6.

LIFE PROCESSES
Experiment 6
AIM
Preparing a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

1. Canna or lily leaf* 2. Slide 3. Cover-

Leaf peel pieces
slip 4. Petri dish 5. Water 6. Glycerine Leaf peel
Petri dish
7. Safranin 8. Scissors or blade
9. Forceps 10. Dropper 11. Microscope Water
12. Brush (painting) 13. Filter paper. (C)
These leaves are ribbon-like long Coverslip
leaves. They give good leaf peel. Any
(B) Folding of leaf Slide
other leaf, e.g., Tradescantia can also and pulling apart
Leaf peel mount
be used.
(D)

PROCEDURE Leaf cells

1. Take a Canna or lily leaf. Simply

Guard cells
fold it in the centre. It breaks into
two pieces.
(A) Canna or lily leaf
en
2. Now gently pull one leaf piece. Stomata
You will get a transparent leaf
at
peel. (You may not get it in one go.
Repeatedly, you should try for it.) (E)
3. Take the leaf peel of lower Fig. 6.1 Temporary mount of Canna leaf peel as seen
lel under the microscope
a epidermis and cut it with scissors
or a blade into small pieces.
Transfer these pieces with the help of paintbrush into a petri dish containing water. (Do not keep them without
water. They will dry.)
en 4. Select a piece of leaf peel and transfer it into another watch glass containing dilute solution of safranin (a red stain).
5. With the help of paintbrush transfer specimen back into first water containing petri dish/watch glass to remove
ing
excess of stain.

wll 6. Transfer specimen to slide with the

help of brush.
V7. Now put a drop of glycerine on the peel and cover it carefully with a cover slip by using needle to avoid air bubbles.
Remove excess glycerine with help of a filter paper.
8 . Observe the leaf peel under low power (10X) of microscope.
9 For inner detail change to high power (45X) of microscope.
Stomata

OESERVATON II
I. A horizontal row of cells is seen. Nucleus

the
4The
V2A cells may be irregular or rectangular in shape, depending upon Epidermal
cell
the leaf used for leaf peeling. Guard
cell (A) (B)
3. Atcertain places stomata are seen.
4. Stomata consist of two guard cells. Stomata open Stomata closed

0. The central pore/aperture is called stoma. Fig. 6.2 Stomatal apparatus

Saraswati Lab Manual Science-X 53

 00000000000
6. Inner wall of guard cell is thicker than the
outer wall.
7. Each guard cell has a nucleus and
many chloroplasts.
S. Stoma of stomata in some stomata are open (open stomata) and in some the stoma is closed (closed stomata).

RESULT

Leaf peel has stomata distributed in it.

PRECAUTIONSE
1. The peel should be small.
2. The peel should not be allowed to dry.
3. There should be air bubbles in the slide.
no

4. Avoid overstaining of the material.

5. The slide should not be dirty.
6. Ask your teacher to focus the slide.

NOTE:
1. Leaf is made up of mesophyll cells. These cells are green in colour because of chloroplasts in them.
2. The distribution of mesophyll cells andchloroplasts can be seen in a section of leaf.
3. Leaf has stomata, the gateway of transpiration and exchange of gases.
4. Stomata consist of two kidney-shaped guard cells in dicot plants and
dumbbell-shaped in monocot plants. The
central part is called stoma.
5. The number of stomata in a leaf and in a plant depend
upon its habitat such as mesophytes (land
stomata on both sides of the leaf. Xerophytes (desert plants) have sunken stomata, plants) have
not have stomata. It controls the loss of water from the plant.
hydrophytes (water plants) do
 1. LIFE PROCESS or

Exper*ment 7.1
AIM
nerimentally show that carbon dioxide is given out
during respiration by use of KOH solution.
MATERIALS REQUIRED

1. Germinating gram or pea or moong seeds

&Bend glass tube, 7. Beaker, 8. Water and 9.(100
KOH
g), 2. Conical flask, 3. Small test tube, 4. Thread, 5. One-holed cork,
pallet or solution.
PROCEDURE
1. Take enough number or
quantity say 100 g of germinating seeds. Put them into a
2. Tie a thread to a small test tube. Put conical flask.
few pellets of KOH* in the test tube.
a
3. Insert a bent tube through a one-holed cork and fix it to
the opening or to the conical flask along with the test tube
hanging inside the flask as shown in following figure.
4. Keep the other end of the bent glass tube dipped in a beaker containing water.
tube. Mark the water level in the glass
5. Keep the whole set for 1-2 hours as such without disturbing it.
-Bent in
delivery tube

Initial level
Conical
flask
KOH KOH
pellets pellets
-Beaker/ -Beaker
Water Water

Germinating-
(A) Seeds
(B)

Fig.7.1 Release of CO2 during respiration

from germinating seeds

OBSERVATION |IIIIIII
After sometime you will see that the water level rises up in the bent glass tube.

RESULT
1. Respiring germinating seeds produce carbon dioxide.
2. This is absorbed by the KOH pellets, kept in the hanging test tube.
3. The air from the bent tubes moves into the conical flask.
4. To fill
gap the water 1level in the bent tube rises up.
PRECAUTIONS
. Germinating seeds should be kept moist.
2. All connections of the
set-ups should be air-tight.
3. Freshly prepared KOH solution should be used.
4. The test tube containing KOH should be hung carefully.
*Absorbs carbon dioxide.

Saraswati Lab Manual Science-X 57

3. The ratio of volume of carbon dioxide released to the volume of oxvgen absorbedis called respiratory rablo
or
respiratory quotient (RQ). When carbohydrate is the substrate, RQ = 1|
4.This process is the source of energy to all the cells.
Respiration reaction is represented by
1. CH,O+60, 6CO+6H,O+Energy. (Aerobicreaction). Example as in germinating seeds.
Glucose
(substrate)

2. CHO 2C,H OH + 2CO, +Energy. (Anaerobic reaction). Example as in yeast cells.

Glucose Ethyl
(substrate) Alcohol
 8.CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES:
NATURE AND BEMAVIOUR
Experiiment 8
CAIM

Studyof the following properties of acetic acid (ethanoic acid):

aiT (ii) solubility in water (ii) effect on litmus (iv) reaction with sodium hydrogen carbonate
( iodou

THEORY

Aoetic acid is present in vinegar. It can be obtained by wood tar

istillation. It is sour in taste. Acetic acid has vinegar-like smell.
dis
Tt turns blue litmus red but does not affect red litmus.
Acetic acid is an organic acid. It belongs to carboxylic acid
it has -COOH as functional group.
group because
Acetic acid is soluble in water because it gets ionised in
to which it is acidic in nature.
aqueous solution due Acetic acid
CHCOOH ) + H,OU) CH,CO0 (aq) + H,O" (ag)
Acetic acid reacts with sodium bicarbonate and gives brisk
NaHCOgs) 9%
effervescence due to the formation of C0, gas which turns lime Lime water
Ca(OH)2
water milky.
CHCOOH) + NaHC0,(s) CH,COONa +CO, + H,0

CalOH), (aq) CO,g) CaCO, (s) +H,O () Fig. 8.1 Reaction of acetic acid with NaHCO3
Lime water Carbon dioxide (White ppt)

MATERIALS REQUIRED
(NaHCO,), lime water, test tubes.
Acetic acid, blue and red litmus paper or solution, sodium hydrogen carbonate

PROCEDURE
1. Observe the colour and odour of given acid.
and record in observation table.
2. Add a blue litmus paper or solution into given acid, observe the change
observations.
3. Add red litmus paper or solution into given acid and record
observation table and draw inference.
4. Add given acid in water and write observation in
conical flask and pass the gas through lime water as shown
. Add sodium bicarbonate solid to acetic acid taken in a
in Fig. 8.1. Write observation in observation table.

RESULT
nysical and chemical properties of acetic
acid has been studied.

PRECAUTIONSE Handle it carefully.

D o not inhaleof pure acetic acid.
vapours

Add little amount of NaHCO, in

acetic acid.

Saraswati Lab Manual Science-X 61

 OCAL
LENGTH OF A CON
Experiment 10.1
MIRROR

a distant object,
a sharp image ot
obtaining
eLermination of the focal length of a concave mirror by

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Concave mirror, mirror stand, screen, scale, wooden bench, etc

SPECIFICOBJECTIVE
1. To learn to distinguish between types of spherical mirrors.
2. To learn to write about the nature of image formed.
convention.
3. To learn to use mirror formula with proper sign C
the objec.
4. To learn to use the wooden bench to get sharp images of
5. To learn to draw ray diagram. Fig. 10.5 Reflection by concave m

THEORY
beams to the focus. By convention,
focal length of theconcavem
mi
Concave mirror is capable of reflecting all parallel
R
is taken negative. It is also related to the radius by the relationf=

P-Pole.
In above figure F-Focus, C-Centre of curvature,

PROCEDURE
a lens. If wooden
bench is not available, lense
one can place the
1. Arrange the wooden bench capable of holding
any firm support.
(Distant tree will be a best option
branch of a tree, window, etc.
2. Keep the mirror to face a distant object-say
the mirror reflects so that the image pla
it in the direction in which
3. Fix the s c r e e n on another holder and keep
is not shaky.
in such a way that the image of
the distant object falls on it.
4. Adjust the position of screen
mirror and screen and record it a s the
focal length.
5. Find the separation between the found.
m o r e objects and record the
distance and thereby the focal length is
6. Repeat the steps for many
7. Find the m e a n value of
focal length.
with -ve' sign.
8. By sign convention focal length of concave mirror is to be expressed

OESERVAIONIIIIIIi
Range **m

Least count of scale used No. of divisions

OBSERVATION TABLE

Distance between concave mirror and screen (cm) Focal length f(cm)
S.No. Object
1

5.
d =

f= cm = - . . . . . c m
Mean focal length =

Science-X
Saraswati Lab Manual
76
 RESULT

The focal length of the given concave mirror =-....

cm.
PRECAUTIONSE
1. Focussing of
distant object should give sharp image
2. Measurement of distance from pole should be made accurate.
3. Sign convention should be used properly in mirror formula.
4. Metre scale should be held
horizontally, while measuring distances or the bench should be set horizontally.
 pnd the

Experiment 10.2- FOCAL LENGTH OF

LENS

UN
etemination ofthe focal length of convex lens by obtaining a sharp image of a distant object.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Obisct at
Rden bench, lens holder, sereen holder, ete.
Large disans
SPECIRIC OBJECTIVE
To learn to distinguish mirror, lenses and types of lenses.
2 To learn about the converging nature of convex lens.
To learn to draw ray diagram.
Fig. 10.12
THEORY
Fasl length of a convex lens is taken as positive. It is capable of converging parallel beams to the foeus. Any distant
biect will send parallel beams of light, which on passing through the lens, will converge at the focus. The distanee
etween the position of the lens, ie., optieal centre and the sereen where light comverges is called the focal length of
the given lens.
Object at large distance
IB-Image. F-First focus, 2F-Second focus. Image is inverted, real and at F.

eROCEDURE
1. Arrange the wooden bench capable of holding the lens and screen horizontally on a table, so that the lens and sereen
are not disturbed.
2 Keep the lens in a holder facing a distant object say tree branches.
3. Fix the screen on another holder and keep it on the bench.
of the given distant object falls on it.
4. Adjust the position of the screen in such a way that a sharp image
and find the differences and record the same.
5. Note down the position of the lens in the table and the sereen,
lens.
6. The difference will give the focal length of the given convex
the experiment to find the position of sharp image and
7. Focus the lens towards various distant objects and repeat
thereby the focal length.
8. Add all the focal lengths found out and find the mean value of focal length of the convex lens.

OBSERVATION TABLE

Position of convex lens Position of screen Focal length, f

Object (S) (C-S) em
(C)
No.

2.

8.

4
5.
Total A

Mean value
of focal length ofconvex lens = Cm.

Saraswati Lab Manual Science-X 85

, . , 5
Concave
the im ULT

ne focal length of the given convex lens is found by using distant objects. Its value is found to be +.....Cm.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Wooden bench should be
placed on a horizontal table perfectly.
2. Screen and lens should be held
vertically.
3. Position of screen should be
adjusted for a sharp image.
4. More trials may be taken to reduce error.
 11.REhAÉTION IN GLASSSLAB
GAIM
Experiment11
Tracing tne path ot a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of incidence. Measure
the angle of incidence,
angle of refraction,angle ofemergence and interpret the result
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Glass slab, pins, pencil, protractor, paper, wooden board, etc.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE
1. To understand the phenomenon of refraction.
2. To learn to keep pins, such that no deviation from straight line occurs.
3. To understand the lateral displacement.
4. To learn about the importance of parallel refracting surfaces.

THEORY
Light will undergo refraction on passing through a transparent medium. Light bends towards the normal, when it gets
into glass from air and bends away as it gets out of glass into air. When the refracting surfaces are parallel, then the
emergent and incident angles will be equal. There will be a lateral displacement of light on refraction in a glass slab.

PROCFRIIRR
OBSERVATION TABLE
S.No.Angle of incidence (i) Angle of refraction (r) Angle of emergence (e) I(e-i)| (i-r)
1.

2.

3.
4.

(e i ) is expected to be zero. For a glass slab (i-r) should be positive.

RESULT

() The angle of emergence has been found to be the same as the

angle of incidence.
(ii) The angle of refractionr was found to be less than i and so (i r) is the
indicating
-

glass to be denser than air

PRECAUTIONS
1. Glass slab should be placed well within the outline marked.
2. Pins should be fixed exactly vertically. Do not hammer the pins.
3. The foot of the pins (on the paper) should be placed in
straight line.
4. Use of protractor in finding angle should be accurate.
5. Angles should be fixed between 30° and 60°.for incident ray.
6. The separation between pins should be at least 5 cm, while
ensuring straight line.