etc. (Figure 1
2 1
18). In octal, the same thing occurs (Figure 19).
3 2
We start 0, 1, 2, 3 all the way to 7 and then we 4 3
start again with 0, 1, 2, etc. with a 1 in front. So 5 4
after seven comes 10, 11 and so on. 6 5
7 6
8
The number system used by a PLC will be 7
9
10 10
employed throughout the PLC system. It will be
11 11
used to number the addresses we mentioned 12 12
earlier by which the devices connected to mod-
ules are identified. For example, instead of the
Figure 20.
letters used to identify each of the devices, you
INPUTS PLC OUTPUTS
would assign the corresponding number asso-
L1 L2 L1 L2
ciated with each module where the devices are PB1 LS1 PL
PB1
connected (see Figure 20). 00 00 01 20 20 PL
LS2
I/O Addressing and Structure LS1 01 02
The I/O structure of a PLC is designed with sim- LS2 02

plicity in mind to make it easier for users to un-
derstand and apply. Each PLC will have a
method of identifying the I/O module structure.
In essence, what happens is that each device
Figure 21.
connected to an input module is addressed or
TERMINAL
referenced inside the memory of the PLC with INPUT ADDRESS
an address number which identifies that device. WORD

ADDRESSES
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00
For example, if the limit switch LS1 in Figure

21 is connected to an address of a module
INPUT
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
which corresponds to a number 0014 octal, it ADDRESS
0014 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 05
OUTPUT
ADDRESS
0506
will have a place in a memory location which
houses the status of the limit switch. If LS1
closes, the PLC reads a one and stores it in

Figure 22.
that location for use by the control program. If I/O Image Table
16 TERMINALS
the switch is open, a zero is stored. It is useful
that you know how and where the devices are 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
stored because it helps during troubleshooting. 00

32
One glance at these locations and you’ll know INPUTS
the status of 16 devices, whether they are on 01
or off.
02
32
OUTPUTS
The same applies for output devices(reference
03
Figure 21). Each location will represent the sta-
tus of a device after the control program is ex-
ecuted. If a location, let’s say 0506 has a one Figure 23.
in it, then the device connected to the output SLOT

15 08 07 00 (WORD)
module terminal which corresponds to 0506 will
turn on. In this case, the pilot light will be on 8-OUTPUTS 8-INPUTS 0
once the PLC sends the information to the
module. 1
Most PLCs reserve areas in memory for what’s 2

called an input/output image table (Figure 22).
This is nothing more than an area which is al- 3
located for each of the input and outputs of a
PLC system. For example, a small PLC with 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
the capacity of controlling 32 inputs and 32
outputs may have an I/O table as shown in Fig-
ure 22, where there are 32 locations for inputs
and 32 locations reserved for outputs.
Binary digIT
Each location is called a bit and it stands for
Binary DigIT which, and as you now know, can Figure 24.
be a one or a zero and therefore, the term bi- WORD OR REGISTER
nary digit (see Figure 23). A group of 16 bits is
called a word or register (Figure 24). As you
can see in Figure 22, this small PLC has 2 in- 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
put registers or input words and 2 output regis-
ters or output words, each one holding the sta-
tus of 16 input or output devices.

Depending on the PLC, the I/O table may be Figure 25.

mixed in groups of inputs and outputs within a I/O TABLE
word or register (Figure 25), and this depends 8-OUTPUTS 8-INPUTS
mainly on how the user configures its system
and where input and output modules are 8-INPUTS 8-INPUTS
placed.
8-OUTPUTS 8-OUTPUTS
For example, let’s assume we have our small
8-OUTPUTS 8-INPUTS
PLC and that we are placing I/O modules in
the PLC rack or enclosure (see Figure 26) and
Figure 26.
let’s say that the I/O modules in this particular 0 1 2 3
0 0 0 0
system come in groups or in a modularity of 8 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
inputs or outputs per module (see Figure 27). 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4
Every time we place a module, we would be PROCESSOR 5 5 5 5
allocating 8 bits of a word reserved for the de- AND 6 6 6 6

7 7 7 7
POWER
vices that will be connected to that module. So, SUPPPLY
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
after connecting this input on the top of the 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
enclosures slot number 0, we would be reserv- 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5
ing the top area in its I/O table, which corre- 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7
sponds to bits 00 through 07 in word 00.
Figure 27.
In fact, each module would take 8 bits of image IN
table; and, as you can see, each word location 0
corresponds to each slot available in this PLC. 1
We could place an output module in the sec- 2
ond location of slot 0 and will have the outputs 3
mapped, so to speak, to word 00 bit locations 4
08 through 15 (Figure 28). 5
6
7
If a PLC uses the octal number system for con-
venience, the addresses of the bits, which cor- 8-INPUTS
respond to the address of the devices, will most Figure 28.
likely use the octal numbering system. There- OUTPUT INPUT

fore, in our table, it would look as shown in Fig- 10-17 00-07
ure 28, where we would have from bits 00
through 07 for the inputs and from 10, or the 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
next available number in octal, to 17 for the next 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Figure 29.
8 bit locations of the outputs. The input devices
0
connected to the input module will be known 1
by the addresses 00 through 07, while the out- 2
3 INPUT
puts will be known by addresses 10 octal to 17
octal (see Figure 29). You could mix and match
4 MODULE
5
the addresses as you wish when placing the I/ 6
7
O modules. It is, however, not only customary
0
but highly recommended that you group the
1
inputs and outputs together for installation and 2
troubleshooting purposes (see Figure 30). That OUTPUT 3
4
is why most of the time you would see all in- MODULE 5
puts and outputs close together in their enclo- 6
sures and, therefore, in their image tables. 7
I/O SYSTEM
In micro and most small PLCs, the input and Figure 30.
output location of modules may already be de- I/O TABLE SLOT

15 00 (WORD)
fined or incorporated in the main PLC enclo-
sure. A micro PLC, for instance, may specify INPUT INPUT 0
that it comes with 10 inputs and 6 outputs in
the main enclosure which can be expanded, INPUT INPUT 1
through an expansion module, to another 10
OUTPUT INPUT 2
inputs and 6 more outputs.
OUTPUT OUTPUT 3
Let’s now take a look at the input and output
modules available in PLCs. There are two pri-
mary classifications of the input and output
modules which are designed to interface with Figure 31.
discrete devices and analog devices. Discrete

devices provide or receive discrete or on/off sig- • DISCRETE DEVICES PROVIDE
nals which describe their status (see Figure 31). ON/OFF SIGNALS
For example, a limit switch on or off state pro-
vides a discrete value to an input module. Dis- INPUT
crete I/O is perhaps the most common class of
interfaces used in the manufacturing plant. ON
OFF

Analog devices provide or receive analog sig-

nals to describe their status (Figure 32). This Figure 32.
signal differs from the discrete in that they do

not change state from on to off or vice versa, ANALOG DEVICES
but constantly provide a continuous change • DO NOT CHANGE ON AND OFF
over time, like in the case of temperature. It • PROVIDE CONTINUOUS CHANGE
changes up or down in an analog manner. In this
program, we are going to talk only about discrete
SIGNAL
inputs and outputs and their programming.
Discrete Inputs TIME
Discrete input modules are used to interface

with field devices, such as selector switches, Figure 33.
push buttons, limit switches, relay contacts,
motor starter contacts, level switches and more. DISCRETE SIGNAL
The signal from these devices which is passed VARIES
to the input interfaces varies in type and/or TYPE
magnitude; for example, 120 volts AC or 12 volts
DC (Figure 33). For this reason, discrete inputs 120V AC
are available in various AC and DC voltage rat- 12V DC
ings. Among the most common ones we have
are 24, 48, 120 and 230 volts AC/DC, TTL level MAGNITUDE
and non-voltage interfaces which sense only a
contact closure.
Figure 34.
For the purpose of our discussion here and
because they all operate in a very similar man- AC/DC
INPUT MODULE
ner, we’ll talk about the 120 volts AC and DC
input interfaces. The AC/DC description in in-
put modules indicates that you can connect ei- 120V AC
ther of the two signals because in the module 120V DC TO PLC

there is the necessary electronics to transform LOW LEVEL
either into a low level signal the PLC can rec- VOLTAGE
ognize (see Figure 34).
The discrete input module is composed of three

sections, which are the power section and the

logic section coupled with an isolation section Figure 35.

(see Figure 35). The power section receives
POWER ISOLATION LOGIC
the signal from the field devices and transforms
it into a discrete DC level after a bridge recti-
Input
fier. This signal passes through a filter to elimi- Signal
nate noise and switch bouncing before being Noise Threshold

Bridge and Level ISOLATOR Logic
detected for a true level value. So a 120 volts Rectifier Debounce Detection
Filter
AC signal must be close to that value before To
Processor
the PLC can take it as a true on signal.
The signal passes through an isolator which Figure 36.
separates the power and logic sections. Its func-

POWER ISOLATION LOGIC
tion is to electrically isolate the two sections so
that there is no electrical connection, only
Input
Optical
through an optical coupler (Figure 36), so that Signal Coupler
high voltage spikes in the I/O system cannot Noise Threshold
Bridge and Level Logic
reach the PLC and damage it. The logic side of Rectifier Debounce Detection
Filter
the interface passes the information to the PLC To
Processor
at a low level DC voltage.
Most PLC manufacturers provide LED indica- NOTES

tors to show the status of whether the input
signal is present or on in the module. Some
PLCs may have two indicators, one for the
power and one for the logic. If the device is on,
the power and logic indicators should be lit; if
the logic indicator is not on, then there could
be something wrong with the module. These
indicators are very useful during troubleshoot-
ing of a system.
Installation of Input Modules
The installation of input modules is simply a

matter of inserting the module into the slot of
the PLC enclosure or rack, if the PLC has a
rack configuration. If the PLC has the inputs
built in the main unit, then it is a matter of con-

necting the field wires to the input terminal. Most Figure 37.
likely, the PLC will have its wires routed to a L1 L2

1
terminal block where the PLC inputs meet the
field devices.
2
If the field devices are connected directly to the

3
PLC, you would wire one side of the control
device to the L1 power side and the other one 4
to the module (Figure 37). In an input interface
like the one shown in Figure 37, with a modu- C
larity of 4 inputs per module, you will have one
common return for the module to close the cir-
cuit. This common is connected to L2.
Figure 38.
+ User DC -
If the field devices are receiving DC power, you Power
Supply
connect the devices in the same fashion ex-
cept that the common goes to the negative side 1
of the supply (see Figure 38).
2
Discrete Outputs
3
Discrete outputs are used to interface the PLC
with controllable output field devices. Typical 4
output devices which exhibit an on/off state are
alarms, control relays, fans, lights, valves, mo- C
tor starters, solenoids and more.
Because these output devices may operate at

NOTES
different voltages, different types of output mod-
ules are available. These include 12 to 48 volts
AC, 120 and 230 volts AC, 12 to 48 volts DC,
120 and 230 volts DC, contact output and TTL.
Like in the case of the inputs, we’ll talk about
the standard 120 volts AC and DC output mod-
ules.
AC output circuits, like input circuits, vary widely

among PLC manufacturers. However, they all

follow a similar block diagram representation Figure 39.

(Figure 39). From the PLC processor, the logic
section receives the status from the image LOGIC ISOLATION POWER
table. It passes the status of on or off through
an isolator to a power section which actually
performs the switching of power from the line
Line
voltage to the load. The power section contains From
Logic ISOLATOR Switch Filter
Processor
a filter which protects the module from electri-
Load
cal noise (Figure 40). A fuse may be provided
in the module assembly.
Figure 40.
The output module will have LED status indi-
cators which will be on when the output mod- FILTER
ule is turned on. There may be a logic indicator FROM
LINE
to show that the information coming from the VOLTAGE
processor is available at the module (see Fig- RS
ure 39). Note that, if the module has its power MOV
LED on, it doesn’t necessarily mean that the CS
output is automatically on. It means that the
output is switching the power to the load but, if TO
there is a malfunction in the device or if there LOAD
is a wiring problem, the output device will obvi-
ously not be on.
NOTES
Installation of Output Modules
Output modules are installed in a similar man-

ner as the input modules. If the PLC has a rack
enclosure for the I/O, the output module will be
inserted in the rack. Remember that when you
place a module, you are defining the addresses
of the output devices which will be connected
to the module which also map the image table.
If the PLC has built-in outputs in its main unit,

which is the case for all micro and most small
PLCs, you simply connect the terminal to the
field devices or to a terminal block and then
from there to the device.

Figure 41. L1 L2
A 120 volts AC output module is connected to L1
field devices as shown in Figure 41. Each out- 0
put will be driving only one output device. The 1

voltage that will be switched to the field device
2
will be L1 which is connected to the module for
switching purposes. The module’s circuit is com- 3
MS
pleted by wiring L2 to the common connection C
in the module. The DC output interface will be

connected in a similar manner (see Figure 42).
Figure 42. + User DC -

Installing the PLC Power
Supply
+
The PLC itself is also easily installed. The power
is brought in to a control transformer to bring 0
the voltage level to 120 volts AC. A separate 1
disconnect and fuse are also incorporated into 2

the power circuit (see Figure 43).
3
M
In most PLC applications, there are always –
some portions that are left hardwired in the cir-
cuit. These are emergency stops which, if
Figure 43. L1
pressed, will disconnect the system. This pro- L2
tects the system reliability in case of a PLC fail- L3
ure (see Figure 44).
You can also use what’s called PLC fault con-

tacts in series with the hardwired circuit so that PLC
the circuit will drop if the PLC fails or loses power

(Figure 44). The PLC fault contacts are normally
open, which close as soon as the PLC has Figure 44.
power and has performed all its internal checks.
If throughout its operation, it senses a prob-
Emergency System PLC CR
lem, for example, a memory error, the contacts Stop Start Fault
will open and the circuit will drop. Some PLCs

CR1-1 PLC Error
have another set of normally closed fault con- PLC Fault
tacts which could be used to drive a pilot light

PLC
to signify a PLC failure. When the PLC is oper- CR1-2 CR1-3
to I/O to I/O
ating correctly, these contacts will open. If a fault

occurs, these contacts will go back to their nor- Figure 45.

mal closed state, thus indicating a failure. This L1 L2
may be a good way of engineering preventive CONDITION OUTPUT

maintenance into a system. INSTRUCTIONS INSTRUCTIONS
PLC INSTRUCTIONS
As we stated earlier, the instructions available

A continuous path is required for Logic Continuity
in PLCs follow very closely the format of
hardwired ladder diagrams; in fact, they are
called ladder instructions. There are several
types of instructions available in PLCs, depend- Figure 46.
INPUT CONDITIONS OUTPUT
ing primarily on the size and capability of the
PLC. These instructions are the Basic Relay,
Timing and Counting, Program or Flow Con-
trol, Arithmetic, Data Manipulation and Han-
dling, DataTransfer and Special Function in-
structions. In this program, we'll cover only the
basic relay and timing instructions.
The ladder format (Figure 45) is basically the

same as in the hardwired control circuit, where
a continuous path from left to right provides con- Figure 47.
BASIC RELAY INSTRUCTIONS
tinuity or power flow to an output. This continu-
ity may have one or more paths. COILS OUTPUTS
The ladder circuit is generally limited by the

number of instructions you may have in what’s
CONTACTS INPUTS
called a ladder rung matrix (see Figure 46).
Basic Relay Instructions Figure 48.

INPUTS PLC OUTPUTS
The basic relay instructions are composed of L1 L2 L1 L2
PB1 PB1 LS1 PL
coils and contacts (see Figure 47). The con- 00 00 01 20 20 PL
tacts are used to reference input field devices

LS2
while the coils are used to reference output LS1 01 02
devices. Remember that the field devices are

connected to input modules which are refer- LS2 02
enced in the image table (see Figure 48). This

reference will be used to address the contact

Figure 49. EXAMINE ON

and coil instructions.
There are two basic contact instructions: • EXAMINES STATUS OF

REFERENCE ADDRESS FOR
• Examine ON or Normally Open ON CONDITION TO PROVIDE
• Examine OFF or Normally Closed CONTINUITY
Examine On
Figure 50.
L1 L2
The examine on (Figure 49) is used to exam-
PB1
ine the status of the reference address for an 10
10
on condition to provide continuity through the
contact. For example, if the push button is con-
nected to an input module and the address of
the connection is 10 and you program an ex- 10
amine on instruction to represent PB1, the pro- 1
cessor when reading the status of the field de- 0 OFF

1 ON
vice, will read a zero if it is not pushed because Figure 51.
PLC MONITOR SCREEN
there is no voltage. The normally open contact
will remain open. If the push button is pressed,
then the processor will read a one and the nor-
mally open contacts will close, thus providing
continuity in the ladder rung. As soon as the
push button is released, the contacts will go
back to open. In a PLC, you will also see the
contacts highlighted when there is power at the
input module with that address. If the contact is Figure 52.
EXAMINE OFF
not highlighted, it means that there is no power
continuity and its reference device is off (see
• EXAMINES REFERENCE ADDRESS
Figure 51). FOR AN OFF CONDITION TO
PROVIDE CONTINUITY
Examine Off
Figure 53.
The examine off (Figure 52) instructions are L1 L2
used whenever you want to have continuity if 11

11
the referenced device is off. In other words, the
processor examines the reference address for
an off condition in order to provide continuity
(see Figure 53). For example, if we connect the
11
limit switch LS1 to input 11 and program that 1
input or, in other words, program LS1 as an 0 OFF
1 ON

examine off, the contacts will be closed, pro- Figure 54.

OUTPUT COIL
viding power when LS1 is not closed. The PLC
processor goes out and looks at location 11
and, if there is no power, the contacts remain • CONTROLS AN OUTPUT DEVICE
closed providing continuity. If LS1 closes, the MAPPED TO ITS REFERENCE
processor sees an on condition and will now ADDRESS
open the contacts, thus breaking continuity.

Remember, the processor examines the input
Figure 55.
for an off condition to provide power, if it sees L1 L2
the opposite, or an on condition, it will not pro- 20
20
vide power.
Output Coil
The output coil (Figure 54) instruction is used

to control an output device whose address is
20
mapped to the image table. If the logic driving
1
the coil has continuity, the processor will send
0 OFF
the command to the output module to switch 1 ON
power to the load (see Figure 55). If we pro-
Figure 56.
gram the push button PB1 (Figure 56) normally
open in series with the limit switch LS1 nor- L1 L2 L1 L2
mally closed and the output , in this case ad- PB1 PL1
10 11 20
dress 20, is connected to a pilot light, the out- 10 20
put coil instruction will turn on whenever PB1 LS1
is pushed. As soon as it turns on, the light will 11
be lit.
One interesting advantage of PLCs is that you

have contacts available from output coils, even
if they are driving pilot lights (see Figure 57). Figure 57. OUTPUT COIL
The reference contacts of the same coil REFERENCE
address are available in normally open and
A
normally closed contacts. These behave in the
same manner as a regular relay coil. If the out-
put coil is on, the normally open contacts will A
close and the normally closed will open. Con-
versely, if the output coil is off, the normally A
open will remain open and the normally closed

contacts will be closed. Figure 58.
L1 L2 L1 L2
Output coils may also be internal to the PLC, in
PB1 PL1
which case they do not have a reference ad- 10 11 20
dress mapped to an output module and they 10 20
are said to be internal outputs. 20 100
LS1
11
If, to the circuit shown in Figure 58, we take a
20 101
normally open contact from output 20 and ref-
erence it with the same address and make it
drive an internal output, let’s say 100, the out-
put 100 will be on whenever output 20 is on.
We could also take a normally closed reference Figure 59.
from 20 and program it to drive another inter-
nal output like 101. This output will be on when- L1 L2 L1 L2
ever coil 20 is off. If PB1 is pushed, output 20 is PB1 PL1
10 20
on and internal output 100 is also on; internal 10 L 20
output 101 will be off.
LS1 11 20
11 U
A PLC manufacturer will specify the valid ad-
dresses for internal output coils. For instance,
it may say that addresses from 100 through 137
octal can be used as internal outputs. Internals
are useful whenever interlocking is required. NOTES
Similar to hardwired systems, a PLC also has

an output coil which allows latching and unlatch-
ing (Figure 59). It actually works in the same
manner. If PB1 is pushed, it will turn the output
on and the light will be on even when the push
button is released. The output maintains a
latched on position. The only way to turn it off is
by unlatching it. This will happen if LS1 closes.
Note that while the unlatched coil is energized,
the coil can’t be latched. It can only be latched
once the unlatch signal is off.
Programming a Normally Closed

Input Device Figure 60.

L1 L2
PB
The programming of a normally closed field 10
input device may be a little different than what 10
it appears to be at first glance. In fact, this could
be one of the most confusing things at the be-
ginning until we get the hang of it. Most of us
will say at first that, because we program a Figure 61.
normally open field device with an examine L1 L2
on or normally open instruction (see Figure PB
60), we would program a normally closed field 10
10
input device with an examine off or normally
closed instruction (see Figure 61). However,
this is not true. If we have a normally closed
field device, and we want it to behave in a PLC
ladder circuit like a normally closed, we would Figure 62.
program it with an examine on instruction (see L1 L2
Figure 62). Let’s now see why by using this PB
example. 10
10
In the hardwired circuit shown in Figure 63, if

PB1 is not pushed, the light will be on. When
pushed, the circuit breaks continuity and the
NC DEVICE PROGRAMMED NO
light will be off. This is the behavior of a nor-
mally closed device. If we wanted to implement Figure 63.
it in a PLC circuit, we would bring the PB1 to L1 L2
an input module, in this case let's say, with
PL1
address 10, and connect the light to an output
PB1
module with address 20. Next, we would have
to program the ladder sequence so that the
same result as the hardwired circuit is
achieved. Let’s first program PB1 with an ex-
amine off instruction driving output coil 20 and Figure 64.
see the results (see Figure 64). L1 L2 L1 L2
PL1
PB1 10 20
When it is evaluating the program of Figure 10 20
64, the processor will go out and read the sta-
tus of input 10 and see it is on because PB1

Figure 65.
has not been pushed. Therefore, the proces-
sor will not provide power continuity to the nor-
L1 L2 L1 L2
mally closed instruction because this instruc-
PL1
tion examines for an off condition to provide con- PB1 10 20
tinuity and the condition is on. If PB1 is pressed, 10 20
then the status of input 10 will be off and the
normally closed referenced instruction will pro-
vide power and the light will be lit. However,
according to the hardwired control circuit, we
NOTES
don’t want this. We want the light on when PB1
is not pushed and off when pushed.
If we program input 10 as a normally open,

things change (see Figure 65). When the pro-
cessor reads the status of input 10, it’ll find it
on, in which case it will turn on the examine on
instruction so that it provides power and the out-
put will be on. Note that the push button has not
been pressed. When PB1 is pushed, input 10
will be off and the examine input 10 for an on
condition will be off, so the output is turned off.
As can be seen in Figure 65, this circuit works

in the same manner as the electromechanical
control circuit shown in Figure 63. So if we want
to connect a normally closed field device to a
PLC and want it to behave like a normally
closed, then we would program it as an exam-
ine on or normally open instruction.
Because of the flexibility of PLC instruction pro-

gramming, a normally closed device can be
made to act in a circuit as a normally open de-
vice, as was the case in programming PB1 as
an examine off. As shown in Figure 64, the cir-
cuit behaves as if PB1 had been a normally
open instead of normally closed. If not pushed,

the light is off; when pushed, the light is on. Figure 66.
L1 L2
The equivalent hardwired circuit is shown in
Figure 66, where an additional control relay PB1 CR1
would be needed to implement the circuit logic.
CR1-1 PL
The same applies for a normally open device;
we can make it act in a circuit as a normally
closed (see Figure 67). Let’s take the same
case of a normally open push button in which
Figure 67.
we wanted it to act as a normally closed. The
way we would program it is by saying that we L1 L2 L1 L2
PB1 PL1
want the light on whenever PB1 is not pushed, 10 20
when this normally open device is not provid- 10 20
ing power or is off. So we program its refer-
ence address with an examine off instruction.
If PB1 is not pushed in Figure 67, the output is
on. If PB1 is pushed, the output will be off. To Figure 68.
implement this in a hardwired circuit (Figure L1 L2

PB1
68), we would have had to use a control relay CR1
being driven by the push button and then take
a normally closed set of contacts from the re-
lay, in this case, CR1-1, and drive the pilot light. CR1-1 PL
In the PLC we can do it with software instead

of hardware.
It is important to note that you do not want to Figure 69.

DO NOT USE NORMALLY
use normally open devices in safety situations
OPENED DEVICES
or as stop push buttons by programming them IN SAFETY SITUATIONS
as normally closed in the PLC just because it PROGRAMMED NORMALLY
CLOSED IN THE PLC.
can be done through software (Figure 69). In
fact, stop and safety devices which are normally Figure 70.
closed should also be wired normally closed L1 L2
to the PLC. START
STOP CR1
Take the simple circuit shown in Figure 70,

which has a normally open push button that is CR1-1 SOL
sealed with contacts in series with a stop push
button driving an output which is connected to

a solenoid valve. Implemented in a PLC (see Figure 71.

Figure 71), if you press start, it turns the sole- L1 L2 L1 L2
noid on; when stop is pushed, it turns it off. If START SOL

10 11 20
the solenoid has been turned on and for some 10 20
reason the stop push button’s wire is cut or dis- 20
STOP
engaged from the PLC, the examine on instruc- 11
tion which references the stop push button will
break the circuit because its reference is not
on anymore. So it breaks the circuit in a fail
safe condition. If the stop circuit connection fails,
the system, in this case the solenoid, will turn Figure 72.
off and we’ll need to troubleshoot the push but- L1 L2 L1 L2
ton. START SOL
10 11 20
10 20
If we had used a normally open push button as STOP
20
a stop and programmed it as an examine off, 11
we would get the circuit to operate in exactly
the same manner as before (see Figure 72). If
the start is pushed, the solenoid is on; if the
stop is pushed, it breaks the circuit in the PLC
and the solenoid is off. However, if the solenoid
is turned on and the stop push button’s wire is NOTES
disconnected or cut, the circuit would not be
turned off. In fact the circuit will not be able to
be turned off unless the PLC itself is turned off.
This could present a dangerous situation which
should be avoided.
If for some reason during troubleshooting a

PLC-based system you discover that a normally
closed stop push button is bad and replace it
with the only available push button which is a
normally open and change the instruction from
an examine on to an examine off, make sure
that you document it and as soon as possible
replace the components and change the pro-
gram to the original design. This may be ac-
ceptable to get the machine back on line, but

just until we get our parts back to replace them. NOTES
PLC Timers
In a PLC you automatically get a number of

timers you can use to replace hardware tim-
ers. These timers operate in the same manner
as the hardwired timers, except that they are
more accurate, do not take up space, are not
electromechanical and do not cost additional
money when you need more.
A PLC manufacturer may specify that you can

have 16 or 32 timers in your PLC if it is a small
one. Large systems may have over 500. The
most common timers available in PLCs are the
ON delay energize which turns the output on
after the delay and the OFF delay energize. The
off delay implies that the timer starts counting
when it is off and, after it times out, it will ener-
gize its output.
Timer Basics
Timers, represented by the symbol shown in

Figure 73, have three values that are impor-
tant to recognize. The first one is the time base
of the timer which, in most PLCs, is selectable Figure 73.
and can range from one hundredths of a sec-

TMR
ond to one second. The time base may some-
times be called ticks. For instance, 10 ticks of
0.1 second will be a one second delay. • Time Base (TB)
–0.01 Sec To 1.0 Sec
The other two values are called the preset and –10 Ticks Of 0.1 Sec = 1 Sec
accumulated values. These two values are • Preset And Accumulated
stored in the PLC memory area, transparent to –Stored In Registers Or Words
you, in the so-called registers or words. A PLC –Register Specified By Maker
e.g. 100 8 To 1777 8
manufacturer will give you the range of ad-

dresses you can use with timers; for instance, Figure 74.
from register 1000 to 1777 octal.
TIMER ON DELAY
The preset register holds the number of ticks TON 100
A
you want the timer to time to, while the accu-
mulated register holds the timing ticks that are
PR: Reg 1000=50
elapsing while the timer is enabled. When the
AR: Reg 1001=xx
accumulated and preset are equal, the timer TB: 0.1 sec
will execute its output, depending on the type
of timer you select. 100 20
The timer ON-delay energize, shown in Figure

74, provides a delay once the timer circuit has
been enabled. If A is on, the timer will start tim-
ing and when the accumulated count reaches
Figure 75.
50 ticks of 0.1 seconds in this case, the output
1
of the timer will turn on. The address of the timer, Timer's Control Input 0
depending on the PLC may be a direct mapped
output to the image table or an internal output. Timer's Output 1
You also have, like any other PLC output, nor- ON-Delay Energize 0
mally open and normally closed contacts you
can use throughout a program which will act
as time delay contacts. The reference of course,
will be that of the timer output coil. When the Delay
timers has timed out, output 20 will be on.
The timing diagram of the ON-delay energize Figure 76.
is shown in Figure 75. When the timer is en- TIMER OFF DELAY
abled or on, it starts timing and when the delay
is achieved, the output will turn on. If at any A TOF 100
time the input to the timer goes off, the timer
output will also turn off, thus resetting the timer. PR: Reg 1000=50
AR: Reg 1001=xx
The OFF-delay energized timer, shown in Fig- TB: 0.1 sec
ure 76, is a modification of the previous one. 20
100
This timer will start timing if its control input is
off and turn its output on after the delay. The
output will be off or reset when the timer’s in-

Figure 77.
1
put is back to on. For example, if A remains Timer's Control Input 0
closed, the timer’s input will be on and not tim-
ing. Once A opens, the input to the timer will be Timer's Output 1
OFF-Delay Energize 0
off and start timing. After a 5 seconds delay, its
output will turn on. The timing diagram of the
timer OFF-delay is as illustrated in Figure 77.
Delay
Special Timer Example Cases
Figure 78.
PLC timers do not have instantaneous contacts L1
TMR1
L2
FS1 PS1
which can be used for interlocking (see Figure
78). All the timer contacts available in a PLC 10 SEC
TMR1-1
are of time-delay action. If we want to imple-
ment the circuit shown in Figure 78 in a PLC, TMR1-2
SOL
we would need to get around this instantaneous

contact. In the hardwired circuit, if the float DSCHG
switch is closed and the pressure arrives to its

desired level and PS1 closes, the on delay timer
will start timing. The contacts TMR1-1 will seal
Figure 79.
the float switch so, if FS1 opens, the timer still
L1 L2
continues to time. After the timing out, the timed PS1
TMR1
FS1
contacts TMR1-2 will close and turn the sole-
10 SEC
noid on, as well as the pilot light, which indi-
TMR1-1
cates a discharge status.
SOL
TMR1-2
To transform the control circuit shown in Fig-

DSCHG
ure 78 to a PLC circuit, we’d connect the field
inputs to input modules and the output devices
to output modules. The circled devices in Fig-
ure 79 show the I/O devices that will be con-
Figure 80. ADDRESSES
nected to the PLC. Note that the timer is not an
outside device but it will now be internal to the • INPUTS 00 8 to 17 8
PLC (see Figure 80). • OUTPUTS 20 8 to 37 8
• TIMER'S 100 8 to 177 8
Let’s assume that the addresses we want to INTERNALS
use for inputs in our PLC are from 00 to 17 and • REGISTERS 100 8 to 1177 8
outputs are from 20 to 37 octal. The timers use • TB IS 0.10 SEC

Figure 81. L1 L2
TMR1
FS1 PS1
internal outputs from 100 to 177 and registers
10 SEC
are available from preset and accumulated val- TMR1-1
ues at addresses 1000 to 1177. The time base TMR1-2

SOL
is fixed at one tenth of a second (see Figure

DSCHG
81). For simplicity, we’ll assign the addresses
in order to our input and output devices and
start programming each of them (see Figure Figure 82.
L1 L2 L1 L2
82). Figure 82 shows these I/O devices con-
SOL
nected to the PLC. FS1
00 20
DSCHG
We know that there are not instantaneous con- PS1
21
01
tacts from timers so the original hardwired cir-
cuit shown in Figure 78 cannot be implemented
in a PLC directly. If we did, the float switch will
Figure 83.
never be sealed before the timer times out as L1 L2 L1 L2
we can see in the PLC program of Figure 83. If SOL
FS1 FS1 PS1 TON
FS1 is on and PS1 is on, the timer starts to 00 20
time, but the contacts don’t seal because they DSCHG

PS1
are timed delay contacts. So, if FS1 goes off, 01 TON 21
then the timer circuit will be off and stop timing.
So what we need to do is to trap the timer cir-

Figure 84.
cuit by having the logic drive an internal coil to
L1 L2
trap the timer enable signal. We can then use FS1 PS1
TMR1
the internal’s contacts to seal around the float 10 SEC

TMR1-1
switch and then we can program the circuit. Fig- SOL
TMR1-2
ure 84 illustrates the use of the internal to trap
the instantaneous timer contacts. The normally DSCHG
open float switch will have address 00

(seeFigure 85), the pressure switch address 01,
Figure 85.
the internal we’ll assign 100, because that’s
L1 L2
where they start, and the seal contacts will also FS1 PS1
TMR1
have address 100. For the timer circuit, we’ll 10 SEC

TMR1-1
use the internal which traps the signal to drive
SOL
the timer which we’ll assign internal address TMR1-2
101. We’ll assign registers 1000 for the preset DSCHG

with a tick count of 100 since we want 10 sec- NOTES

onds and register 1001 to keep the accumu-
lated value.
The solenoid, which is output 20, will be driven

by the timer’s delay contacts with address 101.
Since we can only connect one output per rung
in a PLC program, we’ll use another set of timer
contacts to drive the pilot light output 21.
To translate this into the PLC is simply done by

replacing each element with its PLC equiva-
Figure 86.
lent. The float switch and pressure switch will
L1 L2 L1 L2
be programmed as examine on instructions. 00 01 100
The PLC circuit will be as shown in Figure 86, SOL

FS1 100
where the timer circuit is trapped using inter- 00 20
nal 100. If FS1 and PS1 close, the output 100 100 TON 101
DSCHG
will be on and seal FS1, thus holding the cir- PS1 PR: Reg 1000=50
AR: Reg 1001=xx
cuit. The timer starts timing and, after 10 sec- 01 TB: 0.1 sec 21
101 20
onds, the solenoid valve will be energized, in-
dicating a discharge. When the pressure switch 101 21
opens, the circuit will reset.
Like relay-type instructions, timer instructions NOTES

are fundamental to the ladder diagram set of a
PLC. Timers by themselves may justify the use
of a small PLC in an application where as few
as two or three solid state relays are required.
For the same amount of money, you can re-
place the timers, all the control relays in the
circuit, reduce the amount of power required
to operate the controls, and minimize the en-
closure size and all the wiring. Besides, modi-
fications could be easily implemented because
all the wiring is done in software.

PLC Control Circuit Figure 87. POWER

Implementation Example L1 L2 L3
START
Let’s take a simple motor control circuit for a 3- 3

phase motor and implement it in a PLC (see M
2
STOP
Figure 87). We know that this wiring diagram is
represented in the hardwired ladder circuit as OL
T1 T2 T3
shown in Figure 88, where the auxiliary con-
tacts of the starter seal the start push button. Motor
Figure 88.
To convert this circuit to a PLC, we first take L1 L2
the control devices we are going to bring into
the PLC I/O system (items will be wired to PLC, STOP
START
OL
see Figure 89). In this case, the start and stop M
M
push buttons as inputs and the starter coil as
2 3
an output. We’re not bringing in the auxiliary
contacts of the starter coil because we’ll use
an internal to seal it; this will result in fewer wir-
Figure 89.
ing and connections. We’ll also use the same L1 L2
addressing scheme as before so the inputs will
START
be 00 and 01 and the output 20. Note that the STOP OL
stop push button is wired normally closed to M

M
the input module and that the starter coil con- 2 3
nected to output 20 has the overloads wired in
series with the coil to the return (Figure 90).
Figure 90.
To program the elements from the hardwired L1 L2 L1 L2
circuit, we simple take each device and pro- STOP M OL

00 20
gram it in the same logic sequence. The stop
START
push button will be programmed as an exam-
01
ine on, or as a normally open PLC contact, in
series with start push button which is pro-
grammed as an examine on (see Figure 91). Figure 91.
L1 L2 L1 L2
This circuit will be driving output 20 which con- 00 01 20 M OL
STOP
trols the starter. The start push button will be 00 20
START
sealed with the contacts from output 20. If the 20
01
start push button is pressed, output 20 will turn
on, seal the stop push button and turn the mo-

tor on through the starter. If the stop push but- Figure 92.
L1
ton is pressed, the motor will be turned off.
L2
M
In a PLC wiring diagram, the PLC will be con-
L3
nected to power L1 and L2 (see Figure 92).
The field inputs will be connected to L1 on one
side and to the module on the other. The com-
mon or return connection from the input mod-
ule will go to L2. The outputs module will re- L1 PLC L2
ceive its source power for switching the load STOP

from L1 and connect from output terminal 20 00
INPUTS
to the starter coil in series with the overload to 01
START
L2. The output module will also be connected
to L2 for proper operation. OL
OUTPUT 20 M
Note that, in the motor control circuit’s wiring

diagram, the PLC output module is wired di-
rectly to the coil (see Figure 93). Figure 93.
PLC L1 L2 L3
As you can see, this control is similar to a two- SWITCH
OUTPUT
wire control circuit from the PLC. This circuit
FROM 3
provides low voltage release but no low volt-
L1
age protection. If the motor is running and the 2 M
overloads open, the motor will drop but the
circuit will still be on. Once the overloads cool OL
TO L2
off and the overload contacts close, the motor T1 T2 T3
will start again immediately. Depending on the

Motor
application, this situation may not be desired.
Figure 94.
Someone may be troubleshooting to determine
L1 L2 L1 L2
why the motor stopped and, all of a sudden, it
can start again. To avoid this, you could make STOP 00 01 20 M OL
it the equivalent of a 3-wire circuit by bringing 00 20
in the auxiliary contact as an input and using START 02
its address to seal the start push button (see
01
Figure 94). When the motor is running, if the
M
overloads drop, the coil will be off and its aux- 02
iliary contacts will drop the circuit in the PLC.

One of the flexibilities of implementing motor
Figure 95.
control circuits is a PLC is that, if we wanted to
L1 L2 L1 L2
add, for example another stop push button to
00 01 03 20 M OL
the circuit (Figure 95), we could easily imple- STOP
00 20
ment it by wiring the new stop push button to
START 02
another PLC input, let’s say number 03, and
01
then modifying the program by just adding an-
M
other examine on in series which will represent 02
the new stop push button. The wiring is done STOP 2
03
effortlessly in software.
Figure 96.
Reversing Motor Control (FWD/REV)
L1 L2
FWD
STOP R2 OL
Let’s now implement the forward/reverse mo- F

FWD
tor circuit shown in Figure 96 in a PLC. The first F1
thing we’ll do is to circle the field devices we’re

REV
going to be connecting to the PLC (Figure 97). F2
R
We start with the stop push button and assign
R1 REV
it address 00. We will also have to bring the
forward and reverse push button. We’ll also
bring the auxiliary contacts F1 for the forward Figure 97.
and R1 for the reverse starter coils and simply L1 L2
FWD
assign the addresses. The interlocking auxil- STOP R2 OL
F
iary contacts R2 and F2 are not necessary since
F1 FWD
we can use either the auxiliary contacts with
addresses 02 and 04 or the addresses of the REV
F2
forward and reverse starter coils when imple-
R
mented in the PLC. These are the only real field REV
R1
input devices we need to connect to the PLC.
F
The output devices will be the forward and re-
Figure 98.
verse starters and their respective indicating L1 L2 L1 L2
pilot lights. To these outputs we’ll assign ad- STOP 00 01 22 20 OL

00
dresses 20, 21, 22 and 23. The necessary FWD
20 F
02
interlockings will be implemented in software 01 20
21 FWD ON
21
with programmed instructions. F1
02 22
00 03 20
22 R
REV
The I/O devices will be connected to their re- 04
23 REV ON
03 22
spective modules as shown in Figure 98. Note R1
23
that the overload contacts are shown connected 04

to the forward coil and then to L2; while the Figure 99.
L1 L2 L3
auxiliary contacts are connected to L1 and to

their respective input modules.
FWD REV
20
L1
In the wiring diagram, as illustrated in Figure F R
99, you can see that actually both the forward 22
L1
and reverse coils have the overloads through
their paths to L2. So in case of an overload,
both coils would be dropped from the circuit. OL
TO L2
To convert the hardwired circuit to a PLC cir-
cuit, we simply follow the logic in the same
manner. Remember that in the PLC you’ll have Figure 100.
four rungs, one for each output (see Figure 98). L1 L2 L1 L2
STOP 00 01 22 20 OL
00
The first rung will have the wired normally 20 F
FWD 02
closed stop push button programmed as an ex- 20
21 FWD ON
01
amine on instruction in series with an examine 21
F1
on forward push button address 01 (see Fig- 02 00 03 20
22
22 R
ure 100). The forward push button will be sealed REV
04
with the forward auxiliary contacts address 02. 03 22
23 REV ON
23
Then we’ll program the interlock of the reverse R1
04
normally closed using the reverse coil address
22. We could also have used the address 04
since it, too, belongs to the reverse coils’ auxil- NOTES
iary contacts. This logic will be driving the for-
ward starter coil with address 20. To program
the forward light indicator, we don’t need to redo
all the logic. We know that, when output 20 is
on, the light should be on. Therefore, we sim-
ply program a normally open contact from out-
put 20 to drive the pilot light output 21.
To program the reverse starter coil, we take the

stop push button programmed normally open
in series with the reverse which is input 03. This
reverse push button is sealed with the reverse
auxiliary contacts with address 04. The circuit
is connected in series with the forward inter-

NOTES
lock which prevents the reverse starter from
being on at the same time as the forward starter.
This contact address could be the address 02
of the forward auxiliary contacts or the address
of the forward coil which is 20. In this case, we’ll
use address 20. The reverse indication pilot light
circuit, similar to the one in the forward circuit,
will be driven by output 22, the reverse starter’s
coil. If the starter is on, the light will be on.
In the circuit illustrated in Figure 100, if we turn

the forward on, the reverse command will be
interlocked and cannot be turned on unless the
stop is pushed (compelling circuit). Then, the
motor can be placed in reverse. Note that now
the forward is interlocked and can’t be ener-
gized until the stop is pushed.
If we want the motor to reverse direction as soon

as the forward or reverse is activated without
pushing the stop, we would need to make a
small change to the circuit (see Figure 101).
This change, however, can be easily made in a
PLC because the wiring is done in the software.
To accomplish this, we would need to include
the forward and reverse push buttons as inter- Figure 101.
locks in each circuit so that they can break the
L1 L2 L1 L2
circuits as soon as they are pushed. These con-
tacts are programmed normally closed which STOP 00 01 22 03 20 OL
00
20 F
open when the forward or reverse push but- FWD 02
21 FWD ON
tons are pushed. 01 20
21
F1
22
If the motor is in forward and the operator wants 02 00 03 20 01
22 R
to reverse the direction of the motor, there is REV
04
only a need to press the reverse. As soon as it 03 22 23 REV ON
23
is pressed, the reverse normally closed con- R1
04
tacts in the first run will break the circuit and

allow the forward interlocking in the reverse cir- NOTES

cuit to provide power so that the reverse coil is
energized. If the forward is pushed, the same
action is obtained. The forward breaks the re-
verse circuit and the forward circuit can now
turn on.
TROUBLESHOOTING THE PLC

I/O SYSTEM AND CPU
If you are installing or troubleshooting a PLC-

based system for proper operation, you must
make sure that you isolate the problem, whether
the problem is in the I/O system, in the CPU, or
in the power being supplied to the system. If
you have a problem in the software program, it
probably deals with the particular logic se-
quences of machine operation which may need
reconsideration. That is true, obviously, if the
proper instructions were not applied to begin
with. For example, if a wired normally closed
input device was programmed as an examine
off when it should have been an examine on
(see Figure 102).
Troubleshooting PLC Inputs Figure 102.
The status indicators of the input modules can L1 L2

provide much information regarding the field
device, its wiring to the module, and the mod- LS1 10
ule itself. If you are troubleshooting an input 10
module, and the device does not seem to turn
on, you can assume that a problem may exist
anywhere from the connection L1 and the ter-
minal connection to the module. N.C. LS1 Input 10
Should Be Programmed
The first thing is to turn the PLC into a standby Examine OFF
mode so that it is not running and activating

Figure 103.
output control. Then you can have the field de-
vice manually activated or closed; for instance,
L1
INPUT L2
PLC MONITOR
have the limit switch close (Figure 103). When
the switch is closed, you should see the power 10
LS1
status indicator in the module turn on. This pro-
vides continuity to the module and the proces-
sor should read its on status. If the indicator C
turns on, it means that wiring is not the cause LS1 STATUS = 1
of the problem.
The PLC status of reading the limit switch can

be accomplished in a test mode available in Figure 104.
PLCs, where the processor reads the inputs POWER ISOLATION LOGIC
and executes the program but does not acti-
vate the power switching the outputs. In this Input
Signal
mode, you could use the programming device
Noise Threshold
Bridge
and see the status of a 1 or a 0 of the image Rectifier
and
Debounce
Level ISOLATOR Logic
Detection
Filter
table or see the contact reference instruction
To
become highlighted when it is closed. If you see Processor
the PLC reading it correctly, the problem is not

with the field input. If you don’t see it, then the NOTES
module could be faulty, even though it senses
that power is present at the module (see Fig-
ure 104).
One cause could be that the logic side of the

module is not operating correctly or the optical
isolator has been blown. It is possible for an
input module to have one of its interfacing chan-
nels faulty while the rest are operational. In this
case, the module will need to be replaced.
If the module does not read the field device sig-

nal, in this case the limit switch, you’ll need to
check further. The possibilities are that there is
a wiring problem, the field device itself is faulty,
the module may be faulty, or the voltage being

supplied to the field device and the module are Figure 105.
not at the right level.
L1 120 VAC L2
While closing the field device, measure the volt-
age to the input module (see Figure 105). If LS1
the signal is a 120 volts AC, the meter should
read that level. If the voltage is present, then
the input module is faulty because it is not rec-
ognizing the signal. If the voltage is below 10% C
to 15% of the voltage, there could be a prob-
lem in the source voltage to the limit switch be-
cause the module is not recognizing the signal
as a valid signal. If no voltage is present, then
there is a problem with the wiring or in the field
device. Make sure you check the wiring con- NOTES
nection to the module to ensure that the wire is
secured at the terminal or terminal blocks, if
used.
Next you’ll need to inspect the voltage at the

device to ensure that it is present. With the de-
vice activated, check for voltage by measuring
with a voltmeter. If while activated, there is no
voltage is present on the load side of the de-
vice, or the side which connects to the module,
then there is a problem with the device. If there
is power, then the problem is definitely in the
wiring from the input device to the module and
you’ll need to trace the wiring.
Troubleshooting PLC Outputs
Similarly to input modules, output interfaces

also provide the useful status indicators. Again
to troubleshoot outputs in a PLC, the first thing
that needs to be done is to isolate the problem
to either the module or the field device and its
wiring (see Figure 106).

Figure 106.
At the output module, insure that the source
power for switching the output is at the correct L1 L2
OUTPUT
level (see Figure 107). In a 120 volts AC, this
SOL
value should be within 10% of the rated value.
Check for a blown fuse if incorporated in the
output module (see Figure 108). If a fuse keeps
blowing, check its rated value and the output
device to see if it is pulling too much current. C
If the output module is receiving the command

to turn on from the processor and the module’s
output status is not turning on, then the output
module is faulty. If the indicator is on and the
field device does not energize, check for volt-
Figure 107.
age at the terminal of the output to insure that
the switching device is operational. If there is L1 L2
no voltage, then the module needs replacing. if OUTPUT
SOL
there is voltage, the problem is in the wiring or
in the field device. Make sure that the field wir-
ing to the module’s terminal or at the terminal
block is making good contact connection and
that there are no broken wires. C
Next, you’ll need to perform checks at the field

device. Here we can make two types of checks.
One with the output module in the on state,
where we know that power is available at the
output module, we measure the voltage com-
Figure 108.
ing to the output field device. Make sure that
the return connection is well connected to the
LOGIC ISOLATION POWER
device. If there is power, the device is not re-
sponding and is therefore faulty.
Line
Another method is to check the field device with- From
Logic ISOLATOR Switch Filter F
out having to turn the module output on. Here Processor
you need to remove the output wiring and con- Load
nect the field device directly to the power. If it

does not respond, the device is faulty. If the field

device responds to power, then there is a prob- NOTES

lem in the wiring between the device and the
output module. A wiring check needs to be per-
formed. Check for broken wires along the wire
path.
Troubleshooting the CPU
The PLC provides diagnostic indicators which

give the status of the PLC. Such indicators in-
clude power, memory, and communications OK
conditions. If the PLC is in a control circuit in
which its fault contacts are used and have
dropped the PLC from the circuit, first check
for voltage supply drop in the control circuit or
for blown fuses. This assumes that the trans-
former KVA is sufficient to supply all the loads.
If the PLC, with proper power, does not come

up, there is a problem with the CPU. The diag-
nostic indicators in front of the CPU will show a
fault in memory or communications. If this is
the case, the CPU may need to be replaced.
PLC Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance of a PLC system in-

cludes only a few basic procedures or checks
that will greatly reduce the rate of failure of sys-
tem components. This preventive maintenance
could be scheduled along with that of the ma-
chine or other system components. Preventive
maintenance checks include any filters that
have been installed in the enclosures and
should be cleaned or replaced periodically. This
ensures clean air circulation in the enclosure
which helps the processor and other compo-
nents dissipate their heat.
Dirt and dust should not be allowed to accu-

mulate on PLC components. To allow heat dis-
sipation, the CPU and I/O system are gener- NOTES

ally not designed to be dust proof. If dust or dirt
accumulates, it may hamper heat dissipation
and could create short circuits if conductive dust
reaches the electronic components.
Connections to the I/O modules should be

checked periodically to ensure that all plugs,
sockets, terminal strips and modules are mak-
ing good connections and that modules are
securely installed. The more the vibration envi-
ronment the PLC is in, the more often this check
needs to take place.
Make sure that heavy magnetic equipment is

not so closely placed or installed to the PLC
system to avoid electrical noise from getting to
the PLC. This could easily happen during the
expansion of a system.
During preventive maintenance, make sure that

unwanted materials, such as ladder diagrams
are not sitting on top of the PLC rack, since this
can also obstruct the air flow and create hot
spots which can result in system malfunctions.
In this module, we have covered an introduc-

tion to the use of programmable controllers in
electrical control systems. Although this intro-
duction covers a general understanding, appli-
cation and troubleshooting of PLCs, it is rec-
ommended, if you are using or plan to be using
PLCs, that you learn a more in-depth study of
PLCs so that you can apply and troubleshoot
them better. PLCs are here to stay and their
application in industry is growing every day.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.- Sketch the conceptual operation of a PLC

that includes its measuring and control of
a process or machine.
2.- True/False. The operation of a PLC in ba-

sic terms is reading the inputs, executing
the control program and updating the out-
puts.
Figure 1
3.- In Figure 1, the PLC output coil in the lad-
der diagram will turn ON if PB1 and LS1 INPUTS PLC OUTPUTS
are ON or if ______. L1 L2 L1 L2
PB1 PB1 LS1 PL
00 00 01 20 20 PL
a– PB1 is disconnected
b– LS2 and LS1 are ON LS2
c– LS1 closes LS1 01 02

LS2 02
4.- In discrete or digital systems, the binary
number was chosen because of ____,
since a digital value could represent the
______ and ______ states being ON and
OFF respectively.
a– Availability
b– Convenience
c– One Figure 2
d– Two
TERMINAL
INPUT
e– Zero ADDRESS
WORD
ADDRESSES
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
5.- In Figure 2, the input address 0014 octal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00
could represent the bit ____ of word loca-

tion ____ and its status can be a ______
INPUT
if the limit switch is ON or a ______ if the ADDRESS
0014
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 05
OUTPUT
ADDRESS
0506
limit switch is OFF.

6.- The term “bit” stands for ______.
a– BInary Term
b– BInary digiT
c– BIdirectional digiT
d– BInary TesT
7.- True/False. Discrete I/O is not used in ON/

OFF applications.
8.- True/False. Analog I/O, used in applica-

tions in which the signal being furnished
by an input device or required by an out-
put device, is in a continuous form.
9.- 120 Volts AC and DC output modules gen-

erally provide a ______ in their output to
protect the module.
a– Coil
b– Fuse
c– Resistor
d– LED indicator
10.- True/False. Emergency stop push buttons

are left hardwired in the circuit even
though they could be brought into the PLC.
11.- Match the following:
______ Normally Closed a– Examine ON

______ Normally Open b– Examine OFF
12.- True/False. Contacts that are available

from output coils come either normally
open or normally closed.

13.- A normally closed input field device (we

would want it to behave as a normally
closed device) would be programmed in
the PLC as a ______ .
a– Normally open instruction

b– Normally closed instruction
14.- True/False. When the accumulated and

preset values are equal, the timer will ex-
ecute its output.
15.- Figure 3 describes the timing diagram for

the ______.
a– OFF delay energize

Figure 3
b– ON delay energize
1
Timer's Control Input 0
16.- True/False. PLC timers do not have instan-
taneous contacts.
Timer's Output 1
ON-Delay Energize 0
17.- If you wanted to add an additional normally
closed stop push button, you would
______.
a– Wire it to an input module and pro- Delay
gram it as an examine ON.
b– Connect it to an input module and

program it normally closed.
c– Wire it to an input module and not

program it.
d– Connect it to an input module and

program it as an examine off.

18.- In Figure 4, the contacts labelled 02 are Figure 4

L1 L2 L1 L2
used as ______.
STOP 00 01 22 20 OL
00
20 F
FWD 02
a– Safety contacts 21 FWD ON
01 20
b– Sealing contacts 21
F1
c– Compelling contacts 02 00 03 20
22
22 R
d– Spare contacts REV
04
03 23 REV ON
22
23
R1
19.- True/False. In Figure 4, if the forward is 04
already ON, show where the reverse com-
mand will be interlocked and cannot be
turned ON unless the stop push button is
pressed.
20.- The circuit in Figure 4 is a compelling cir-

cuit in which the operator has to press stop
in order to change motor direction. Where
and how would you transform this circuit
so that it can be reversed as soon as the
reverse or forward pushbuttons are
pressed? (Hint: use NC contacts R1 and
F1 to inplement the interlock)
21.- True/False. When troubleshooting an in-

put module in a PLC, it is a good idea to
put the PLC in a stand-by mode so that it
is not running and activating an output.
22.- True/False. LED indicators at an input

module will let you know if an output that
is governed by that input is turning ON or
OFF.

23.- If an output module is receiving the com-

mand to turn ON from the processor and
the module’s output status is not turning
ON, then there is a problem with the
______.
a– CPU
b– Output memory
c– Output module itself
d– Supply Voltage
24.- The ______ are used to reference input

field devices while the ______ are used
to reference output devices.
a– Contacts
b– Coils
c– Terminals
d– Contactors
25.- In Figure 5, circle the ON or OFF status of Figure 5

outputs 20, 100, 101 and PL1 if PB1 is
pushed and LS1 is open. L1 L2 L1 L2
PB1 PL1
10 11 20
Coil 20 is ON OFF
10 20
Coil 100 is ON OFF
20 100
LS1
Coil 101 is ON OFF 11
PL1 is ON OFF
20 101

ANSWERS
1.-
PROCESS
OR
MACHINE
MEASURE CONTROL
PROGRAMMABLE
PROGRAMMABLE
CONTROLLER
CONTROLLER
2.- True
3.- Figure
4.- b– Convenience
c– One
e– Zero
5.- The input address 0014 octal could repre-

sent the bit 14 of word location 00 and its
status will be a 1 if the limit switch is closed
or a 0 if the limit switch is open.
6.- b– BInary digiT
7. False. Discrete I/O is used in ON/OFF ap-

plications.
8.- True
9.- b– Fuse
10.- True
11.- ___
b Normally Closed a– Examine ON
a Normally Open
___ b– Examine OFF
12.- False. They come in both, normally closed
and normally open
13.- a– Normally open instruction
14.- True

15.- b– ON-delay energize
16.- True
17.- a– Wire it to an input module and program

it as an examine ON.
18.- b– Sealing contacts
19.- The reverse command will be interlocked Figure 6

by the N.C. contact with address 20 which L1 L2 L1 L2
will not allow the reverse to be on unless STOP 00 01 22 20 OL

00
the motor is stopped first. This contact is 20 F
FWD
circled in Figure 6. 02
21 FWD ON
01 20
21
20.- The forward and reverse push button in-
F1
terlocks will be programmed normally 02 00 03 20
22
closed as indicated by the circles in the REV

22 R
04
Figure 7. This addition allows an operator 03 23 REV ON
22
to be able to do a motor reversal without 23
R1
having to stop the motor. Note that the
04
addresses used are those of the reverse
and forward push buttons. Figure 7
L1 L2 L1 L2
21.- True
STOP 00 01 22 03 20 OL
00
22.- False. LED indicators at an input module 20 F
FWD 02
would let you know if an input signal is 21 FWD ON
20
being received or not. 01
21
F1
23.- c– Output module itself. 02 00 03 20 01
22
22 R
REV
24.- a– Contacts 04
03 22 23 REV ON
23
b– Coils R1
04
25.- Coil 20 is ON OFF
Coil 100 is ON OFF
Coil 101 is ON OFF
PL1 is ON OFF

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TROUBLESHOOTING AND

Industrial Text & Video Company 1-800-752-8398 www.industrialtext.com

Reproduction or translation of any part of this work

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Chapter 1: Plant Power Distribution

Chapter 2: Static/Manual Control Switches

Chapter 4: Electromagnetic Control Switches

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Chapter 5: Understanding Electrical Control Circuits

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Chapter 6: Introduction to AC and DC Motors and Motor Control Circuits

Chapter 7: Preventive Maintenance and Electrical Control Circuit Troubleshooting

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Chapter 8: Understanding and Troubleshooting DC Motor Controls

Chapter 9: Understanding and Troubleshooting AC Motor Controls

Chapter 10: Use, Application and Troubleshooting of Programmable Controllers (PLCs)

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This first chapter, presents an introduction to

During the explanation of power distribution in-

After this chapter, you should:

• Know how alternators/generators work

• Understand the Wye and Delta power

• Know how to maintain a power system

• Understand Phase-to-Phase and

• Know how power is distributed through

• Understand the application of Motor

• How DC power is generated from AC

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The first chapter in Troubleshooting and Un-

As we know, the incoming plant power is gen-

The power being transmitted is reduced, or

Essentially what happens is that power is gen-

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The substations (Figure 2) that bring the incom- Figure 2.

The input section includes primary switchgear

In this program, we are going to cover in detail

However, experience has taught us that before

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voltages are designed the way they are. This NOTES

We all know that electric power is created at a

As you know, the electricity we see being pro-

However, you know that your plant may have

Now, let’s go back and find out how AC power

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It is not, of course, our intention here to ex-

Alternators operate on the theory of electro-

a hydroelectric plant, in which case the gen-

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If we track the rotation of the alternator through 0˚

ters of the current and when we complete the 180˚

whole turn, we get a complete current cycle.

By having one element (Figure 7) , in this case 0˚

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in an alternator with four poles. N2

So, if the alternator is running at a lower speed

If we added even more poles to the alternator,

Because it is more economical and practical,

By having these coils separated in this man-

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