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 Visualizing Astronomy 3.1 The Ancient Universe 50
Introduction 1
3.2 Nicolaus Copern icus 52
The Heliocentric Model 52
PART 1 Exploring the Sky 2 3.3 Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Planetary
Motion 55
1 The Scale of the Cosmos: Space and Time 2 Tycho Brahe 55
Johannes Kepler 55
1.1 From Solar System to Galaxy to Universe 4
Kepler's Three Laws of Planetary Motion 56
Visualizing Astronomy 1.1 The Scale of the Very Small and
Very Large: Powers of 10 6 3.4 Galileo Galilei 58
Telescopic Observations 58
1.2 The Cosmic Calendar: Concepts of Ti me 10 Dialogo and Trial 61
The Big Picture 11 3.5 Isaac Newton, Gravity, and Orb its 61
Review and Discussion Questions 12 Isaac Newton 62
The Universal Theory of Gravitation 63
2 User's Guide to the Sky: Patterns and Orbital Motion 64
Tides: Gravity in Action 64
Cycles 14 Newton's Universe 65
2.1 The Stars 16 Visualizing Astronomy 3.2 Orbiting Earth 66
Constellations 16
The Big Picture 68
The Names of the Stars 16
The Brightness of Stars 17 Review and Discussion Questions 69

2.2 The Sky and Its Motions 18
The Celestial Sphere 18
Precession 19
Visualizing Astronomy 2.1 The Sky Around Us
2.3 The Cyc le of the Sun 22
The Annual Motion of the Sun 22
The Seasons 23
Visualizing Astronomy 2.2 The Cycle of the Seasons
2.4 The Cyc les of the Moon 26
The Motion of the Moon 27
The Cycle of Moon Phases 27
Visualizing Astronomy 2.3 The Phases of the Moon
4 Astronomical Telescopes and Instruments:
Extending Humanity's Vision 70
20 4.1 Radiation : Information from Space 72
Light as a Wave and as a Particle 72
The Electromagnetic Spectrum 73
4.2 Telescopes 74
24 Two Kinds of Telescopes 75
The Powers of a Telescope 75
4.3 Observatories on Earth: Optical and Radio 79
Visualizing Astronomy 4.1 Modern Astronomical
28 Telescopes 80

2.5 Ec lipses 30 4.4 Astronomical Instruments and Techn iques 83

Solar Eclipses 30 Imaging Systems and Photometers 83
Spectrographs 83
Lunar Eclipses 32
4.5 Airborne and Space Observatories 85
2.6 Stellar Coordinates 33
The Ends of the Visual Spectrum 85
2.7 Timekeeping 34 Telescopes in Space 86
Timekeeping by Day 34
The Big Picture 88
Timekeeping by Month 34
Timekeeping by Year 34 Review and Discussion Questions 88
What Time Is It? 34
Calendars 35

2.8 Night Sky Tours 35

The Big Picture 39
PART2 The Stars 90
Review and Discussion Questions 40
5 The Sun: The Closest Star 90
3 The Origin of Modern Astronomy 42
5.1 The Sun : Basic Characteristics 92
3.1 A Brief Hi story of Ancient Astronomy 44 Distance and Size 92
The Geocentric Model of the Universe 47 Mass and Density 93

NEL v
 5.2 Properties of Blackbody Radiation 93 7.2 Nuclear Fusion in the Sun and Stars 148
Atoms and Subatomic Particles 93 Nuclear Binding Energy 148
Temperature, Heat, and Blackbody Radiation 93 Hydrogen Fusion 148
Neutrinos from the Sun's Core 151
5.3 The Sun's Surface 95
The Pressure-Temperature Thermostat 152
The Photosphere 95
Heat Flow in the Sun 96 7.3 Main-Sequence Stars 152
The Mass-Luminosity Relation 152
5.4 Light, Matter, and Motion 96
Brown Dwarfs 152
Electron Shells 97
The Life of a Main-Sequence Star 153
Excitation of Atoms 97
The Doppler Effect 99 7.4 The Birth of Stars 154
Visualizing Astronomy 5.1 Atomic Spectra 100 The Interstellar Medium 154

5.5 The Sun's Atmosphere 102 Visualizing Astronomy 7.1 Three Kinds of Nebulae 156
Formation of Spectra 103 The Formation of Stars from the Interstellar Medium 158
The Sun's Chemical Composition 103 The Formation of Protostars 160
The Chromosphere 104 Observations of Star Formation 161
The Corona 106 Visualizing Astronomy 7.2 Star Formation in the Orion
Nebula 162
5.6 Solar Activity 107
Observing the Sun 107 The Orion Nebula 164
Sunspots 107 Evidence of Young Stars 164
Insight into the Sun's Interior 107 The Big Picture 164
The Sun's Magnetic Cycle 108
Babcock Model for Solar Activity 109 Review and Discussion Questions 165
Visualizing Astronomy 5.2 Sunspots and the Sunspot Cycle 11 0
8 The Deaths of Stars 166
Chromospheric and Coronal Activity 113
Visualizing Astronomy 5.3 Magnetic Solar Phenomena 114 8.1 Giant Stars 168
Expansion into a Giant 168
The Big Picture 116 Helium Fusion 169
Review and Discussion Questions 117 Star Clusters: Evidence of Evolution 169
8.2 The Deaths of Low-Mass Stars 170
6 The Family of Stars 118 Red Dwarfs 170
Medium-Mass Sun/ike Stars 171
6.1 Star Distances 120 Planetary Nebulae 171
The Surveyor's Triangulation Method 120
White Dwarfs 172
The Astronomer's Triangulation Method 120
The Fate of the Sun and the End of Earth 173
6.2 Apparent Brightness, Intrinsic Brightness, Visualizing Astronomy 8.1 Star Cluster H-R Diagrams 174
and Luminosity 121
Brightness and Distance 122
8.3 The Evolution of Binary Systems 176
Mass Transfer and Accretion Disks 176
Absolute Visual Magnitude 122
Novae 177
Luminosity 122
Type Ia Supernova: Thermonuclear or White Dwarf
6.3 Star Temperatures 123 Supernova 177
Temperature Spectral Classification 124
8.4 The Deaths of Massive Stars 178
6.4 Star Sizes 126 Nuclear Fusion in Massive Stars 178
Luminosity, Temperature, and Diameter 126 Supernova Explosions of Massive Stars 179
Luminosity Spectral Classification 129 Observations of Supernovae 180
6.5 Star Masses: Binary Stars 130 8.5 Neutron Stars 183
Binary Stars in General 130 Theoretical Prediction of Neutron Stars 183
Three Kinds of Binary Systems 132 The Discovery of Pulsars 184
6.6 Typical Stars 134 The Evolution of Pulsars 185
Luminosity, Mass, and Density 134 Binary Pulsars 186
The Fastest Pulsars 187
Visualizing Astronomy 6.1 The Family of Stars 136
Pulsar Planets 187
Surveying the Stars 138
8.6 Black Holes 188
The Big Picture 139 Escape Velocity 188
Schwarzschild Black Holes 189
Review and Discussion Questions 139
Leaping into a Black Hole 191
7 The Structure and Formation of Stars 142 The Search for Black Holes 191
Energy from Compact Objects: Jets 193
7.1 Stellar Structure 144 Energy from Compact Objects: Gamma-Ray
The Laws of Conservation of Mass and Energy 144 Bursts 193
Hydrostatic Equilibrium 144
The Big Picture 194
Energy Transport 145
Stellar Models 146 Review and Discussion Questions 194

vi I Contents NEL

PART3 Galaxies and Cosmology 196
9 The Milky Way Galaxy 196
9.1 The Discovery of the Galaxy 198
The Great Star System 198
The Size of the Milky Way 199
Star Clusters and the Centre of the
Galaxy 200
Components of the Galaxy 201
The Mass of the Galaxy 204
9.2 Spiral Arms and Star Formation 206
Tracing the Spiral Arms 206
Star Formation in Spiral Arms 207
9.3 The Origin and History of the Milky Way 209
The Age of the Milky Way 209
Stellar Populations 210
The Element-Building Cycle 21 0
The History of the Milky Way Galaxy 211
Visualizing Astronomy 9.1 Sagittarius A* 214
9.4 The Nucleus 216
Observations of the Galactic Nucleus 2 16
The Big Picture 217
Review and Discussion Questions 218
1 0 Galaxies 220
10.1 The Family of Galaxies 222
10.2 Measuring the Properties of Galaxies 223
Distance Ladder 223
Visualizing Astronomy 10.1 Galaxy C lassification
Telescopes as Time Machines 227
The Hubble Law 227
Galaxy Diameters and Luminosities 228
Galaxy Masses 228
Dark Matter in Galaxies 229
Supermassive Black Holes in Galaxies 230
10.3 The Evolution of Galaxies 231
Clusters of Galaxies 232
Dark Matter in Clusters of Galaxies 232
Colliding Galaxies 234
10.4 Active Galaxies and Quasars 239
Seyfert Galaxies 240
Double-Lobed Radio Sources 240
Quasars 241
The Search for a Unified Model 243
The Origin of Supermassive Black Holes 243
Quasars through Time 245
The Big Picture 247
Review and Discussion Questions 247
11 Cosmology in the 21st Century 250
11.1 Introduction to the Universe 252
The Edge-Centre Problem 252
The Necessity of a Beginning 252
Cosmic Expansion 253
11.2 The Big Bang Theory 254
Necessity of the Big Bang 254
Evidence for the Big Bang: The Cosmic Microwave
Background 256
NEL
Particles and Nucleosynthesis: The First Seconds
and Minutes 257
Recombination and Reionization: The First Thousands
and Millions of Years 259
11.3 Space and Time, Matter and Energy 261
Looking at the Universe 261
The Cosmic Redshift 261
Model Universes 262
Dark Matter in Cosmology 263
11.4 Modern Cosmology 264
Inflation 264
The Acceleration of the Universe 266
Dark Energy and Acceleration 267
The Fate of the Universe 267
The Origin of Structure 268
CMB Irregularities and the Curvature of Space-Time 269
Visualizing Astronomy 11.1 The Large Hadron Collider 270
The Big Picture 273
Review and Discussion Questions 273
PART4 The Solar System 274
12 The Origin of the Solar System 274
12.1 The Great Chain of Origins 276
The History of the Atoms in Your Body 276
The Origin of the Solar System 276
12.2 A Survey of the Planets 277
224 Revolution and Rotation 277
Two Kinds of Planets 278
12.3 Space Debris: Asteroids, Comets, and
Meteoroids 278
Asteroids 278
Comets 279
Visualizing Astronomy 12.1 Terrestrial and Jovian Planets 280
Meteoroids, Meteors, Meteorites 284
12.4 The Story of Planet Formation 285
The Age of the Solar System 285
Chemical Composition of the Solar Nebula 286
Condensation of Solids 287
Formation of Planetesimals 288
Growth of Protoplanets 289
Bombardment of the Planets 290
Explaining the Characteristics of the Solar
System 292
12.5 Planets Orbiting Other Stars 294
Planet-Forming Disks around Other Stars 294
Debris Disks 294
Extrasolar Planets 296
The Big Picture 300
Review and Discussion Questions 300
13 Comparative Planetology of the Terrestrial
Planets 302
13.1 A Travel Guide to the Terrestrial
Planets 304
The Scale of the Solar System 304
Contents I vii
 Revolution and Rotation 304
Two Kinds of Planets 304
Core, Mantle, and Crust 304
Atmospheres 305
13.2 Earth: The Active Planet 306
Earth's Interior 306
Earth's Active Crust 307
Earth's Atmosphere 307
Visualizing Astronomy 13.1 The Active Earth
Oxygen in Earth's Atmosphere 311
A Short Geological History of Earth 311
13.3 The Moon 312
Lunar Geology 312
The Origin of Earth's Moon 312
The History of Earth's Moon 313
Human Spaceflight: One Small Step
13.4 Mercury 316
Spacecraft at Mercury 316
A History of Mercury 317
13.5 Venus 318
The Atmosphere of Venus 318
The Surface of Venus 318
The History of Venus 320
13.6 Mars 321
The Atmosphere of Mars 321
Exploring the Surface of Mars 322
Searching for Water on Mars 322
A History of Mars 325
Visualizing Astronomy 13.2 When Good Planets
Go Bad 326
13.7 The Moons of Mars 328
The Big Picture 329
14.6 Dwarf Planets 350
What Defines a Planet? 350
Pluto 351
Pluto and the Plutinos 352
Ceres 353
Other Dwarf Planets 353
The Big Picture 354
Review and Discussion Questions 354
308
PARTS Life 356
315
15 Life on Other Worlds 356
15.1 The Nature of Life 358
The Physical Basis of Life 358
Information Storage and Duplication 359
Modifying the Information 359
15.2 Life in the Universe 360
The Origin of Life on Earth 360
Visualizing Astronomy 15.1 DNA: The Code of Life 362
The Cosmic Calendar Revisited: The Evolution of
Life 365
Life in Our Solar System 368
Life in Other Planetary Systems 370
15.3 Intelligent Life in the Universe 371
Travel between the Stars 371
Radio Communication 372
How Many Inhabited Worlds? 375
The Big Picture 376

Review and Discussion Questions 329

Review and Discussion Questions 376

14 The Outer Solar System 332 Afterword 378

14.1 A Travel Guide to the Outer Planets 334 Appendix A: Units and Astronomical Data 380
The Outer Planets 334 The Metric System and Sl Units 380
Atmospheres and Interiors 335
Temperature Scales 380
Satellite Systems 335
Astronomy Units and Constants 380
14.2 Jupiter 335
The Interior 335
Appendix 8: Observing the Sky 385
Jupiter's Complex Atmosphere 336
Jupiter's Rings 336 Using Star Charts 385
Jupiter's Family of Moons 337 Star Charts 386
Visualizing Astronomy 14.1 Jupiter's Magnetosphere and
Complex Atmosphere 338 Appendix C: Celestial Profiles 388
A History of Jupiter 341 Mercury 388
14.3 Saturn 341 Venus 388
Saturn's Rings 341
Earth 389
Visualizing Astronomy 14.2 The Ice Rings of
Saturn 342 Mars 389
Saturn's Family of Moons 345 Jupiter 390
14.4 Uranus 346 Saturn 390
Planet Uranus 346 Uranus 391
The Uranian Moons 348
The Uranian Rings 348 Neptune 391
14.5 Neptune 348 The Sun 392
Planet Neptune 348 The Moon 392
Neptune's Moons 349
Neptune's Rings 350 Index 393

viii I Contents NEL

Shohini Ghose is an Associate Professor of Physics and
Computer Science and Director of the Centre for Women
in Science at Wilfrid Laurier University. She is an adjunct
professor at the University of Waterloo, a member of the
Guelph-Waterloo Physics Institute, and an affiliate of the
Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics. She is a theo-
retical physicist who has made important contributions in
the areas of nonlinear dynamics, quantum information, and
quantum optics. Shohini has taught physics and astronomy
to over 2000 students enrolled in her courses, and has devel-
oped innovative online teaching and learning tools for sci-
ence. Her research and teaching has earned her numerous
awards, including a WOW (Women of Waterloo) Education
award and a prestigious TED Fellowship. Shohini is also
passionate about addressing gender issues in science and
recently founded the Laurier Centre for Women in Science
(WinS). Apart from physics she loves reading, travelling,
and cricket (the game, not the insect).
Vesna Milosevic-Zdjelar, former astrophysicist from
the National Observatory in Belgrade, Serbia, joined the
University of Winnipeg's Physics Department in 2000.
In Canada, she obtained a degree in science education,
and has made important contributions teaching science
courses to non-science and life sciences students, and
creating community awareness by initiating science out-
reach programs. She initiated and co-created "Concepts
in Science," a course that became the preferred science
course choice for education and arts students, with enroll-
ment increasing tenfold to 300 students. Vesna's passion
NEL
for science education came from generations of educators
in her family, especially her mother Ljiljana, a nuclear
physicist, whose expertize and ideas contributed to this
book. Vesna has been invited to make numerous presenta-
tions at conferences and symposia for university instruc-
tors and science teachers. She teaches a broad range of
courses including Astronomy, Concepts in Science,
Physics for Life Sciences, and Physics of Music.
L. Arthur (Art) Read is Professor Emeritus at Wilfrid
Laurier University (WLU), Waterloo. He received both
his BA and MSc (Physics) from McMaster University,
and his PhD (Physics) from University of Waterloo.
At WLU, Art taught physics and served in various
administrative roles including Dean of Arts & Science
(1983-1999), Director of the Brantford Development
Project, and was subsequently appointed as the first Dean
of the Laurier Brantford campus (1999-2001).
His research interests involved microwave optics
and broadband molecular spectroscopy. With a keen
interest in education quality and standards development,
he has served as curriculum assessor for the Ontario
Postsecondary Education Quality Assessment Board. He
has developed and taught a variety of physics courses,
including musical acoustics, analog electronics, physics
for life sciences, and introductory astronomy. In his
retirement, Art is currently teaching two popular online
astronomy courses for Laurier and has recently completed
the development of two interactive online astronomy
courses for provincial use in Ontario.
•
IX
 ....
•
-
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 From Solar System to Galaxy to Universe
1.2 The Cosmic Calendar: Concepts of Time

GUIDEPOST
You are already an expert in astronomy. You have enjoyed sunsets and
moonrises, have admired the stars, and may know a few constellations. You
have probably read about Mars rovers and the Hubble Space Telescope.
That is more than most Earthlings know about astronomy. Still, you owe it
to yourself to understand where you are. You should know what it means
to live on a planet that whirls around a star sailing through one galaxy in a
universe full of galaxies.
It is easy to learn a few facts, but it is the relationships among facts that
are important. This chapter will give you the sense of scale that you need to
understand where you are in the universe.
Here, you will consider three important questions about astronomy:

• Where are you and Earth in the universe?

• How does the time span of human civilization compare with the
age of the universe?
• How does science give us a way to know about nature?

The remaining chapters in this book will fill in the details, give evidence,
describe theories, and illustrate the wonderful intricacy and beauty of the
universe. That journey begins here.
You are about to go on a voyage to the limits of the known universe,
travelling outward , away from your home on Earth, past the Moon and the
Sun and the other planets of our solar system, past the stars you see in
the night sky, and beyond billions more stars that can be seen only with
the aid of telescopes. You will visit the most distant galaxies-great globes
and whirlpools of stars-and continue on, carried only by experience and
imagination, seeking to understand the structure of the universe. Astronomy
 is more than the study of planets, stars, and galaxies-it is
the study of the whole universe in which you live. Although
humanity is confined to a small planet circling an average
star, the study of astronomy can take you beyond these
boundaries and help you not only see where you are but
also understand what you are.
Your imagination is the key to discovery; it will be
your scientific space-and-time machine transporting
you across the universe and into the past and future. Go
back in time to watch the formation of the Sun and Earth,
the birth of the first stars, and ultimately the creation of
the universe. Then, rush into the future to see what will
happen when the Sun dies and Earth withers.
Although you will discover a beginning to the universe,
you will not find an edge or an end in space. No matter how
far you voyage, you will not run into a wall. In a later chapter
you will discover evidence that the universe may be infinite;
that is, it may extend in all directions without limit.
Astronomy will introduce you to sizes, distances, and
times far beyond your usual experience on Earth. Your
task in this chapter is to grasp the meaning of these
unfamiliar sizes, distances, and times. The solution lies
in a single word: scale. In this chapter, you will compare
objects of different sizes in order to comprehend the
scale of the universe.
1.1 From Solar System
to Galaxy to Universe
We start with our human scale in the Universe of
Particles, a museum exhibit at the Globe of Science and
Innovation at CERN (Organisation Europeenne pour
la Recherche Nucleaire) in Geneva (see Visualizing
Astronomy 1.1, The Scale of the Very Small and Very
Large: Powers of 10). CERN is the home of the Large
Hadron Collider, the largest particle accelerator in oper-
ation today, which was designed to simulate the begin-
ning of the universe (see also Chapter 11, Visualizing
Astronomy 11.1, The Large
scientific notation The Hadron Collider). Not more
system of recording very than 100 m under the ground
large or very small numbers from the Globe of Science
by using powers of 10.
and Innovation, massive
field of view The area visible detectors are looking for the
in an image, usually given as
first signs of the big bang,
the diameter of the region.
microscopic black holes , and
4 I PART 1 Exploring the Sky
dark matter. The results might shed light on many topics
in this book, and perhaps even change a few chapters.
We indeed live in exciting times, when new technology
can bring us closer to our origins.
Now let's use our imagination to fly out from the
Globe of Science and Innovation. Along the way, study
the journey described in Visualizing Astronomy 1.1,
The Scale of the Very Small and Very Large: Powers
of 10. (The following figure numbers refer to these
pages.)
Our journey to the smallest realm of nature starts with the
human hand on the museum exhibit (Figure 1a). To reach
the scale of skin cells in our hand (Figure 1b), we have to
zoom in with a microscope 100 000 times to a size that is
100-thousandth of a metre. The metre quickly becomes too
large as a unit. fustead we use either prefixes (e.g., "milli,"
which means "one-thousandth") or scientific notation-the
powers of 10. The information about the cell and the organism
to which the cell belongs is encoded in the DNA molecule.
The DNA strand shown here is a billionth of a metre thick
(Figure 1c). Diving through the molecule, we encounter the
main building block of matter: the atom. The size of the
electron cloud surrounding the tiny nucleus of an atom is
10-billionthofametre(Figure 1d). Thenucleusoftheatomis
10 000 times smaller than the atom itself. Elementary par-
ticles are roughly in the order of 10 times smaller than the
nucleus. How far can we go? Large Hadron Collider achieved
collisions in which a Higgs boson has been produced, on the
scale of 10- 15 m (Figure 1e). The smallest length that theo-
retically makes sense is the Planck length 100 billion bil-
lion times smaller than the scale of the smallest elementary
particles (Figure 1f)! An understanding of these building
blocks of space and matter allows us to unravel the secrets
of the birth and evolution of the universe.
In the following chapters you will embark on a
journey from Earth to the farthest visible extent of the
universe. For those distances we use larger measures than
the metre as we move outward from Earth.
You will now follow the sequence in Visualizing
Astronomy 1.1, The Scale of the Very Small and Very
Large: Powers of 10, starting again from the Globe of
Science and Innovation (Figure 2a), and moving farther
and farther away. Each view is made from a distance that
is some power of 10 times farther away, until the dis-
tance becomes so large that we jump with higher incre-
ments. Every time we move 10 times away, our field
of view encompasses an area 10 X 10 larger than the
•
prev1ous square.
Distances are first expressed in metres until they
become so large that a metre becomes too small as a unit.
At a distance of 10 000 m, or 10 km, the view includes
NEL
about the same area as CERN's Large Hadron Collider Venus, and Earth are so close
astronomical unit
(Figure 2b). together that we cannot sep- (AU) Average distance from
In the next step of the journey, we can see the arate them at this scale. Earth to the Sun; 1.5 X 108
entire planet Earth, which is about 13 000 kilometres in Mars, the next outward kilometres.
diameter. The image of Earth (Figure 2c) shows most of planet, is only 1.5 AU from solar system The Sun and
the daylight side of the planet, and the blurriness at the the Sun. In contrast, Jupiter, its planets, asteroids, comets,
extreme right is the sunset line. The rotation of Earth Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune and so on.
on its axis each 24 hours carries us eastward, and as are so far from the Sun that planet A non-luminous body
we cross the sunset line into darkness we say that the they are easy to find in this in orbit around a star, large
Sun has set. At the scale of this image, the atmosphere figure. Light from the Sun enough to be spherical and to
have cleared its orbital zone
on which our life depends is thinner than a strand of reaches Earth in only eight
of other objects.
thread. minutes, but it takes over four
star A globe of gas held
Next we enlarge our field of view by a factor of 100 hours to reach Neptune. Pluto,
together by its own gravity
and see a region 1000000 km wide (Figure 2d). Earth which orbits mostly outside and supported by the internal
is the small blue dot in the centre, and the Moon, with Neptune's orbit, is no longer pressure of its hot gases,
a diameter only about one-fourth that of Earth, is an considered a major planet. which generate energy by
even smaller dot along its orbit. If you've had a high- The Sun is a fairly typical nuclear fusion.
mileage car, it may have travelled the equivalent of a star, a bit larger than average,
trip to the Moon, which has an average distance from and it is located in a fairly
Earth of 380 000 km. These numbers are so large that normal neighbourhood in the universe. The stars are separ-
it is inconvenient to write them out. Astronomy is the ated by average distances about 30 times larger than this
science of big numbers, and you will use numbers much view, which has a diameter of 11000 AU. It is difficult
larger than these to describe the universe. to grasp the isolation of the stars. If the Sun were repre-
Here, we jump to another measuring unit. We enlarge sented by a golf ball in Vancouver, the nearest star would
a picture not 10 times or 100 times, but 150 times in be another golf ball in Calgary.
order to fit a specific distance into the picture: the average At this point, our view has expanded to a diameter of
distance from Earth to the Sun. This distance is called about 2 million AU. The Sun is at the centre, and we see a
the astronomical unit (AU), which is 1.5 X 108 km, few of the nearest stars. These stars are so distant that it is
or 1.5 X 1011 m. Introducing new units is another way not reasonable to give their distances in AU. Astronomers
astronomers deal with large numbers. Using that unit,
we can say, for example, that the average distance from
Venus to the Sun is about 0. 7 AU. At this scale we find
the Sun and planets of our solar system (Figure 2e). The
solar system consists of the Sun, its family of planets,
and some smaller bodies, such as moons, asteroids, and
comets.
Like Earth, Venus and Mercury are planets small,
nonluminous bodies that shine by reflecting sunlight.
Venus is about the size of Earth, and Mercury is a bit
larger than Earth's moon. In this figure they are both
too small to be seen as anything but tiny dots. The Sun
is a star, a self-luminous ball of hot gas that generates
its own energy (Figure 1.1 ). The Sun is about 110 times
larger in diameter than Earth, but it, too, is nothing
more than a dot in this view. Earth orbits the Sun once
a year.
Now, jump 100 times farther away than the pre-
vious view, and you will see the entire solar system,
all the major planets and their slightly elliptical orbits
(Figure 2t). You see only the brighter, more widely sep-
arated objects as you back away. The Sun, Mercury, Figure 1.1 Our Star: The Sun

NEL CHAPTER 1 The Scale of the Cosmos: Space and Time I5

 Atom size,
10-10 m

Nucleus size,
10-14 m

6 PART 1 Exploring the Sky NEL

NEL CHAPTER 1 The Scale of the Cosmos: Space and Time I7
 have defined a new larger The space between the stars is filled with thin gas.
light-year (ly) Unit of dis-
unit of distance, the light- Although those clouds of gas are thinner than the best
tance equal to the distance
light travels in one year. year. One light-year (ly) is vacuum produced in laboratories on Earth, it is those
the distance that light travels clouds that give birth to new stars. The Sun formed from
galaxy A large system of
in one year, roughly 10 13 km,
stars, star clusters, gas, such a cloud about 5 billion years ago.
dust, and nebulae orbiting a or 63 000 AU. In the diagram Expanding our view by a factor of 3000, we see our
common centre of mass. of the nearby stars in relation galaxy (Figure 2h). A galaxy is a great cloud of stars, gas,
Milky Way The hazy band to the Sun, the diameter of and dust bound together by the combined gravity of all the
of light that circles our sky, our view is 30 ly (Figure 2g). matter. In the night sky, you see our galaxy from the inside
produced by the glow of our The nearest star to the Sun, as a great, cloudy band of stars ringing the sky as the Milky
galaxy.
Proxima Centauri, is 4.2 ly Way, and our galaxy is called the Milky Way Galaxy. Of
Milky Way Galaxy The spiral from Earth. In other words, course, no one has photographed our galaxy, but astron-
galaxy contai ning our Sun,
light from Proxima Centauri omers have evidence that the galaxy image in Figure 2h is
visible in the night sky as the
Milky Way. takes 4.2 years to reach Earth. similar to our own. Our Sun would be invisible in such a pic-
Although these stars are ture, but if we could see it, we would find it about two-thirds
spiral arms Long spiral
pattern of bright stars, star roughly the same size as the of the way from the centre to the edge. Our galaxy contains
clusters, gas, and dust. Sun, they are so far away over 100 billion stars, and, like many others, has graceful
Spiral arms extend from the that you cannot see them spiral arms winding outward through the disk. You will dis-
centre to the edge of the disk as anything but points of cover in a later chapter that stars are born in great clouds of
of spiral galaxies. light. Even with the largest gas and dust as they pass through the spiral arms.
telescopes on Earth, you The visible disk of our galaxy is roughly 80 000 ly in
still see only points of light diameter. Only a century ago, astronomers thought it was the
when you look at stars, and any planets that might circle entire universe an island universe of stars in an otherwise
those stars are much too small and faint to be visible. Of empty vastness. Now we know that the Milky Way Galaxy is
course, no one has ever j oumeyed thousands of light- not unique; it is a typical galaxy in many respects, although
years from Earth to look back and photograph the Sun's larger than most. In fact, ours is only one of many billions of
neighbourhood. galaxies scattered throughout the universe.

Andrew McKellar

What's the temperature of interstellar space? The first person to answer this question was
Dr. Andrew McKellar in 1941. Born in Vancouver, British Columbia, Dr. McKellar worked at the
Dominion Astrophysical Observatory in Victoria from 1935 until 1960, except for a brief inter-
ruption when he served in the Royal Canadian Navy during the Second World War. In 1940,
he used molecular spectroscopy to study the interstellar medium and identified the presence
of methane, a compound made of a carbon atom and a hydrogen atom, and cyanogen,
made of a carbon atom and a nitrogen atom. He became the first person to demonstrate
the existence of matter in interstellar space. Furthermore, he measured the temperature of
the cyanogen molecules and thus estimated that the temperature of the interstellar space in
which they existed was incredibly cold : rough ly 2.4 degrees above absolute zero. Although
Dr. McKellar did not know it at the time, he had measured the temperature of the cosmic
microwave background (CMB), the radiation emitted rough ly 13.8 billion years ago, just after
the big bang occurred. Almost 25 years later, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson detected this
microwave radiation from all parts of the sky, corresponding to the temperature estimated by
McKellar. Their discovery led to the widespread acceptance of the big bang theory by the
worldwide astronomical community, and earned them a Nobel Prize in 1978, almost 20 years
after the death of Dr. McKellar (the Nobel Prize cannot be awarded posthumously). In
Dr. McKellar's honour, the 1.2-m telescope at the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory is
named the McKellar telescope, and the McKellar crater on the Moon is also named after him.

8 I PART 1 Exploring the Sky NEL

 Continuing our journey from the very small to the
very large, we move away 40 times farther, and our galaxy
appears as a tiny luminous speck surrounded by other
specks in a region 4 million ly in diameter. Notice that our
galaxy is part of a cluster of a few dozen galaxies called
the Local Group (Figure 2i). Galaxies are commonly
grouped together in clusters, and some of these galaxies
have beautiful spiral patterns like our own galaxy, but
others do not. In a later chapter you will investigate what
produces these differences among the galaxies.
The image of a fragment of an all-sky survey created
by SDSS (Sloan Digital Sky Survey) captures a quarter of
a billion galaxies and represents a diameter of 1.7 billion
light years (Figure 2j). It shows clusters of galaxies
connected in a vast network. Clusters are grouped into
superclusters clusters of clusters and the superclusters
are linked to fonn long filaments and walls what outline
voids that seem nearly empty of galaxies. These filaments
and walls appear to be the largest structures in the universe.
If we expanded our view frame one more time, we
would probably see a uniform fog of filaments and voids.
As we puzzle over the origin of these structures, we are at
the frontier of human knowledge. The sequence of figures
ends here because it has
supercluster Acluster of
reached the limits of possible
galaxy clusters.
observation of the universe. It
is not possible to see any dis-
tance larger than 13.8 billion light-years. If the universe
is 13.8 billion years old, the light from distances farther
away than this would not have had the time to reach us.
You will learn more about cosmology in Chapter 11.
A problem in studying astronomy is keeping a proper
sense of scale. Remember that each of the billions of
galaxies contains billions of stars. Many of those stars
probably have families of planets like our solar system,
and on some of those billions of planets liquid-water
oceans and protective atmospheres may have sheltered
the spark of life. It is possible that some other planets are
inhabited by intelligent creatures who share our curiosity,
wonder at the scale of the cosmos, and are looking back
at us when we gaze into the heavens.
How could anyone possibly know these secrets of
nature? Science gives us a way to know how nature works
(see How Do We Know? 1.1 and How Do We Know?
1.2). As you explore the universe in the chapters that follow,
notice not only what is known but also how it is known.

The Scientific Method I

How do scientists learn about
nature? You have probab ly heard of
the scientific method as the process
by which scientists form hypotheses
and test them against evidence gath-
ered by experiment and observation.
Scientists use the scientific method
all the time, and it is critically impor-
tant, but they rarely think of it. It is
such an ing rai ned way of thinking
and understand ing nature, so it is
almost invisible to the people who
use it most.
A hypothesis is a suggestion
about how nature works, and the
evidence is reality. If a hypothesis is
compared to the evidence and con-
f irmed , it must be tested further; if it is
contradicted, it must be d iscarded or
revised . In that way, ideas get tested
and refined to better descri be how
nature works.
For example, Gregor Mendel
( 1822- 1884) was an Austri an abbot
who liked gardening . He formed
a hypothesis that offspring usually
inherit traits from their parents , not as
a smooth blend as most scientists of
the time believed, but as discrete units
according to strict mathematical ru les.
Mendel cu ltivated and tested more
than 28 000 pea plants, noting which
produced smooth peas and which
produced wrinkled peas and how
that trait and others were inherited by
successive generations. His studies
confirmed his hypothesis and allowed
the development of a series of laws of
inheritance. A lthough the importance
of his work was not recognized in
his lifetime , Mendel is now call ed the
father of modern genetics.
The scientific method is not a
simp le , mechanical way of g rinding
facts into understand ing . It is actu-
ally a combination of many ways of
analyzi ng information , find ing rela-
tionships , and creating new ideas. A
scientist needs insig ht and ingenuity
to form and test a good hypothesis .
Scientists use the scientific method
almost automatically, formi ng, testi ng ,
revising , and d iscard ing hypotheses
someti mes minute-by-minute as they
discuss new ideas. The so-call ed
scientific method is a way of thi nking
and a way of knowing about nature .
The How Do We Know? essays in
this book will introduce you to some
of the methods scientists use.

NEL CHAPTER 1 The Scale of the Cosmos: Space and Time I 9

 The Scientific Method II
How do scientists describe the laws
of nature? Mathematics is a language
that uses symbols to represent quanti-
ties that describe physical properties
(mass, charge, energy, speed , etc.).
The language of science precisely
expresses compl icated relationships
among physical properties by using
mathematical equations.
A simple example involves the
well-known scientific equation, F = ma.
In this equation, F is the force applied
to an object, m is the mass of the object
(amount of matter or stuff it contains),
and a is its acceleration. We can trans-
late the mathematical shorthand into a
plain language sentence about the rela-
tionship between three quantities, force,
mass, and acceleration: The more
force you apply to an object, the more it
accelerates. If you apply twice as much
force the acceleration exactly doubles
(assuming the mass remains the same).
In mathematical terms we say that the
force applied is directly proportional to
the acceleration of the object of con-
stant mass m. And the reverse applies
too. The acceleration of the object is
directly proportional to the total force
you can apply. You have experienced
this relationship for yourself if you have
ever tried to push an object like a cart.
The harder you push (more force), the
faster the cart goes (more acceleration).
The equation F = ma captures this idea
in a precise and concise way. Not only
does it express the relationship, it also
allows us to precisely calculate "how
much harder" and "how much faster."
Sometimes the relationship be-
tween physical q uantities is an inverse
proportionality. For example, consider
the equation, u = d/t. Here, u is the
speed of an object, d is the distance
travelled , and t is the time taken to
travel the distance d. In this equation,
u and t are inversely proportional to
each other- so the higher the speed
of travel the shorter the time taken
to travel a fixed distance d, and vice
versa. And like the previous case , the
relationship is precise: for example, if
you double the speed , you cut your
travel time exactly by half.
Although plain language sen-
tences can be used to understand
the laws of nature and the relation-
ships between different quantities,
as described above, the language
of mathematics captu res these rela-
tionships in the most accurate and
concise way. If you understand the
relationships encoded in a math-
ematical equation, you can g rasp
the science of astronomy without just
memorizing mathematical formulae
as a "recipe." In the main text of this
book, most mathematical equations
are described in plain language that
describes the relationships between
physical quantities. If you want to see
the same relationships presented
in the form of equations, check the
Math Reference Cards at the back
of the book. Try to understand the
relationships expressed in the math
eq uations after you have read the
correspondi ng descri ption in the
text. Soon you will become fluent in
this beautifu l and elegant language
of the universe .

1.2 e Cosmic Calendar: a cosmic calendar (a concept devised by Carl Sagan, a

Concepts of Time
In the first part of this chapter you were taken on a journey
through the universe from a spatial perspective to give you
a sense of the immensity of the universe and how small our
little comer of it really is. Equally important is that you gain
an appreciation for the concept of time and how the average
human lifetime, for instance, compares to the age of the
universe. Our current understanding of the formation of the
universe and its age leads us to believe that it has been about
13.8 billion years since the big bang, the instant the universe
commenced and, perhaps, the beginning of time itself.
Let's imagine that the time our universe has existed
is spread over a one-year calendar where each month
is a little in excess of 1 billion years we have, then,
well-known astronomer in the latter part of the 1900s).
As shown in the timeline in Figure 1.2, the big bang
occurred precisely at midnight on January 1; the
Milky Way Galaxy starts to coalesce in late February
or early March, which makes it one of the oldest gal-
axies (although there remains debate about the age of
the galaxy, recent estimates place its age possibly as
old as 13 billion years). Our solar system starts being
built around mid-August, and by the end of September
primitive life exists on Earth. However, it is not until
mid-December on this cosmic calendar that complex
living structures such as invertebrate life formed and
not until December 25 when dinosaurs roamed Earth.
The end of the dinosaur era, which took place 65 mil-
lion years ago, occurred yesterday, December 30, on the
cosmic calendar.

10 I PART 1 Exploring the Sky NEL

 Dec 15:
complex living
structures form

Mar 1: Aug 15: Sep 30: Dec 25:

Jan 1: Milky Way Galaxy solar system primitive life dinosaurs
big bang begins to coalesce begins to form on Earth emerges roam Earth

Dec31
11 seconds ago: pyramids were built Dec 30: end
of d inosaur era
1 second ago: Copernicus theorized that Earth orbits the Sun o
......
0.14 second ago: Elizabeth II became Queen of England .§_
-"<:

0.04 second ago: you were born (if you are 18) .8
(J)

0.002 second ago: Canada won the Olympic Gold Medal in women's and men's hockey in 2014 ~
c:::
2 millionths of a second ago: you started reading this chapter ~
c:::
Right now: midn ight, New Year's Eve "'
-o
~----------------------------------------------------------------------~ @
Figure 1.2 The Cosmic Year: A Timeline

The next day, December 31, is when all of recorded
history occurred and even then not until much later in the
day within the last 30 seconds, in fact. The Egyptian
pyramids were built about 11 seconds ago; Copernicus
and others convinced humanity that Earth orbits the Sun
about one second ago; Elizabeth II became Queen of
England about 0.14 seconds ago; you were born about
0.04 seconds ago (assuming your age is 18); Canada won
the 2014 Olympic Gold Medal in women's and men's
hockey about 0.002 seconds ago; you started reading this
chapter about 2-millionths of a second ago; and it is now
exactly midnight on December 31 Happy New Year!

Astronomy is important because it helps us understand
what we are. We human beings live on the surface of
planet Earth as it orbits the star we call the Sun. What are
we? How did we and our planet and our star come to be
here, and what does the future hold for us? Astronomy
helps us answer those questions.
Our j oumey of discovery of the cosmos has led us
to the amazing realization that we are intimately linked
to the stars. Gravity and atoms work together to make
stars, light the universe, generate energy, and create the
chemical elements in our bodies. The atoms in our bodies
were made deep inside stars, perhaps in a faraway galaxy.
Stars died so that we could live! On the atomic level, we
all have the same origins. Our similarities are far greater
than our differences.
It's easy to be absorbed in our everyday lives and
problems. But astronomy helps us appreciate humanity's
place in the cosmos. We are part of a grand cycle of
birth and death of stars. Although perhaps insignificant
in space and time, life on Earth is a precious and fragile
example of what the universe can produce over billions of
years. Astronomy enriches our lives and gives us perspec-
tive on what it means to be here on Earth. Studying the
stars and other planets enables us to be better caretakers
of our own home: planet Earth.
The story of astronomy is a global story. Ancient
civilizations all over the world observed the skies, and
astronomy played a critical role in the development of art
and culture, festivals and traditions. Our modem under-
standing of the universe is based on the discoveries of
astronomers from around the world. Today, many nations,
including Canada, work together on the International
Space Station. Astronomy unites us in our journeys of
self-knowledge and quests for the stars.

NEL CHAPTER 1 The Scale of the Cosmos: Space and Time I 11

 2. Of the objects listed here, which would be contained inside
Review Questions the object shown in the photograph? Which would contain
the object in the photo?
1. What is the largest dimension of which you have personal • stars
knowledge? Have you run a mile? Hiked 10 km? Run a • planets
marathon? • galaxy clusters
2. What is the difference between our solar system and our • spiral arms
galaxy? Between our galaxy and the universe?
3. Why are light-years more convenient than kilometres or
astronomical units for measuring certain distances?
4. Why is it difficult to detect planets orbiting other stars?
5. What does the size of the star image in a photograph tell
you?
6. What is the difference between the Milky Way and the
Milky Way Galaxy?
7. What are the largest known structures in the universe? 3. In the photograph shown here, which stars are brightest, and
8. How does astronomy help answer the question, "What which are faintest? How can you tell? Why can't you tell which
are we?" stars in this photograph are biggest or which have planets?
9. How Do We Know? How does the scientific method give
scientists a way to know about nature?

Discussion Questions
1. Do you think you have a duty to know the astronomy
described in this chapter? Can you think of ways this
knowledge helps you enjoy a richer life and be a better
citizen?
2. How is a statement in a political speech different from a
statement in a scientific discussion? Find examples in
newspapers, magazines, and this book.
IN THE BOOK
• Tear out the Review Card for Chapter 1
Learning to Look ONLINE

1. In the image shown here the division between daylight and

,---
Visit CENGAGENow·· for ASTRO, 2Ce at www.nelson.com/
darkness is at the right on the globe of Earth. How do you student -.....-/
know this is the sunset line and not the sunrise line?
• eBook
• Interactive Quizzing
• Animations
• Tutorials

12 I PART 1 Exploring the Sky NEL

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Propelling Charges. Up to the present time nitrocellulose powder
has complied better with the requirements of a suitable, smokeless
powder than any other that has been proposed and is used in our
service for propelling charges in guns. The danger of manufacture is
also less than that of nitroglycerine powders. Moreover the latter,
which was formerly used in our service and still is in the British and
some others, causes too much erosion of the tubes due to the
greater heat of explosion. It has the advantage of requiring a smaller
charge for the same muzzle velocity and therefore a smaller powder
space and consequent lighter weight of gun.
Shell Fillers. High explosives for shell fillers. Up to the present
explosive “D,” trinitrotoluol and picric acid are the principal high
explosives which fulfill the requirements as shell fillers. Explosive “D”
on account of its great insensitiveness to shock is used in armor
piercing projectiles and also in field gun and howitzer shell. It is
detonated by a fuze. Trinitrotoluol is used in submarine mines and in
general demolition work as it is much easier to explode than
explosive “D.”
Table of Explosives. The following table gives a good idea of the
principal explosives in use in our service and the characteristics of
each:
High or
Purpose. Name.
Low.
Propelling charge in
L Nitrocellulose, smokeless powder.
guns.
Bursting charge, Picric acid, explosive “D” (powder
H
projectiles. form) Trinitrotoluol.
Blank, saluting
L Black Powder.
charges.
Re-inforce charges,
L Black Powder.
primers.
Base charge,
L Black Powder.
shrapnel.
Time trains, fuzes. L Black Powder.
Igniting charges, L Black Powder.
 cannon.
Charges, submarine
H Trinitrotoluol wet guncotton.
mines.
Igniting elements,
Fulminate of mercury, chlorate of
fuzes and H
potash (potassium chlorate).
primers.

High Explosives. The principal high explosives used as shell

fillers in our service are: picric acid, explosive “D” and trinitrotoluol, or
more popularly known at TNT. The picric acid and picrates used as
shell fillers are secret compositions. Mellinite, essentially picric acid
alone or with some other substance is used as a shell filler by the
French. It is poured into the shell in a fused state and allowed to
harden, thus giving a very compact charge and one easily handled. It
has the disadvantage however of forming unstable compounds with
the metal of the shell and great care must be exercised in coating
the interior of the shell with a protective coat before pouring in the
fused mellinite. Lyddite is the English equivalent of mellinite. Picric
acid was also used by the Japanese or it may be a mixture of picric
acid and some nitro compound. The most successful explosive of
this type is explosive “D” invented by Colonel Dunn of our Ordnance
Department and sometimes known as “Dunnite.” It is not fusible and
must be compressed for use as a shell filler, being forced into the
shell by compression. This is a disadvantage as compared to
mellinite as the density of loading is less and weight for weight
therefore less efficient. It is little sensitive to shock and therefore not
very dangerous to load even under great pressure. Trinitrotoluol is
also used as a shell filler but its chief use is in demolition work and
as the charge for submarine mines.
Nitrogen Compounds. It may be interesting to note that all of the
principal explosives with which we have been dealing are
compounds containing nitrogen. In fact the war has been fought with
fixed nitrogen which explains the great interest taken in the various
attempts to fix the free nitrogen of the air which is the world’s great
storehouse of free nitrogen. As nitrogen is also a necessary
ingredient in the various fertilizers, the result to the world of a
commercial process for speeding up the cycle of changes through
which nitrogen passes in its life giving mission from free nitrogen in
the air to its various compounds in the nitrogeneous animal and
vegetable tissues is almost limitless and as usual war has been the
incentive to speed up a process which will result in incalculable value
to mankind.
Classification. Guns are loaded with three kinds of ammunition:
fixed, semi-fixed and separate loading ammunition. In fixed
ammunition the round is complete and projectile and powder loaded
into the chamber at the same time. In semi-fixed the projectile is
separate from the powder charge, which however is put up and
loaded into the chamber in a container. In separate loading
ammunition the powder is loaded into the chamber in bags. In the
first two cases the cartridge case furnishes the means for sealing the
rear of the powder chamber against escape to the rear of the powder
gases. In the last case some form of obturating device is made a
part of the breechblock furnishing a gas check to seal the rear of the
powder chamber.
Fixed Ammunition. All of our field guns below 5 inches in calibre
use fixed ammunition. The powder is placed loose in the cartridge
case, the space not filled with powder being stuffed with packing
paper, excelsior, or felt wadding next to the projectile so as to hold
the powder in contact with the primer, in some fixed ammunition a
brass diaphragm is soldered to the inside of the case for the same
purpose and to keep out moisture, (4.7” Gun). An igniting charge of
black powder is a part of the primer and in some cases an additional
charge is placed at the forward end of the powder space in the
cartridge case to insure rapid ignition of the smokeless powder. In
this case it is held in place between two quilted disks of crinoline.
Semi-fixed ammunition is employed in our 6” and 4.7” field
howitzers. The cartridge case contains three weights of propelling
charge for firing in the three zones designed to give a high angle of
all with these weapons. Access to the charge is had by tearing off
the brass diaphragm closing the forward end of the cartridge case.
By removing the first charge the remaining charge is that prescribed
for the second zone, and by removing the top two charges the
remaining charge is that of the first zone. The three charges are tied
together and the middle charge has an igniting charge of black
powder attached. The removal of charges is facilitated by the
separate container for the powder charge and the round is more
easily handled in the two parts especially in the case of the six-inch
howitzer, where the projectile weighs 120 lbs. The same primer is
used as in fixed ammunition, the cartridge case performing the
function of an obturator.
 BREECH MECHANISM OF 155 GUN SHOWING
DE BANGE OBTURATOR.

Separate Ammunition.—Obturation. The 155-mm Filloux gun

and 155-mm howitzer use separate ammunition. In such guns there
must be provided some form of a gas check which will prevent the
powder gases from rushing to the rear into the threaded portion of
the breechblock, as this would soon erode the thread sectors and
render the gun useless beside losing a large amount of pressure in
the bore. The device used as a gas check is called an obturator.
There are two systems of obturation in use, named after their
inventors:
The DeBange and the Freyre. The former is used in the 155’s. It
consists of a steel mushroom head closing the rear of the powder
chamber, the spindle of which passes through a central hole in the
breechblock. Between the mushroom head and the face of the
breechblock is a pad of asbestos, paraffine and tallow, pressed into
shape by a hydraulic press and covered by canvas or asbestos
wirecloth. Split rings having hardened outer surfaces are fitted, one
just behind the mushroom head and one just in front of the face of
the breechblock. Their diameter is slightly greater in the free state
than the conical surface of the bore where they bear when the
breech is closed so that they always close the rear of the powder
chamber. The pressure of the powder gases forces the mushroom
head to the rear and this compresses the asbestos pad which in turn
forces the split rings to bear with greater force against the walls of
the powder chamber thus securely closing the rear opening of the
powder chamber. For more details of this device see pages 302 to
306 Tschappat’s O & G.
Powder Bags. Cartridge bags for separate loading are made of
raw silk, and are sewed with silk thread. Other materials are apt to
produce flare-backs or premature explosions because they are not
entirely consumed in the bore or continue to burn if not consumed.
The raw silk however either is entirely consumed or if not, the parts
ignited immediately go out as soon as the flame is removed and do
not smoulder. Specially treated cotton fibre bags have been tried but
so far as I know have not as yet superseded the raw silk for the
purpose. The gases remaining in the bore after the discharge of a
charge of smokeless powder are explosive and with air form an
explosive mixture, hence the danger upon opening the breech if any
smouldering particles remain in the bore.
 21 GRAIN PERCUSSION PRIMER MARK II-A

Primers. The devices for initiating explosions of propelling

charges in military guns are called primers. With fixed and semi-fixed
ammunition the primers are seated in the base of the cartridge case.
In the case of separate loading ammunition the primers are inserted
separately in the breechblock, the expanding gases of the detonated
primer forcing the walls of the primer case tightly against the bore
through the breechblock and thus sealing this channel of escape for
the gases from the powder chamber. This necessitates a much
larger and stronger case for separate loading primers than for those
inserted in the base of a cartridge case.
Classes of primers. Primers are divided into three classes
according to the method by which they are fired: (a) friction primers,
(2) electric primers, (3) percussion primers. Combination primers are
made which may be fired by any two of these methods, usually
electric and one of the others. The characteristics of a good primer
are, certainty of action, safety in handling, no deterioration in
storage, simplicity in construction and be cheap to manufacture.
They are also divided into obturating and non-obturating depending
upon whether they close the vent during discharge or not.
 Primer pressing. Primers for fixed ammunition are inserted in the
base of the cartridge cases by means of a special press for this
purpose. The primer body is a trifle larger than the seat in the
cartridge case provided. This seat is rough bored to a diameter less
than the finished size and then mandreled to finished dimensions
with a steel tapered plug. This process toughens the material of the
case around the primer seat and prevents the expansion of the
primer seat under pressure of the expanding gases.
Percussion primers. Except for very heavy siege guns and
railroad artillery the guns handled by the Field Artillery use
percussion primers. The 110-grain percussion primer is the one in
use in our service and as typical will be described. The charge
consisting of 110 grains of compressed black powder makes the
charge burn like a torch rather than explode, which facilitates the
ignition of the charge of smokeless powder, with which the flame
comes in contact. The diametral holes spray the flame in several
directions thus insuring ignition at many points simultaneously. The
percussion element consists of a percussion primer cup, the
percussion composition and an anvil, all of which are assembled
together in a cup in the rear face of the primer case. The percussion
composition is made up of chlorate of potash, sulphide of antimony,
ground glass and sulphur. A blow upon the cap by the firing pin
detonates the percussion composition and the flame from this
detonation ignites the black powder which in turn explodes the
charge of smokeless powder.

The General Shape and Nomenclature of

Projectiles.
The reason for the particular shape of shells may not be clear to
all. In the first place all matter has the property known as inertia,
which we may define as that tendency of matter to remain in a state
of rest or to continue at a uniform velocity if in motion. It offers a
resistance to any change in the state of either rest or motion whether
of amount or direction. Consequently when we apply a sudden and
tremendous force to the base of a projectile by means of the
expansive force of exploding powder gases, there will be set up in
the metal a resistance to this force in which every particle of the
projectile will resist by an amount proportional to the mass of
particles beyond the point of application of the force to itself. The
actual force will be proportional to the weight and acceleration
produced by the applied force in the projectile. This explains the
reason why the walls of the projectile are thicker near the base. It
also explains the method of calculating the thickness of walls, for if
we know the weight at any cross section and the co-efficient of
strength of the metal we may calculate the thickness of walls
necessary to withstand the pressure for any given muzzle velocity
which is fixed by other considerations. It explains also the preference
for steel in projectiles as for the same weight the steel is much
stronger making it possible to throw a greater amount of shrapnel or
high explosives in shell.

155-MM COMMON STEEL SHELL MK IV

The necessity for compact loading, especially in the case of high

explosive shell is also noted as otherwise the shock due to inertia
would break up the charge and perhaps cause a premature
explosion. Hence it is very necessary to guard against airholes in
filling shell cavities.
In order to secure regular and uninterrupted movement of the
projectile through the bore it is necessary that the projectile and bore
have the same geometric axis. Also the projectile must be seated
exactly and uniformly for succeeding rounds in its seating in the
bore. This latter is necessary in order that the powder chamber may
not vary as this would give irregular pressures. The liability of
strapping the rotating bands or setting off the fuze in certain kinds of
fuzes are also explained by inertia. It might even cause sufficient
shock to detonate the charge in the shell. The remedy is accurate
seating of each projectile by reason of trained gun crews using the
same amount of force at each ramming. The first condition,
coincidence of axes, is obtained by means of the ogival head which
has a diameter some tenths of a millimeter smaller than the diameter
of the bore, and serves as a front support for the projectile while the
rotating bands center it in rear. Were it not for the bell the projectile,
held only by the soft material of the rotating band, would wabble in
its travel through the bore and tumble soon after leaving it. It is also
necessary that the center of gravity of the projectile be on its
geometric axis. Otherwise it will travel on a spiral of the same pitch
as the grooves and knock the tube walls as it travels through the
bore and without the support of the bell might cause a premature
explosion by actuating the fuze.

155m/m SHRAPNEL—95 LBS.—MARK-I.

 COMMON STEEL SHELL MARK I.
COMMON STEEL SHELL MODEL OF 1905.
SHRAPNEL.
CARTRIDGE CASE.
4.7” Gun Ammunition.

Three-inch Ammunition.
Fixed ammunition is used in the 3” field guns, and is made up
with either common shrapnel, high explosive shrapnel, or common
steel shell. The rounds as made up vary in length with the type of
projectile used. The ammunition chests of the battery are of sufficient
size to take any one of the rounds furnished, so that the number of
each kind to be carried is a matter for regulation by proper authority.
Each round is issued with projectile filled and fused. The weight of
the projectile is 15 pounds, and the total weight of one round is 18.75
pounds. The components of one round are the cartridge case with
primer, the powder charge, igniter, projectile and fuze.
The cartridge case.—The cartridge case is a solid drawn-brass
case 10.8 inches long; it has a capacity of 66.5 cubic inches, and
weighs, with primer, 2.25 pounds. A circular groove is cut in the base
of the cartridge case and the groove is painted red for high explosive
shrapnel, yellow for common shrapnel, and black for high explosive
shell.
The primer.—The percussion primer, known as the “110-grain
percussion primer,” contains an igniting charge of 110 grains of black
powder in addition to the essential elements of a percussion primer.
The purpose of the black powder is to insure the ignition of the
smokeless powder charge in cartridge case.
 Common Steel Shell.
Common Shrapnel.
Cartridge Case.
Semple Tracer.
High Explosive Shrapnel.
3” AMMUNITION

The powder charge.—The powder is a nitrocellulose powder

composed of multiperforated (7 perforations) cylindrical grains, each
0.35” long and 0.195” in diameter. The charge varies slightly for
different lots of powder, but is approximately 24 ounces. The charge
gives a muzzle velocity for shrapnel of 1,700 feet per second (1600
f/s for shell) with a maximum pressure in the bore not exceeding
33,000 pounds per square inch. At the front end of the cartridge case
there is an igniter of black powder weighing about ¼ oz. which
assists in the uniform ignition of the smokeless powder charge.
The projectiles.—All projectiles have a copper rotating band 1.2”
from the base. This band engages in the rifling of the bore of the
piece, and gives the projectile a rapid rotation about its long axis
during flight. This causes it to travel straight, point on, without
tumbling.
Common shrapnel.—The common shrapnel is a base-charged
shrapnel fitted with a combination fuze. The case is of steel with
solid base. The shrapnel filling is composed of 252 balls, each
approximately 167 grains in weight (42 to the pound). The balls are
approximately 0.5” in diameter. The balls are poured around a
central tube and rest upon a steel diaphragm, the interstices
containing a smoke-producing matrix. The bursting charge consisting
of 2¾ oz. of black powder is in the base and is covered by the
diaphragm which supports the central tube, affording a conduit to the
flame leading from the fuze to the bursting charge.
In action the case is not ruptured upon the explosion of the
bursting charge; the head is stripped and the balls are shot out of the
case with an increase of velocity of about 274 feet per second. The
remaining velocity of the shrapnel at 6,500 yards is approximately
724 feet per second and the time of flight 22 seconds, so that at that
extreme range, with the increase of velocity due to the bursting
charge, this shrapnel with 21-second fuze will be effective. The
weight of the shrapnel with fuze is 15 pounds.
Shrapnel is a projectile containing a great number of hardened
steel balls, each approximately ½” diameter, which may be projected
from a point in the air (called the point of burst) close to but short of
the target. Each ball is capable of killing a man or horse at a distance
up to 250 or 300 yards from the point of burst. Taken collectively, the
paths of these balls form a cone, called the cone of dispersion. The
ground section of this cone is elliptical in shape with its longer axis
approximately in the plane of fire. At mid-range when burst at normal
height of burst (H. B. = 3 mils), the dimensions of this area are
approximately 20 yards wide by 250 yards deep. These dimensions
will however vary with the angle of fall, the height of burst, the slope
of the ground at the target, and the relation between the linear and
the rotational velocities of the shrapnel at instant of burst in the air. A
3-mil H. B. is chosen because this gives an average density of 1 hit
per square yard of vertical target area. An infantry skirmisher
(standing) with his interval occupies approximately 1 square yard.
Shrapnel has very little effect upon material objects. It is very
effective against personnel not protected by cover, or to search an
area which is known to be occupied, or which must be traversed, by
hostile troops.
Ehrhardt High-explosive shrapnel.—The Ehrhardt high-explosive
shrapnel is fitted with a combination fuze and a high explosive head.
The case is drawn steel with solid base. The shrapnel filling is
composed of 285 balls, each approximately 138 grains in weight (50
to the pound). The balls are poured around the central tube and rest
upon the steel diaphragm, the interstices containing a matrix of high
explosive.
In time action (burst in air), the case is not ruptured upon the
explosion of the bursting charge, but the head is forced out and the
balls are shot out of the case with an increase of velocity of from 250
to 300 feet per second. In the meantime the head continues its flight,
detonating on impact.
If the fuze be set at “safety” or for a time greater than the actual
time of flight, this shrapnel may be used in lieu of high-explosive
shell. Upon impact a high-explosive shrapnel is detonated by means
of the percussion element of the combination fuze, the head being
detonated first, which detonation causes the sympathetic detonation
of high-explosive matrix surrounding the balls.
Common steel shell.—This steel shell is high-explosive and fitted
with a base detonating fuze. The case is hollow and made of drawn
steel. It is provided with an ogival head. The steel shell contains a
bursting charge of 13.12 ounces of Explosive D. The weight of the
shell with bursting charge and fuze is 15 pounds. The shell is always
issued filled and fuzed.
This shell bursts on impact and with great force exerted in all
directions. It is a powerful instrument for the destruction of material
objects such as guns, intrenchments, houses, stone walls, etc. The
effect, however, is very local.
Frankford Arsenal combination fuzes.—These fuzes are point
fuzes with combination time and percussion elements for use with
common shrapnel. They are of the type known as the ring or “dial”
fuze, in which the time train is set by turning a graduated ring which
carries part of the train. These fuzes may be reset as often as
desired.
Ehrhardt combination fuze for high explosive shrapnel.—This
fuze is similar to the Frankford Arsenal Combination time and
percussion fuze but in addition contains a high explosive head and
detonating element. Due to this arrangement, both the projectile and
the high explosive head have a high-explosive shell effect when
striking on impact.
The service base detonating fuze.—The details of the
detonating fuze and the composition of the detonator are kept secret.
A detonating fuze is necessary in order to produce a higher order of
explosion by causing an instantaneous conversion of the high
explosive compound called “Explosive D” with which the shell is
charged. If an ordinary percussion fuze were used only an ordinary
explosion would be produced as in the explosion of black powder.
Preparation of blank metallic ammunition.—Blank metallic
ammunition will always be assembled under the personal
supervision of a commissioned officer, who will be held responsible
that it is prepared in the manner prescribed. (G. O. 9, War Dept.,
Jan. 11, 1908.)
For this purpose there are issued blank-cartridge cases, black
powder in bulk, tight-fitting felt wads, rubberine, or other quick-drying
paint, primers, etc.
Before assembling, the cartridge cases should be carefully
inspected to see that they are in sound condition and thoroughly
clean and dry. They should also be tested by trying them in the gun,
to determine whether they have become deformed. Any cases that
do not readily enter the chamber in the gun or that are otherwise
seriously deformed should be laid aside for resizing. After inspecting
the cartridge cases the blank ammunition should be prepared as
follows:
(a) Insert the primers with the primer-inserting press.
(b) Pour into the cartridge case the proper weight of black powder
and shake it down well.
(c) Insert the felt wad and press it down hard until it rests squarely
on the powder charge.
(d) Give the upper surface of the felt wad and the inside of the
cartridge case just above the wad a good coat of the rubberine or
other quick-drying paint furnished for the purpose, using a brush,
and allow the case to stand until this coat is dry. Then apply another
coat of rubberine paint in a similar manner. The object of using
rubberine paint, which is strongly adhesive, is to thoroughly seal the
joint between the wad and the case to prevent any powder grains
from leaking out, and at the same time to firmly hold the wad in
place.
 The reloading and cleaning outfit.—This outfit consists of the
following parts, and is furnished to each battery:
Primer-inserting press, small
Bushing
Powder measure, saluting
Decapping tool, with guide
Cleaning brush
Hammer
Case holder
Case-holder stand
Storage chest

The bushing is used in the primer-inserting press for the insertion

of new primers.
The decapping tool and case holder and stand are used for
removing exploded primers from the cartridge cases. A light blow on
the rod with a piece of wood or the bronze hammer generally
removes the primer.
A powder measure to suit the saluting charge for the gun is
furnished, and when level full holds the required charge.
The cleaning brush is furnished for cleaning the cartridge cases
after they have been used and should be ordered to suit the size of
case for which intended.
Care of Cartridge Cases.—As soon after firing as practicable the
exploded primers should be removed from the cartridge case by
means of the decapping tools furnished with the reloading outfit. The
case should then be thoroughly washed in a strong solution of soft
soap and soda to remove all powder residue. It should then be
thoroughly dried.
If the cartridge cases are carefully cleaned and washed
immediately after firing, not only will less labor be required but the
life of the cartridge case will be greatly prolonged.
A good solution for washing cartridge cases may be prepared by
using ingredients in the following proportions: 1 gallon of water, 2½
ounces of soft soap, 5½ ounces soda. The mixture should be boiled
and stirred until the ingredients are entirely dissolved.
In washing cartridge cases this solution should be used hot and in
sufficient quantity to completely immerse the cases.
Neither acids nor solutions of acids will be used for cleaning
cartridge cases.

Precautions to be Observed with Fixed

Ammunition.
(a) Do not unnecessarily expose ammunition to the sun or load it
into a warm gun before time for firing; if this is done, erratic shooting
will result.
(b) Handle carefully, otherwise cartridges may become deformed
and cause jams.
(c) Never use force or any implements on the base of the cartridge
in loading.
(d) See that fuzes set at safety or are provided with waterproof
brass cover for transport.
(e) Do not fire ammunition which has been under water with the
waterproof brass cover removed.
(f) Both service and blank ammunition should never be carried in
the battery at the same time. If conditions are such that both may be
used in exercises, only one kind should be in the firing battery; the
other should be under lock and key outside the firing position.
(g) Misfires and hangfires are of exceedingly rare occurrence. In
case of a failure to fire, the firing handle should be pulled again in
order to snap the trigger. If this fails to fire, the breech should not be
opened until after the expiration of at least one minute, when the
round or cartridge should be removed and placed to one side.
Defective ammunition, cartridges and primers should be reported.
 With Blank Ammunition.
Firing with blank ammunition will be greatly facilitated by a careful
observance of the following:
(a) Before firing, a careful examination should be made of the
assembled rounds to see that the felt wads have not become
displaced or the cartridge cases dented or deformed by careless
handling. If the cartridge cases have been properly resized and are
clean, no difficulty should be experienced in inserting them in the
gun, provided the chamber of the latter is clean. The continued
insertion of cartridge cases that are not clean causes an
accumulation in the gun chamber which may make the insertion of
subsequent rounds difficult or impossible.
(b) In firing blank ammunition the gun chamber will be sponged
after each round with a damp sponge, to extinguish sparks and
remove powder residue resulting from the previous round, before the
insertion of another round.
(c) Care will be taken to see that the sponges are not worn and
that they thoroughly fit the chamber. The interval between rounds in
firing blank ammunition should be sufficient to allow thorough
sponging of the chamber and examination to ascertain that all sparks
have been extinguished.
(d) Wads for the preparation of blank metallic ammunition are
made to tightly fit in the cartridge case. No wads should be used that
are not a tight fit in the case.

FUZES.
Principle of operation.—We have just learned something of the
force of inertia in connection with a projectile. Most fuzes are
actuated by this force. From our knowledge of the trajectory we know
that usually a projectile does not strike on its nose. Therefore we
cannot devise our fuzes to work like the driving of a nail into a board.
The striking element is the anvil and is a fixed pointed spur against