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Chapter 8: Family History and Pedigree Construction

Multiple Choice
Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

____ 1. What is the primary purpose of a pedigree?

A. To identify family members’ places within a kindred and describe their medical
history.
B. To establish which person within a kindred is responsible for introducing a genetic
mutation into the family.
C. To determine the specific risk of any one family member to develop or pass on a
genetic-based health problem.
D. To establish which person within a kindred is responsible for bringing the family
to the attention of a genetics professional.
____ 2. Why is a pedigree considered an “unstable” product?
A. The person collecting the information may not be a genetics professional.
B. Some family members may have lied about their reproductive history.
C. The memories of older family members may be inaccurate.
D. The health of living family members continues to evolve.

____ 3. What is the significance of a horizontal dashed line drawn between a male and a female?
A. The two siblings are both adopted.
B. The individuals have a casual sexual relationship and are not married.
C. The individuals have a third-degree (or later) blood relationship with each other.
D. Neither of the two individuals is a first- or second-degree relative of the proband.

____ 4. What is the best way to ensure completeness and accuracy in constructing a pedigree?
A. Eliminating the contributed information from any family member who is
cognitively impaired.
B. Asking the oldest person in the kindred to provide the familial information.
C. Having several family members work together to develop the pedigree.
D. Using a template for drawing the symbols.

____ 5. In the acronym “SCREEN” for formulating questions to ask that may indicate a heritable trait or
health problem, what does the second “E” signify?
A. The ethnicity of family members
B. That the problem or trait is present in every generation of the family
C. That the onset of the problem is present only among elderly family members
D. That the trait or problem is equally represented by male and female family
members
____ 6. Which issue is considered a “red flag” for the need for referral to a genetics professional?
A. A family history of both breast and colon cancer
B. Myocardial infarction in several parents or grandparents older than 64 years of age
C. The presence of brothers and sisters who do not resemble any known family
member
D. The presence of neurodevelopmental disorders in one or more members of the

Copyright © 2018 F. A. Davis Company

 kindred
____ 7. When constructing a pedigree around a specific health problem, what is the minimal number of
generations needed to accurately assess the presence or absence of a genetic factor in disease
development?
A. One
B. Two
C. Three
D. Four

____ 8. What does a double horizontal line between a circle symbol and a square symbol as the only line
directly connecting two individuals signify on a pedigree?
A. The individuals are parent and child.
B. The individuals are related by blood.
C. The individuals are brother and sister.
D. The individuals have mated without being married.

____ 9. Lois has Alzheimer’s disease. She and her daughter Linda provided care for Lois’s mother Leona
when she had severe Alzheimer’s disease. Now Linda, age 57, is showing signs of impaired
memory. Linda’s daughter Lucy is pregnant with her first child and has contacted a genetic
counselor to discuss Alzheimer’s risk in her family. Who in this family is the proband?
A. Leona
B. Lois
C. Linda
D. Lucy

____ 10. Which activity would a general registered nurse be expected to perform as part of genomic care?
A. Calculating recurrence risk for parents who have just had a child with
nondisjunction Down syndrome
B. Informing a patient that his test results are positive for a genetic disorder
C. Obtaining an accurate family history and physical assessment data
D. Requesting a consultation visit from a clinical geneticist

____ 11. Which demographic information could have an important influence on susceptibility to disorders
that have a strong genetic component?
A. Ethnicity
B. Education
C. Profession
D. Nutrition status

____ 12. What is the significance of a pedigree symbol consisting of a square with a diagonal slash mark
through it?
A. Affected female
B. Affected male
C. Deceased female
D. Deceased male

____ 13. Why is a legend necessary when constructing a pedigree that includes a health history?
A. Gender-altering surgeries require either the drawing of both male and female

Copyright © 2018 F. A. Davis Company

 symbols for the same person or the use of a diamond instead of a circle or square.
B. When a pedigree includes more than three generations, the relationships of
members in older (more remote) generations are less clear and must be explained.
C. The gender of individuals lost in the first trimester of pregnancy cannot be
established.
D. Health problems do not have standard symbols.

____ 14. How are Punnett squares and pedigrees different?

A. Pedigrees represent genotypes, and Punnett squares represent phenotypes.
B. Punnett squares represent genotypes, and pedigrees represent phenotypes.
C. Pedigrees can identify actual carriers of genetic mutations, whereas Punnett
squares only suggest carrier status.
D. Punnett squares can identify actual carriers of genetic mutations, whereas
pedigrees only suggest carrier status.
____ 15. What is the risk for disease expression among the offspring of a woman who has an
autosomal-recessive disorder when her partner is a carrier for the same disorder?
A. All sons will be unaffected; all daughters will be carriers.
B. All children have a 50% risk for being affected and a 50% risk for being a carrier.
C. Daughters have a 50% risk for being affected; all sons will either be affected or
carriers.
D. Each child of either gender has a 50% risk of being a carrier, a 25% risk of having
the disease, and a 25% risk of neither being a carrier nor having the disease.
____ 16. Which observations in a pedigree indicate a probable autosomal-dominant (AD) trait transmission?
A. Affected males and females appear in every generation.
B. The pedigree shows only one affected individual.
C. The trait appears to “skip” generations.
D. Only males are affected.

____ 17. Marjory tells a nurse that she has three aunts with cancer. The two on her father’s side were
diagnosed with breast and ovarian cancers at ages 42 and 36. She also has one aunt on her mother’s
side who was diagnosed with breast cancer at age 70. Marjory asks if she should have genetic
testing. What should the nurse tell her?
A. “Your family history indicates a high risk, and you should definitely have genetic
testing.”
B. “Because no men in your family are affected, it is not inherited cancer, so you
don’t need mammograms or any special screening practices.”
C. “Because your aunts were older when they got breast cancer, it was probably
sporadic, and you should just have regular mammograms like everyone else.”
D. “Your family history may indicate an increased risk for breast cancer, and a
genetic counselor could help determine whether you could benefit from genetic
testing.”
____ 18. A man with syndactyly, an autosomal-dominant condition, has one child who also has syndactyly.
His unaffected wife states, “Because the risk for having a child with this problem is 50% and our
first child has the problem, the next child will not be affected.” What is the best response to this
statement?

Copyright © 2018 F. A. Davis Company

 A. “That is not quite true because the risk is 50% with each pregnancy, so with all
future children, you would have a 50% risk.”
B. “That is not quite true because you could also have the mutation but not show the
problem if there is variable expressivity.”
C. “That is correct, but if you have more than two children, half of them will have
syndactyly, and 50% will not have it.”
D. “That is correct, and if you only have two children, the second one will not have
syndactyly.”
____ 19. Which pair of relatives represents a first-degree relationship?
A. Grandfather and grandson
B. Aunt and nephew
C. Sister and brother
D. Two cousins

____ 20. How are twins indicated on a pedigree?

A. The two gender symbols are placed on top of each other.
B. Each of the gender symbols is surrounded by an inward-facing set of brackets.
C. The vertical lines to each twin begin at the same point on the parents’ horizontal
mating line.
D. The one born first has a vertical line connected to the parents’ horizontal mating
line; the twin born second has a vertical line extending down from the first twin’s
gender symbol.

Copyright © 2018 F. A. Davis Company

Chapter 8: Family History and Pedigree Construction
Answer Section

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. ANS: A
A pedigree is a pictorial or graphic illustration of family members’ places within a family and their
medical history. It can be used as one tool to begin to identify health issues that may have a genetic
component. It is not used to determine “blame” for a genetic mutation. The person within a kindred
who is responsible for bringing the family to the attention of a genetics professional is a member of
the pedigree, but his or her identification is not the purpose of a pedigree.

PTS: 1
2. ANS: D
Completing a family history is an easy and affordable way to begin genetic screening; however,
family history is not a stable thing. On the day you take your patient’s family history, there may be
no one with cardiac problems. The next day, your patient’s 35-year-old brother or sister could have a
myocardial infarction, changing your patient’s genetic risk for cardiovascular disease from low to
high.

PTS: 1
3. ANS: B
A horizontal dashed line between two people in a pedigree indicates that the individuals have a
casual sexual relationship with each other and are not married to each other. They each could be
married to someone else. This union may or may not produce offspring.

PTS: 1
4. ANS: D
The best way for a family history to be as complete and accurate as possible is for as many family
members as possible to construct it together using their memories, documents, and pictures. Even
those who have some cognitive impairment may remember incidents or stories that trigger memories
of events in other family members.

PTS: 1
5. ANS: A
The acronym SCREEN stands for some concern about diseases that might run in the family,
especially problems with reproduction, early disease or death in family members, ethnicity (some
genetic diseases are more common in people who are from certain ethnic groups), and nongenetic
risk factors for disease.

PTS: 1
6. ANS: D
Neurodevelopmental disorders and extreme presentations of common conditions are worth
investigating by a genetics professional. Breast cancer, colon cancer, and myocardial infarction in
the family history may require a genetics referral, but usually only when they appear early. As
discussed in Chapter 3, physical traits from remote parents can be passed down and expressed many
generations later, enabling some siblings to not resemble each other or their parents.

Copyright © 2018 F. A. Davis Company

 PTS: 1
7. ANS: C
Unless a pedigree shows at least three generations, no supportable conclusions regarding
transmission patterns can be made.

PTS: 1
8. ANS: B
A double line indicates consanguinity, or relationship by blood. It indicates a mating between two
related family members. Brother and sister are connected by “sibship lines,” and parents and
children are indicated by lines of descent. A single horizontal line between a circle and a square
indicates a mating but not marital status between the two.

PTS: 1
9. ANS: D
The proband is the person within a family who brought the potential genetic issue to the attention of
a health-care professional or genetics professional. Lucy, even though she does not have
Alzheimer’s but wishes to discuss whether the disorder has a genetic component because three
related parental individuals have expressed the problem, is the proband.

PTS: 1
10. ANS: C
Being able to organize a family history into a pedigree is an important skill for all health
professionals and an expectation for registered nurses with a bachelor’s degree in nursing (BSN).
The American Association of Colleges of Nursing has included in its document Essentials of
Baccalaureate Education for Professional Nursing Practice 2008 that all BSN graduates must be
able to “generate a pedigree from a three-generation family history using standardized symbols and
terminology.” It is important that the nurse not attempt to provide genetic counseling, as this is
beyond his or her scope of practice; however, it is helpful to have a good sense of when referral
should be considered even though a general registered nurse does not directly perform referrals to
genetic professionals.

PTS: 1
11. ANS: A
Ethnicity is critical personal information to determine because some genetic diseases are more
common in people who are from certain ethnic groups. For example, Tay–Sachs disease and
Gaucher disease are at least 10 times more common among people of Ashkenazi Jewish heritage
(regardless of what religion they practice) than among non-Jews. A person’s ethnicity does not
change and cannot be modified. Education, profession, and nutrition status have little, if any,
influence on the expression of a genetic disorder.

PTS: 1
12. ANS: D
Circles are used to represent women, and squares represent men. A diagonal slash through a gender
symbol indicates that the person is deceased.

PTS: 1
13. ANS: D

Copyright © 2018 F. A. Davis Company

 The standardized symbols for pedigrees include gender, relationships, birth order, adoption (in or
out), and matings. There are no standard symbols for any specific type of genetic, sporadic, or
environmental-related health problem. The person developing the pedigree is obligated to provide a
legend so that anyone who reads the pedigree will know the family’s health history.

PTS: 1
14. ANS: B
Punnett squares are diagrams that are used to determine the risk of offspring being affected when the
mode of transmission and the parents’ carrier status are known. It is based on genotype. Pedigrees
show relationships and expressed traits or disorders, the phenotype. Neither pedigrees nor Punnett
squares by themselves can identify actual carrier status. Pedigrees can suggest carrier status but not
prove it. Punnett squares require the genotypes for a specific trait to be known for both parents to
demonstrate probabilities.

PTS: 1
15. ANS: B
With an autosomal disorder, males and females are affected equally. The mother has two mutated
alleles and therefore will transmit a mutated allele to all offspring. The father has only one mutated
allele and has one normal allele. Each of his children has a 50% risk for inheriting his mutated allele
and a 50% risk for inheriting his normal allele. Because all of the children will have a mutated allele
from the mother, all children have a 50% risk for being affected and a 50% risk for being a carrier.

PTS: 1
16. ANS: A
Finding representation in each generation and that both males and females are affected provides
strong evidence that the trait is being transmitted in an AD manner. When only males are affected,
the trait is more likely to be X-linked recessive, with some women being carriers. Recessive traits
tend to appear on a pedigree as “skipped generations” because carriers typically do not have the
phenotype. A single affected person is more likely found with an autosomal-recessive transmission,
where two unaffected carriers have mated. The trait may not appear anywhere else in the pedigree.
Of course, a new mutation of an AD trait could also cause only one person to be affected, but we are
looking for the most probable answer.

PTS: 1
17. ANS: D
Marjory’s aunts on her father’s side were much younger than average and premenopausal when they
were affected. This would raise concern that there might be genetic risk factors in the family. The
fact that they are on her father’s side makes no difference in genetic risk, and it is unclear whether or
not Marjory should have genetic testing until she speaks with a genetics professional who can take a
thorough family history and accurately discuss her risk.

PTS: 1
18. ANS: A

Copyright © 2018 F. A. Davis Company

 Many parents believe that the probability of transmitting an autosomal-dominant trait to their
children is 50% for the total number of children, rather than for each pregnancy. Thus, the statement
the mother made is incorrect. Having the first child express an autosomal-dominant health problem
does not mean there is no risk for the second child also expressing it. Also, only the risk or
probability is 50%. If they had three more children, it is possible that all three could have the
problem, that all three could not have the problem, or that some may have it and not the other(s).

PTS: 1
19. ANS: C
First-degree relatives are those that have a direct, single-line blood relationship within a pedigree
(vertical or horizontal) with no other relative between them. Grandfather and grandson have a parent
in between them. Aunt and nephew have a sibling/parent in between them. Cousins have two sibling
parents in between them.

PTS: 1
20. ANS: C
The vertical lines connecting each twin to the parents begin at the same point on the parents’
horizontal mating line, making an upside-down “V” shape. When the twins are monozygotic, there is
a small horizontal line connecting the twins’ vertical lines.

PTS: 1

Copyright © 2018 F. A. Davis Company

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 FIRST ORDER: CHONDROPTERYGII.
Skeleton cartilaginous. Body with medial and paired fins, the
hinder pair abdominal. Vertebral column generally heterocercal, the
upper lobe of the caudal fin produced. Gills attached to the skin by
the outer margin, with several intervening gill-openings: rarely one
external gill-opening only. No gill-cover. No air-bladder. Two, three,
or more series of valves in the conus arteriosus. Ova large and few
in number,[33] impregnated and, in some species, developed within a
uterine cavity. Embryo with deciduous external gills.[34] Males with
intromittent organs attached to the ventral fins.[35]
This order, for which, also, the name Elasmobranchii has been
proposed (by Bonaparte), comprises the Sharks and Rays and
Chimæras, and is divided into two suborders: Plagiostomata and
Holocephala.

FIRST SUB-ORDER: PLAGIOSTOMATA.

From five to seven gill-openings. Skull with a suspensorium and
the palatal apparatus detached. Teeth numerous.
The Plagiostomes differ greatly among each other with regard to
the general form of their body: in the Sharks or Selachoidei the body
is elongate, more or less cylindrical, gradually passing into the tail;
their gill-openings are lateral. In the Rays, or Batoidei, the gill-
openings are always placed on the abdominal aspect of the fish; the
body is depressed, and the trunk, which is surrounded by the
immensely developed pectoral fins, forms a broad flat disk, of which
the tail appears as a thin and slender appendage. Spiracles are
always present; the number of gill-openings is constantly five; no
anal fin; dorsal fins, if present, situated on the tail. However, some of
the Rays approach the Sharks in having the caudal portion less
abruptly contracted behind the trunk.
Fossil Plagiostomes are very numerous in all formations. Some
of the earliest determinable fish remains are believed to be, or are,
derived from Plagiostomes. Those which can be referred to any of
the following families will be mentioned subsequently: but there are
others, especially fin-spines, which leave us in doubt to which group
of Plagiostomes their owners had any affinity, thus Onchus from the
upper Silurian, continuing to carboniferous formations;
Dimeracanthus, Homocanthus, from the Devonian; Oracanthus,
Gyracanthus, Tristychius, Astroptychius, Ptychacanthus,
Sphenacanthus, etc., from carboniferous formations; Leptacanthus,
from the coal to the Oolite; Cladacanthus, Cricacanthus, Gyropristis,
and Lepracanthus, from the coal measures; Nemacanthus,
Liacanthus, from the Trias; Astracanthus, Myriacanthus,
Pristacanthus, from the Jurassic group.

A. Selachoidei: Sharks.
The elongate cylindrical body, generally terminating in a more or
less pointed snout, and passing into a powerful and flexible tail,
blade-like at its extremity, gives to the Sharks a most extraordinary
power of swimming, with regard to endurance as well as rapidity of
motion. Many, especially the larger kinds, inhabit the open ocean,
following ships for weeks, or pursuing shoals of fishes in their
periodical migrations. Other large-sized sharks frequent such parts
of the coast as offer them abundance of food; whilst the majority of
the smaller kinds are shore fishes, rarely leaving the bottom, and
sometimes congregating in immense numbers. The movements of
sharks resemble in some measure those of snakes, their flexible
body being bent in more than one curve when moving.
Sharks are most numerous in the seas between the Tropics, and
become scarcer beyond, a few only reaching the Arctic circle; it is
not known how far they advance southwards towards the Antarctic
region. Some species enter fresh waters, and ascend large rivers,
like the Tigris or Ganges, to a considerable distance. The pelagic as
well as the shore species have a wide geographical range. Very few
descend to a considerable depth, probably not exceeding 500
fathoms. There are about 140 different species known.
Sharks have no scales like those of other fishes; their
integuments are covered with calcified papillæ which, under the
microscope, show a structure similar to that of teeth. If the papillæ
are small, pointed, and close set, the skin is called “shagreen;” rarely
they are larger, appearing as bucklers or spines, of various sizes.
These fishes are exclusively carnivorous, and those armed with
powerful cutting teeth are the most formidable tyrants of the ocean.
They have been known to divide the body of a man in two at one
bite, as if by the sweep of a sword. Some of the largest sharks,
however, which are provided with very small teeth, are almost
harmless, feeding on small fishes only or marine invertebrates.
Others, particularly of the smaller kinds, commonly called “Dog-
fishes,” have short or obtuse teeth, and feed on shells or any other
animal substance. Sharks scent their food from a distance, being
readily attracted by the smell of blood or decomposing bodies.
In China and Japan, and many other eastern countries, the
smaller kinds of sharks are eaten. Sharks’ fins form in India and
China a very important article of trade, the Chinese preparing from
them gelatine, and using the better sorts for culinary purposes. The
fins are obtained not exclusively from Sharks but also from Rays,
and assorted in two kinds, viz. “white and black.” The white consist
exclusively of the dorsal fins, which are on both sides of the same
uniform light colour, and reputed to yield more gelatine than the other
fins. The pectoral, ventral, and anal fins pass under the
denomination of black fins; the caudal fin is not used. One of the
principal places where shark fishery is practised as a profession is
Kurrachee. Dr. Buist, writing in 1850 (“Proc. Zool. Soc.” 1850, p.
100), states that there are thirteen large boats, with crews of twelve
men each, constantly employed in this pursuit; that the value of the
fins sent to the market varies from 15,000 to 18,000 rupees; that one
boat will sometimes capture at a draught as many as one hundred
sharks of various sizes; and that the number total of sharks captured
during the year amounts probably to not less than 40,000. Large
quantities are imported from the African coast and the Arabian Gulf,
and various ports on the coast of India. In the year 1845–46, 8770
cwt. of sharks’ fins were exported from Bombay to China.

First Family—Carchariidæ.
 Eye with a nictitating membrane. Mouth crescent-shaped, inferior.
Anal fin present. Two dorsal fins, the first opposite to the space
between pectoral and ventral fins, without spine in front.
Carcharias.—Snout produced in the longitudinal axis of the body;
mouth armed with a series of large flat triangular teeth, which have a
smooth cutting or serrated edge. Spiracles absent. A transverse pit on
the back of the tail, at the root of the caudal fin.
This genus comprises the true Sharks, common in the tropical,
but less so in the temperate seas. Between thirty and forty different
species have been distinguished, of which one of the most common
is the “Blue Shark” (Carcharias glaucus). Individuals of from twelve
to fifteen feet are of very common occurrence, but some of the
species attain a much larger size, and a length of 25 and more feet.
Fishes of this genus or of closely allied genera (Corax, Hemipristis)
are not uncommon in the chalk and tertiary formations.
Galeocerdo.—Teeth large, flat, triangular, oblique, serrated on
both edges, with a deep notch on the outer margin. Spiracles small. A
pit on the tail, above and below, at the root of the caudal fin. Two
notches on the under caudal border, one of them at the end of the
spine.
 Fig. 112.—Dentition of the Blue Shark
(Carcharias glaucus); the single teeth are of the
natural size.
Three species, of which one (G. arcticus) is confined to the arctic
and sub-arctic oceans. The others inhabit temperate and tropical
seas, and all attain to a very large size.
Galeus.—Snout produced in the longitudinal axis of the body;
teeth equal in both jaws, rather small, flat, triangular, oblique, serrated
and with a notch. Spiracles small. No pit at the commencement of the
caudal fin, which has a single notch on its lower margin.
These are small sharks, commonly called “Tope.” The species
found on the British coast is spread over nearly all the temperate and
tropical seas, and is common in California and Tasmania. It lives on
the bottom, and is very troublesome to fishermen by constantly
taking away bait or driving away the fishes which they desire to
catch.
Zygæna.—The anterior part of the head is broad, flattened, and
produced into a lobe on each side, the extremity of which is occupied
 by the eye. Caudal fin with a single notch at its lower margin. A pit at
the root of the caudal fin. Spiracles none. Nostrils situated on the front
edge of the head.
The “Hammerheads,” or Hammerheaded Sharks, have a
dentition very similar to that of Carcharias, and although they do not
attain to the same large size, they belong to the most formidable
fishes of the ocean. The peculiar form of their head is quite unique
among fishes; young examples have the lateral extension of the skull
much less developed than adults. Five species are known, which are
most abundant in the tropics. By far the most common is Zygæna
malleus, which occurs in nearly all tropical and sub-tropical seas.
Specimens of this species may be often seen ascending from the
clear blue depths of the ocean like a great cloud. Cantor found in a
female, nearly 11 feet long, thirty-seven embryons.—Hammerheads
have lived from the cretaceous epoch.
Mustelus.—The second dorsal fin is not much smaller than the
first. No pit at the root of the caudal, which is without distinct lower
lobe. Snout produced in the longitudinal axis of the body. Spiracles
small, behind the eyes. Teeth small, numerous, similar in both jaws,
obtuse, or with very indistinct cusps, arranged like pavement.
The “Hounds” are small Sharks, abundant on the coasts of all the
temperate and tropical seas; two of the five species known occur on
the coasts of Europe, viz. M. lævis and M. vulgaris. Closely allied as
these two species are, they yet show a most singular difference, viz.
that a placenta is developed in the uterus for the attachment of the
embryo in M. lævis (the Γαλεὁς λεȋος of Aristotle, to whom this fact
was already known); whilst the embryons of M. vulgaris are
developed without such placenta (see J. Müller, “Abhandl. Ak. Wiss.”
Berl. 1840). The Hounds are bottom fish, which feed principally on
shells, crustaceans, and decomposing animal substances.

Several other genera belong to the family Carchariidæ, but it will

be sufficient to mention their names:—Hemigaleus, Loxodon,
Thalassorhinus, Triænodon, Leptocarcharias, and Triacis.
 Second Family—Lamnidæ.
Eye without nictitating membrane. Anal fin present. Two dorsal
fins; the first opposite to the space between pectoral and ventral fins,
without spine in front. Nostrils not confluent with the mouth which is
inferior. Spiracles absent or minute.
All the fishes of this family attain to a very large size, and are
pelagic. But little is known of their reproduction. The first appearance
of this family is indicated by Carcharopsis, a genus from
carboniferous formations, the teeth of which differ from those of
Carcharodon only by having a broad fold at the base. In the chalk
and tertiary formations almost all the existing genera are
represented; and, besides, Oxytes, Sphenodus, Gomphodus, and
Ancistrodon, which are known from teeth only, have been considered
generically distinct from the living Porbeagles.
Lamna (Oxyrhina).—The second dorsal and anal are very small.
A pit at the root of the caudal, which has the lower lobe much
developed. Side of the tail with a prominent longitudinal keel. Mouth
wide. Teeth large, lanceolate, not serrated, sometimes with additional
basal cusps. On each side of the upper jaw, at some distance from the
symphysis, there is one or two teeth conspicuously smaller than the
others. Gill-openings very wide. Spiracles minute.

Fig. 113.—Upper and lower

tooth of Lamna.

Of the “Porbeagles,” three species have been described, of which

the one occurring in the North Atlantic, and frequently straying to the
British coasts (L. cornubica), is best known. It attains to a length of
ten feet, and feeds chiefly on fishes; its lanceolate teeth are not
adapted for cutting, but rather for seizing and holding its prey, which
it appears to swallow whole. According to Pennant it is viviparous;
only two embryoes were found in the female which came under his
observation. Haast has found this species also off the coast of New
Zealand.
Carcharodon.—The second dorsal and anal are very small. Pit
at the root of the caudal, which has the lower lobe well developed.
Side of the tail with a prominent longitudinal keel. Mouth wide. Teeth
large, flat, erect, regularly triangular, serrated. On each side of the
upper jaw, at some distance from the symphysis, there is one or two
teeth conspicuously smaller than the others. Gill-openings wide.
One species only is known (C. rondeletii), which is the most
formidable of all Sharks. It is strictly pelagic; and appears to occur in
all tropical and sub-tropical seas. It is known to attain to a length of
40 feet. The tooth figured here, of the natural size, is taken from a
jaw 20 inches wide in its transverse diameter (inside measure), each
half of the mandible measuring 22 inches.[36] The whole length of
the fish was 36½ feet.
Carcharodon teeth are of very common occurrence in various
tertiary strata, and have been referred to several species, affording
ample evidence that this type was much more numerously
represented in that geological epoch than in the recent fauna. Some
individuals attained to an immense size, as we may judge from teeth
found in the Crag, which are 4 inches wide at the base, and 5 inches
long, measured along their lateral margin. The naturalists of the
“Challenger” expedition have made the highly interesting discovery
that teeth of similar size are of common occurrence in the ooze of
the Pacific, between Polynesia and the west coast of America. As we
have no record of living individuals of that bulk having been
observed, the gigantic species to which these teeth belonged must
have become extinct within a comparatively recent period. Nothing is
known of the anatomy, habits, and reproduction of the surviving
species, and no opportunity should be lost of obtaining information
on this Shark.
 Fig. 114.—Tooth of
Carcharodon rondeletii.
Odontaspis.—The second dorsal and anal are not much smaller
than the first dorsal. No pit at the root of the caudal. Side of the tail
without keel. Mouth wide. Teeth large, awl-shaped, with one or two
small cusps at the base. Gill-openings of moderate width.

Large Sharks from tropical and temperate seas; two species.

Alopecias.—The second dorsal and anal very small. Caudal fin of
extraordinary length, with a pit at its root. No keel on the side of the
tail. Mouth and gill-openings of moderate width. Teeth equal in both
jaws, of moderate size, flat, triangular, not serrated.
This genus consists of one species only, which is known by the
name of “Fox-shark” or “Thresher.” It is the most common of the
larger kinds of Sharks which occur on the British coasts; and seems
to be equally common in other parts of the Atlantic and
Mediterranean, as well as on the coasts of California and New
Zealand. It attains to a length of fifteen feet, of which the tail takes
more than one half; and is quite harmless to man. It follows the
shoals of Herrings, Pilchards, and Sprats in their migrations,
destroying incredible numbers. When feeding it uses the long tail in
splashing the surface of the water, whilst it swims in gradually
decreasing circles round a shoal of fishes, which are thus kept
crowded together, falling an easy prey to their enemy. Statements
that it has been seen to attack Whales and other large Cetaceans,
rest upon erroneous observations.
Selache.—The second dorsal and anal very small. A pit at the
root of the caudal fin, which is provided with a lower lobe. Side of the
tail with a keel. Gill-openings extremely wide. Teeth very small,
numerous, conical, without serrature or lateral cusps.
 Also this genus consists of one species only, the “Basking Shark”
(Pélerin of the French). It is the largest Shark of the North Atlantic,
growing to a length of more than thirty feet. It is quite harmless if not
attacked; its food consisting of small fishes, and other small marine
animals swimming in shoals. On the west coast of Ireland it is
chased for the sake of the oil which is extracted from the liver, one
fish yielding from a ton to a ton and a-half. Its capture is not
unattended with danger, as one blow from the enormously strong tail
is sufficient to stave in the sides of a large boat. At certain seasons it
is gregarious, and many specimens may be seen in calm weather
lying together motionless, with the upper part of the back raised
above the surface of the water; a habit from which this Shark has
derived its name. The buccal and branchial cavities are of
extraordinary width, and, in consequence of the flabby condition of
those parts, the head presents a variable and singular appearance in
specimens lying dead on the ground. This peculiarity, as well as the
circumstance that young specimens have a much longer and more
pointed snout than adult ones, has led to the erroneous opinion that
several different genera and species of Basking Shark occur in the
European seas. The branchial arches of Selache are provided with a
very broad fringe of long (five to six inches) and thin gill-rakers,
possessing the same microscopical structure as the teeth and
dermal productions of Sharks. Similar gill-rakers have been found in
a fossil state in the Crag of Anvers in Belgium, proving the existence
of this Selachian type in the tertiary epoch. Nothing is known of the
reproduction of this fish. The latest contributions to its history are by
Steenstrup in “Overs. Dansk. Vidensk. Selsk., Forhandl.” 1873, and
by Pavesi in “Annal. Mus. Civ. Geneva,” 1874 and 1878.

Third Family—Rhinodontidæ.
No nictitating membrane. Anal fin present. Two dorsal fins, the
first nearly opposite to the ventrals, without spine in front. Mouth and
nostril near the extremity of the snout.
This small family comprises one species only, Rhinodon typicus,
a gigantic Shark, which is known to exceed a length of fifty feet, but
is stated to attain that of seventy. It does not appear to be rare in the
western parts of the Indian Ocean, and possibly occurs also in the
Pacific. It is one of the most interesting forms, not unlike the Basking
Shark of the Northern Seas, having gill-rakers like that species; but
very little is known of its structure and mode of life. It is perfectly
harmless, its teeth being extremely small and numerous, placed in
broad bands; it has been stated to feed on tang, an observation
which requires confirmation. The snout is very broad, short, and flat;
the eyes are very small. A pit at the root of the caudal fin which has
the lower lobe well developed; side of the tail with a keel. A
characteristic figure of this fish has been given by A. Smith in his
“Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa,” Plate 26, from a
specimen which came ashore at the Cape of Good Hope.

Fig. 115.—Dentition of Notidanus indicus. a,

teeth in function; b, teeth in reserve; u, upper, and l,
lower, tooth, of natural size.

Fourth Family—Notidanidæ.
 No nictitating membrane. One dorsal fin only, without spine,
opposite to the anal.
Notidanus.—Dentition unequal in the jaws: in the upper jaw one
or two pairs of awl-shaped teeth, the following six being broader, and
provided with several cusps, one of which is much the strongest.
Lower jaw with six large comb-like teeth on each side, beside the
smaller posterior teeth. Spiracles small, on the side of the neck. No pit
at the root of the caudal fin. Gill-openings wide, six in number in
Hexanchus, seven in Heptanchus.
Four species are known, distributed over nearly all the tropical
and sub-tropical seas; they attain to a length of about fifteen feet.
Fossil teeth belonging to this type have been found in Jurassic and
later formations (Notidanus and Aellopos).

Fifth Family—Scylliidæ.
Two dorsal fins, without spine: the first above or behind the
ventrals; anal fin present. No nictitating membrane. Spiracle always
distinct. Mouth inferior. Teeth small, several series generally being in
function.
Scyllium.—The origin of the anal fin is always in advance of that
of the second dorsal. Nasal cavity separate from the mouth. Teeth
small, with a middle longer cusp, and generally one or two small
lateral cusps arranged in numerous series. Eggs similar to those of
the Rays (Fig. 79, p. 167).
The fishes of this genus are of small size, and commonly called
“Dog-fishes.” They are coast fishes, living on the bottom, and feeding
on Crustaceans, dead fishes, etc. None of the eight species known
have a very wide distribution, but where they occur they are
generally sufficiently abundant to prove troublesome to fishermen.
They inhabit most parts of the temperate and tropical seas. On the
British coasts two species are found, the “Larger” and “Lesser
spotted Dog-fish,” Scyllium canicula and Scyllium catulus, which are
said to be more plentiful among the Orkney Islands than elsewhere.
They are scarcely ever brought to market; but the fishermen of some
localities do not disdain to eat them. Their flesh is remarkably white,
a little fibrous, and dry. In the Orkneys they are skinned, split up,
cleaned, and then spread out on the rocks to dry for home
consumption. The skins are used for smoothing down cabinet-work.
It would be worth while to apply the fins of these and other Sharks,
which are so extensively used in China for making gelatine soups, to
the same purpose in this country, or to dry them for exportation to
the East. Most of the species of Dog-fishes are spotted, and those of
the allied genera, Parascyllium and Chiloscyllium, very handsomely
ornamented.
Closely allied to Scyllium is Pristiurus, from the coasts of Europe,
which is provided with a series of small flat spines on each side of
the upper edge of the caudal fin.
Fossil forms of Dog-fishes are not scarce in the Lias and Chalk:
Scylliodus, Palæoscyllium, Thyellina, Pristiurus.
Ginglymostoma.—The second dorsal fin opposite to, and
somewhat in advance of, the anal. Eyes very small; spiracle minute
and behind the eye. Nasal and buccal cavities confluent. The nasal
valves of both sides form one quadrangular flap in front of the mouth,
each being provided with a free cylindrical cirrhus. The fourth and fifth
gill-openings are close together. The teeth stand either in many series,
each having a strong median cusp and one or two smaller ones on
each side (Ginglymostoma), or they stand in a few (three) series only,
the foremost only being in function, and each tooth having a convex,
finely and equally serrated margin (Nebrius).
Four species from the tropical parts of the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans, attaining to a length of some 12 feet. Pelagic.
Stegostoma.—The first dorsal above the ventrals, the second in
advance of the anal, which is very close to the caudal. Tail, with the
caudal fin, exceedingly long, measuring one-half of the total length.
Eyes very small, spiracle as wide as, and situated behind, the orbit.
Nasal and buccal cavities confluent. Snout very obtuse; upper lip very
thick, like a pad, bent downwards over the mouth, with a free
cylindrical cirrhus on each side. Teeth small, trilobed, in many series,
occupying in both jaws a transverse flat subquadrangular patch. The
fourth and fifth gill-openings are close together.
The single species (St. tigrinum) for which this genus has been
formed, is one of the commonest and handsomest sharks of the
Indian Ocean. Young individuals keep generally close to the coasts,
whilst the adult, which are from 10 to 15 feet long, are not rarely met
in the open ocean. The colour is a brownish yellow, ornamented with
black or brown transverse bands, or with snuff-coloured rounded
spots; hence this shark is frequently mentioned by the names of
“Zebra-Shark” or “Tiger-Shark.”

Fig. 116.—Chiloscyllium trispeculare, from North-western Australia.

Chiloscyllium.—The first dorsal fin above or behind the ventrals.
Anal fin placed far behind the second dorsal, and very close to the
caudal. Spiracle very distinct, below the eye. Nasal and buccal
cavities confluent. Nasal valve folded, with a cirrhus. Teeth small,
triangular, with or without lateral cusps. The two last gill-openings
close together.

“Dog-fishes,” from the Indian Ocean, of small size. Four species

are known, of which one, Ch. indicum, is one of the commonest
shore-fishes on the coasts of this region, extending from the
southern extremity of the African Continent to Japan.
 Fig. 117.—Confluent nasal and buccal cavities of the
same fish.
Crossorhinus.—The first dorsal behind the ventrals, the second
in advance of the anal, which is very close to the caudal. Tail rather
short. Eyes small. Spiracle a wide oblique slit, behind and below the
eye. Nasal and buccal cavities confluent. Head broad, flat, with the
snout very obtuse; mouth wide, nearly anterior. A free nasal cirrhus;
sides of the head with skinny appendages. Anterior teeth rather large,
long and slender, without lateral lobes, the lateral tricuspid, smaller,
forming a few series only. The fourth and fifth gill-openings close
together.
Three species are known from the Australian and Japanese
coasts. They are evidently ground-sharks, which lie concealed on
the bottom watching for their prey. In accordance with this habit their
colour closely assimilates that of a rock or stone covered with short
vegetable and coralline growth—a resemblance increased by the
frond-like tentacles on the side of the head. This peculiarity of the
integuments, which is developed in a yet higher degree in Pediculati
and Lophobranchs, is not met with in any other Selachian. These
Sharks grow to a length of 10 feet.

Sixth Family—Hybodontidæ.
Two dorsal fins, each with a serrated spine. Teeth rounded,
longitudinally striated, with one larger, and from two to four smaller
lateral cusps. Skin covered with shagreen.
Extinct. From carboniferous, liassic, and triassic formations.
Several genera have been distinguished; and if Cladodus belongs to
this family, it would have been represented even in the Devonian.

Fig. 118.—Spine of Hybodus

subcarinatus.

Seventh Family—Cestraciontidæ.
 No nictitating membrane. Two dorsal fins, the first opposite to the
space between pectoral and ventral fins; anal fin present. Nasal and
buccal cavities confluent. Teeth obtuse, several series being in
function.

Fig. 119.—Jaws of Port Jackson Shark,

Cestracion philippi.
 Fig. 120.—Upper jaw of the same, half natural
size.
This family is one of particular interest, because representatives
of it occur in numerous modifications in primary and secondary
strata. Their dentition is uniformly adapted for the prehension and
mastication of crustaceous and hard-shelled animals. The fossil
forms far exceeded in size the species of the only surviving genus;
they make, their appearance with Ctenoptychius in the Devonian;
this is succeeded in the coal-measures by Psammodus,
Chomatodus, Petrodus, Cochliodus, Polyrhizodus, etc.; in the Trias
and Chalk by Strophodus, Acrodus, Thectodus, and Ptychodus. Of
the 25 genera known, 22 have lived in the periods preceding the
Oolitic.
Cestracion (Heterodontus).—Each dorsal fin armed with a
spine in front; the second in advance of the anal. Mouth rather narrow.
Spiracles small, below the posterior part of the eye. Gill-openings
rather narrow. Dentition similar in both jaws, viz. small obtuse teeth in
front, which in young individuals are pointed and provided with from
three to five cusps. The lateral teeth are large, padlike, twice as broad
as long, arranged in oblique series, one series being formed by much
larger teeth than those in the other series.
 Fig. 121.—Cochliodus contortus.

Fig. 122.—Cestracion galeatus, Australia.

Four species are known from Japan, Amboyna, Australia, the
Galapagoes Islands, and California; none exceed a length of 5 feet.
The egg has been figured on p. 168 (Fig. 80).

Eighth Family—Spinacidæ.
No membrana nictitans. Two dorsal fins; no anal. Mouth but
slightly arched; a long, deep, straight, oblique groove on each side of
the mouth. Spiracles present; gill-openings narrow. Pectoral fins not
notched at their origin.
The oldest representative of this family (Palæospinax) occurs at
Lyme Regis; its skin is granular; each dorsal fin possesses a spine;
the teeth in the jaws are dissimilar—the upper being multicuspid,
longitudinally ribbed as in Hybodus, the lower smooth and tricuspid.
Drepanophorus and Spinax primævus occur in Cretaceous
formations of England and the Lebanon.
Centrina.—Each dorsal fin with a strong spine. Trunk rather
elevated, trihedral, with a fold of the skin running along each side of
the belly. Teeth of the lower jaw erect, triangular, finely serrated; those
of the upper slender, conical, forming a group in front of the jaw.
Spiracles wide, behind the eye.
One species, Centrina salviani, from the Mediterranean and
neighbouring parts of the Atlantic; of small size.
Acanthias.—Each dorsal fin with a spine. Teeth equal in both
jaws, rather small; their point is so much turned aside that the inner
margin of the tooth forms the cutting edge. Spiracles rather wide,
immediately behind the eye.
The two species of “Spiny Dog-fishes,” A. vulgaris and A.
blainvillii, have a very remarkable distribution, being found in the
temperate seas of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, but not
in the intermediate tropical zone. They are of small size, but occur at
times in incredible numbers, 20,000 having been taken in one scene
on the Cornish coast. They do much injury to the fishermen by
cutting their lines and carrying off their hooks.
Centrophorus.—Each dorsal fin with a spine which, however, is
sometimes so small as to be hidden below the skin. Mouth wide.
Teeth of the lower jaw with the point more or less inclined backwards
and outwards. Upper teeth erect, triangular, or narrow, lanceolate, with
a single cusp. Spiracles wide, behind the eye.
Eight species are known from the southern parts of the European
seas, and one from the Moluccas; they do not appear to exceed a
length of five feet. According to the observations of E. P. Wright,
some of the species at least live at a considerable depth, perhaps at
a greater depth than any of the other known Sharks. The Portuguese