Me6404 SD

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.
net
2. SYLLABUS
ME 6404 THERMAL ENGINEERING LTPC
3 0 0 3
(Use of standard refrigerant property data book, Steam Tables, Mollier diagram and
Psychrometric chart permitted)
UNIT I GAS POWER CYCLES 8

Otto, Diesel, Dual, Brayton cycles, Calculation of mean effective pressure, and air standard
efficiency - Comparison of cycles.
UNIT II INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 10

Classification - Components and their function. Valve timing diagram and port timing
diagram – actual and theoretical p-V diagram of four stroke and two stroke engines. Simple
ww
and complete Carburetor. MPFI, Diesel pump and injector system. Battery and Magneto
Ignition System - Principles of Combustion and knocking in SI and CI Engines. Lubrication
w.E
and Cooling systems. Performance calculation.
UNIT III asy

STEAM NOZZLES AND TURBINES 9
En
Flow of steam through nozzles, shapes of nozzles, effect of friction, critical pressure
gin
ratio,Supersaturated flow. Impulse and Reaction principles, compounding, velocity diagram
for simple and multi-stage turbines, speed regulations –Governors.
UNIT IV AIR COMPRESSOR

ee rin 9
g.n
Classification and working principle of various types of compressors, work of compression
with and without clearance, Volumetric efficiency, Isothermal efficiency and Isentropic
et
efficiency ofreciprocating compressors, Multistage air compressor and inter cooling –work
of multistage aircompressor
UNIT V REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 9

Refrigerants - Vapour compression refrigeration cycle- super heat, sub cooling –
Performancecalculations - working principle of vapour absorption system, Ammonia –
Water, Lithium bromide – water systems (Description only) . Air conditioning system -
Processes, Types and Working Principles. - Concept of RSHF, GSHF, ESHF- Cooling Load
calculations.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
 Upon completion of this course, the students can able to apply the different gas
power cycles and use of them in IC and R&AC applications.
Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

3. TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE..
S.NO TABLE OF CONTENTS
NO
1 Aim and Objective of the subject 4
2 Detailed Lesson Plan 5
3 Unit I-Gas Power Cycles-Part A 8
4 Unit I- Gas Power Cycles-Part B 10
5 Unit I- Gas Power Cycles-Part C 31
6 Unit II-Internal Combustion Engines-Part A 39
7 Unit II- Internal Combustion Engines-Part B 40
ww
8 Unit II- Internal Combustion Engines-Part C 59
9
10 w.E
Unit III- Steam Nozzles And Turbines-Part A
Unit III- Steam Nozzles And Turbines-Part B
72
74
11
12 asy
Unit III- Steam Nozzles And Turbines-Part C
Unit IV- Air Compressor -Part A
94
99
13 En
Unit IV- Air Compressor -Part B 101
14
gin
Unit IV- Air Compressor -Part C 117
15
16 ee
Unit V- Refrigeration And Air Conditioning - Part A
rin
Unit V- Refrigeration And Air Conditioning- Part B
121
124
17 Unit V- Refrigeration And Air Conditioning - Part C 142
18 University Questions g.n 150
et

ME6404 THERMAL ENGINEERING 3 0 0 100
1. Aim and Objective of the Subject

 To integrate the concepts, laws and methodologies from the first course in
thermodynamics into analysis of cyclic processes.
 To apply the thermodynamic concepts into various thermal application like IC
engines, Steam Turbines, Compressors and Refrigeration and Air conditioning
systems
2. Need and Importance for Study of the subject

The subject,thermal engineering,deals with the application aspects of the pre requisite
ww
course ; engineering thermodynamics.Anything and everything in the day to day life
carry the aspects of application of thermodynamics right from energy conversion
w.E
during metabolism to energy harnessing from any renewable or non renewable
sources, in particular this subject deals with the application in IC engines, Aircraft
asy
engines, compressors, nozzles, refrigerators and air conditioning system.
En
3. Industry Connectivity and Latest Developments
-
-
Advanced engine management system
gin
-
-
Hypersonic aircrafts ee
Sophisticated injection, ignition and better emission control engines
rin
Non conventional refrigeration systems ( for example solar powered refrigerators)
g.n
4. Industrial Visit (Planned if any)
 Bus Depot et
 Thermal Power Plant

DETAILED LESSON PLAN
TEXT BOOKS
1. Rajput. R. K., “Thermal Engineering” S.Chand Publishers, 2000(copies available in
library)
2. RS. Khurmi “Thermal Engineering” S.Chand Publishers (copies available in library)
3. Kothandaraman.C.P., Domkundwar. S,Domkundwar. A.V., “A course in thermal
Engineering",Fifth Edition, ”Dhanpat Rai & sons , 2002(copies available in library)
REFERENCES
1. Sarkar, B.K,”Thermal Engineering” Tata McGraw-Hill Publishers, 2007(copies
available in library)
2. Ganesan V..” Internal Combustion Engines” , Third Edition, Tata Mcgraw-Hill
ww
2007(copies available in library)
3. Rudramoorthy, R, “Thermal Engineering “,Tata McGraw-Hill, New
w.E
Delhi,2003(copies available in library)
4. Ramalingam. K.K., "Thermal Engineering", SCITECH Publications (India) Pvt. Ltd.,
asy
2009. (copies available in library)
5. PK Nag “ Engineering Thermodynamics”, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi (copies
available in library) En
6.
gin
S.NO UNIT TOPICS COVERED ee NO OF
HOUR
S rin
CUMULA
TIVE
HOURS
BOOKS
REFER
RED
GAS POWER CYCLES
g.n
1
Introduction- IC Engines Components
and working
Otto cycle- Calculation of mean
1 1
et T1,T2,R
2
T1,T2,R
2 effective pressure, work done and air 2 3
1,R5
standard efficiency
Diesel cycle-Calculation of mean
T1,T2,R
1,R5
1 standard efficiency
Dual cycle-Calculation of mean
T1,T2,R
1,R5
standard efficiency
Brayton cycle-Calculation of mean
T1,T2,R
1,R3,R5
standard efficiency
6 Comparison of cycles 1 9 R5

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

1 Classification, Components and their function 1 10 T1,R2
Valve timing diagram and port
2 timingdiagram.Actual and theoretical p-V diagram 2 12 T2,R2
of four stroke and two stroke engines.
R2, NET
3 Simple and complete Carburetor,MPFI 1 13 SOURC
E
4 2 Diesel pump and injector system. 1 14 T1,R2
Battery Ignition System,Magneto Ignition
5 1 15 T2,R2
System
Principles of Combustion and knocking in SI and
6 1 16 T2,R2
CI Engines.
7 ww Lubrication and Cooling systems. 1 17

T1,T2,R
2
8 w.E
Performance calculation. 4 21 T2,R2
asy
STEAM NOZZLES AND TURBINES
Flow of steam through nozzles, Shape of T1,T2,R
1
nozzles
En 1 22
1
2
Supersaturated flow gin
effect of friction, Critical Pressure Ratio,
1 23
T1,T2,R
1
3
3
Steam Nozzle problem solving ee rin 4 27
T1,T2,R
1
4
Impulse and Reaction principles, velocity
diagram for simple and multi-stage turbines
1
g.n
28 T2,R3
5
compounding, speed regulations –
Governors.
1 29et T1,T2
T1,T2,R
6 Problem solving 2 31
1,R3
AIR COMPRESSOR
Classification of various types of
1 compressors,working principle of various 1 32 T2,R1
types of compressors
work of compression with and without
4 clearance, Volumetric efficiency of
reciprocating compressors, Isothermal
2 2 34 T2,R1
efficiency of reciprocating compressors,
Isentropic efficiency of reciprocating
compressors,

3 Multistage air compressor and inter cooling 2 36 T2,R1

T2,R1,R
4 Rotary Compressor 1 37
3
5 Problem solving 4 41 T2,R1
REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
Refrigerants ,Vapour compression
T2,T3,R
1 refrigeration cycle, super heat, sub 1 42
3
cooling, Performance calculations
working principle of vapour absorption
2 system, Ammonia –Water, Lithium 1 43 T2,R3
bromide – water systems
5 T1,T2,R
3 Refrigeration problem solving 3 46
3
4 ww Air conditioning system,Processes,

Types and Working Principles
1 47 T1,R3
5 w.E
Concept of RSHF, GSHF,
ESHF,Cooling Load calculations.
1 48 R3
6 asy
Air Conditioning Problem Solving 2 50 T1,R3
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
UNIT-1
GAS POWER CYCLES
PART-A

1. What is meant by mean effective pressure? (Nov/Dec 2007, Nov/Dec 2011, Apr/May
2012, Nov/Dec 2013)
Mean effective pressure is defined as the constant pressure acting on the piston during the
working stroking. It is also defined as the ratio of work done to the stroke volume or piston
displacement volume.
2. For a given compression ratio the Otto cycle is more efficient than diesel engine.
Justify. (Nov/Dec 2013)
In the p-v diagram the area under the Otto cycle is more than the diesel cycle. So the
efficiency of Otto cycle will be higher than the diesel cycle.
3. Name any four assumption made for air standard cycle analysis. (May/June 2007,
May/June 2009, May/ June 2013)


ww
The operation of the engine is frictionless.
Heat supplied and rejected in a reversible manner.
 w.E
Kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid are neglected

asy
The working medium is a perfect gas
En
4. Sketch the dual cycle on p-V and T-s coordinates. (May/ June 2013)
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression.
Process 2-3: Constant volume heat addition.
Process 3-4: Constant pressure heat addition.
Process 4-5: Reversible adiabatic expansion.
Process 5-1: Constant volume heat reject
5. Define the terms actual thermal efficiency and relative efficiency. (Nov/Dec 2012)

Actual efficiency is defined as the ratio of work output by the cycle to the heat input to the
cycle.
Relative efficiency is defined as the ratio between the actual and air standard efficiency.
6. What is air standard cycle? (Nov/Dec 2012)
The cycle is defined as the series of operations or processes performed on a system , so
that the system attains its original state. The thermodynamic cycles which uses air as the
working fluid is known as air standard cycles.
7. What is the effect cut-off ratio on the efficiency of diesel cycle when the
compression ratio is kept constant? (May/June 2014)
When cut-off ratio of diesel cycle increases, the efficiency of cycle is decreased when
compression ratio is kept constant and vice versa.
ww
8. Write any four major differences between Otto and diesel cycle.
Otto cycle:
w.E
 It consists of two isentropic and two constant volume processes.
asy
 Heat addition takes place of constant volume
 Compression ratio is equal to expansion ratio.
Diesel cycle: En
gin
 It consists of two isentropic, one constant volume and one constant pressureprocesses.
 Heat addition takes place of constant pressure.
ee
 Compression ratio is greater than expansion ratio.
rin
g.n
9. Define the following terms (i) Compression ratio (ii) Cut off ratio and (iii) Expansion
ratio? (May/June 2014)
et
(i) Compression ratio is defined as the ratio between total cylinder volumes to clearance
volume.
(ii) Cut off ratio is defined as the ratio of volume after the heat addition to volume before the
heat addition.
(iii) Expansion ratio is the ratio of volume after the expansion to the volume before
expansion.
10. Name the various “gas power cycles”.

There are many thermodynamics gas power cycles.
1.carnot cycle 2.otto cycle 3.diesel cycle 4.brayton cycle 5.duel combustion cycle .
PART – B

1. The minimum pressure and temperature in an Otto cycle are 100kPa and 27 0C. The
amount of heat added to the air per cycle is 1500 KJ/Kg.
i. Determine the pressure and temperature at all points of the air standard otto
cycle.
ii. Also calculate the specific work and thermal efficiency of the cycle for the
compression ratio of 8:1.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
10

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
11

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
12

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
13

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
14

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
15

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
16

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
17

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
18

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
19

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
20

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
21

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
22

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
23

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
24

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
25

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
26

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
27

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
28

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
29

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
30

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
31

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
32

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
33

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
34

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
35

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
36

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
37

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
38

UNIT-II
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Part-A
1. What is function of cam shaft and crank shaft? (May-2007)
Cam shaft converts the rotary motion of cam into linear motion of the follower. It
operates the inlet and outlet valves through rocker arm.
Crank shaft converts the reciprocating motion of the piston to rotary motion.
2. List out the effects of detonation.(May-2007)

a. Noise and roughness
b. Mechanical damage to the engine parts
c. Carbon deposit on cylinder walls
d. More heat transfer
e. Reduced efficiency and power
ww
3. What do you mean by short circuiting in two stroke engine? (Dec-2013)
w.E
The amount of fresh mixture that escapes out the open exhaust port is known as
short circuiting.
asy
4. What is the function of pushrod and rocker arm? (Dec-2009)
En
The motion of the cam is transmitted to the valve through the pushrod and rocker
gin
arm. These links jointly known as valve gear.
engine?(Nov-2007)
ee
5. What are the basic requirements of a fuel injection system of a diesel
rin
a. Constant supply of fuel from cycle to cycle operation.
g.n
b. Uniform and constant supply of fuel from cylinder to cylinder
c. Atomise the fuel to the required level
d. Beginning of injection at proper timing et
6. What is splash lubrication? (Dec-2008)
It is applicable in small sized internal combustion Engine. In this system, the oil from
the sump is splashed to the moving parts of the engine with scoop.
7. What is the importance of delay period in C.I engine combustion phenomena?

(Dec-2008)
Delay period is needed to disperse and atomize the fuel in the air for complete
combustion. Hence an optimum and required time should be given for the delay
period depending on the combustion characteristics of the engine.
8. How C.I combustion chambers of diesel engine classified?
1. Non-turbulent type – Open combustion engine
2. Turbulent type - Turbulent chamber, Pre – combustion chamber
3. Energy Cell
39

9. What is the use of flywheel? (May-2015)

It is used to store the mechanical energy obtained from power stroke.
10. What is scavenging in S.I engine?

The process of pushing out of exhaust gases from the cylinder my admitting the
fresh charge into the cylinder is known as scavenging.
11. What is mean by ignition lag? (Dec 2014)

It is the time interval between the instant of spark and the instant when there is a
noticeable rise in pressure due to combustion.
12. Differentiate between brake power and indicated power of an I.C engine. (May-
2014)
Brake Power:It is defined as the power developed at the crankshaft of an engine for
ww
doing external work.
Indicated Power:It is the power developed by the engine inside the cylinder due to
w.E
the fuel combustion in the combustion chamber.
asy
13. Which engine will have more cooling requirement, two stroke or four stroke
engine? Why?
En
Two stroke engines will have more cooling requirements since power is developed
for each revolution of crank. So, for each crank revolution combustion occurs and
gin
more heat will be generated inside the cylinder.
ee
14. What is the necessity of cooling in I.C engine? (May-2012)
rin
a. To avoid uneven expansion of the piston in the cylinder
b. To reduce the temperature of piston and cylinder
c. To avoid overheating of the cylinder g.n
d. To avoid the physical and chemical changes in the lubricating oil.
PART B
et
1. a) Comparison of four stroke cycle engine and two stroke cycle engine
Sl.No Four Stroke Cycle Engine Two Stroke Cycle Engine
For every two revolution of the crank For every one revolution of the crank
1.
shaft, there is one power stroke. shaft, there is one power stroke.
Because of the above, turning Because of the above, turning
2. moment is not so uniform and hence moment is more uniform and hence
heavier flywheel is needed. a lighter flywheel used.
For the same power less space is
For the same power more space is
3. required.
required
40

S.No Four Stroke Cycle Engine Two Stroke Cycle Engine
Because of one power stroke in two Because of one power stroke for
revolutions, lesser cooling and every revolutions greater cooling
4.
lubricating requires. Lower rate of and lubricating requires. Higher rate
wear and tear. of wear and tear.
Valves are required –inlet and Ports are made in the cylinder walls
5.
exhaust valves. – inlets, exhaust, and transfer port.
Because of heavy weight,

complicated valve mechanism and
Simple design, light weight and air
6. water cooled, making it complicated
cooled and easy to maintain.
ww design and design and difficulty to

maintain.
w.E As inlet and exhaust port open

simultaneously, some time fresh
7. asy
The air fuel mixture is completely charges may escape with exhaust
utilized thus efficiency is higher. gases. The exhaust gases are not
En always completely removed. This
gin cause lower efficiency.
8.
more time for induction. ee
Volumetric efficiency is high due to Volumetric efficiency is low due to
lesser time for induction.
rin
The fuel consumption per horse
9.
Lower fuel consumption per horse
power.
power id more because of fuel
dilution by the exhaust gas. g.n
10.
Used in heavy vechiles
Buses,lorries,trucks etc. cycle ,scooter etc
et
e.g., Used in light vehicle ,e.g., motor
11. Engine cost is more. The engine cost is less

The exhaust is noisy due to short
12. The exhaust is less noisy.
time available for exhaust.
b. Comparison of petrol engine and diesel engine
Sl.No Petrol Engine Diesel Engine
1. A petrol engine draws the A diesel engine draws only air
mixture of petrol and air during during suction stroke
suction stroke
2. The carburetor is employed to The injector or atomizer is
mix air and petrol in the required employed to inject the fuel at the
proportion and to supply it to the end of compression stroke.
engine during suction stroke.
41

Sl.No Petrol Engine Diesel Engine
3. Pressure at the end of the Pressure at the end of the

compression is about 10 bar compression is about 35 bar
4. The air fuel mixture is ignited The fuel is injected in the form
with the help of spark plug fine spray .the temperature of the
compressed air is sufficiently
high to ignite the fuel
5. The combustion of the fuel takes The combustion of fuel takes
place approximately at constant place approximately at constant
volume or it works on otto cycle pressure or it works on diesel
cycle.
6. A petrol engine has compression A diesel engine has compression
wwratio approximately from 6 to 10. ratio approximately from 15 to 25
7.
w.E
The starting is easy due to low The starting is easy due to high
compression ratio. compression ratio.
8.
asy
The petrol engine is lighter and The diesel engine is heavier and
cheaper due low compression costlier due high compression
ratio
En ratio
9.
gin
The running cost of petrol is high The running cost of a diesel is low
because of higher cost of petrol. because of lower cost of diesel.
10.
11.
The maintenance cost is less. ee rin
The maintenance cost is high.
The thermal efficiency is about The thermal efficiency is about
26%. 40%. g.n
12. Over heating trouble is more due Over heating trouble is less due
to low thermal efficiency. to high thermal efficiency. et
13. These are high speed engine. These are relatively low speed
engine.
14. The petrol engine are generally The diesel engines are generally
employed in light duty vehicles employed in heavy duty vehicles
such as motorcycles , cars like buses ,trucks and earth
moving machines etc.
2. Explain the valve timing diagram and port timing diagram for respective engines.
Valve Timing of Four-Stroke Petrol Engine.
Valve timing is the regulation of the points in the cycle at which the valves are set to open
and close. As described above in the ideal cycle inlet and exhaust valves open and close at
dead centres, but in actual cycles they open or close before or after dead centres as
42

explained below. There are two factors, one mechanical and other dynamic, for the actual
valve timing to be different from the theoretical valve timing.
Mechanical factor:
The poppet valves of the reciprocating engines are opened and closed by cam
mechanisms. The clearance between cam, tappet and valve must be slowly taken up and
valve slowly lifted, at first, if noise and wear is to be avoided. For the same reasons the
valve cannot be closed abruptly, else it will 'bounce' on its seat. (Also the cam contours
should be so designed as to produce gradual and smooth changes in directional
acceleration). Thus the valve opening and closing periods are spread over a considerable
number of crankshaft degrees. As a result, the opening of the valve must commence ahead
of the time at which it is fully opened (i.e., before dead centres). The same reasoning
applies for the closing time and the valves must close after the dead centres. Fig. shows
the actual valve timing diagram of a four-stroke engine in relation to its pressure-volume
diagram.
ww
Dynamic factor:
w.E
Besides mechanical factor of opening and closing of valves, the actual valve timing is set
taking into consideration the dynamic effects of gas flow.
Intake valve timing:
asy
Intake valve timing has a bearing on the actual quantity of air sucked during the suction
En
stroke i.e. it affects the volumetric efficiency. Fig. shows the intake valve timing diagram for
both low speed &high speed SI engines.
gin
It is seen in Figure 1for both low speed and high speed engine the intake valve opens 100
ee
before the arrival of the piston at TDC on the exhaust stroke. This is to insure that the valve
rin
will be fully open and the fresh charge starting to flow into the cylinder as soon as possible
after TDC. As the piston moves out in the suction stroke, the fresh charge is drawn in
g.n
through the intake port and valve. When the piston reaches the BDC and starts to move in
et
the compression stroke, the inertia of the entering fresh charge tends to cause it to continue
to move into the cylinder. To take advantage of this, the intake valve is closed after BDC so
that maximum air is taken in. This is called ram effect
43

Figure 1 valve timing diagram for a four stroke engine
ww
However, if the intake valve is to remain open for too long a time beyond BDC, the up-
moving piston on the compression stroke would tend to force some of the charge, already
w.E
in the cylinder, back into the intake manifold. The time the intake valve should remain open
after BDC is decided by the speed of the engine.At low engine speed, the charge speed is
asy
low and so the air inertia is low, and hence the intake valve should close relatively early
after BDC for a slow speed engine (say about 10 0 after BDC).In high speed engines the
En
charge speed is high and consequently the inertia is high and hence to induct maximum
gin
quantity of charge due to ram effect the intake valve should close relatively late after BDC
(up to 600 after BDC).For a variable speed engine the chosen intake valve setting is a
ee
compromise between the best setting for low and high speeds.There is a limit to the high
rin
speed for advantage of ram effect. At very high speeds the effect of fluid friction may be
more than offset the advantage of ram effect and the charge for cylinder per cycle falls off.
Exhaust valve timing
g.n
et
The exhaust valve is set to open before BDC (say about 25 0 before BDC in low speed
engines and 550 before BDC in high speed engines). If the exhaust valve did not start to
open until BDC, the pressures in the cylinder would be considerably above atmospheric
pressure during the first portion of the exhaust stroke, increasing the work required to expel
the exhaust gases. But opening the exhaust valve earlier reduces the pressure near the
end of the power stroke and thus causes some loss of useful work on this stroke. However,
the overall effect of opening the valve prior to the time the piston reaches BDC results in
overall gain in output.
The closing time of exhaust valve effects the volumetric efficiency, By closing the exhaust
valve a few degrees after TDC (about 150 in case of low speed engines and 200 in case of
high speed engines) the inertia of the exhaust gases tends to scavenge the cylinder by
carrying out a greater mass of the gas left in the clearance volume. This results in
increased volumetric efficiency.
Note that there may be a period when both the intake and exhaust valves are open at the
same time. This is called valve over-lap (say about 150 in low speed engine and 300 in high
speed engines). This overlap should not be excessive otherwise it will allow the burned
44

gases to be sucked into the intake manifold, or the fresh charge to escape through the
exhaust valve.
Table 1 shows the valve opening and closing positions for a petrol engine
Table 1 valve timing positions for petrol engine
ww
Port timing diagram for two stroke engine
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Figure 2 Ideal and actual indicator diagrams for two stroke engine
.
45

ww
w.E
Figure 3 Port timing diagram for two stroke engine
asy
Figure 3shows the typical port timing diagram of a two- stroke engine. The air or charge is
En
sucked through spring-loaded inlet valve when the pressure in the crankcase reduces due
to upward motion of the piston during compression stroke. After the compression, ignition
and expansion takes place in the usual way.
gin
ee
During the expansion stroke the air in the crankcase is compressed. Near the end of
expansion stroke piston uncovers the exhaust port, and the cylinder pressure drops to
rin
atmospheric as the combustion products leave the cylinder. Further motion of the piston
g.n
uncovers transfer ports, permitting the slightly compressed air or mixture in the crankcase
to enter the engine cylinder.
et
The top of the piston sometimes has a projection to deflect the fresh air to sweep up to the
top of the cylinder before flowing to the exhaust ports. This serves the double purpose of
scavenging the upper part of the cylinder of combustion products and preventing the fresh
charge from .flowing directly to the exhaust ports.
The same objective can be achieved without piston deflector by proper shaping of the
transfer port. During the upward motion of the piston from bottom dead centre, the transfer
ports and then the exhaust port close and compression of the charge begins and the cycle
is repeated.
3.With neat sketch explain the fuel supply system. (a)petrol engine(b)diesel engine
(a) Fuel supply system for petrol engine
Carburettors are highly complex. Let us first understand the working principle bf a simple or
elementary carburettor that provides an air fuel mixture for cruising or normal range at a
single speed. Later, other mechanisms to provide for the various special requirements like
46

starting, idling, variable load and speed operation and acceleration will be included. Figure
4 shows the details of a simple carburetor.
ww
w.E Figure 4 Simple carburettor
The simple carburettor mainly consists of a float chamber, fuel discharge nozzle and a
asy
metering orifice, a venturi, a throttle valve and a choke. The float and a needle valve system
maintain a constant level of gasoline in the float chamber. If the amount of fuel in the float
En
chamber falls below the designed level, the float goes down, thereby opening the fuel
gin
supply valve and admitting fuel. When the designed level has been reached, the float
closes the fuel supply valve thus stopping additional fuel flow from the supply system. Float
suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi. ee

chamber is vented either to the atmosphere or to the” upstream side of the venturi.During
rin
g.n
et
As already described, venturi is a tube of decreasing cross-section with a minimum area at
the throat, Venturi tube is also known as the choke tube and is so shaped that it offers
minimum resistance to the air flow. As the air passes through the venture, the velocity
increases reaching a maximum at the venturi throat. Correspondingly, the pressure
decreases reaching a minimum. From the float chamber, the fuel is fed to a discharge jet,
the tip of which is located in the throat of the venturi. Because of the differential pressure
between the float chamber and the throat of the venturi, known as carburettor depression,
fuel is discharged into the air stream. The fuel discharge is affected by the size of the
discharge jet and it is chosen to give the required air-fuel ratio. The pressure at the throat at
the fully open throttle condition lies between 4 to 5 cm of Hg, below atmospheric and
seldom exceeds 8 cm Hg below atmospheric. To avoid overflow of fuel through the jet, the
level of the liquid in the float chamber is maintained at a level slightly below the tip of the
discharge jet. This is called the tip of the nozzle. The difference in the height between the
top of the nozzle and the float chamber level is marked The gasoline engine is quantity
governed, which means that when power output is to be varied at a particular speed, the
47

amount of charge delivered to the cylinder is varied. This is achieved by means of a throttle
valve usually of the butterfly type that is situated after the venturi tube.
As the throttle is closed less air flows through the venturi tube and less is the quantity of air-
fuel mixturedelivered to the cylinder and hence power output is reduced. As the” throttle is
opened, more air flows through the choke tube resulting in increased quantity of mixture
being delivered to the engine. This increases the engine power output. A simple carburetor
of the type described above suffers from a fundamental drawback in that it provides the
required A/F ratio only at one throttle position. At the other throttle positions the mixture is
either leaner or richer depending on whether the throttle is opened less or more. As the
throttle opening is varied, the air flow varies and creates a certain pressure differential
between the float chamber and the venturi throat. The same pressure differential regulates
the flow of fuel through the nozzle. Therefore, the velocity of flow of air II and fuel vary in a
similarmanner. At the same time, the density I of air decrease as the pressure at the venturi
throat decrease with increasing air flow whereas that of the fuel remains unchanged. This
ww
results in a simple carburettor producing a progressively rich mixture with increasing throttle
opening.
w.E
The Choke and the Throttle
asy
When the vehicle is kept stationary for a long period during cool winter seasons, may be
overnight, starting becomes more difficult. As already explained, at low cranking speeds
En
and intake temperatures a very rich mixture is required to initiate combustion. Some times
gin
air-fuel ratio as rich as 9:1 is required. The main reason is that very large fraction of the fuel
may remain as liquid suspended in air even in the cylinder. For initiating combustion, fuel-
ee
vapour and air in the form of mixture at a ratio that can sustain combustion is required. It
rin
may be noted that at very low temperature vapour fraction of the fuel is alsovery small and
this forms combustible mixture to initiate combustion. Hence, a very rich mixture must be
supplied.
g.n
et
The most popular method of providing such mixture is by the use of choke valve. This is
simple butterfly valve located between the entrance to the carburetor and the venturi throat
When the choke is partly closed, large pressure drop occurs at the venturi throat that would
normally result from the quantity of air passing through the venturi throat. The very large
depression at the throat inducts large amount of fuel from the main nozzle and provides a
very rich mixture so that the ratio of the evaporated fuel to air in the cylinder is within the
combustible limits.
Sometimes, thechoke valves are spring loaded to ensure that large carburetor depression
and excessive choking does not persist after the engine has started, and reached a desired
speed. This choke can be made to operate automatically by means of a thermostat so that
the choke is closed when engine is cold and goes out of operation when engine warms up
after starting. The speed and the output of an engine is controlled by the use of the throttle
valve, which is located on the downstream side of the venturi. The more the throttle is
closed the greater is the obstruction to the flow of the mixture placed in the passage and
the less is the quantity of mixture delivered to .the cylinders. The decreased quantity of
48

mixture gives a less powerful impulse to the pistons and the output of the engine is reduced
accordingly. As the throttle is opened, the output of the engine increases. Opening the
throttle usually increases the speed of the engine. But this is not always the case as the
load on the engine is also a factor. For example, opening the throttle when the motor
vehicle is starting to climb a hill may or may not increase the vehicle speed, depending
upon the steepness of the hill and the extent of throttle opening. In short, the throttle is
simply a means to regulate the output of the engine by varying the quantity of charge going
into the cylinder.
(b) Fuel supply system for diesel engine:

The function of the fuel injection system is to provide the right amount of fuel at the right
moment and in a suitable condition for the combustion process. There must therefore be
some form of measured fuel supply, a means of timing the delivery and the atomisation of
thefuel.The injection of the fuel is achieved by the location of cams on a camshaft. This
ww
camshaft rotates at engine speed for a two-stroke engine and at half engine speed for a
four-stroke. There are two basic systems in use, each of which employs a combination of
w.E
mechanical and hydraulic operations. The most common system is the jerk pump; the other
is the common rail.
asy
Figure 5 shows the schematic of a typical fuel injection pump. A plunger is the key
component of a fuel injection pump. Taking medical injectors as a metaphor，then the
En
removable plug is similar to the plunger and the cylinder can be called as a plunger sleeve.
Assembling a spring inside of the cylinder on one side of plunger, therefore the other side
gin
will touch the camshaft. Plungers will move up and down inside of plunger sleeves each
plunger. ee
time the camshafts rotate for one round. This is the basic motion of fuel injection pump
rin
Plungers and plunger sleeves are very precise parts. There is a inclined slot on the body of
g.n
plunger and a suction on the plunger sleeve. The suction is filled with diesel fuel. The diesel
et
fuel flow into the plunger sleeve when the inclined slot of the plunger is on the suction.
Thus, the plunger is pushed higher by the camshaft. When it reaches some certain height,
the inclined slot will stagger away from the suction and the latter will be closed. In this
situation, diesel fuel cannot move any more while the plunger rising higher and pressing the
diesel fuel. Once the pressure on the fuel reaches a certain range, then the one-way valve
will be pushed open. Hence the fuel will flow through fuel injection nozzle and enter into
cylinder combustion chamber.
49

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Figure 5 Fuel injection pump
One thing should notice is that, diesel engines are all equipped with inlet pipes and return
ee
oil pipes. It‟s easy to understand the function of a inlet pipe, but what about the oil return
rin
pipe? That is because, there is only a part of diesel fuel enter into cylinder in spite of a
g.n
certain amount of diesel fuel discharged by plungers. The rest is drained out from oil return
hole. What‟s more, the engine adjust the fuel injection quantity through the regulation of
discharged fuel.
et
The plunger will move down after arriving at the topmost point. Then the inclined slot will
meet again with the suction and diesel fuel will be sucked into the plunger sleeve. A new
cycle begins. Each plunger system of the in-line injection pump correspond to one cylinder.
In a in-line injection pump, there are four cylinders which require totally four plunger system.
This make the products to be offered at big size. They are usually used in medium size or
larger cars. For example, diesel engines of buses and trucks generally use in-line injection
pumps.
Fuel injector(atomizer) :
A typical fuel injector is shown in Figure 6 , It can be seen to be two basic parts, the nozzle
and the nozzle holder or body. The high-pressure fuel enters and travels down a passage in
the body and then into a passage in the nozzle, ending finally in a chamber surrounding the
needle valve.
The needle valve is held closed on a mitred seat by an intermediate spindle and a spring in
the injector body. The spring pressure, and hence the injector opening pressure, can be set
50

by a compression nut which acts on the spring. The nozzle and injector body are
manufactured as a matching pair and are accurately ground to give a good oil seal. The two
are joined by a nozzle nut.
ww
w.E Figure 6 fuel injector atomizer
The needle valve will open when the fuel pressure acting on the needle valve tapered face
asy
exerts a sufficient force to overcome the spring compression. The fuel then flows into a
En
lower chamber and is forced out through a series of tiny holes. The small holes are sized
and arranged to atomise, or break into tiny drops, all of the fuel oil, which will then readily
gin
burn. Once the injector pump or timing valve cuts off the high pressure fuel supply the
needle valve will shut quickly under the spring compression force.
ee rin
All slow-speed two-stroke engines and many medium-speed fourstroke engines are now
g.n
operated almost continuously on heavy fuel. A fuel circulating system is therefore
necessary and this is usually arranged within the fuel injector. During injection the high-
et
pressure fuel will open the circulation valve for injection to take place. When the engine is
stopped the fuel booster pump supplies fuel which the circulation valve directs around the
injector body.
4a. Explain the construction and working principle of ignition system with neat
sketch. (Nov 2010& 2013)
Battery ignition system:
It is employed in petrol engines. The system is used in automobiles.
Construction(refer Figure 7)
 It consists of a battery, ignition coil, condenser, contact breaker, distributer and spark
plugs. Generally, 6 to 12 volts battery is used. The ignition coil consists of two
windings such as primary winding and secondary winding. The primary winding
consists of a thick wire with less number of turns.
 The primary winding is formed of 200-300 turns of thick wire of # 20-gage to produce
a resistance of about 1.5 ohms. The secondary winding located inside the primary
51

winding consists of about 21,000 turns of thin enameled wire of #38-40 gage with
sufficiently insulated high voltage.
 It is would close to the core with one end connected to the secondary terminal and
the other and grounded either to the metal case or the primary coil.
 The condenser is connected across the contact breaker. It prevents the excess
arcing and pitting of contact breaker points. The contact breaker is housed in the
distributor itself.
 It makes and breaks the primary ignition circuit. The distributor distributes the high
voltage to the respective spark plugs having regular intervals in the sequence of
firing order of the engine.
 The sequence in which the firing or power occurs in a multi cylinder engine is known
as firing order. The firing order of a 4-cylinder in-line engine is 1-3-4-2 or 1-4-3-2.
The firing order of a 6-cylinder in-line engine is 1-5-3-6-2-4
 The spark plug is fitted in the combustion chamber of the engine. It produces the
ww
spark to ignite the fuel-air mixture. The rotor of the distributor and contact breaker
cam are driven by the engine.
Working Principle:
w.E
The ignition switch is switched ON and the engine is cranked. The cranking of the
asy
engine opens and closes the contact breaker points through a cam.
When the contact breaker points are closed:
En
 The current flows from the battery to the contact breaker points through the switch
gin
and primary winding and then it returns to battery through the earth.
 The current builds up a magnetic field in the primary winding of the ignition coil.
opened by the cam.

ee
 When the primary current is at the highest peak the contact breaker points will be
rin
When the contact breaker points are opened:
 g.n
The magnetic field set up in the primary winding is suddenly collapsed.


et
A high voltage (15000volts) is generated in the secondary winding of the ignition coil.
This high voltage is directed to the rotor of the distributor.
 The rotor directs high voltage to the individual spark plug in the sequence of the
firing order of the engine.
 This high voltage tries to cross the spark plug gap (0.45 to 0.6mm) and the spark is
produced. This spark ignites the air-fuel mixture.
Advantages:
 The initial cost is low as compared with magneto ignition system.
 The maintenance cost is negligible except battery.
 The spark efficiency remains unaffected by various positions of the timing control
mechanisms.
Disadvantages:
 Frequent battery down accuse when the engine is not in use continuously. This
causes stating trouble.
 The weight is greater than magneto ignition system.
52

 Wiring mechanism is more complicated.
ww
w.E Figure 7 Battery ignition system
asy
Magneto coil ignition system ( refer Figure 8)
Principle:
En
In this system, the battery is replaced with a magneto. The wiring diagram of a magneto
gin
ignition system. It consists of a switch, magneto, contact breaker, condenser, distributor
and spark plugs. This system is used in two wheelers such as motor cycles, scooters etc.
Construction: ee rin
This magneto ignition system consists of a rotating magnet assembly driven by an engine
g.n
and a fixed armature. The armature consists of primary and secondary windings. The
circuit consists of a secondary windings, distributor and spark plugs.

When the contact breaker points are closed:
et
primary circuit consists of a primary winding condenser and contact breaker. The secondary
 The current flows in the primary circuit.

 It produces a magnetic field in the primary winding.
 When the primary current is at the highest peak, the contact breaker points will be
opened by the cam.
When the contact breaker points are opened:
 There is a break in the primary circuit.
 The magnetic field in the primary winding is suddenly collapsed.
 A high voltage (15000 volts) is generated in the secondary winding.
 The high voltage is distributed to the respective spark plugs through the rotor of the
distributor.
The high voltage tries to cross the spark plug gap and a spark is produced in the gap. This
spark ignites the fuel-air mixture in the engine cylinder.
53

Advantages of Magneto ignition system:

 It has no maintenance problem like coil ignition(i.e. for battery). So it is more reliable.
 When the speed increases, it provides a better intensity of spark and thus it provides
better combustion as compared to battery coil ignition system.
 Less space is required as compared to battery ignition system.
 It is very light in weight and compact in size.
Disadvantages of Magneto ignition system:
 Initial cost is very high as compared to coil ignition system.
 Minimum 75rpm is necessary to start the engine.
 For higher power engines, some other devices are necessary to start ignition.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
Figure 8 Magneto Ignition system
g.n
et
4 b. Explain the phenomena of knocking in diesel engines. What are the different
factors which influence the knocking? (May-15)
 If the delay period is long, a large amount of fuel will be injected and accumulated in
the combustion chamber. The auto ignition of this large amount of fuel may cause
high rate of pressure rise.
 The high pressure rise causes heavy vibration of the engine and creates lot of noise.
This phenomenon of combustion causing heavy pressure rise during uncontrolled
combustion is knock as diesel knock.
 Diesel knock generally starts at the very beginning of the combustion process due to
sudden auto ignition of large amount of fuel where as the knocking in the SI engine
generally starts at the end of combustion period.
The P-θ diagram for CI engines is shown in Figure 9
54

The following method can be adopted to prevent diesel knock.

 By reducing the delay period by doping e.g. adding 1% of ethyl nitrate or any nitrate
so as to accelerate the combustion.
 By supercharging e.g. increasing the inlet pressure of air.
 By increasing the injector pressure which encourages the atomization of fuel.
 By raising the temperature of coolant, intake air as cylinder head and combustion
chamber.
ww
w.E Figure 9 P-θ (time) Diagram for CI Engines
asy
Factors Affecting Combustion in CI Engines:
En
 In compression ignition combustion, the length of the delay period plays a vital role.
This period serves a useful purpose in that it allows the fuel jet to penetrate well into
the combustion space.
gin
 If there were no delay the fuel would burn at the injector and there would be an
ee
oxygen deficiency around the injector resulting in incomplete combustion.
rin
 If delay is too long the amount of fuel available for simultaneous explosion is too
great and the resulting pressure rise is too rapid.
Delay is reduced by the following: g.n


High charge temperature
High fuel temperature
et
 Good turbulence
 A fuel with a short induction period.
5. Explain in brief the methods of cooling of IC engine.

Internal Combustion engines, combustion of air and fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder and hot gases are generated. The temperature of gases will be around 2300-
2500°C. This is a very high temperature and may result into burning of oil film between the
moving parts and may result into seizing or welding of the same. So, this temperature must
be reduced to about 150-200°C at which the engine will work most efficiently. Too much
cooling is also not desirable since it reduces the thermal efficiency. So, the object of cooling
system is to keep the engine running at its most efficient operating temperature.
There are mainly two types of cooling systems:
(a) Air cooled system and (b) Water cooled system
55

 Air Cooling ( refer Figure 10)

Air cooled system is generally used in small engines say up to 15-20 kW and in aero
plane engines. In this system fins or extended surfaces are provided on the cylinder
walls, cylinder head, etc. Heat generated due to combustion in the engine cylinder will be
conducted to the fins and when the air flows over the fins, heat will be dissipated to air.
The amount of heat dissipated to air depends upon:
(a) Amount of air flowing through the fins.
(b) Fin surface area.
(c) Thermal conductivity of metal used for fins.
ww
w.E
asy
En
Figure 10 Air cooling system
Advantages of Air Cooled System gin
ee
(a) Radiator/pump is absent hence the system is light.
rin
(b) In case of water cooling system there are leakages, but in this case there are no
leakages.
(c) Coolant and antifreeze solutions are not required. g.n
et
(d) This system can be used in cold climates, where if water is used it may freeze.
Disadvantages of Air Cooled System:
(a) Comparatively it is less efficient.
(b) It is used in aero planes and motorcycle engines where the engines are exposed
to air directly.
 Water Cooling
In this method, cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder head,
valve seats etc. The water when circulated through the jackets, it absorbs heat of
combustion. This hot water will then be cooling in the radiator partially by a fan and
partially by the flow developed by the forward motion of the vehicle. The cooled water is
again recirculated through the water jackets.
Types of Water Cooling System
56

 Thermo Syphon System

In this system the circulation of water is due to difference in temperature (i.e. difference
in densities) of water. So in this system pump is not required but water is circulated
because of density difference only.
Figure 11 Thermo syphon system

ww
Pump Circulation System
In this system circulation of water is obtained by a pump. This pump is driven by means
w.E
of engine output shaft through V-belts.
asy
En
gin
ee rin
Figure 12 Pump Circulation system g.n
 Components of Water Cooling System et
Figure 13 Water Cooling System using Thermostat
57

ww Figure 14 Water Cooling system used in Multi cylinder engine
w.E
Water cooling system mainly consists of:
(a) Radiator,
(b) Thermostat valve,
(c) Water pump, asy
(d) Fan,
En
(e) Water Jackets, and
gin
(f) Antifreeze mixtures.
 Radiator ee rin
It mainly consists of an upper tank and lower tank and between them is a core. The upper
g.n
tank is connected to the water outlets from the engines jackets by a hose pipe and the lover
tank is connect to the jacket inlet through water pump by means of hose pipes.
There are 2-types of cores:
(a) Tubular
et
b) Cellular as shown.
When the water is flowing down through the radiator core, it is cooled partially by the fan
which blows air and partially by the air flow developed by the forward motion of the vehicle.
As shown through water passages and air passages, wafer and air will be flowing for
cooling purpose. It is to be noted that radiators are generally made out of copper and brass
and their joints are made by soldering.
 Thermostat Valve
It is a valve which prevents flow of water from the engine to radiator, so that engine readily
reaches to its maximum efficient operating temperature. After attaining maximum efficient
operating temperature, it automatically begins functioning. Generally, it prevents the water
below 70°C.
58

The Bellow type thermostat valve which is generally used. It contains a bronze bellow
containing liquid alcohol. Bellow is connected to the butterfly valve disc through the link.
When the temperature of water increases, the liquid alcohol evaporates and the bellow
expands and in turn opens the butterfly valve, and allows hot water to the radiator, where it
is cooled.
 Water Pump
It is used to pump the circulating water. Impeller type pump will be mounted at the front
end. Pump consists of an impeller mounted on a shaft and enclosed in the pump casing.
The pump casing has inlet and outlet openings. The pump is driven by means of engine
output shaft only through belts. When it is driven water will be pumped.
 Fan
It is driven by the engine output shaft through same belt that drives the pump. It is provided
behind the radiator and it blows air over the radiator for cooling purpose.
 Water Jackets
ww
Cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder head, valve seats and any
hot parts which are to be cooled. Heat generated in the engine cylinder, conducted through
w.E
the cylinder walls to the jackets. The water flowing through the jackets absorbs this heat
and gets hot. This hot water will then be cooled in the radiator.
 Antifreeze Mixture
asy
In western countries if the water used in the radiator freezes because of cold climates, then
En
ice formed has more volume and produces cracks in the cylinder blocks, pipes, and
gin
radiator. So, to prevent freezing antifreeze mixtures or solutions are added in the cooling
water.
ee
The ideal antifreeze solutions should have the following properties:
(a) It should dissolve in water easily.
rin
(b) It should not evaporate.
g.n
(c) It should not deposit any foreign matter in cooling system.
et
(d) It should not have any harmful effect on any part of cooling system.
(e) It should be cheap and easily available.
(f) It should not corrode the system.
No single antifreeze satisfies all the requirements. Normally following are used as
antifreeze solutions:
(a) Methyl, ethyl and isopropyl alcohols.
(b) A solution of alcohol and water.
(c) Ethylene Glycol.
(d) A solution of water and Ethylene Glycol.
(e) Glycerin along with water, etc.
Advantages of Water Cooling System:
(a) Uniform cooling of cylinder, cylinder head and valves.
(b) Specific fuel consumption of engine improves by using water cooling system.
59

(c) If we employ water cooling system, then engine need not be provided at the front
end of moving vehicle.
(d) Engine is less noisy as compared with air cooled engines, as it has water for
damping noise.
Disadvantages of Water Cooling System:
(a) It depends upon the supply of water.
(b) The water pump which circulates water absorbs considerable power.
(c) If the water cooling system fails then it will result in severe damage of engine.
(d) The water cooling system is costlier as it has more number of parts. Also it
requires more maintenance and care for its parts.
Comparison of air cooling system and water cooling system
Sl. Air Cooling System Water Cooling System
ww No
1. The design of this system The design of this system is
w.E
is simple and less costly. complicated
costly.
and more
2.
asy
The mass of cooling
system is very less.
The mass of the cooling
system is more.
3. Itsinstallation En
and Its installation and
and less costly. gin

maintenance is very easy maintenance is difficult and
very costly.
4. There is no danger of
leakage or freezing of the
ee There is a danger of leakage
rin
or freezing of the coolant.
5.
coolant.
It works smoothly and g.n
If the system fails, it may
continuously. Moreover it
does not depend on any
et
cause serious damage to the
engine within a short time.
coolant
PART-C
1. What are the different methods of lubrications available in I.C. Engines? Explain
the pressurized lubrication system with neat sketch.
Engine Lubricating System
The lubricating system of an engine is an arrangement of mechanism and devices which
maintains supply of lubricating oil to the rubbing surface of an engine at correct pressure
and temperature.
60

The parts which require lubrication are: (i) cylinder walls and piston (ii) piston pin (iii)
crankshaft and connecting rod bearings (iv) camshaft bearings (v) valves and valve
operating mechanism (vi) cooling fan (vii) water pump and (viii) ignition mechanism.
There are three common systems of lubrication used on stationary engines, tractor engines
and automobiles:
(i) Splash system (ii) Forced feed system and (iii) Combination of splash and forced feed
system.
Splash System:
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Figure 15 Splash Lubrication system
ee
In this system, there is an oil trough, provided below the connecting rod. Oil is maintained at
rin
a uniform level in the oil trough. This is obtained by maintaining a continuous flow of oil from
g.n
the oil sump or reservoir into a splash pan, which has a depression or a trough like
arrangement under each connecting rod.Figure 15 shows the schematic of a Splash
Lubrication system.
et
This pan receives its oil supply from the oil sump either by means of a gear pump or by
gravity. A dipper is provided at the lower end of the connecting rod. This dipper dips into to
oil trough and splashes oil out of the pan. The splashing action of oil maintains a fog or mist
of oil that drenches the inner parts of the engine such as bearings, cylinder walls, pistons,
piston pins, timing gears etc. This system is usually used on single cylinder engine with
closes crankcase. For effective functioning of the engine, proper level of oil maintained in
the oil pan.Lubrication depends largely upon the size of oil holes and clearances. This
system is very effective if the oil is clean and undiluted. Its disadvantages are that
lubrication is not very uniform and when the rings are worn, the oil passes the piston into
combustion chamber, causing carbon deposition, blue smoke and spoiling the plugs. There
is every possibility that oil may become very thin through crankcase dilution. The worn
metal, dust and carbon may be collected in the oil chamber and be carried to different parts
of the engine, causing wear and tear.
Forced Feed System:
61

Figure 16 shows the schematic of a forced lubrication system. In this system, the oil is
pumped directly lo the crankshaft, connecting rod, piston pin, timing gears and camshaft of
the engine through suitable paths of oil. Usually the oil first enters the main gallery, which
may be a pipe or a channel in the crankcase casting. From this pipe, it goes to each of the
main bearings through holes. From main bearings, it goes to big end bearings of connecting
rod through drilled holes in the crankshaft. From there, it goes to lubricate the walls, pistons
and rings. There is separate oil gallery to lubricate timing gears. Lubricating oil pump is a
positive displacement pump, usually gear type or vane type. The oil also goes to valve stem
and rocker arm shaft under pressure through an oil gallery.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee
Figure 16 Forced Lubrication System
rin
The excess oil comes back from the cylinder head to the crankcase. The pump discharges
g.n
oil into oil pipes, oil galleries or ducts, leading different parts of the engine. This system is
et
commonly used on high speed multi-cylinder engine in tractors, trucks and automobiles.
Combination of Splash and Forced Feed System
Figure 17 Splash and forced lubrication system
62

Figure 17 shows the splash and forced lubrication system. In this system, the engine
component, which are subjected to very heavy load are lubricated under forced pressure,
such as main bearing connecting rod bearing and camshaft bearing. The rest of the parts
like cylinder liners, cams, tappets etc are lubricated by splashed oil.In a combination splash
and force feed , oil is delivered to some parts by means of splashing and other parts
through oil passages under pressure from the oil pump.
The oil from the pump enters the oil galleries. From the oil galleries, it flows to the main
bearings and camshaft bearings. The main bearings have oil-feed holes or grooves that
feed oil into drilled passages in the crankshaft. The oil flows through these passages to the
connecting rod bearings. From there, on some engines, it flows through holes drilled in the
connecting rods to the piston-pin bearings.
Cylinder walls are lubricated by splashing oil thrown off from the connecting-rod bearings.
Some engines use small troughs under each connecting rod that are kept full by small
nozzles which deliver oil under pressure from the oil pump. These oil nozzles deliver an
ww
increasingly heavy stream as speed increases. At very high speeds these oil streams are
w.E
powerful enough to strike the dippers directly. This causes a much heavier splash so that
adequate lubrication of the pistons and the connecting-rod bearings is provided at higher
speeds. If a combination system is used on an overhead valve engine, the upper valve train
asy
is lubricated by pressure from the pump.
2. Explain Emission Formation Mechanisms En

Emission Formation Mechanisms in S.I Engine
gin
effects of design parameters.
(i) Hydrocarbon Emissions
ee
This section discusses the formation of HC, CO, Nox, CO2, and aldehydes and explains the
rin
g.n
HC emissions are various compounds of hydrogen, carbon, and sometimes oxygen. They
et
are burned or partially burned fuel and/or oil. HC emissions contribute to photochemical
smog, ozone, and eye irritation. There are several formation mechanisms for HC, and it is
convenient to think about ways HC can avoid combustion and ways HC can be removed;
we will discuss each below. Of course, most of the HC input is fuel, and most of it is burned
during “normal” combustion. However, some HC avoids oxidation during this process.The
processes by which fuel compounds escape burning during normal S.I. combustion are:
1. Fuel vapor-air mixture is compressed into the combustion chamber crevice volumes.
2. Fuel compounds are absorbed into oil layers on the cylinder liner, absorbed by and/or
contained within deposits on the piston head and piston crown.
3. Quench layers on the combustion chamber wall are left as the flame extinguishes close
to the walls, Fuel vapor-air mixture can be left unburned if the flame extinguishes before
reaching the walls.
4. Liquid fuel within the cylinder may not evaporate and mix with sufficient air to burn prior
to the end of combustion, the mixture may leak through the exhaust valve seat.
(ii) Carbon Monoxide
63

Formation of CO is well established. Under some conditions, there is not enough O2

available for complete oxidation and some of the carbon in the fuel ends up as CO. The
amount of CO, for a range of fuel composition and C/H ratios, is a function of the relative
air-fuel ratio.Even when enough oxygen is present, high peak temperatures can cause
dissociation – chemicalcombustion reactions in which carbon dioxide and water vapor
separate into CO, H2, and O2. Conversion of CO to CO2 is governed by reaction
CO + OH ↔ CO2 + H
Dissociated CO may freeze during the expansion stroke.
(iii) Oxides of Nitrogen
Nox is a generic term for the compounds NO and NO2. Both are present to some degree in
the exhaust, and NO oxidizes to NO2 in the atmosphere. Nox contributes to acid rain and
photochemical smog; it is also thought to cause respiratory health problems at atmospheric
concentrations found in some parts of the world. To understand Nox formation, we must
recognize several factors that affect Nox equilibrium. Remember that all chemical reactions
ww
proceed toward equilibrium at some reaction rate. Equilibrium NO (which comprises most of
w.E
the Nox formation) is formed at a rate that varies strongly with temperature and equivalence
ratio.
(iv) Carbon Dioxide
asy
While not normally considered a pollutant, CO2 may contribute to the greenhouse effect.
En
Proposals to reduce CO2 emissions have been made. CO2 controls strongly influence fuel
economy requirements.
(v) Aldehydes gin
ee
Aldehydes are the result of partial oxidation of alcohols. They are not usually present in
rin
significant quantities in gasoline-fueled engines, but they are an issue when alcohol fuels
are used. Aldehydes are thought to cause lung problems. So far, little information of engine
calibration effects on aldehyde formation is available. g.n
et
Emission Formation Mechanisms in C.I Engine
For many years, diesel engines have had a reputation of giving poor performance and
producing black smoke, an unpleasant odor, and considerable noise. However, it would find
it difficult to distinguish today‟s modern diesel car from its gasoline counterpart. For diesel
engines the emphasis is to reduce emissions of Nox and particulates, where these
emissions are typically higher than those from equivalent port injected gasoline engines
equipped with three-way catalysts. Catalyst of diesel exhaust remains a problem insofar as
researchhas not yet been able to come up with an effective converter that eliminates both
particulate matter (PM) and oxide of nitrogen (Nox).
Principle C.I. Engine Exhaust Constituents
For many years, diesel engines have had a reputation of giving poor performance and
producing black smoke, anunpleasant odour, and considerable noise. However, it would
find it difficult to distinguish today‟s modern diesel car from its gasoline counterpart.
64

Concerning CO and HC emissions, diesel engines have an inherent advantages, therefore

the emphasis is to reduce emissions of Nox and particulates, where these emissions are
typically higher than those from equivalent port injected gasoline engines equipped with
three-way catalysts. Catalyst of diesel exhaust remains a problem insofar as research has
not yet been able to come up with an effective converter that eliminates both particulate
matter (PM) and oxide of nitrogen (Nox).
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
65

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
66

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
67

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
68

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
69

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
70

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
71

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
72

UNIT III
STEAM NOZZLES AND TURBINES
PART A
1. What is critical pressure ratio of a steam nozzle?[May/June 2013]
Critical pressure is the ratio of the outlet pressure to inlet pressure only when the
mass flow per unit area is maximum.
2. What is blading efficiency?

Blading efficiency is also known as diagram efficiency. It is defined as the ratio of
work done on the blade to the energy supplied to the blade.
ww
3. What is mean by compounding and write the types of compounding.
[April/May 2014]
w.E
This is done to reduce the rotational speed of the impulse turbine to practical limits.
(A rotor speed of 30,000 rpm is possible, which is pretty high for practical uses.)
asy
Compounding is achieved by using more than one set of nozzles, blades, rotors, in a
series, keyed to a common shaft; so that either the steam pressure or the jet velocity
En
is absorbed by the turbine in stages. Three main types of compounded impulse
gin
turbines are: a) Pressure compounded, b) velocity compounded and c) pressure
and velocity compounded.
ee
4. What is the function of governor in steam turbine?
rin
g.n
The governor in the steam turbine maintains a constant rotor speed, even during the
varying load condition.
et
5. Explain supersaturated flow (or) Meta stable flow in steam nozzles. [Nov/Dec
2012]
When the superheated steam is expanded in the nozzle the condensation should
occur in the nozzle. Since the steam has a great velocity, the condensation does not
take place at the expected rate. So the equilibrium between the liquid and vapour
phase is delayed and the steam continues to expand in a dry state. The flow of
steam expanding like this is called supersaturated flow or meta stable flow.
6. What are the effects of friction on the flow through a steam nozzle?[May/June
2014]
 The final fraction of the steam is increased as the part of the kinetic energy
gets converted into heat due to friction and absorbed by steam with n
increase in enthalpy.
73

 The expansion is no more isentropic and enthalpy drop is reduced thereby

resulting in lower exit velocity.
 The specific volume of steam is increased as the steam becomes drier due to
this frictional reheating.
7. Define nozzle efficiency and critical pressure ratio. [Nov/Dec 2012]

Nozzle efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of actual enthalpy drop to the isentropic enthalpy drop
Nozzle efficiency = Actual enthalpy drop / Isentropic enthalpy drop
Critical pressure ratio:
There is only one value of the ratio (P2/P1) which produces maximum discharge
from the nozzle. The ratio is called critical pressure ratio.
Critical pressure ratio P2 /P1 = (2/n+1) n/n-1
ww
Where,P 1= Initial pressure; P 2= Throat pressure.
w.E
8. What are the effects of super saturation in a steam nozzle?
asy
The following effects in a nozzle on steam, in which super saturation occurs, may be
summarized as follows.
En
1. The dryness fraction of the steam is increased.
gin
2. Entropy and specific volume of the steam are increased.
3. Exit velocity of the steam is reduced.
4. Mass of stream discharged is increased. ee rin
9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of velocity compounded
g.n
turbines?
Advantages:
 The cost of turbine is less because less number of stages.
et
 It occupies less area.
 The system is reliable and easy to operate.
 Turbine casing is very simple and need not be very strong.
Disadvantages:
 The friction losses are large due to very high steam velocity in the nozzle.
 Low efficiency because blade speed ratio is less than the optimum value.
 The power developed in the later rows is only a fraction of power developed
in the first row.
10. Define degree of reaction. [May/June 2014]

It is defined as the ratio of the actual isentropic heat drop to the total heat drop in the
entire stage.
74

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
75

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
76

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
77

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
78

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
79

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
80

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
81

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
82

3. Briefly discuss the speed regulations in turbines. (May/June2012)
Governing System
Governor is a heart component of the turbine which controls it during steady state and
transient conditions. The governor does this function by controlling the steam flow through
the turbine by adjusting the control value. The governor is a control component with
advanced protections for the turbine which ensure safe operation of the turbine. Governing
system of the turbine does the following functions:
 Controls the turbine speed during start-up or in no load condition to permit the unit to
be synchronized with the grid.
 Controls the turbine load when running in parallel with the grid/generating sets.
 All protective functions to ensure the safe operation of the unit.
Methods of governing
ww
Depending the final control component of governing system these are divided as nozzle
w.E
governing and throttle governing.
Throttle governing
asy
En
In this case of governing mechanism, the mass flow rate is controlled by throttling (as
shown in Figure 18) the steam by means of control value. The control value position will be
gin
adjusted to allow the required steam for turbine operation. To run the turbine for full load
ee
running valve A is opened. The operation of double beat valve B is carried out by an oil
servo motor which is controlled by an centrifugal governor. As the steam turbine gains
rin
speed the valve B closes to throttle the steam and reduce the supply to the nozzle.
g.n
et
Figure 18Throttling sleeve governor of steam turbine
83

For example if the plant is operating at full power and it needs to be operated at 60 %
according to the load demand. Then the controller checks the demand with the existing load
gives a adjustment signal to control valve. The control valve will slowly throttle to reduce the
steam flow for acquiring the load demand.
Due to throttling of control values there will be high energy loss across the control values.
Hence the design of value should be adequate to withstand the pressure of the steam.
Nozzle Governing:
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
Figure 19 Nozzle Governor of steam turbine et
In nozzle governing the flow rate of steam is regulated by opening and shutting of sets of
nozzles rather than regulating its pressure. In this method groups of two, three or more
nozzles form a set and each set is controlled by a separate valve. The actuation of
individual valve closes the corresponding set of nozzle thereby controlling the flow rate. In
actual turbine, nozzle governing is applied only to the first stage whereas the subsequent
stages remain unaffected. Since no regulation to the pressure is applied, the advantage of
this method lies in the exploitation of full boiler pressure and temperature. Figure 19 Nozzle
Governor of steam turbine shows the mechanism of nozzle governing applied to steam
turbines. As shown in the Figure 19 the three sets of nozzles are controlled by means of
three separate valves.
84

By pass governing
The construction of By pass governing is shown in Figure 20. The turbines which are
designed to work at economic load it is desirable to have full admission of steam in the high
pressure stages. At the maximum load, which is greater that the economic load, the
additional steam required could no pass through the first stage since additional nozzles are
not available. Bypass regulations allow for this in a turbine which is throttle governed by
means of a second by-pass valve in the first stage nozzle. This valve opens when the
throttle valve is opened to a definite amount. Steam is bypassed through the second valve
to a lower stage in turbine. When by-pass valve operates it is under the control of turbine
governor.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Figure 20 By- Pass Governor of Steam turbine
85

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
86

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
87

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
88

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
89

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
90

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
91

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
92

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
93

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
94

PART-C
1. Explain the pressure and velocity compounding of impulse turbines. (Nov/Dec

2014)
Compounding in Impulse Turbine
If high velocity of steam is allowed to flow through one row of moving blades, it produces a
rotor speed of about 30000 rpm which is too high for practical use.
It is therefore essential to incorporate some improvements for practical use and also to
achieve high performance. This is possible by making use of more than one set of nozzles,
and rotors, in a series, keyed to the shaft so that either the steam pressure or the jet
velocity is absorbed by the turbine in stages. This is called compounding. Two types of
compounding can be accomplished: (a) velocity compounding and (b) pressure
ww
compounding
w.E
Either of the above methods or both in combination are used to reduce the high rotational
speed of the single stage turbine.
asy
The Velocity - Compounding of the Impulse Turbine
En
gin
The velocity-compounded impulse turbine was first proposed by C.G. Curtis to solve the
problems of a single-stage impulse turbine for use with high pressure and temperature
ee
steam. The Curtis stage turbine, as it came to be called, is composed of one stage of
rin
nozzles as the single-stage turbine, followed by two rows of moving blades instead of one.
These two rows are separated by one row of fixed blades attached to the turbine stator,
g.n
which has the function of redirecting the steam leaving the first row of moving blades to the
second row of moving blades. A Curtis stage impulse turbine is shown in Figure with
et
schematic pressure and absolute steam-velocity changes through the stage. In the Curtis
stage, the total enthalpy drop and hence pressure drop occur in the nozzles so that the
pressure remains constant in all three rows of blades.
Velocity is absorbed in two stages. In fixed (static) blade passage both pressure and
velocity remain constant. Fixed blades are also called guide vanes. Velocity compounded
stage is also called Curtisstage. The velocity diagram of the velocity-compound Impulse
turbine is shown in Figure 21&Figure 22.
The fixed blades are used to guide the outlet steam/gas from the previous stage in such a
manner so as to smooth entry at the next stage is ensured.
95

Figure 21Velocity compounding arrangement
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Figure 22Velocity diagrams for the Velocity-Compounded Impulse turbine
The Pressure - Compounded Impulse Turbine
96

To alleviate the problem of high blade velocity in the single-stage impulse turbine, the total
enthalpy drop through the nozzles of that turbine are simply divided up, essentially in an
equal manner, among many single-stage impulse turbines in series. Thus the inlet steam
velocities to each stage are essentially equal and due to a reduced Δh. The pressure
compounding diagram is explained thoroughly in Figure 23.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Figure 23Pressure-Compounded Impulse Turbine
Pressure drop - takes place in more than one row of nozzles and the increase in kinetic
energy after each nozzle is held within limits. Usually convergent nozzles are used.
97

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
98

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
99

UNIT-4
AIR COMPRESSORS
PART-A
1. List down the effects of inter cooling in multistage compression process (Nov/Dec
2013)
 It improves the volumetric efficiency for the given pressure ratio.
 It reduces the leakage loss considerably.
 It gives more uniform torque and hence a smaller size flywheel is required.
 It reduces the cost of the compressor.
ww
2. Give the classification of compressor based on movement of piston (Nov/Dec
2013)


w.E
Single acting compressors.
Double acting compressors.
asy
En
3. Define the volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor. (May/June 2013)
gin
Volumetric efficiency: Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of volume of free air
sucked into the compressor per cycle to the stroke volume of the cylinder.
ee
Volumetric efficiency: Volume of free air taken per cycle/Stroke volume of the cylinder.
rin
4. What is meant by inter cooler? (Nov/Dec 2012)
g.n
An inter cooler is a simple heat exchanger. It exchanges the heat of compressed air from
the low-pressure compressor to the circulating.
et
5. Define free air delivery. (Nov/Dec 2012)
The free air delivered is the actual volume delivered at the stated pressure reduced to
intake pressure and temperature.
6. Why clearance is necessary and what is its effect on the performance of

reciprocating compressor?
When the piston reaches top dead centre in the cylinder, there is a dead space between
piston top and cylinder head. This space is known as clearance space and the volume
occupied by this space is known as clearance volume.
100

7.Give two merits of rotary compressor over reciprocating compressor.

 Rotary compressor gives uniform delivery of air where compared to reciprocating
compressor.
 Rotary compressors are small in size for the same discharge as compared with
reciprocating compressors.
 Lubricating system is more complicated in reciprocating compressor where as it is
very simple in rotary compressor.
8. Define isothermal compression efficiency:
Isothermal efficiency is defined as the ratio between isothermal work to the actual work of
the compressor.
Isothermal efficiency = brake power / Indicated power
9. Indicate the application of reciprocating compressors in industry?

ww
The applications of compressed air as follows: 1) Pneumatic brakes 2) Pneumatic jakes. 3)
w.E
Pneumatic drills. 4) Pneumatic lifts. 5) Spray painting.
asy
10. Classify the various types of air compressors.
1. According to the and principle of operation a) Reciprocating compressors b) Rotary
compressors.
En
gin
2) According to the action a) Single acting compressors b) Double acting compressors
3) According to the number of stages a) Single stage compressors b) Multistage
compressors ee rin
4) According to the pressure limit a) Low pressure compressors b)Medium pressure
compressors c) High pressure compressors
g.n
5) According to the capacity a)Low capacity compressors b) Medium capacity compressors
c) High capacity compressors. et
101

PART- B
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
102

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
103

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
104

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
105

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
106

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
107

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
108

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
109

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
110

4. Explain the construction and working of Multi stage compressor and discuss the
perfect and imperfect inter cooling with a neat sketch. (Nov/Dec 2014).
Multistage compressors are used when high pressures are required, because better
cooling between stages can effectively increase the efficiency and reduce the input power
requirements.
Single stage machines compress the air to pressure of about 6 bars and in exceptional
cases to 10 bars, two stage machines normally discharge pressure up to 15 bars.
Discharge pressures in the range of 250 bars can be obtained with high pressure
reciprocating compressor of three and four stages. In single stage compressor, entire
compression of air takes place in single stroke of the piston. In multi stage compressor,
compression takes in stages. For maximum compressor efficiency, it is desirable to cool air
after one stage using inter- stage cooler. In two stage compressor, initial compression takes
place in the low pressure cylinder. Air from this stage (low pressure cylinder) is passed
through the inter cooler to reduce the temperature. Then the cooled air is compressed in
the high pressure cylinder.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
Figure 24 Two Stage Air Compressor with intercooler
et
Working:
Figure 24shows the two stage (inline type) reciprocating air compressor. When the
prime mover connected to crank shaft rotates, crank rotates and the piston in the first stage
reciprocates. It sucks the air through the suction filter and inlet valve. The air, compressed
to a certain degree passes from the left cylinder to right cylinder through the intermediate
cooler. The compression ratio in the first stage is determined by the degree of cooling
required. Figure 24shows various parts of reciprocating air compressor with receiver (air
tank). The pressure switch is connected to the electric motor. When the desired pressure in
the air tank is reached it stops the motor and hence the compressor. The safety valve
opens when the pressure in air tank exceeds the set safe pressure.
The drain valve drains the condensate produced at the condenser and the receiver.
Cylinders and intercoolers are either air cooled (with fins) or water cooled (with water
111

jackets in the cylinder). Air cooled compressor are used for low pressure applications and
water cooled compressors are used for high pressure applications.
Advantages of Multistage Compression:

1. The work done per kg of air is reduced in multistage compression with intercooler as
compared to single stage compression for the same delivery pressure.
2. It improves the volumetric efficiency for the given pressure ratio.
3. The sizes of the two cylinders (i.e. high pressure and low pressure) may be adjusted to
suit the volume and pressure of the air.
4. It reduces the leakage loss considerably.
5. It gives more uniform torque, and hence a smaller size flywheel is required.
6. It provides effective lubrication because of lower temperature range.

ww
7. It reduces the cost of compressor.
w.E
Assumptions in Two-stage Compression with Intercooler:
asy
1. The effect of clearance is neglected.
En
2. There is no pressure drop in the intercooler.
gin
3. The compression in both the cylinders (i.e. L.P. and H.P.) is polytropic (i.e. PVn = C).
ee
4. The suction and delivery of air take place at constant pressure.
Intercooling of air in a two-stage reciprocating air compressor: rin

g.n
Efficiency of the intercooler plays an important role in the working of a two-stage
et
reciprocating air compress. Following two types of intercooling are important from the
subject point of view:
1. Complete or perfect intercooling:
When the temperature of the air leaving the intercooler (i.e. T3) is equal to the
originalatmospheric air temperature (i.e. T1) then the intercooling is known as complete or
perfect intercooling. In this case, the point 3 lies on the isothermal curve as shown in below
Figure 25.
112

ww Figure 25 P-V and T-S diagram of perfect intercooling

Incomplete or imperfect intercooling:
w.E
When the temperature of the air leaves the intercooler (i.e. T3) is more than the
asy
originalatmospheric air temperature (i.e. T1), then the intercooling is known as incomplete
or imperfect intercooling. In this case, the point 3 lies on the right side of the isothermal
curve as shown in belowFigure 26.
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Figure 26 P-V and T-S diagram for Imperfect Intercooling
113

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
114

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
115

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
116

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
117

PART-C
1. Explain with neat sketch the construction and working roots blower and vane type
compressor? (Nov/Dec 2012)
Roots blower
Construction:
The arrangements of roots blower is shown in Figure 27below which is simply

a development of gear pump
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Figure 27 Roots Blower
ee rin
To get higher pressure ratio, three or four lobes are used .it consists of two rotors
called lobes which are aligned in different parallel axis .one of the rotor is connected to the
g.n
drive and the second rotor is driven from the first. The two rotors rotate in opposite
et
directions i.e. one in clockwise direction .the lobes of the rotors is of epicycloids,
hypocycloid, or involutes profile to ensure correct matching. There must be a small
clearance between the lobe and casing to reduce the wear of moving parts.
Working:
When the power is given to the roots blower ,rotors rotate and the air at
atmospheric pressure is trapped between the lobe and casing .the trapped air moves along
the casing and discharged into the receiver .the flow area from entry to exit remains
constant .so there is no developing i pressure .when the exit port opens ,some high
pressure air from receiver will rush back and mixed up with entrapped air until the pressure
is equalized .thus ,the pressure of the entrapped air is increased by back flow of air .
From p-V diagram, we infer that the pressure rise takes place at irreversible constant
volume.
Work done per cycle =V (p2-p1)
118

But work done per revolution = 4V (p2-p1)
We know that the ideal compression of takes place at reversible adiabatic process.
Power input= (ɣ/ɣ-1) p1V ((p2/p1) ɣ-1/ɣ-1)
Roots efficiency =ideal work done /actual work done
=ɣ (rλ-1/ɣ-1)/ (ɣ-1)(r-1)
Therefore, the roots blower efficiency decreases with increase in pressure ratio.
Vane blower:
Construction:
The arrangement of vane blower is shown below .it consists of rotating drum, spring
ww
loaded vanes, inlet and outlet ports and casing. The rotor is located eccentrically inside
casing .the rotor carries a set of spring loaded vanes .these spring –loaded vanes are made
of fibre of carbon.
Working:
w.E
asy
When the power is given to a vane blower, rotating drum rotates, and the air is
En
trapped between two consecutive vanes, as the rotation takes place the trapped air first
gin
expands and then gradually compressed due to decreasing volume between the rotor and
outer casing. This partially compressed air is delivered to the receiver .when the outlet is
ee
opened, there is a back flow of high pressure air from receiver will rush back and mix up
rin
with the entrapped air. so, partially compressed air pressure is further increased .finally
,high pressure air is delivered from the receiver .in vane blower ,the pressure of air is
g.n
increased first by decreasing the volume and then by back flow of air as shown in Figure 28
et
Figure 28 Vane compressor
119

2.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
120

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
121

UNIT-V
REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
PART - A
1. Explain Unit or Ton of Refrigeration. (Nov-06, May-06.Nov-10&May-14)
A ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat required to be removed from one ton
of water (1000kg) at 0oC to convert that into ice at 0oC in 24 hours.
2. What are the expansion devices used in a vapour compression plant? When are
they used? (Nov-12)
Two widely used expansion devices in a vapour compression plant are:
ww i.
ii.
Throttling valve
Capillary tubes
w.E
Capillary tubes are used only for small plants. In these tubes, once the length and size are
fixed, no modification in operation can be made since the evaporative pressure is fixed.
asy
Throttling valves are used in larger plants because these regulate the flow of the refrigerant
according to the load on the evaporator.
En
3. What are the properties of good refrigerant? (Nov-02, May-03,06, Nov-13,May-14)
i. gin
The refrigerant should have low freezing point.
ii.
iii.
power requirements. ee
It must have high critical pressure and temperature to avoid large
rin
It should have low-specific volume to reduce the size of the
compressor.
g.n
iv.
et
It should be non-flammable, non-explosive, non-toxic and non-
corrosive.
4. What is meant by Sub cooling in vapour compression system? (Nov-04&May-12)

The process of cooling the liquid refrigerant below its saturation temperature in the
condenser is known as sub cooling.
122

5. What is the difference between Wet compression and Dry compression? (May-08,
11 &12)
Wet compression Dry compression
In wet compression, the In dry compression, the
compression starts between compression starts with saturated
saturated liquid and saturated vapour region. The vapour enters
vapour region. The vapour enters the compressor at dry vapour
the compressor at wet vapour conditions.
conditions.
6. Write the advantages and disadvantages of vapour absorption system. (Nov-12)

Advantages:
i. No need of electric power
ww
ii.
iii.
Wear and Tear is less
Tonne of capacity id high
iv.
v. w.E
Heat energy is supplied
Space requirement is less
Disadvantages:
i.
asy
Charging of refrigerant is difficult.
En
7. Define RSHF and RTH. (May-03, 08, &14)
gin
RSHF (Room Sensible Heat Factor) is the ratio of room sensible heat (RSH) to the room
total heat (RTH)
RSHF=RSH/RTH=RSH/RSH+RLH
ee rin
RTH (Room Total Heat) is the sum of Room Sensible Heat and Room Latent Heat
g.n
RTH=RSH+RLH
8. Enumerate the components of cooling load estimate. (May-11&12)

et
 Heat flow, through the exterior walls, ceilings, floors, doors, and windows.
 Heat by solar radiation.
 Heat received from the occupants
9. What is sensible heating or cooling? (Nov-12)

Sensible Heating:
Air is heated at constant specific humidity. It means, heating is done without adding
moisture. During heat addition, the dry bulb temperature increases from td1 to td2 so,
𐐎1=𐐎2 but td2>td1
Sensible cooling:
In sensible cooling processes, refrigerant is sent inside the coil instead of steam to
cool the air. During this process, the dry bulb temperature reducing from td1 to td2. So the
123

heat present in the air is extracted by refrigerant. But there is no addition of moisture in the
air. so, 𐐎1=𐐎2 but td1>td2
10. Define relative humidity. (May-13)
Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the mass of water vapour (m v) in a certain volume of
moist air at a given temperature to the mass of water vapour (msv) in the same volume of
saturated air at the same temperature.
RH= mv/ msv
11. Compare Vapour Compression and Vapour Absorption system.

Sl.No Vapour Compression Vapour Absorption
1. Electric Power is needed to No need of electric power.
drive the system.
2. Tonne of capacity is low. Tonne of capacity is high.
ww 3. Mechanical energy Heat energy supplied
4. w.E
supplied
Performance at part load is At part loads, the performance
poor
asy is not affected.
En
12. Define the COP of refrigeration. (Nov-07&10)
gin
Coefficient of performance (COP) is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed by the evaporator
or refrigeration effect to the compressor work.
ee
COP=Refrigeration effect/Work input to the compressor
rin
g.n
et
124

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
125

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
126

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
127

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
128

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
129

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
130

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
131

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
132

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
133

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
134

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
135

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
136

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
137

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
138

5.Explain the construction and working of the Vapour absorbtion refrigeration

system with neat sketch. (nov/Dec 2014)
Vapour absorption refrigeration system based on ammonia-water is one of the oldest
refrigeration systems. As mentioned earlier, in this system ammonia is used as refrigerant
and water is used as absorbent. Since the boiling point temperature difference between
ammonia and water is not very high, both ammonia and water are generated from the
solution in the generator. Since presence of large amount of water in refrigerant circuit is
detrimental to system performance, rectification of the generated vapour is carried out using
a rectification column and a dephlegmator. Since ammonia is used as the refrigerant, these
systems can be used for both refrigeration and air conditioning applications. They are
available in very small (as pumpless systems) to large refrigeration capacities in
applications ranging from domestic refrigerators to large cold storages. Since ammonia is
not compatible with materials such as copper or brass, normally the entire system is
fabricated out of steel. Another important difference between this system and water-lithium
bromide systems is in the operating pressures. While water-lithium bromide systems
ww
operate under very low (high vacuum) pressures, the ammonia-water system is operated at
pressures much higher than atmospheric. As a result, problem of air leakage into the
w.E
system is eliminated. Also this system does not suffer from the problem of crystallization
encountered in water-lithium bromide systems. However, unlike water, ammonia is both
toxic and flammable. Hence, these systems need safety precautions.
Working principle asy

En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Figure 29 Ammonia- Water Absorption refrigeration system.

Figure 29shows the schematic of an ammonia-water absorption refrigeration system.
Compared to water-lithium bromide systems, this system uses three additional
139

components: a rectification column, a dephlegmator and a subcooling heat exchanger

(Heat Exchanger-I). As mentioned before, the function of rectification column and
dephlegmator is to reduce the concentration of water vapour at the exit of the generator.
Without these the vapour leaving the generator may consist of five to ten percent of water.
However, with rectification column and dephlegmator the concentration of water is reduced
to less than one percent. The rectification column could be in the form of a packed bed or a
spray column or a perforated plate column in which the vapour and solution exchange heat
and mass. It is designed to provide a large residence time for the fluids so that high heat
and mass transfer rates could be obtained. The subcooling heat exchanger, which is
normally of counterflow type is used to increase the refrigeration effect and to ensure liquid
entry into the refrigerant expansion valve.
As shown in theFigure 29, low temperature and low pressure vapour (almost pure
ammonia) at state 14 leaves the evaporator, exchanges heat with the condensed liquid in
Heat Exchanger-I and enters the absorber at state 1. This refrigerant is absorbed by the
weak solution (weak in ammonia) coming from the solution expansion valve, state 8. The
heat of absorption, Q is rejected to an external heat sink. Next the strong solution that is
a
ww
now rich in ammonia leaves the absorber at state 2 and is pumped by the solution pump to
generator pressure, state 3. This high pressure solution is then pre-heated in the solution
w.E
heat exchanger to an external heat sink. The condensed liquid at state 11 is subcooled to
state 12 in the subcooling heat exchanger by rejecting heat to the low temperature, low
pressure vapour coming from the evaporator. The subcooled, high pressure liquid is then
asy
throttled in the refrigerant expansion valve to state 13. The low temperature, low pressure
and low quality refrigerant then enters the evaporator, extracts heat from the refrigerated
En
space (Q) and leaves the evaporator at state 14. From here it enters the subcooling heat
gin
exchanger to complete the refrigerant cycle. Now, the condensed water in the
dephlegmator at state 9 flows down into the rectifying column along with rich solution and
ee
exchanges heat and mass with the vapour moving upwards. The hot solution that is now
weak in refrigerant at state 6 flows into the solution heat exchanger where it is cooled to
rin
state 7 by preheating the rich solution. The weak, but high pressure solution at state 7 is
then throttled in the solution expansion valve to state 8, from where it enters the absorber to
g.n
complete its cycle. (Heat Exchanger-II) to state 4. The preheated solution at state 4 enters
et
the generator and exchanges heat and mass with the hot vapour flowing out of the
generator in the rectification column. In the generator, heat is supplied to the solution (Q ).
As a result vapour of ammonia and water are generated in the generator. As mentioned,
g
this hot vapour with five to ten percent of water exchanges heat and mass with the rich
solution descending from the top. During this process, the temperature of the vapour and its
water content are reduced. This vapour at state 5 then enters the dephlegmator, where
most of the water vapour in the mixture is removed by cooling and condensation. Since this
process is exothermic, heat (Q ) is rejected to an external heat sink in the dephlegmator.
d
The resulting vapour at state 10, which is almost pure ammonia (mass fraction greater than
99 percent) then enters the condenser and is condensed by rejecting heat of condensation,
Q .
ce
As far as various energy flows out of the system are concerned, heat is supplied to the
system at generator and evaporator, heat rejection takes place at absorber, condenser and
dephlegmator and a small amount of work is supplied to the solution pump.
140

Advantages of vapour absorption cycle:

(i) Moving part is pump
(ii) Reduced vaporization pressure & temperature
(iii) Load variation does not affect performance
(iv) Capacity > 1000 T, 30TR 91% electricity saves.
Disadvantages of vapour absorption cycle:

(a) Efficiency is low
(b) Takes long time to produce cooling effect
(c) Kerosene/oil/gas flame gives bad smell.
6. With a Simple block diagram explain the working principle of Vapour Compression
Refrigeration System (Nov/Dec2013)
It consists of the following essential parts:
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
Compressor: The low pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from evaporator
et
is drawn into the compressor through the inlet or suction valve A, where it is compressed to
a high pressure and temperature. This high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant is
discharged into the condenser through the delivery or discharge valve B.
Condenser: The condenser or cooler consists of coils of pipe in which the high
pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant is cooled and condensed. The refrigerant,
while passing through the condenser, gives up its latent heat to the surrounding condensing
medium which is normally air or water. Receiver The condensed liquid refrigerant from the
condenser is stored in a vessel known as receiver from where it is supplied to the
evaporator through the expansion valve or refrigerant control valve.
Expansion Valve :It is also called throttle valve or refrigerant control valve. The
function of the expansion valve is to allow the liquid refrigerant under high pressure and
temperature to pass at a controlled rate after reducing its pressure and temperature. Some
of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes through the expansion valve, but the greater
portion is vaporized in the evaporator at the low pressure and temperature
141

Evaporator :An evaporator consists of coils of pipe in which the liquid-vapour.

refrigerant at low pressure and temperature is evaporated and changed into vapour
refrigerant at low pressure and temperature. In evaporating, the liquid vapour refrigerant
absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from the medium (air, water or brine) which is to be
cooled.
A vapour compression cycle with dry saturated vapour after compression is shown
on T-s diagrams and P-H diagrams in Figure 30 respectively. At point 1, let T1, p1 and s1
be the temperature, pressure and entropy of the vapour refrigerant respectively. The four
processes of the cycle are as follows :
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Figure 30 T-S and P-H diagram of Simple compression refrigeration cycle
ee
Compression Process: The vapour refrigerant at low pressure p1 and
temperatureT1 is compressed isentropically to dry saturated vapour as shown by the
rin
vertical line 1-2 on the T-s diagram and by the curve 1-2 on p-h diagram. The pressure and
g.n
temperature rise from p1 to p2 and T1 to T2 respectively. The work done during isentropic
compression per kg of refrigerant is given by w = h2 – h1 where h1 = Enthalpy of vapour
et
refrigerant at temperature T1, i.e. at suction of the compressor, and h2 = Enthalpy of the
vapour refrigerant at temperature T2. i.e. at discharge of the compressor.
Condensing Process: The high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from
the compressor is passed through the condenser where it is completely condensed at
constant pressure p2 and temperature T2 as shown by the horizontal line 2-3 on T-s and p-h
diagrams. The vapour refrigerant is changed into liquid refrigerant. The refrigerant, while
passing through the condenser, gives its latent heat to the surrounding condensing
medium.
Expansion Process: The liquid refrigerant at pressure p3 = p2 and temperature T3 =

T2, is expanded by throttling process through the expansion valve to a low pressure p 4 = p1
and Temperature T4 = T1 as shown by the curve 3-4 on T-s diagram and by the vertical line
3-4 on p-h diagram. Some of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes through the
expansion valve, but the greater portion is vaporized in the evaporator. We know that
during the throttling process, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the liquid refrigerant.
142

Vaporizing Process: The liquid-vapour mixture of the refrigerant at pressure p4 = p1

and temperature T4 = T1 is evaporated and changed into vapour refrigerant at constant
pressure and temperature, as shown by the horizontal line 4-1 on T-s and p-h diagrams.
During evaporation, the liquid-vapour refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporization
from the medium (air, water or brine) which, is to be cooled, This heat which is absorbed by
the refrigerant is called refrigerating effect and it is briefly written as RE. The process of
vaporization continues up to point 1 which is the starting point and thus the cycle is
completed. We know that the refrigerating effect or the heat absorbed or extracted by the
liquid-vapour refrigerant during evaporation per kg of refrigerant is given by
RE = h1 – h4 = h1 – hf3
Where hf3 = Sensible heat at temperature T3, i.e. enthalpy of liquid refrigerant
leaving the condenser.
ww
It may be noticed from the cycle that the liquid-vapour refrigerant has extracted heat
during evaporation and the work will be done by the compressor for isentropic compression
w.E
of the high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant.
Coefficient of performance, C.O.P. = (Refrigerating effect)/ (Work done) = (h 1-h4)/ (h2-h3)
asy PART-C
En
1. Explain the Construction and working of summer and winter air conditioning
systems (Nov/Dec 2009) ( Nov/Dec2012).
gin
ee
Summer air conditioning systems capable of maintaining exactly the required conditions in
rin
the conditioned space are expensive to own and operate. Sometimes, partially effective
systems may yield the best results in terms of comfort and cost. Evaporative air
g.n
conditioning systems are inexpensive and offer an attractive alternative to the conventional
summer air conditioning systems in places, which are hot and dry. Evaporative air
conventional air conditioning systems becomes prohibitively expensive. et

conditioning systems also find applications in hot industrial environments where the use of
Evaporative cooling has been in use for many centuries in countries such as India for
cooling water and for providing thermal comfort in hot and dry regions. This system is
based on the principle that when moist but unsaturated air comes in contact with a wetted
surface whose temperature is higher than the dew point temperature of air, some water
from the wetted surface evaporates into air. The latent heat of evaporation is taken from
water, air or both of them. In this process, the air loses sensible heat but gains latent heat
due to transfer of water vapour. Thus the air gets cooled and humidified. The cooled and
humidified air can be used for providing thermal comfort.
Summer Air Conditioning systems:

In direct evaporative cooling, the process or conditioned air comes in direct contact with the
wetted surface, and gets cooled and humidified. Figure 31shows the schematic of an
elementary direct, evaporative cooling system and the process on a psychrometric chart.
As shown in theFigure 31, hot and dry outdoor air is first filtered and then is brought in
contact with the wetted surface or spray of water droplets in the air washer. The air gets
143

cooled and dehumidified due to simultaneous transfer of sensible and latent heats between
air and water (process o-s). The cooled and humidified air is supplied to the conditioned
space, where it extracts the sensible and latent heat from the conditioned space (process
s-i). Finally the air is exhausted at state i. In an ideal case when the air washer is perfectly
insulated and an infinite amount of contact area is available between air and the wetted
surface, then the cooling and humidification process follows the constant wet bulb
temperature line and the temperature at the exit of the air washer is equal to the wet bulb
temperature of the entering air, i.e., the process becomes an adiabatic saturation process.
However, in an actual system the temperature at the exit of the air washer will be higher
than the inlet wet bulb temperature due to heat leaks from the surroundings and also due to
finite contact area. Depending upon the design aspects of the evaporative cooling system,
the effectiveness may vary from 50% (for simple drip type) to about 90% (for efficient spray
pads or air washers).
The amount of supply air required can be obtained by writing energy balance equation for
the conditioned space.
Compared to the conventional refrigeration based air conditioning systems, the amount of
ww
airflow rate required for a given amount of cooling is much larger in case of evaporative
cooling systems. As shown by the above equation and also from Fig.30.1, it is clear that for
a given outdoor dry bulb temperature, as the moisture content of outdoor air increases, the
w.E
required amount of supply air flow rate increases rapidly. And at a threshold moisture
content value, the evaporative coolers cannot provide comfort as the cooling and
asy
humidification line lies above the conditioned space condition „i‟. Thus evaporative coolers
are very useful essentially in dry climates, whereas the conventional refrigeration based air
En
conditioning systems can be used in any type of climate.
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
144

ww Figure 31Evaporative cooling system
w.E
Compared to the conventional refrigeration based air conditioning systems, the evaporative
cooling systems offer the following advantages:
asy
1. Lower equipment and installation costs
2. Substantially lower operating and power costs. Energy savings can be as high as 75
%
En
3. Ease of fabrication and installation
4. Lower maintenance costs
gin
5. Ensures a very good ventilation due to the large air flow rates involved, hence, are
ee
very good especially in 100 % outdoor air applications
rin
6. Better air distribution in the conditioned space due to higher flow rates
7. The fans/blowers create positive pressures in the conditioned space, so that
infiltration of outside air is prevented
8. Very environment friendly as no harmful chemicals are used g.n
following disadvantages: et
Compared to the conventional systems, the evaporative cooling systems suffer from the
1. The moisture level in the conditioned space could be higher, hence, direct
evaporative coolers are not good when low humidity levels in the conditioned space
is required. However, the indirect evaporative cooler can be used without increasing
humidity
2. Since the required air flow rates are much larger, this may create draft and/or high
noise levels in the conditioned space
3. Precise control of temperature and humidity in the conditioned space is not possible
4. May lead to health problems due to micro-organisms if the water used is not clean or
the wetted surfaces are not maintained properly.
Winter Air Conditioning System
In winter the outside conditions are cold and dry. As a result, there will be a continuous
transfer of sensible heat as well as moisture (latent heat) from the buildings to the outside.
Hence, in order to maintain required comfort conditions in the occupied space an air
conditioning system is required which can offset the sensible and latent heat losses from
145

the building. Air supplied to the conditioned space is heated and humidified in the winter air
conditioning system to the required level of temperature and moisture content depending
upon the sensible and latent heat losses from the building. In winter the heat losses from
the conditioned space are partially offset by solar and internal heat gains. Thus in a
conservative design of winter A/C systems, the effects of solar radiation and internal heat
gain are not considered.
Heating and humidification of air can be achieved by different schemes. Figure 32shows
one such scheme along with the cycle on psychrometric chart. As shown in theFigure 32,
the mixed air (mixture of return and outdoor air) is first pre-heated (m-1) in the pre-heater,
then humidified using a humidifier or an air washer (1-2) and then finally reheated in the re-
heater (2-s). The reheated air at state „s‟ is supplied to the conditioned space.
The flow rate of supply air should be such that when released into the conditioned space at
state „s‟, it should be able to maintain the conditioned space at state I and offset the
sensible and latent heat losses (Q and Q ). Pre-heating of air is advantageous as it
s l
ensures that water in the humidifier/air washer does not freeze. In addition, by controlling
the heat supplied in the pre-heater one can control the moisture content in the conditioned
space.
ww
The humidification of air can be achieved in several ways, e.g. by bringing the air in contact
w.E
with a wetted surface, or with droplets of water as in an air washer, by adding aerosol sized
water droplets directly to air or by direct addition of dry saturated or superheated steam.
Humidification by direct contact with a wetted surface or by using an air washer are not
asy
recommended for comfort applications or for other applications where people are present in
the conditioned space due to potential health hazards by the presence of micro-organisms
En
in water. The most common method of humidifying air for these applications is by direct
gin
addition of dry steam to air. When air is humidified by contact with wetted surface as in an
air washer, then temperature of air decreases as its humidity increases due to simultaneous
ee
transfer of sensible and latent heat. If the air washer functions as an adiabatic saturator,
then humidification proceeds along the constant wet bulb temperature line. However, when
rin
air is humidified by directly adding dry, saturated steam, then the humidification proceeds
close to the constant dry bulb temperature line. The final state of air is always obtained by
g.n
applying conservation of mass (water) and conservation of energy equations to the
humidification process.
et
146

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
Figure 32Winter Air Conditioning system with pre-heater g.n
et
Figure 33shows another scheme that can also be used for heating and humidification of air
as required in a winter air conditioning system. As shown in the figure, this system does not
consist of a pre-heater. The mixed air is directly humidified using an air washer (m-1) and is
then reheated (1-s) before supplying it to the conditioned space. Though this system is
simpler compared to the previous one, it suffers from disadvantages such as possibility of
water freezing in the air washer when large amount of cold outdoor air is used and also
from health hazards to the occupants if the water used in the air washer is not clean. Hence
this system is not recommended for comfort conditioning but can be used in applications
o
where the air temperatures at the inlet to the air washer are above 0 C and the conditioned
space is used for products or processes, but not for providing personnel comfort.
Actual winter air conditioning systems, in addition to the basic components shown above,
consist of fans or blowers for air circulation and filters for purifying air. The fan or blower
introduces sensible heat into the air stream as all the electrical power input to the fan is
finally dissipated in the form of heat.
147

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
Figure 33Winter Air Conditioning system without a pre heater g.n
et
2. With a neat sketch explain the layout a window and split air conditioner.(Nov/Dec
2009).
Window air conditioners are also called room air conditioners. These are suitable for
cooling rooms in summers and can be placed on windows or in walls. These consist of
three parts: a hermetic compressor, a condenser, an elevator.
Construction
This AC consists of two units called indoor and outdoor units. The indoor unit consists of an
elevator, fan, air filter, control panel, trays etc., while the outdoor unit consists of a motor
driven compressor, condenser and fan trays. The construction is shown in Figure 34
Working
The liquid refrigerant collects in the lower coil of the condenser and from there flows via the
capillary tube into the evaporator. Since pressure inside the evaporator or cooling coil is
148

very low, the liquid refrigerant evaporates rapidly by picking up heat from the evaporator‟s
surface which is consequently cooled. The Motor driven fan F2 draws air from inside the
room through a suitable filter and forces it to flow over the evaporator.
The low-pressure refrigerant is sucked back into the compressor from where it is forced into
the condenser to be cooled and condensed to a liquid. The compressor and condenser are
so mounted that they can help F1 draw air inside from outside, circulate it over the
condenser where it is heated up and then discharge it outside.
The moisture which collects on the evaporator is drained into a drip pan kept under the
evaporator.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Figure 34bWindow Air Conditioning
Split- Type room air conditioning

ee rin
g.n
The present trend in the Indian market is to go for split air- conditioning systems. This is
et
basically a window air conditioner. It has two parts: cooling unit and condensing unit.
A split type room air conditioner is also known as split package unit. A split package unit is
designed with the fan and cooling or heating coil in one equipment section and the
condenser as well as the compressor in another section. The fan coil section is located in
the room which is the air conditioned space. The condenser and compressor are placed in
a remote location either indoors or outdoors.
Cooling Unit or Indoor unit

It consists of the following parts as shown in Figure 35
1. Evaporator coil and capillary tube: The high pressure, low temperature liquid
refrigerant from the condenser is passed to the evaporator through a capillary tube.
In the capillary tube the refrigerant expands. The low-pressure, low temperature
liquid refrigerant then passes through the evaporator.
2. Evaporator fan: The evaporator fan draws air continuously from the inside space of
the room through an air filter. The air is forced to pass over the evaporator by the
fan. The air passing over the evaporator is cooled by the refrigerant. Consequently,
the refrigerant evaporates by absorbing heat from the air.
3. Mounting of cooling unit: A cooling unit may be floor mounted, wall-mounted, or
ceiling-mounted, depending on the requirement.
149

4. Controls: Humidity is defined as the moisture content present in the atmosphere. The
atmosphere always contains some moisture in the form of water vapour. When the
atmosphere is saturated with water, the level of discomfort is high because of the
delay in evaporation of perspiration.
ww
w.E
asy
Figure 35Split Air Conditioning system
En
Condensing Unit or Outdoor unit:
It consists of the following units: gin
ee
1. Compressor: The high temperature evaporated refrigerant from the evaporator is
drawn by the suction of the compressor. The compressor delivers it to the
condenser.
rin
g.n
2. Condenser Coil: The condenser may be air-cooled type as in the case of room air
conditioner, or water- cooled type as in the case of a centralized air conditioner. If a
et
water- cooled condenser is to be used, the condenser is provided with connections
for water supply, from wither a tank or a well. For an air-cooled condenser, these
connections are not required.
3. Condenser fan: The condenser fan draws the atmospheric air from the exposed side.
The high-pressure, high- temperature refrigerant passing inside the condenser
condenses by giving off heat to the atmosphere.
To avoid flashing of the liquid refrigerant a small receiver in the liquid line is recommended,
where the distance between the condensing unit and cooling unit exceeds 8m. Normally,
both the condenser and cooling units are provided with quick couplers or shut-off valves at
the suction and liquid line and are factory charged. However, the practice of charging the
complete system after installation at site in not uncommon.
150

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
151

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
152

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
153

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
154

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
155

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
156

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
157

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
158

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
159

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
160

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
161

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
162

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
163

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
164

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
165

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
166

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
167

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
168

Me6404 SD

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Me6404 SD

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Me6404 SD

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.

UNIT I GAS POWER CYCLES 8

UNIT II INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 10

UNIT III asy

UNIT IV AIR COMPRESSOR

UNIT V REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 9

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

ME6404 THERMAL ENGINEERING 3 0 0 100

1. Aim and Objective of the Subject

2. Need and Importance for Study of the subject

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

DETAILED LESSON PLAN

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

7 ww Lubrication and Cooling systems. 1 17

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

3 Multistage air compressor and inter cooling 2 36 T2,R1

4 ww Air conditioning system,Processes,

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

10. Name the various “gas power cycles”.

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

2. List out the effects of detonation.(May-2007)

7. What is the importance of delay period in C.I engine combustion phenomena?

Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net

9. What is the use of flywheel? (May-2015)

10. What is scavenging in S.I engine?

11. What is mean by ignition lag? (Dec 2014)