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Chapter 06 - Personal Nutrition
True / False
1. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans are reviewed and revised with every national census.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
REFERENCES: Dietary Guidelines for Americans
QUESTION TYPE: True / False
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: INHB.HALE.17.6.1 - Discuss the key recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines for
Americans that affect food choices.
KEYWORDS: Bloom's: Remember
2. Both adults and children should consume at least 130 grams of carbohydrate each day, the minimum needed to produce
enough glucose for the brain to function.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
REFERENCES: The Building Blocks of Good Nutrition
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: INHB.HALE.17.6.2 - Identify the components of good nutrition and the roles played by
macronutrients and micronutrients in fulfilling the requirements of the human body.
KEYWORDS: Bloom's: Understand
3. Saturated fats and unsaturated fats are distinguished by their ratio of protein to carbohydrates.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
4. Fish oil supplements are recommended as an alternate method of obtaining the desired amounts of omega-3 and omega-
6 fatty acids.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
5. Phytochemicals act as antioxidants in the body and mimic hormones in the body, reducing the risk of cancer and heart
disease.
Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 1
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
6. USDA’s MyPlate serves as a visual reminder for healthy eating, based on key themes of the most recent Dietary
Guidelines.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
REFERENCES: Healthy Eating Patterns:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: INHB.HALE.17.6.3 - Describe the research-based healthy eating patterns.
7. Young adults (ages 20 to 29) consume approximately 40 percent of their daily calories away from home.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
REFERENCES: The Way We Eat
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: INHB.HALE.17.6.4 - Discuss the impact of eating habits on the health of individuals.
8. Proposed changes to the Nutrition Facts label includes updated serving size requirements to reflect the amounts people
should be eating.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
REFERENCES: Taking Charge of What You Eat
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: INHB.HALE.17.6.5 - Describe food labels, serving, portions, the Nutrition Facts label, and
the criteria for food to be certified as organic.
9. “BAC” stands for food bacteria, an invisible threat to your health.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
REFERENCES: Food Safety
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: INHB.HALE.17.6.6 - Discuss the causes, effects, and measures of prevention of foodborne
infections and food allergies.
10. Because most registered dietitians lack a bachelor’s degree, few are members of the Academy of Nutrition and
Dietetics.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
REFERENCES: Nutritional Quackery
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: INHB.HALE.17.6.7 - Outline steps to follow in order to safeguard yourself from nutrition
quackery.
Multiple Choice
11. The 2015 Dietary Guidelines urge Americans to cut back on sweet treats and sugary soft drinks because they are a
prime source of added sugars, salt, and ____.
a. saturated fat
b. water
c. fiber
d. amino acids
e. unsaturated fat
ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: Dietary Guidelines for Americans
QUESTION TYPE: Multiple Choice
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: INHB.HALE.17.6.1 - Discuss the key recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines for
Americans that affect food choices.
12. Which group of nutrients is required by the body in the greatest amounts, and include water, carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats?
a. micronutrients
b. essential nutrients
c. vitamins
d. minerals
e. macronutrients
ANSWER: e
13. The basic framework for muscles, bones, blood, hair, and fingernails is formed by ____.
a. fat
b. carbohydrates
c. protein
d. minerals
e. calcium
ANSWER: c
14. Which high-quality protein source contains all of the amino acids needed by the body for growth and maintenance?
a. simple protein
b. complete protein
c. incomplete protein
d. complex protein
e. essential protein
ANSWER: b
15. Which foods are good examples of complementary proteins?

a. beans and rice
b. seeds and nuts
c. peas and carrots
d. beef and potatoes
e. chicken and rice
ANSWER: a
KEYWORDS: Bloom's: Apply
16. Which group of nutrients consists of organic compounds—such as starches, sugars, and glycogen—and serves as
sources of bodily energy?
a. proteins
b. carbohydrates
c. vitamins
d. minerals
e. fats
ANSWER: b
17. Which carbohydrates are the least complex, and include glucose, sucrose, and lactose milk?
a. dietary fiber
b. incomplete carbohydrates
c. starches
d. simple sugars
e. complementary carbohydrates
ANSWER: d
18. From which foods do Americans get most of their complex carbohydrates?
a. refined grains
b. dairy-based desserts
c. coffee and tea
d. whole grains
e. fruit drinks
ANSWER: a
19. What nondigestible form of complex carbohydrates occurs naturally in plant foods such as leaves, stems, skins, seeds,
and hulls?
a. dietary fiber
b. simple sugar
c. whole grain
d. starch
e. functional fiber
ANSWER: a
20. Which type of carbohydrate is isolated and nondigestible, and may be added to foods with beneficial effects for
consumers?
a. dietary fiber
b. simple sugar
c. whole grain
d. starch
e. functional fiber
ANSWER: e
21. Which term refers to a measure of how much a typical serving size of a particular food raises blood glucose?
a. glycemic index
b. glycemic load
c. glycemic count
d. glycemic measure
e. calorie count
ANSWER: b
22. Which food component carries the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K—and aids in their absorption in the intestine?
a. fats
b. water
c. proteins
d. starches
e. minerals
ANSWER: a
23. Meredith used margarine and shortening to bake her pies. Which type of unsaturated fat will the individuals who eat
Meredith’s pies consume?
a. essential fatty acids

b. dietary fat
c. trans fat
d. complementary fats
e. good cholesterol
ANSWER: c
24. Larry’s cardiologist has advised him to eat foods high in omega-3 fatty acids. Which dish would fulfill this
recommendation?
a. chicken
b. salmon
c. scrambled eggs
d. pork
e. sirloin steak
ANSWER: b
25. Phyllis is looking for food items high in omega-6 fatty acids. Which item should be in her shopping cart?
a. can of sardines
b. pound of bacon
c. tub of unsalted butter
d. grapefruit juice
e. carton of eggs
ANSWER: e
26. Which substances help put carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to use—and are essential to regulating growth,
maintaining tissue, and releasing energy from foods?
a. phytochemicals
b. triglycerides
c. vitamins
d. trans fat
e. amino acids
ANSWER: c
27. Which characteristic applies to vitamins A, D, E, and K?

a. They are fat-soluble.
b. They are water-soluble.
c. They are simple.
d. They are complex.
e. They are essential.
ANSWER: a
28. Which characteristic applies to vitamins B and vitamin C?

a. They are fat-soluble.
b. They are water-soluble.
c. They are simple.
d. They are complex.
e. They are essential.
ANSWER: b
29. Which term applies to oxygen cells that are released not only by normal metabolism, but also by pollution, smoking,
radiation, and stress?
a. free radicals
b. oxidated atoms
c. deoxyribonucleic acids
d. coenzymes
e. loose molecules
ANSWER: a
30. Low levels of which vitamin have been linked to memory loss, Parkinson’s disease, and stroke?
a. vitamin C
b. vitamin D
c. vitamin A
d. vitamin K
e. vitamin E
ANSWER: b
31. Which inorganic substances help build bones and teeth?

a. antioxidants
b. vitamins
c. fatty acids
d. free radicals
e. minerals
ANSWER: e
32. When does bone mass peak for both men and women?
a. ages 15 to 25
b. ages 25 to 35
c. ages 35 to 45
d. ages 45 to 55
e. ages 55 to 65
ANSWER: b
33. Which chemical compounds give tomatoes their red color and hot peppers their “fire?”
a. phytochemicals
b. amino acids
c. free radicals
d. raw minerals
e. omega-6 fatty acids
ANSWER: a
34. Worldwide, what is a component of healthy eating?

a. whole grains
b. refined grains
c. full-fat dairy products
d. synthetic sugars
e. cured foods
ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: Healthy Eating Patterns
35. According to the USDA, half of your MyPlate should be ____.

a. dairy products
b. protein and dairy products
c. fruits and vegetables
d. fruits and nuts
e. whole grains and water-soluble vitamins
ANSWER: c
36. Which USDA food pattern consists only of plant foods and substitutes calcium-fortified beverages and foods for dairy
products?
a. lacto-ovo-vegetarian pattern
b. Mediterranean diet
c. low-cholesterol diet
d. lacto-vegetarian pattern
e. vegan pattern
ANSWER: e

37. Research indicates that a DASH eating plan ____.

a. lowers blood pressure
b. inhibit blood lipids
c. raises blood pressure
d. restricts blood flow
e. reduces risk of asthma
ANSWER: a
38. Which eating pattern emphasizes vegetables, fruits, nuts, olive oil, and grains, with only a small amount of meats and
full-fat milk?
a. DASH eating plan
b. USDA Food Patterns
c. vegetarian diet
d. Mediterranean diet
e. MyPlate
ANSWER: d
39. Frank adheres to a diet of eat dairy products as well as grains, fruits, and vegetables. What type of vegetarian is Frank?
a. vegan
b. lacto-vegetarian
c. ovo-lacto-vegetarian
d. lacto-ovo-pesco-vegetarian
e. ovo-vegetarian
ANSWER: b
40. Wilma consumes only plant foods and occasionally takes a vitamin B12 supplement. What type of vegetarian is
Wilma?
a. vegan
b. lacto-vegetarian
c. ovo-lacto-vegetarian
d. lacto-ovo-pesco-vegetarian
e. ovo-vegetarian
ANSWER: a
41. Which essential nutrient may be lacking in a vegetarian diet?

a. fiber
b. carbohydrates
c. protein
d. potassium
e. vitamin C
ANSWER: c
42. When they are making meal choices, the top two influences on students are price and ____.
a. convenience
b. taste
c. nutrition
d. quantity
e. source
ANSWER: a
43. What do medical experts recommend as their beverage of choice?

a. low-fat milk
b. water
c. energy drink
d. green tea
e. vegetable juice
ANSWER: b
44. Which labeling component refers to a specific amount of food that contains the quantity of nutrients described on the
Nutrition Facts label?
a. size
b. menu
c. serving
d. portion
e. standard
ANSWER: c
45. Which characteristic applies to organic foods?

a. fertilized with sewage sludge
b. fertilized with chemical formulas
c. processed with genetic modification
d. processed with ionizing radiation
e. fertilized with plant-based substances
ANSWER: e
46. Virginia has been eating salads without first washing the lettuce. She risks ingesting which type of bacteria?
a. Listeria
b. E. coli
c. Costridium botulinum
d. Salmonella
e. Campylobacter jejuni
ANSWER: b
47. Which bacterium is found mainly in poultry, eggs, and processed meats?
a. Listeria
b. E. coli
c. Toxoplasma
d. Salmonella
e. Costridium botulinum
ANSWER: d

48. Which bacterium has been implicated in the growth of stomach ulcers?
a. Listeria
b. E. coli
c. Campylobacter jejuni
d. Salmonella
e. Costridium botulinum
ANSWER: c
49. Peter recently traced his headaches, dizziness, and rapid heartbeat to eating soy food products. Most likely, Peter has
a(n) ____.
a. food allergy
b. unhealthy eating pattern
c. infection
d. flu bug
e. one-time reaction
ANSWER: a
50. Which function is associated with the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND)?
a. hosting dietitics internships
b. defining food allergies
c. licensing nutritionists
d. promoting organic foods
e. setting the standard for quality in diets
ANSWER: e
REFERENCES: Nutritional Quackery
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: INHB.HALE.17.6.7 - Outline steps to follow in order to safeguard yourself from nutrition
quackery.
Completion
51. ____________________ is the science devoted to the study of dietary needs for food and the effects of food on
organisms.
ANSWER: Nutrition
REFERENCES: Introduction
QUESTION TYPE: Completion
52. ____________________ are vitamins and minerals needed by the body in very small amounts.
ANSWER: Micronutrients
53. The number of calories needed to sustain the body at rest is known as the ____________________.
ANSWER: basal metabolic rate, BMR
54. Water, protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals are ____________________ nutrients that the body cannot
manufacture for itself and must obtain from food.
ANSWER: essential
55. ____________________ proteins are two or more incomplete protein sources that together provide adequate amounts
of all the essential amino acids.
ANSWER: Complementary
56. ____________________ carbohydrates are starches—including cereals, fruits, and vegetables.

ANSWER: Complex
57. The glycemic ____________________ is a ranking of carbohydrates, gram for gram, based on their immediate effect
on blood glucose (sugar) levels.
ANSWER: index
58. ____________________ fats have long been considered a major threat to cardiovascular health, although recent
research has raised some questions about their impact.
ANSWER: Saturated
59. Like oils, ____________________ fats are likely to be liquid at room temperature.
ANSWER: unsaturated
60. ____________________ is a B vitamin that reduces the risk of neural tube defects in children.
ANSWER: Folic acid, Folate
61. The most abundant mineral in the body, helping to build strong bone tissue throughout life, is
____________________.
ANSWER: calcium

62. The ethnic cuisine served in ____________________ features rice, corn, and beans, which are low in fat and high in
nutrients.
ANSWER: Mexico
63. A growing problem on college campuses is food ____________________, defined as limited or uncertain availability
of healthful foods and limited or uncertain ability to acquire healthful foods.
ANSWER: insecurity
64. A(n) ____________________ is the amount of a specific food that an individual eats at one time.
ANSWER: portion
65. The bacterium ____________________ is commonly found in hot dogs, deli meats, soft cheeses, raw meat, and
unpasteurized milk.
ANSWER: Listeria
Matching
Match the items with the appropriate description.

a. carbohydrate
b. phytochemical
c. caloric balance
d. antioxidant
e. incomplete protein
f. complex carbohydrate

g. calorie
h. sodium
i. saturated
j. amino acid
REFERENCES: Introduction
The Building Blocks of Good Nutrition
QUESTION TYPE: Matching
66. in everyday usage, the equivalent of a thousand calories, or a kilocalorie

ANSWER: g
67. low in one or more of the essential amino acids

ANSWER: e
68. starches, sugars, and glycogen

ANSWER: a
69. animal fats

ANSWER: i
70. relationship between calories consumed and calories expended

ANSWER: c
71. cereals, fruits, and vegetables

ANSWER: f
72. helps maintain proper fluid balance

ANSWER: h
73. prevents damaging effects of oxidation in cells

ANSWER: d
74. building blocks of protein

ANSWER: j
75. indoles, coumarins, and capsaicin

ANSWER: b
Essay
76. List the six essential nutrients and briefly explain how they function to support and keep the body healthy.
ANSWER: The six essential nutrients and their functions, briefly stated, are:
1. Water – carries nutrients, maintains temperature, helps with digestion, removes waste
2. Protein – forms the framework for muscles, bones, tissues; provides energy
3. Carbohydrates – provide brains and bodies with their basic fuel: glucose
4. Fats – carry fat-soluble vitamins, protect organs from injury, regulate body temperature,
provide energy
5. Vitamins – regulate growth, maintain tissue, and release energy from foods
6. Minerals – build bones, teeth; aid in function of muscle and nervous systems
QUESTION TYPE: Essay
77. Explain why women who plan to get pregnant may be advised to take folic acid.
ANSWER: Women planning to become pregnant are advised to take a daily supplement of folic
acid starting one month before conception. Folic acid, or folate, a B vitamin, reduces the risk
of neural tube defects in children. Another potential benefit, based on a study of more than
85,710 new mothers, may be lower risk of the most severe form of autism.
KEYWORDS: Bloom's: Analyze
78. What does the MyPlate system suggest in the way of caloric balance, foods to eat more, and food to eat less?
ANSWER: As a visual reminder for healthy eating, MyPlate suggests:
• Caloric balance: Enjoy your food but eat less; avoid oversized portions.
• Foods to Increase: Make half your plate fruits and vegetables; make at least half your grains
whole grains; switch to nonfat or low-fat (1%) milk.
• Food to Reduce: Compare sodium in foods like soup, bread, and frozen meals and choose
those with lower numbers; drink water instead of sugary drinks.
79. Differentiate between the nutrition needs of men and women, and identify at least three gender-specific strategies for
healthier eating.
ANSWER: Men and women do not need to eat different foods, but their nutritional needs are different:
Because most men are bigger and taller than most women, they consume more calories. On
average, a moderately active 125-pound woman needs 2,000 calories a day; a 175-pound man
with a similar exercise pattern needs 2,800 calories.
Here are some gender-specific strategies for better nutrition:
• Men should cut back on fat and meat.
• Women should increase their iron intake by eating meat (iron from animal sources is
absorbed better than that from vegetable sources) or a combination of meat and vegetable
iron sources together. According to the USDA, most women consume only 60 percent of a
recommended 18 milligrams of iron per day. (The recommendation for men is 8 milligrams.)
• Women should consume more calcium-rich foods, including low-fat and nonfat dairy
products, leafy greens, and tofu.
• Women who could become pregnant should take a multivitamin with 400 micrograms of
folic acid, which helps prevent neural tube defects such as spina bifida.


80. Discuss why consumers who want to watch what they eat should know the difference between a serving and a portion.
ANSWER: A food-label serving is a specific amount of food that contains the quantity of nutrients
described on the Nutrition Facts label. A portion is the amount of a specific food that an
individual eats at one time. Portions can be bigger or smaller than the servings on food labels.
According to nutritionists, “marketplace portions”—the actual amounts served to
customers—are two to eight times larger than the standard serving sizes defined by the
USDA. In fast-food chains, today’s portions are two to five times larger than the original
sizes. As studies have shown, people presented with larger portions eat 30 to 50 percent more
than they otherwise would.

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Fig. 277.—Diagrammatic
representation of the course of
the vascular bundles, from the
stem into the leaves in a
Monocotyledon.
The leaves are amplexicaul, and have a large sheath but no
stipules; the blade is most frequently long, ligulate, or linear, entire,
with parallel venation, the veins being straight or curved (Figs. 300,
309). Connecting the large number of veins which run longitudinally,
there are as a rule only weak transverse ones. It is very rarely that
other forms of leaves are found, such as cordate (Figs. 302, 312), or
that the blade is branched, or the venation is, for example, pinnate or
palmate (Figs. 225, 298); these deviations are especially found in the
Araceæ, the Palms, the Scitamineæ (Fig. 308), the Dioscoreaceæ,
and in several aquatic plants. The incisions in the Palm-leaf are
derived by the splitting of an originally entire leaf.
The structure of the flower is generally as follows: Pr3 + 3,
A3 + 3, G3, rarely S3 + P3 with the other members unchanged.[25]
Instead of 3, the numbers 2 and 4 may occur; rarely others. In all
these instances there are 5 whorls, which regularly alternate with
one another, most frequently in the 3-merous flower, as in the
diagram (Fig. 278). This diagram is found in the following orders:
Liliaceæ, Convallariaceæ, Juncaceæ, Bromeliaceæ, Amaryllidaceæ,
Dioscoreaceæ, Palmæ, some Araceæ, and in some small orders,
and may be considered as the typical structure and also the starting
point for the exceptional orders. The ovary in many Monocotyledons
has many ovules, and the fruit becomes a many-seeded berry or
capsule; this form is no doubt the oldest. In others the number of
seeds becomes reduced to 1, and the fruit then becomes a cypsela,
or a drupe (e.g. Gramineæ, Cyperaceæ, Palmæ, etc).
Fig. 278.—Diagram of the

ordinary, regular flower in the
Monocotyledons: s is the bract.
Fig. 279.—Diagram of Iris: f
the bracteole; in its axil is a
shoot with its bracteole.
Fig. 280.—Diagram of
Orchis: l the lip; σ σ the two
staminodes.
Deviations from this typical floral structure in some instances may
be traced to suppression, very rarely to a splitting of certain
members, the typical relative positions not being changed. Thus, the
Iridaceæ, the Cyperaceæ, most of the Gramineæ and some
Juncaceæ deviate in having only 3 stamens (Fig. 279), the inner
whorl (indicated by *) not becoming developed. The Musaceæ differ
in the posterior stamen not being developed; Zingiberaceæ (Fig.
314), Marantaceæ, and Cannaceæ, in the fact that only 1 of all the
stamens bears an anther, and the others are either suppressed or
developed into petaloid staminodes, with some perhaps cleft in
addition. The Orchideæ deviate in having, generally, only the anterior
stamen of all the 6 developed (Fig. 280). In this, as in other
instances, the suppression of certain parts of the flower is often
connected with zygomorphy (i.e. symmetry in one plane), chiefly in
the inner perianth-whorl, but also in the other whorls. In the Orchids,
the perianth-leaf (the labellum, Fig. 280 l) which is directly opposite
the fertile stamen, is larger and altogether different from the others.
The perianth-leaves may also be suppressed; see, for example, the
two diagrams of the Cyperaceæ (Fig. 284). In some orders the
suppression of these leaves, which form the basis of the diagram, is
so complete that it is hard to reduce the actual structure of the flower
to the theoretical type, e.g. the Grasses (Fig. 290) and Lemna (Fig.
303). In the first family, which especially comprises water-plants, a
somewhat different structure is found; thus Fig. 282 differs somewhat
from the ordinary type, and other flowers much more so; but the
floral diagrams which occur in this family may perhaps be considered
as the most probable representatives of an older type, from which
the ordinary pentacyclic forms have taken their origin. In favour of
this theory we have the larger number of whorls, the spiral
arrangement of some of these in the flower, with a large and
indefinite number of stamens and carpels, the perfectly apocarpous
gynœceum which sometimes occurs, etc., etc.
The Monocotyledons are divided into 7 Families:—
1. Helobieæ. This family forms a group complete in itself. It commences with
hypogynous, perfect flowers, whose gynœcium is apocarpous and terminates in
epigynous and more or less reduced forms.
2. Glumifloræ. These have as a starting point the same diagram as the
following families, but otherwise develope independently.
3. Spadicifloræ. Also an independent branch, or perhaps two different ones
which terminate in much reduced forms.
4. Enantioblastæ. These ought perhaps to be amalgamated with the following
family.
5. Liliifloræ. These advance from forms with the typical diagram and
hypogynous flower, to epigynous and reduced forms.
6. Scitamineæ and
7. Gynandræ. Two isolated families, which probably have taken their origin
from Liliifloræ, and have epigynous, mostly zygomorphic, and much reduced
forms.
Family 1. Helobieæ.
To this family belong only water- or marsh-plants; the endosperm
is wanting, and they possess an embryo with a very large hypocotyl
prolonged downwards and often club-like. The perianth is often
differentiated into calyx and corolla; the flower is regular, and in the
first orders to be considered, may be reduced to the ordinary
Monocotyledonous type; there are, however, usually found two 3-
merous whorls of carpels (Fig. 282), and thus in all 6 whorls, or
again, the number of carpels may be indefinite; the number of
stamens also may be increased, either by the division of the
members of a whorl, or by the development of additional whorls.
Syncarps,[26] with nut or follicular fruitlets, are very common, for
example, in the first orders; in the last (Hydrocharitaceæ) the carpels
are not only united, but the ovary is even inferior.
The primitive type appears to be a hypogynous flower, similar to that of the
Juncaginaceæ or Alismaceæ, with several 3-merous whorls, and free carpels,
each with many ovules; the green perianth in this instance being no doubt older
than the coloured ones. If we take a flower with this structure as the starting point,
then the family developes partly into epigynous forms, partly into others which are
so strongly reduced and exceptional that it is scarcely possible to refer them to the
ordinary type. The family, through the peculiar Zostereæ, appears to approach the
Araceæ, in which Potamogetonaceæ and Najadaceæ are included by some
authorities. However, the inclusion of Potamogeton, and with it Ruppia and
Zannichellia, in the Juncaginaceæ appears quite correct. It would scarcely be right
to separate Zostereæ from these. Great stress has often been laid upon the
similarity with the Ranunculaceæ which is found in the Alismaceæ, but it is
scarcely more than an analogous resemblance.
Order 1. Juncaginaceæ. The ☿, regular, hypogynous flowers

have the perianth 3 + 3, sepaloid, stamens 3 + 3 (with extrorse
anthers), and carpels 3 + 3 (free or united), of which last, however,
one whorl may be suppressed (in Triglochin maritima all 6 carpels
are developed, in T. palustris the inner whorl is unfertile).
Inflorescence long spikes. Embryo straight.—Marsh-plants with
radical, rush-like leaves, arranged in two rows, and often sheathing
and ligulate (“squamulæ intravaginales”); the inflorescence is a spike
or raceme.—Scheuchzeria. Carpels almost free; in each at least two
ovules. Follicles.—Triglochin has long, fine racemes without bracts
or bracteoles; one ovule in each carpel. The carpels in the two native
species are united, but separate when ripe as a schizocarp,
loosening from below; they open along the ventral suture or remain
closed; a linear central column remains. The most reduced is Lilæa (1–2
sp. Am.)—Protogynous. About 10 species. Temp. Fossils in Tertiary.
Order 2. Potamogetonaceæ. The aquatic plants belonging to this
order are perennial, living entirely submerged, or with floating leaves,
and preferring still water. The leaves are alternate, in some linear
and grass-like, in others there is an elliptical floating blade,
supported by a linear submerged petiole. Axillary scales. The fruit is
generally a syncarp with nuts or drupes; the embryo is curved, of
very various forms.
Potamogeton (Pond-weed). The rhizome is creeping, sympodial
(with two internodes in each shoot-generation); the inflorescence is a
terminal, many-flowered spike, without floral-leaves; below it are
found 2 foliage-leaves placed nearly at the same height, from whose
axils the branching is continued cymosely. The flowers are ☿, 4-
merous, naked, and consist only of 4 stamens, with the connectives,
broadly developed at the back of the anthers, resembling a perianth,
and of 4 free, sessile carpels. They are common plants in fresh
water. The spike, during the flowering, is raised above the water. Wind-pollinated
and protogynous.—Closely allied is Ruppia (Tassel Pond-weed), in salt or brackish
water. The spike has only two naked flowers, each consisting of 2 stamens and 4
carpels. The stalks of the individual carpels are considerably prolonged.—
Zannichellia (Horned Pond-weed) is monœcious; the ♀-flower consists of 4 (2–9)
carpels, with membranous, bell-shaped perianth; long styles; the ♂ -flower has 1
(-2) stamens. Althenia.
Zostera (Grass-wrack) is an entirely submerged, marine plant with
creeping rhizome (with displacement of buds) and strap-shaped
leaves. The flowering shoots are sympodia with displacement of the
axes (Fig. 281). The inflorescence is a peculiar, flatly-compressed
spike, on one side of which the flowers are borne (Fig. 281). This
inflorescence may be considered, no doubt correctly, to be derived from the
symmetrical spike of Potamogeton by strongly dorsiventral development, and by a
strong suppression of the floral parts taking place simultaneously. Two rows of
flowers are developed, but of these one is so pressed into the other that
apparently only one is present. Each flower consists of only 1 stamen and
1 carpel situated at the same height (Fig. 281); the unilocular ovary
encloses 1 pendulous ovule and bears a bifid style. As regards the
perianth (?) one leaf may be present (Z. nana, Fig. 281 D). The
pollen-grains are filamentous. Pollination takes place under water.
Posidonia and Cymodocea are allied to these. About 70 species.
Fig. 281.—Zostera. A Diagram of the branching of the floral
shoots: I, II ... are the successive shoot-generations, every other
one being shaded; g1 g2 ... fore-leaves; sp1 sp2 ... spathes for the
successive spikes. Each shoot is united for some distance with the
parent axis (indicated by the half-shaded internodes). Each shoot
commences with a fore-leaf turning towards the parent axis, g;
succeeding this is the spathe, sp; and then the inflorescence. The
fore-leaf supports a new lateral shoot. B Diagram of a shoot, II,
which is borne laterally in the axil of the fore-leaf g1, on the shoot I,
g2 its fore-leaf; sp2 its spathe; sti squamulæ intravaginales. II Is the
spadix with stamens and carpels; b a perianth-leaf (or connective
expansion, similar to those which occur in Potamogeton). C The
upper portion of a young spadix with development of flowers. D
Part of a spadix with 2 flowers; the parts which theoretically belong
to one another are connected by a dotted line.
Order 3. Aponogetonaceæ. Aquatic plants with tuberous stem. They have a
single, petaloid perianth (3–2–1–leaved), most frequently 6 stamens and 3(-6)
carpels. Straight embryo.—About 15 species (Africa, Madagascar, Tropical Asia
and Australia).—Aponogeton distachyos and A. (Ouvirandra) fenestralis are grown
in conservatories; the latter has lattice-like, perforated leaves.
Order 4. Najadaceæ. Only one genus Najas (about 10 species); annual fresh
water plants with leaves in pairs and solitary, unisexual flowers. The ♂ flower is
remarkable in having a terminal stamen, which has either 4 longitudinal loculi or 1
central one; on this account the stamen of Najas is considered by some authorities
to be a stem and not a leaf-structure. The unilocular gynœceum and the single,
erect, anatropous ovule are also terminal. Pollination takes place under the water.
Order 5. Alismaceæ. The regular, hypogynous flowers are in
some species unisexual by the suppression of either andrœcium or
gynœceum; they have a 6-merous perianth, generally differentiated
into 3 sepals and 3 petals; generally 6 stamens in the outer whorl (by
the division of the 3; Fig. 282) and often several 3-merous whorls
inside these, and 6–∞ free carpels arranged cyclically or spirally.
Fruit a syncarp.—Marsh- or water-plants with radical leaves and
long-stalked inflorescences.
A. Butomeæ. Follicles with many seeds, which are borne on
nearly the whole of the inner surface of the cyclic carpels (as in
Nymphæaceæ). Embryo straight.—Butomus (Flowering Rush, Fig.
282), has an umbel (generally composed of 3 helicoid cymes). S 3, P
3, stamens 9 (6 + 3, i.e. the outer whorl doubled), G 3 + 3. B.
umbellatus; creeping rhizome with triangular Iris-like leaves.—Hydrocleis.
Limnocharis.
Fig. 282.—Diagram of Butomus: f
bracteole.
B. Alismeæ. Fruit achenes. Latex common (in the intercellular
spaces). The flowers are arranged most frequently in single or
compound whorls. Embryo curved, horse-shoe shaped.—Alisma has
S 3, P 3, A 6 (in 1 whorl, grouped in pairs, i.e. doubled in front of the
sepals), and 1 whorl of 1-seeded achenes on a flat receptacle. The
leaves are most frequently radicle, long-stalked; the lamina have
curved longitudinal veins, and a richly branched venation. A.
plantago.—Elisma (E. natans) has epitropous (turned inwards)
ovules, whilst the ovules of Alisma, Sagittaria and others are
apotropous (turned outwards).—Echinodorus (E. ranunculoides) has
a convex receptacle, carpels many, united and capitate.
Damasonium.—Sagittaria (Arrow-head) has monœcious flowers,
several whorls of stamens and spirally-arranged achenes on a very
convex receptacle. S. sagittifolia reproduces by tuberous buds formed at the
end of long, submerged branches. The leaves, in deep and rapidly running water,
are long and strap-shaped, but in the air arrow-shaped.
Honey is secreted in the flower and pollination effected by insects. Alisma
plantago has 12 nectaries. The submerged flowers of Elisma natans remain closed
and are self-pollinated. Butomus has protandrous flowers. There are about 50
species, which mostly grow outside the Tropics.—Uses insignificant. The rhizome
of some is farinaceous.
Order 6. Hydrocharitaceæ. This order differs chiefly from the
preceding in its epigynous flowers. These are in general unisexual
(diœcious), and surrounded by a 2-leaved or bipartite spathe; they
are 3-merous in all whorls, but the number of whorls is generally
greater than 5, sometimes even indefinite. The perianth is divided
into calyx and corolla. The ovary is unilocular with parietal
placentation, or more or less incompletely plurilocular. The fruit is
berry-like, but usually ruptures irregularly when ripe. Embryo straight.
—Most often submerged water-plants, leaves seldom floating on the
surface. Axillary scales (squamulæ intravaginales).
Hydrocharis. Floating water-plants with round cordate leaves; S3,
P3 (folded in the bud); ♂ -flowers: 3 (-more) flowers inside each
spathe; stamens 9–15, the most internal sterile. ♀ -flowers solitary;
three staminodes; ovary 6-locular, with many ovules attached to the
septa; styles 6, short, bifid. [The petals of the ♀ -flowers bear
nectaries at the base. In this and the following genus the pollination
is without doubt effected by insects.] H. morsus ranæ (Frog-bit) has
runners; it hibernates by means of special winter-buds.—Stratiotes; floating
plants with a rosette of linear, thick, stiff leaves with spiny margin,
springing from a short stem, from which numerous roots descend
into the mud. Inflorescence, perianth, and ovary nearly the same as
in Hydrocharis, but the ♂ -flower has 12 stamens in 3 whorls, of
which the outer 6 are in 1 whorl (dédoublement), and inside the
perianth in both flowers there are numerous (15–30) nectaries
(staminodes?). S. aloides (Water-soldier); in N. Eur. only ♀-plants.—
Vallisneria spiralis is a tropical or sub-tropical plant, growing gregariously on the
mud in fresh water. The leaves are grass-like, and the plants diœcious; the ♂ -
flowers are detached from the plant, and rise to the surface of the water, where
they pollinate the ♀ -flowers. These are borne on long, spirally-twisted peduncles
which contract after pollination, so that the ♀ -flower is again drawn under the
water, and the fruits ripen deeply submerged.—Elodea canadensis is also an
entirely submerged plant. The leaves are arranged in whorls on a well-developed
stem. Only ♀ -plants in Europe (introduced about 1836 from N. Am). This plant
spreads with great rapidity throughout the country, the reproduction being entirely
vegetative. Hydrilla, Halophila, Thalassia, Enhalus.—In many of these genera the
number of whorls in the flower is remarkably reduced; for example, in Vallisneria,
in the ♂-flowers to 2: Pr 3, A (1-) 3, in the ♀ to 3: Pr 3, Staminodes 3, G 3.—About
40 species; Temp. and Trop.
Family 2. Glumifloræ.
The hypogynous flowers in the Juncaceæ are completely
developed on the pentacyclic, trimerous type, with dry, scarious
perianth. Even in these the interior whorl of stamens becomes
suppressed, and the ovary, which in Juncus is trilocular with many
ovules, becomes in Luzula almost unilocular, but still with 3 ovules.
The perianth in the Cyperaceæ and Gramineæ is reduced from
hairs, in the first of these, to nothing, the flowers at the same time
collecting more closely on the inflorescence (spike) supported by dry
bracts (chaff); the number of stamens is almost constantly 3; stigmas
linear; the ovary has only 1 loculus with 1 ovule, and the fruit, which
is a capsule in the Juncaceæ, becomes a nut or caryopsis.—The
endosperm is large and floury, the embryo being placed at its lower
extremity (Figs. 286 B, 291).—The plants belonging to this order,
with the exception of a few tropical species, are annual or perennial
herbs. The stems above ground are thin, and for the most part have
long internodes, with linear, parallel-veined leaves which have long
sheaths, and often a ligule, i.e. a membranous projection, arising
transversely from the leaf at the junction of the sheath and blade.
The underground stems are short or creeping rhizomes. The flowers
are small and insignificant. Wind- or self-pollination.
Order 1. Juncaceæ (Rushes). The regular, hermaphrodite,
hypogynous flowers have 3 + 3 brown, dry, free perianth-leaves
projecting like a star during the opening of the flower; stamens 3 + 3
(seldom 3 + 0) and 3 carpels united into one gynœceum (Fig. 283);
the ovary is 3- or 1-locular; there is as a rule 1 style, which becomes
divided at the summit into 3 stigmas, often bearing branches twisted
to the right (Fig. 283). Fruit a capsule with loculicidal dehiscence.
The embryo is an extremely small, ellipsoidal, cellular mass, without
differentiation into the external organs.
Fig. 283.—Flower of Luzula.
Juncus (Rush) has glabrous foliage-leaves, generally cylindrical,
rarely flat; the edges of the leaf-sheath are free (“open” leaf-sheaths)
and cover one another. The capsule, 1- or 3-locular, with many
seeds—Luzula (Wood-Rush) has flat, grass-like leaves with ciliated
edges; the edges of the leaf-sheath are united (“closed” leaf-sheath).
The capsule unilocular and 3-seeded.—Prionium: S. Africa;
resembling a Tacona.
The interior whorl of stamens, in some species, disappears partially or entirely
(J. supinus, capitatus, conglomerates, etc.)
Some of the numerous Juncus-species (e.g. J. effusus, glaucus,
conglomeratus, etc.), have false, lateral inflorescences, the axis of the
inflorescence being pushed to one side by its subtending leaf, which apparently
forms a direct continuation of the stem, and resembles it both in external and
internal structure. The foliage-leaves of this genus were formerly described as
“unfertile stems,” because they are cylindrical, erect, and resemble stems, and
consequently the stem was said to be “leafless”: J. effusus, glaucus,
conglomeratus. Stellate parenchynatous cells are found in the pith of these stems
and in the leaves. Other species have distinct terminal inflorescences and grooved
leaves; J. bufonius (Toad-rush), compressus, and others. The inflorescences most
often present the peculiarity of having the lateral axes protruding above the main
axis. Their composition is as follows:—The flowers have either no bracteoles, and
the inflorescences are then capitulate; or they have 1–several bracteoles. Each
branch has then, first, a 2-keeled fore-leaf placed posteriorly (“basal-leaf”), and
succeeding this are generally several leaves borne alternately and in the same
plane as the basal-leaf, the two uppermost (the “spathe-leaves”) being always
barren; those which lie between the basal-leaves and the spathe-leaves are
termed “intermediate-leaves.” If only branches occur in the axils of the basal-
leaves, then the succeeding branches are always borne on the posterior side of
the axis, and form a fan[27]; if the basal-leaf is barren, and if there is only one
fertile intermediate-leaf, then the lateral axes are always on the upper side, and a
sickle[27]-like inflorescence occurs; if there are 2 fertile intermediate-leaves, then a
dichasium is formed, and in the case of there being several, then a raceme, or
spike.
Juncaceæ are, by several authors, classed among the Liliifloræ, but there are
so many morphological and partly anatomical features agreeing with the two
following orders, that they may, no doubt, most properly be regarded as the
starting point of these, especially of the Cyperaceæ, which they resemble in the
type of flowers, the inflorescence, the type of mechanical system, and the stomata.
Pollination by means of the wind. Cross-pollination is often established by
protogyny. J. bufonius has partly triandrous and cleistogamic, partly hexandrous,
open flowers.—Distribution. The 200 species are spread over the entire globe,
but especially in cold and temperate countries; they are seldom found in the
Tropics.—Uses. Very slight; plaiting, for instance.
Order 2. Cyperaceæ. The majority are perennial (seldom annual)
herbs living in damp situations, with a sympodial rhizome and grass-
like appearance. The stems are seldom hollow, or have swollen
nodes, but generally triangular, with the upper internode just below
the inflorescence generally very long. The leaves are often arranged
in 3 rows, the leaf-sheath is closed (very seldom split), and the ligule
is absent or insignificant. The flowers are arranged in spikes
(spikelets) which may be united into other forms of inflorescences
(chiefly spikes or racemes). The flowers are supported by a bract,
but have no bracteoles. In some genera the perianth is distinctly
represented by six bristles corresponding to six leaves (Figs. 284 A,
286 A); in others it is represented by an indefinite number of hairs
(Fig. 284 B), and very frequently it is altogether wanting. The inner
whorl of stamens is absent, and the flower has therefore 3 stamens
(rarely more or less than 3), the anthers are attached by their bases
to the filament (innate) and are not bifid (Figs. 286). Gynœceum
simple, formed of 3 or 2 carpels; 1 style, which is divided at the
extremity, as in the Juncaceæ, into 3 or 2 arms; the single loculus of
the ovary contains one basal, erect, anatropous ovule; the stigmas
are not feather-like. Fruit a nut, whose seed is generally not united
with the pericarp. The embryo is small, and lies at the base of the
seed in the central line, surrounded on the inner side by the
endosperm (Fig. 286 B). On germination the cotyledon does not
remain in the seed.
Fig. 284.—Diagram of structure of: A Scirpus silvaticus; B Eriophorum

angustifolium.
A regular perianth, with 6 scale-like perianth-leaves in 2 whorls, is found in
Oreobolus. In Scirpus littoralis the perianth-leaves are spreading at the apex, and
divided pinnately.
The branching of the inflorescence is often the same as in the Juncaceæ, and
supports the theory that these two orders are related. In Rhynchospora and others,
the “spikelets” are really only “spike-like” and to some extent compound.
A. Scirpeæ. Hermaphrodite Flowers.
1. Spikelets cylindrical, the bracts arranged spirally (in many
rows). The lower ones are often barren, each of the others supports
a flower.—Scirpus (Club-rush). The spikelets are many-flowered; the
perianth is bristle-like or absent, and does not continue to grow
during the ripening of the fruit (Fig. 286 A). Closely allied to this is
Heleocharis, with terminal spikes.—Eriophorum (Cotton-grass)
differs chiefly in having the perianth-hairs prolonged, and forming a
bunch of white, woolly hairs (Fig. 284 B).
Cladium and Rhynchospora (Beak-rush) differs especially in the few-flowered,
compound spikelets which are collected into small bunches; the latter has received
its name from the fact that the lowermost portion of the style remains attached to
the fruit as a beak.
2. Spikelets compressed, the bracts arranged only in two rows;
the other characters as in the first-mentioned. Cyperus (spikelets
many-flowered); Schœnus (Bog-rush); spikelets few-flowered; S.
nigricans has an open sheath.
Fig. 285.—Carex: A diagram of a male flower; B of a female flower with 3
stigmas; C of a female flower with 2 stigmas; D diagrammatic figure of a female
flower; E similar one of the androgynous (false) spikelet of Elyna. The ♂ is here
represented placed laterally; it is terminal, according to Pax.
Fig. 286.—A Flower of Scirpus lacustris. B Seed of
Carex in longitudinal section.
B. Cariceæ. Unisexual Flowers.
In the ♂-flowers there is no trace of a carpel, and in the ♀ no trace
of a stamen. Floral-leaves in many rows. In some (Scleria, certain
Carex-species), ♂-and ♀-flowers are borne in the same spikelet, the
latter at the base or the reverse; in the majority each spikelet is
unisexual.
Carex (Fig. 285) has naked, most frequently monœcious flowers.
The ♂-spikes, which are generally placed at the summit of the whole
compound inflorescence, are not compound; in the axil of each
floral-leaf (bract) a flower is borne, consisting only of a short axis
with three stamens (Fig. 285 A). The ♀-spikes are compound; in the
axil of each floral-leaf is borne a very small branch (Fig. 285 D, a)
which bears only one leaf, namely, a 2-keeled fore-leaf (utriculus, utr.
in the figures) which is turned posteriorly (as the fore-leaves of the
other Monocotyledons), and being obliquely sheath-like, envelopes
the branch (in the same manner as the sheath of the vegetative
leaves), and forms a pitcher-like body. In the axil of this leaf the ♀-
flower is situated as a branch of the 3rd order, bearing only the 2–3
carpels, which are united into one gynœceum. The style protrudes
through the mouth of the utriculus. The axis of the 2nd order (a in Fig. 285
D) may sometimes elongate as a bristle-like projection (normally in Uncinia, in
which it ends as a hook, hence the name); this projection is in most cases barren,
but it sometimes bears 1–several bracts which support male-flowers; this is normal
in Elyna (or Kobresia) and Schœnoxiphium; the axis (a in 285 E) bears at its base
a female-flower supported by the utriculus, and above it a male-flower supported
by its bract.
Pollination by means of the wind. Protogynous. Sometimes self-pollinated.
The order embraces nearly 3,000 species, found all over the world. Carex and
Scirpus are most numerous in cold and temperate climates, and become less
numerous towards the equator. The reverse is the case with Cyperus and other
tropical genera. They generally confine themselves to sour, swampy districts;
some, on the other hand, are characteristic of sand-dunes, such as Sand-star
(Carex arenaria). There are about 70 native species of Carex.
Uses. In spite of their large number, the Cyperaceæ are of no importance as
fodder-grasses, as they are dry and contain a large amount of silica; hence the
edges of many of the triangular stems or leaves are exceedingly sharp and cutting.
Cyperus esculentus has tuberous rhizomes, which contain a large amount of fatty
oil and are edible (earth-almonds); it has its home in the countries of the
Mediterranean, where it is cultivated.
Cyperus papyrus (W. Asia, Egypt, Sicily) attains a height of several metres, and
has stems of the thickness of an arm which were used by the ancient Egyptians for
making paper (papyrus). Some serve for plaiting, mats, etc. (Scirpus lacustris,
etc.). Isolepis is an ornamental plant.
Fig. 287.—Triticum: A axis (rachis) of ear showing the notches where the
spikelets were inserted; B an entire spikelet; C a flower with the pales; D a flower
without the pales, showing the lodicules at the base; E glume; F outer pale; G
inner pale; H fruit; I longitudinal section of fruit.
Order 3. Gramineæ (Grasses). The stems are cylindrical,

generally hollow with swollen nodes, that is, a swelling is found at
the base of each leaf which apparently belongs to the stem, but in
reality it is the swollen base of the leaf. The leaves are exactly
alternate; the sheath is split (excep. Bromus-species, Poa pratensis,
P. trivialis, Melica, Dactylis, etc., in which the sheath is not split), and
the edges overlap alternately, the right over the left, and vice versâ;
the ligule is nearly always well developed. In general, the flowers are
hermaphrodite; they are borne in spikelets with alternate floral-

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9. “BAC” stands for food bacteria, an invisible threat to your health.

15. Which foods are good examples of complementary proteins?

KEYWORDS: Bloom's: Remember

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27. Which characteristic applies to vitamins A, D, E, and K?

28. Which characteristic applies to vitamins B and vitamin C?

KEYWORDS: Bloom's: Remember

31. Which inorganic substances help build bones and teeth?

34. Worldwide, what is a component of healthy eating?

35. According to the USDA, half of your MyPlate should be ____.

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KEYWORDS: Bloom's: Remember

37. Research indicates that a DASH eating plan ____.

41. Which essential nutrient may be lacking in a vegetarian diet?

43. What do medical experts recommend as their beverage of choice?

45. Which characteristic applies to organic foods?

REFERENCES: Food Safety

56. ____________________ carbohydrates are starches—including cereals, fruits, and vegetables.

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Match the items with the appropriate description.

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66. in everyday usage, the equivalent of a thousand calories, or a kilocalorie

67. low in one or more of the essential amino acids

68. starches, sugars, and glycogen

69. animal fats

70. relationship between calories consumed and calories expended

71. cereals, fruits, and vegetables

72. helps maintain proper fluid balance

73. prevents damaging effects of oxidation in cells

74. building blocks of protein

75. indoles, coumarins, and capsaicin

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REFERENCES: The Way We Eat

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Fig. 278.—Diagram of the

Order 1. Juncaginaceæ. The ☿, regular, hypogynous flowers

Fig. 284.—Diagram of structure of: A Scirpus silvaticus; B Eriophorum

Order 3. Gramineæ (Grasses). The stems are cylindrical,

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