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INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
TRANSPORTATION
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INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
TRANSPORTATION
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Roger Vickerman
School of Economics, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom
and
Transport Strategy Centre, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
VOLUME 1
Transport Economics
SECTION EDITORS
Maria Börjesson
Professor of Economics
VTI Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute
Affiliated Professor at Linköping University, Sweden
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how
to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the
Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted
herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in
research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers may always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods,
compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the
safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or
damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-0-08-102671-7
For information on all publications visit our

website at http://store.elsevier.com
Publisher: Oliver Walter

Acquisitions Editor: Oliver Walter
Content Project Manager: Natalie Lovell
Associate Content Project Manager: Manisha K and Ramalakshmi Boobalan
Designer: Matthew Limbert
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor in Chief
Roger Vickerman
School of Economics, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom; Transport Strategy Centre, Imperial College,
London, United Kingdom
Section Editors
Maria Börjesson
Professor of Economics, VTI Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute; Affiliated Professor at Linköping
University, Sweden
Per Gårder
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, ME, United States
Prof. Kevin P.B. Cullinane
School of Business, Economics and Law, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Prof. Edward C.S. Chung
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR
Chandra R. Bhat
Center for Transportation Research (CTR), The University of Texas at Austin, TX, United States
Edoardo Marcucci
Department of Political Sciences, University of Roma Tre, Rome, Italy; Department of Logistics, Molde University College,
Molde, Norway
Prof. Maria Attard
Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
Prof. Carlo G. Prato
School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Roger Vickerman
School of Economics, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom; Transport Strategy Centre, Imperial College,
London, United Kingdom
v
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INTRODUCTION
Roger Vickerman
In an increasingly globalized world, despite reductions in costs and time, trans-
portation has become even more important as a facilitator of economic and
human interaction; this is reflected in technical advances in transportation sys-
tems, increasing interest in how transportation interacts with society and the need
to provide novel approaches to understand its impacts. This has become particu-
larly acute with the impact that Covid-19 has had on transportation across the
world, at local, national, and international levels. This Encyclopedia brings a cross-
cutting and integrated approach to all aspects of transportation from work in
many disciplinary fields, engineering, operations research, economics, geography,
and sociology to understand the changes taking place.
Transportation is both influenced by, and an influencer of, changes in the
economy and society. Increasing speeds have reduced journey times and made
the world a smaller place as globalization has affected both where people live and
work and from where they source their goods and materials. Increasing volumes of traffic, often on old and life-
expired infrastructure, lead to congestion and delays. Constraints on public budgets have led to increasing
pressure on the private sector to fund improvements requiring new and innovative financial solutions. While
there are clear differences in the nature of the pressures felt in the developed and less developed economies, there
is an increasing recognition that in all societies, there is an accessibility problem such that certain groups become
disadvantaged by the lack of access to reliable and cost-effective transport. While the problems are clearly
multidimensional, research on transportation is often constrained by single disciplinary approaches and this
carries over into the practice of transport planning and policy. The Encyclopedia cuts across these artificial
boundaries by taking an approach that emphasizes the interaction between the different aspects of research and
aims to offer new solutions to understand these problems. Each of the nine sections is based around a familiar
dimension of work on transportation, but brings together the views of experts from different disciplinary
perspectives. Each section is edited by an expert in the relevant field who has sought chapters from a range of
authors representing different disciplines, different parts of the world, and different social perspectives. In this
way, the work is not just a reflection of the state of the art that serves as a starting point for researchers and
practitioners, but also a pointer toward new approaches, new ways of thinking, and novel solutions to problems.
The nine sections are structured around the following themes: Transport Modes; Freight Transport and
Logistics; Transport Safety and Security; Transport Economics; Traffic Management; Transport Modeling and
Data Management; Transport Policy and Planning; Transport Psychology; Sustainability and Health Issues in
Transportation. Some of the chapters provide a technical introduction to a topic while others provide a bridge
between topics or a more future-oriented view of new research areas or challenges. While there is guidance to
cross-referencing between chapters, readers are encouraged to explore the tables of contents of all the sections to
get a full understanding of the issues. Much of the Encyclopedia was completed before the Covid-19 pandemic
and clearly this will have changed the situation in many areas covered by this work; the advantage of this type of
reference work is that relevant updates will be possible in future editions.
The Encyclopedia has only been possible because of the cooperation of a large number of people. Robert
Noland, Georgina Santos, Xiaowen Fu, and Dick Ettema served as an Editorial Advisory Board identifying
possible editors of sections and advising on the overall structure. The Section Editors, Edoardo Marcucci,
Kevin Cullinane, Per Garder, Maria Börjesson, Edward Chung, Chandra Bhat, Maria Attard, and Carlo Prato,
vii
viii Introduction
carried out the work of identifying potential authors of individual chapters, commissioning these, encouraging
authors and reviewing drafts. More than 600 authors and co-authors of chapters are, however, are ultimately
responsible for the success of this venture. Thanks are also due to the key people at Elsevier, particularly the
Publishers, Andre Wolff and Oliver Walter, and the Project Managers, Sophie Harrison and Natalie Bentahar;
they have shown exemplary patience over more than 3 years in bringing this work to fruition.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 1
Jose Holguı́n-Veras Darı́o Farren

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering; Department of Transport Engineering and Logistics,
Center for Infrastructure, Transportation, and the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago,
Environment; VREF Center of Excellence for Sustainable Chile
Urban Freight Systems, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
Sofia F. Franco
Troy, NY, United States
Department of Economics, University of California-Irvine,
Diana G. Ramı́rez-Rı́os Irvine, CA, United States
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
John J. Bates
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
Independent Consultant in Transport Economics,
Kathrin Goldmann Abingdon, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
University of Münster, Institute of Transport Economics,
Svante Mandell
Münster, Germany
Swedish National Institute of Economic Research,
Gernot Sieg Stockholm, Sweden
University of Münster, Institute of Transport Economics,
Katrine Hjorth
Münster, Germany
Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby,
Jose Manuel Vassallo Denmark
Transport Research Centre (TRANSyT), Universidad
Daniel Hörcher
Politecnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain;
Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
Centro de Investigación del Transporte (TRANSyT), ETSI de
Budapest University of Technology and Economics,
Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Madrid, Spain
Budapest, Hungary
Russell G. Thompson
Nathalie Picard
The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Universite de Strasbourg, Universite de Lorraine, CNRS,
Marco Batarce BETA, Strasbourg, France
Faculty of Economics and Business, Universidad San
Bruno De Borger
Sebasti
an, Santiago, Chile
University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
Andre de Palma
Stef Proost
CREST, ENS Paris-Saclay, University of Paris-Saclay,
KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Paris, France
Stefanie Peer
Julien Monardo
Vienna University of Economics & Business, Vienna,
CREST, ENS Paris-Saclay, University of Paris-Saclay,
Austria
Paris, France
Jon P. Nelson
Yulai Wan
Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA,
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
United States
Dong Yang
Henrik Andersson
Ricardo Giesen
Toulouse School of Economics, University of Toulouse
Department of Transport Engineering and Logistics,
Capitole, Toulouse, France
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
ix
x List of Contributors to Volume 1
Raquel Espino Ismir Mulalic

Department of Applied Economic Analysis, Instituto Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
Universitario de Desarrollo Económico Sostenible y
Jan Rouwendal
Turismo, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
Kraks Fond, Copenhagen, Denmark
(ULPGC), Las Palmas, Spain
VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Juan de Dios Ortúzar
Fay Dunkerley
Department of Transport Engineering and Logistics,
RAND Europe, Cambridge, United Kingdom
Instituto Sistemas Complejos de Ingenierıá (ISCI),
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile Charlene Rohr
Luis I. Rizzi
Department of Transport Engineering and Logistics, Mark Wardman
Instituto Sistemas Complejos de Ingenierıá (ISCI), Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds,
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, United Kingdom
Chile
Stephan Lehner
Kenneth A Small Vienna University of Economics & Business, Vienna,
1721 W. 104th Place, Chicago, IL, United States Austria
Robin Lindsey Harald Minken
Sauder School of Business, University of British Columbia, Institute of Transport Economics, Oslo, Norway
Vancouver, BC, United Kingdom
Lars Hultkrantz
Charles Raux School of Business, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
University of Lyon, CNRS, LAET, Lyon, France
Jeremy Toner
Jonas Eliasson University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
Department of Science and Technology, Division of
Moez Kilani
Communications and Transport Systems, Linköping
University of Littoral, Cote d’Opale, Dunkerque, UMR
University, Norrköping, Sweden
9221-LEM-Lille Économie Management, Lille, France
Gines de Rus
Jose M. Grisolia
University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de
Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas
Gran Canaria, Spain
de Gran Canaria, Spain
University Carlos III de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
FEDEA, Madrid, Spain Ken Willis
University of Nottingham Ningbo, Ningbo, China
Dereje Abegaz
University of Newcastle, Newcastle, United Kingdom
Department of Technology, Management and Economics,
Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark Ioannis Tikoudis
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Yili Tang
Development (OECD), Paris, France
California PATH, University of California, Berkeley,
California Kurt Van Dender
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Daniel Albalate
Development (OECD), Paris, France
University of Barcelona (GiM-IREA), Barcelona, Spain
Stephen Ison
Albert Gragera
Leicester Castle Business School, De Montfort University,
Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark
Leicester, United Kingdom
Andrew Daly
Lucy Budd
Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds,
Valeria Bernardo
United Kingdom
University of Barcelona, TechnoCampus, Barcelona,
James Fox Spain
Xavier Fageda
Bruno De Borger University of Barcelona, IESE, Barcelona,
University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium Spain
List of Contributors to Volume 1 xi
Ricardo Flores-Fillol Johan Nyström

Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Reus, Spain The Swedish National Road and Transport
Research Institute (VTI), Stockholm,
Mogens Fosgerau
Sweden
University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Zhi-Chun Li
Ninette Pilegaard
School of Management, Huazhong University of Science
Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
and Technology, Wuhan, China
Chau Man Fung
Ya-Juan Chen
CIB (Centre for Industrial Management/Traffic &
School of Management, Wuhan University of Technology,
Infrastructure), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Wuhan, China
Morten Welde
Gerard de Jong
NTNU-Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
The Netherlands Institute for Transport Studies,
University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
Trondheim, Norway
Edoardo Marcucci
James Odeck
Department of Political Science, University of Roma Tre,
Via Gabriello Chiabrera, Roma, Italy
Trondheim, Norway Valerio Gatta
Department of Political Science, University of Roma Tre,
James Laird
Via Gabriello Chiabrera, Roma, Italy
Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds,
England, United Kingdom Michela Le Pira
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Daniel Johnson
University of Catania, Via Santa Sofia, Catania,
Peak Economics, Inverness, Scotland
Italy
Hugo E. Silva
Andreas Vigren
Instituto de Economıá and Departamento de Ingenierıá de
Stockholm, Sweden
Transporte y Logı´stica, Pontificia Universidad Católica de
Chile, Santiago, Chile Alex Anas
Department of Economics, State University of New York at
Qianwen Guo
Buffalo, New York, NY, United States
Department of Finance and Investment, Business School,
Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou,China Patricia C. Melo
Department of Economics, ISEG-School of Economics and
Zhongfei Li
Management, Universidade de Lisboa & REM/UECE,
Department of Finance and Investment, Business School,
Lisbon, Portugal
Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou,China
Anthony J. Venables
Rafael H. M. Pereira
Department of Economics, University of Oxford, Oxford,
Institute for Applied Economic Research-Ipea, Brazil
United Kingdom
Alex Karner
Anna Matas
The University of Texas at Austin, United States
Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona and Barcelona
Niek Mouter Institute of Economics, Barcelona, Spain
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
Javier Asensio
Daniel J. Graham Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona and
Transport Strategy Centre, Imperial College London, Barcelona Institute of Economics, Barcelona,
London, United Kingdom Spain
Adelheid Holl Didier van de Velde
Institute of Public Goods and Policy (IPP), CSIC-Spanish Inno-V Consulting, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
National Research Council, Madrid, Spain
Fabio Hirschhorn
Jan Rouwendal Delft University of Technology, Delft,
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands The Netherlands
xii List of Contributors to Volume 1
Tiziana D’Alfonso Chris Nash

Department of Computer, Control, and Management Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds,
Engineering Antonio Ruberti, Sapienza University of Yorkshire, United Kingdom
Rome, Rome, Italy
Andrew Smith
Giuseppe Catalano Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds,
Department of Computer, Control, and Management Yorkshire, United Kingdom
Engineering Antonio Ruberti, Sapienza University of
Bert van Wee
Rome, Rome, Italy
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
John Armstrong
Kristofer Odolinski
University of Southampton, Southampton,
The Swedish National Road and Transport Research
United Kingdom
Institute, Department of Transport Economics, Stockholm,
John Preston Sweden
University of Southampton, Southampton,
Phill Wheat
United Kingdom
David Meunier United Kingdom
LVMT, UMR T9403, Ecole des Ponts ParisTech, France
Siri Pettersen Strandenes
Emile Quinet Norwegian School of Economics, Bergen, Norway
Paris School of Economics, Ecole des Ponts ParisTech, France
Kevin P.B. Cullinane
Anming Zhang University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Sauder School of Business, University of British Columbia,
Jasmine Siu Lee Lam
Vancouver, Canada
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang
Yahua Zhang Technological University, Singapore
School of Commerce, University of Southern Queensland,
Heike Link
Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
German Institute for Economic Research Berlin (DIW
Zhibin Huang Berlin), Department Energy, Transport, Environment,
School of Commerce, University of Southern Queensland, Berlin, Germany
Olga Ivanova
Achim I. Czerny PBL, The Hague, The Netherlands
Department of Logistics and Maritime Studies, Hong Kong
Marco Ponti
Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
Bridges Research Trust (Scientific Responsible), Milano,
Hao Lang Italy
Department of Logistics and Maritime Studies, Hong Kong
Tom Worsley
Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
Visiting Fellow, Institute for Transport Studies, University
Guoquan Zhang of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
Ian Savage
Department of Economics and the Transportation Center,
Colin C.H. Law Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
James Odeck
Toowoomba, QLD, Australia; Faculty of Business and
Technology, Stamford; International University, Bangkok,
Thailand
Trondheim, Norway
Yahua Zhang
Morten Welde
Hangjun Yang Trondheim, Norway
School of International Trade and Economics,
Joel P. Franklin
University of International Business and Economics,
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
Beijing, China
List of Contributors to Volume 1 xiii
Jake Whitehead Jing Lu

UQ Dow Centre for Sustainable Engineering Innovation Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
& School of Civil Engineering, The University of Nanjing, China
Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
Yucan Meng
Patrick Plötz Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research Nanjing, China
ISI, Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Changmin Jiang
Patrick Jochem University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
Institute for Industrial Production (IIP),
Cheng Lv
Chair of Energy Economics, Karlsruhe Institute of
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg,
Nanjing, China
Germany
Andrew Smith
Frances Sprei
Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Space,
United Kingdom
Earth and Environment, Göteborg, Sweden
Chris Nash
Elisabeth Dütschke
Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research
United Kingdom
ISI, Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Jeppe Rich
Pedro Cantos-Sanchez
Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
Department of Economic Analysis and ERI-CES,
University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain Patrick E.P. Jochem
Institute for Industrial Production (IIP), Chair of Energy
Patrick M. Bösch
Economics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT),
Verkehrsbetriebe Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
Karlsruhe, Germany
Felix Becker
Jake Whitehead
Institute for Transport Planning and Systems, Zürich,
School of Civil Engineering, The University of
Switzerland
Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
Henrik Becker
Elisabeth Dütschke
Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research
Switzerland
ISI, Karlsruhe, Germany
Kay W. Axhausen
Philippe Gagnepain
Paris School of Economics-Universite Paris 1, Paris, France
Switzerland
Marc Ivaldi
Johannes Bröcker
Toulouse School of Economics-EHESS, Toulouse,
Kiel University, Institute for Environmental, Resource and
France
Spatial Economics, Kiel, Germany
Stefan Gössling
Stefan Flügel
Department of Service Management and Service Studies,
Institute of Transport Economics, Oslo, Norway
Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Askill H. Halse
Susan Shaheen
Institute of Transport Economics, Oslo, Norway
University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
Griet De Ceuster
Adam Cohen
Transport & Mobility Leuven, KU Leuven,
University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
Diestsesteenweg, Leuven, Belgium
Georgina Santos
Inge Mayeres
School of Geography and Planning, Cardiff University,
Transport & Mobility Leuven, KU Leuven,
Cardiff, United Kingdom
Diestsesteenweg, Leuven, Belgium
Jani-Pekka Jokinen
Paolo Beria
Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-
Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
Organization, Göttingen, Germany
xiv List of Contributors to Volume 1
Leif Sörensen Alberto Iozzi

Department of Psychology, PFH Private “Tor Vergata” University of Rome, Department of
University of Applied Sciences Göttingen, Göttingen, Economics and Finance, Rome, Italy
Germany
Anna Nagurney
Jan Schlüter Department of Operations and Information
Department of Economics, Georg-August-University of Management, Isenberg School of Management,
Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, United States
Federico Boffa Ladimer S. Nagurney
Free University of Bozen, Faculty of Economics, Brunico, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Italy University of Hartford, West Hartford, CT, United States
CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES
Editorial Board v
Introduction vii
Contributors to Volume 1 ix
VOLUME 1
Introduction to Transportation Economics 1
Market Failures and Public Decision Making in the Transport Sector 2

Bruno De Borger and Stef Proost
Demand for Freight Transport 7
Jose Holguıń-Veras and Diana G. Ramı´rez-Rıós
Cost Functions for Road Transport 13
Jose Manuel Vassallo
Future of Urban Freight 20
Russell G. Thompson
Operation Costs for Public Transport 26
Marco Batarce
Natural Monopoly in Transport 30
Andre de Palma and Julien Monardo
Freight Costs: Air and Sea 36
Yulai Wan and Dong Yang
Transport Production and Cost Structure 46
Ricardo Giesen and Darıó Farren
The Concept of External Cost: Marginal versus Total Cost and Internalization 56
Sofia F. Franco
Value of Time 67
John J. Bates
Valuation of Carbon Emissions 72
Svante Mandell
Valuation of Travel Time Variability Using Scheduling Models 76
Katrine Hjorth
xv
xvi Contents of all Volumes
Value of Crowding 84
Daniel Hörcher
What Drives Transport and Mobility Trends? The Chicken-and-Egg Problem 89
Nathalie Picard
Pricing Principles in the Transport Sector 95
Bruno De Borger and Stef Proost
Long-Run Versus Short-Run Valuations 102
Stefanie Peer
Value of Noise 106
Jon P. Nelson
The Value of Life and Health 114
Henrik Andersson
The Value of Security, Access Time, Waiting Time, and Transfers in Public Transport 122
Raquel Espino, Juan de Dios Ortúzar, and Luis I. Rizzi
Demand for Passenger Transportation 127
Kenneth A Small and Robin Lindsey
Real-World Experiences of Congestion Pricing 134
Charles Raux
Distributional Effects of Congestion Charges and Fuel Taxes 139
Jonas Eliasson
The Bottleneck Model 146
Dereje Abegaz and Yili Tang
Dynamic Congestion Pricing and User Heterogeneity 150
Kathrin Goldmann and Gernot Sieg
Economics of Parking 159
Daniel Albalate and Albert Gragera
Loss Aversion and Size and Sign Effects in Value of Time Studies 165
Andrew Daly
Intertemporal Variation of Valuations 170
James Fox
The Rebound Effect for Car Transport 174
Bruno De Borger, Ismir Mulalic and Jan Rouwendal
Elasticities for Travel Demand: Recent Evidence 179
Fay Dunkerley, Charlene Rohr and Mark Wardman
Parking Price Elasticities 185
Stephan Lehner
The Pareto Criterion and the Kaldor Hicks Criterion 190
Harald Minken
Social Discount Rates 195
Lars Hultkrantz
Cross-Elasticities between Modes 201
Mark Wardman and Jeremy Toner
First-Best Congestion Pricing 209
Moez Kilani
Contents of all Volumes xvii
Ethical Aspects-Can We Value Life, Health, and Environment in Money Terms? 216
Jose M. Grisolia and Ken Willis
Car tolls, Transit Subsidies for Commuting, and Distortions on the Labor Market 221
Ioannis Tikoudis1 and Kurt Van Dender1
Demand Management and Capacity Planning of Airports 227
Stephen Ison and Lucy Budd
Dealing With Negative Externalities: Low Emission Zones Versus Congestion Tolls 231
Valeria Bernardo, Xavier Fageda, and Ricardo Flores-Fillol
The Rule-of-a-Half and Interpreting the Consumer Surplus as Accessibility 237
Mogens Fosgerau and Ninette Pilegaard
Producer Surplus 242
Chau Man Fung
The Robustness of Cost-Benefit Analyses 249
Morten Welde and James Odeck
The GDP Effects of Transport Investments: The Macroeconomic Approach 256
James Laird and Daniel Johnson
The Mohring Effect 263
Hugo E. Silva
Public Transport Fare and Subsidy Optimization 267
Qianwen Guo and Zhongfei Li
Transportation Equity 271
Rafael H. M. Pereira, and Alex Karner
Impact of Transport Cost-Benefit Analysis on Public Decision-Making 278
Niek Mouter
Causal Inference for Ex Post Evaluation of Transport Interventions 283
Daniel J. Graham
Transport Cost and Location of Firms 291
Adelheid Holl
Commuting, the Labor Market, and Wages 297
Jan Rouwendal, and Ismir Mulalic
How to Buy Transport Infrastructure 302
Johan Nyström
Procurement of Public Transport: Contractual Regimes 308
Andrew Smith, and Chris Nash
The Mono-Centric City Model and Commuting Cost 315
Zhi-Chun Li, and Ya-Juan Chen
Value of Time in Freight Transport 321
Gerard de Jong
The Economics and Planning of Urban Freight Transport 326
Edoardo Marcucci, Valerio Gatta, and Michela Le Pira
Incentives in Public Transport Contracts 332
Andreas Vigren
Transportation Improvements and Property Prices 337
Alex Anas
xviii Contents of all Volumes
Transport Infrastructure Effects on Economic Output: The Microeconomic Approach 347

Patricia C. Melo
Wider Economic Impacts of Transport Investments 355
Anthony J. Venables
Employment Effects of Transport Infrastructure 360
Anna Matas, and Javier Asensio
Regulatory Reforms and Competition in Public Transport 365
Didier van de Velde
How to Finance Transport Infrastructure? 371
Tiziana D’Alfonso, and Giuseppe Catalano
Congestion, Allocation and Competition on the Railway Tracks 378
John Armstrong, and John Preston
Public Private Partnership 385
David Meunier, and Emile Quinet
Airline Economics 392
Anming Zhang, Yahua Zhang, and Zhibin Huang
Privatization and Deregulation of the Airline Industry 397
Achim I. Czerny, and Hao Lang
Price Discrimination and Yield Management in the Airline Industry 404
Guoquan Zhang, Colin C.H. Lawâ¬, Yahua Zhang, and Hangjun Yangâ¬
Regulation and Competition in Railways 409
Chris Nash, and Andrew Smith
Cycling Economics 414
Bert van Wee
The Economic Rationale for High-Speed Rail 419
Gines de Rus
Rail Cost Functions 425
Kristofer Odolinski, and Phill Wheat
Transport and International Trade 431
Siri Pettersen Strandenes
Maritime Economics: Organizational Structures 436
Kevin P.B. Cullinane
Port Planning and Investment 443
Jasmine Siu Lee Lam
Estimating the Capital Stock of Transport Infrastructure 449
Heike Link
The Economics of Reducing Carbon Emissions From Air and Road Transport 457
Olga Ivanova
Regulation and Financing of Toll Roads 464
Marco Ponti
Are Megaprojects too Transformational for Cost-Benefit Analysis? 470
Tom Worsley
Economics of Transportation Safety 476
Ian Savage
Contents of all Volumes xix
Cost Overruns of Transportation Infrastructure Projects 483

James Odeck, and Morten Welde
The Downs-Thomson Paradox 490
Joel P. Franklin
Policy Instruments for Plug-In Electric Vehicles: An Overview and Discussion 496
Jake Whitehead, Patrick Plötz, Patrick Jochem, Frances Sprei, and Elisabeth Dütschke
Vertical and Horizontal Separation in the European Railway Sector and Its Effects 503
on Productivity
Pedro Cantos-S
anchez
How will Autonomous Vehicles Impact Car Ownership and Travel Behavior 508
Patrick M. Bösch, Felix Becker, Henrik Becker, and Kay W. Axhausen
Policy Instruments to Reduce Carbon Emissions from Road Transport
Computable General Equilibrium Analysis in Transportation Economics 520
Johannes Bröcker
Estimation of Value of Time 527
Stefan Flügel, and Askill H. Halse
The Taxation of Car Use in the Future 534
Griet De Ceuster, and Inge Mayeres
Cost-Benefit Analysis and Other Assessment Techniques: Contrasts and Synergies 540
Paolo Beria
Demand for Air Travel and Income Elasticity 547
Jing Lu, Yucan Meng, Changmin Jiang, and Cheng Lv
Generalized Cost for Transport 555
Jeppe Rich
The Impact of Electric Vehicles on Energy Systems 560
Patrick E.P. Jochem, Jake Whitehead, and Elisabeth Dütschke
Uber versus Taxis 566
Georgina Santos
Contract Efficiency in Public Transport Services 572
Philippe Gagnepain, and Marc Ivaldi
Company Cars 580
Stefan Gössling
Transportation Network Companies (TNCs) and the Future of Public Transportation 584
Susan Shaheen, and Adam Cohen
Public Transport in Low Density Areas 589
Jani-Pekka Jokinen, Leif Sörensen, and Jan Schlüter
Market Failures in Transport: Direct and Indirect Public Intervention 596
Federico Boffa, and Alberto Iozzi
The Braess Paradox 601
Anna Nagurney, and Ladimer S. Nagurney
VOLUME 2
Introduction to Transportation Safety and Security 1

Per Gårder
xx Contents of all Volumes
The Concept of “Acceptable Risk” Applied to Road Safety Risk Level 2

Claes Tingvall
Crash Not Accident 6
Robert A. Scopatz
Age and Gender as Factors in Road Safety 11
Marion Sinclair
Aggressive Driving and Road Rage 17
James E.W. Roseborough, Christine M. Wickens, and David L. Wiesenthal
Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection 25
Alan Hobbs
Airport Security 34
Richard W. Bloom
Transport Safety and Security: Alcohol 40
James C. Fell
Animal Crashes 53
Michal Bı´l
Attenuators 63
Simonetta Boria
ATV, Snowmobile, and Terrain Vehicle Safety 77
David P. Gilkey, and William Brazile
Automobile Safety Inspection 85
Subasish Das
Aviation Safety: Commercial Airlines 90
Clarence C. Rodrigues
Aviation Safety, Freight, and Dangerous Goods Transport by Air 98
Glenn S. Baxter and Graham Wild
Bicycle Collision Avoidance Systems: Can Cyclist Safety be Improved with Intelligent Transport Systems? 108
Lars Leden
Bicycle Infrastructure 115
Rock E. Miller
Bicycles, E-Bikes and Micromobility, A Traffic Safety Overview 125
Höskuldur Kröyer
Bicycles: The Safety of Shared Systems Versus Traditional Ownership 139
Mercedes Castro-Nuño and Jose I. Castillo-Manzano
Bridge Safety 144
Per Erik Garder
Carsharing Safety and Insurance 150
Elliot Martin and Susan Shaheen
Carjacking 157
Terance D. Miethe, Christopher Forepaugh, Tanya Dudinskaya
Collision Avoidance Systems, Airplanes 164
Ivan Ostroumov and Nataliia Kuzmenko
Collision Avoidance Systems, Automobiles 173
Erick J. Rodrı´guez-Seda
Contents of all Volumes xxi
Connected Automated Vehicles: Technologies, Developments, and Trends 180

Azra Habibovic and Lei Chen
Construction Zones 189
Jalil Kianfar
Costs of Accidents 196
Ulf Persson
Critical Issues for Large Truck Safety 200
Matthew C. Camden, Jeffrey S. Hickman, Richard J. Hanowski, and Martin Walker
Demerit Points and Similar Sanction Programs 210
Matúš šucha and Kristýna Josrov
a
Driver State and Mental Workload 216
Dick de Waard and Nicole van Nes
Drugs, Illicit, and Prescription 221
Rune Elvik
Education, Training, and Licensing 228
Matúš šucha and Kristýna Josrov
a
Elderly Driver Safety Issues 233
Mark J King
Emergency Response Systems 240
Frances L. Edwards
Emergency Vehicles and Traffic Safety 247
Shamsunnahar Yasmin, Sabreena Anowar, and Richard Tay
Encouragement: Awards and Incentives 255
Fred Wegman
Enforcement and Fines 263
Matúš šucha and Ralf Risser
Epidemiology of Road Traffic Crashes 269
Sherrie-Anne Kaye, Judy Fleiter, and Md Mazharul Haque
Evacuation Planning and Transportation Resilience 276
Karl Kim
Exposure: A Critical Factor in Risk Analysis 282
Frank Gross, PhD, PE
Passenger Ferry Vessels and Cruise Ships: Safety and Security 290
Wayne K. Talley
Fuel Economy Standards: Impacts on Safety 296
Kenneth T. Gillingham and Stephanie M. Weber
Hazardous Materials Transport 304
Dr. Arjan Vincent van der Vlies
Head-on Crashes 311
John N. Ivan
Helicopters in Emergency Medical Response 316
Stephen J.M. Sollid, M.D., PhD
Horizontal and Vertical Geometry 322
Victoria Gitelman
xxii Contents of all Volumes
Human Factors in Transportation 331

Alison Smiley, Christina (Missy) Rudin-Brown
In-Depth Crash Analysis and Accident Investigation 346
Yong Peng, Helai Huang, and Xinghua Wang
Incident Detection Systems, Airplanes 351
Ivan Ostroumov and Nataliia Kuzmenko
Inequality and Traffic Safety 358
Miles Tight
Lighting 361
John D. Bullough
Macroscopic Safety Analysis 367
Mohamed Abdel-Aty and Jaeyoung Lee
Motor Vehicle Crash Reportability 380
John J. McDonough
Nominal Safety 386
Per Erik Garder
Parking Lots 392
Maxim A. Dulebenets
Passenger Van Safety 401
Saksith Chalermpong and Apiwat Ratanawaraha
Passive Prevention Systems in Automobile Safety 406
B. Serpil Acar
Pedestrian Safety, Children 415
Mette MØller
Pedestrian Safety, General 420
Muhammad Z. Shah, Mehdi Moeinaddini, and Mahdi Aghaabbasi
Pedestrian Safety, Older People 429
Carlo Luiu
Visually Impaired Pedestrian Safety 435
Robert S. Wall Emerson
Photo/Video Traffic Enforcement 439
Charles M. Farmer
Powered Two- and Three-Wheeler Safety 443
Fangrong Chang, Helai Huang, and Md. Mazharul Haque
Railroad Safety 451
Xiang Liu and Zhipeng Zhang
Railroad Safety: Grade Crossings and Trespassing 466
Rahim F. Benekohal and Jacob Mathew
Recreational Boating Safety: Usage, Risk Factors, and the Prevention of Injury and Death 477
Amy E. Peden, Stacey Willcox-Pidgeon, and Kyra Hamilton
Refuge Islands 487
Christer Hyden
Risk Perception and Risk Behavior in the Context of Transportation 494
Martina Raue and Eva Lermer
Contents of all Volumes xxiii
Road Diets 500

Robert B. Noland
Road Safety Audits 508
Xiao Qin
Roadside Safety Barriers 513
Dean C. Alberson
Road Safety Management in Selected Countries 519
Paul Boase and Brian Jonah
Roadway Pavement Conditions and Various Summer and Winter Maintenance Strategies 529
Kamal Hossain, PhD P. Eng
Safety of Roundabouts 539
Khaled Shaaban
Rumble Strips, Continuous Shoulder, and Centerline 549
AnnaAnund and AnnaVadeby
Safety Culture 554
Tor-Olav Nvestad
Safety Data Quality Management 560
Robert A. Scopatz
School Bus Safety 564
Yousif A. Abulhassan
School Campus Traffic Circulation 568
Dimitrios Nalmpantis
Sexual Violence in Public Transportation 576
Vania Ceccato
Shared Space 584
Allison B. Duncan
Side Area Safety and Side Slopes 593
Jose Marıá Pardillo-Mayora
Simulators 602
Nichole L. Morris, Curtis M. Craig, Jacob D. Achtemeier, and Peter A. Easterlund
Sleep-Related Issues and Fatigue 611
Prof Marion Sinclair and Estelle Swart
Speed Governors and Limiters 617
Christer Hyden
Speed Limits on Rural Highways 622
Peter Tarmo Savolainen and Timothy Jordan Gates
Speed Limits on Urban Streets 632
Anna Bray Sharpin, Claudia Adriazola-Steil, Ben Welle, and Natalia Lleras
Speed-Reducing Measures 641
Vinod Vasudevan
Striping, Signs, and Other Forms of Information 648
Kasem Choocharukul and Kerkritt Sriroongvikrai
Suicides 656
Brendan Ryan
xxiv Contents of all Volumes
Surrogate Measures of Safety 662

Nicolas Saunier and Aliaksei Laureshyn
Targeting Transit: the Terrorist Threat and the Challenges to Security 668
Brian Michael Jenkins
The Swedish Vision Zero: A Policy Innovation 675
Matts-Åke Belin
Tire Safety 681
Saied Taheri
Town Gates: Section on Transport Safety and Security 685
Charles Tijus
Traffic Flow Volume and Safety 692
Athanasios Theofilatos and Apostolos Ziakopoulos
Traffic Safety and Security of Taxis and Ride-Hailing Vehicles 699
Zhe Wang, Helai Huang, and Ye Li
Traffic Signals and Safety 706
Andrew P. Tarko
Tunnels, Safety and Security Issues-Risk Assessment for Road Tunnels: State-of-the-Art Practices and 713
Challenges
Konstantinos Kirytopoulos, Panagiotis Ntzeremes, and Konstantinos Kazaras
Understanding, Managing, and Learning from Disruption 719
Karl Kim
Use/Analysis of Crash Data and Underreporting of Crashes 726
Mohammadali Shirazi and Dominique Lord
Utility Poles 731
Lai Zheng and Tarek Sayed
Value of Life and Injuries 737
David A. Hensher
Effects of Weather 742
Maria Pregnolato, Amirhassan Kermanshah, and Wisinee Wisetjindawat
Wrong-Way Driving on Motorways 751
Huaguo Zhou and Md Atiquzzaman
VOLUME 3
Freight Transport and Logistics 1

Sharon Cullinane and Kevin Cullinane
Expanding the Perspective of Logistics and Supply Chain Management 8
David J. Closs
Logistics and Supply Chain Management Performance Measures 16
David B. Grant and Sarah Shaw
Economic Regulation/Deregulation and Nationalization/Privatization in Freight 24
Transportation
Wayne K. Talley
Freight Transport Policy 29
Luca Zamparini and Aura Reggiani
Contents of all Volumes xxv
Planning and Financing Logistics Spaces 35

Nicolas Raimbault
Supply Chain Risk Management: Creating the Resilient Supply Chain 41
Richard Wilding
Transportation Safety and Security 47
Maria G. Burns
Resilience in Freight Transport Networks 53
Zhuohua Qu, Chengpeng Wan, and Zaili Yang
Environmental Sustainability in Freight Transportation 58
Lisa M. Ellram
Sustainable Logistics, CSR in Logistics, and Sustainable Supply Chain Management 64
Maria Björklund and Maja Piecyk-Ouellet
Information Sharing and Business Analytics in Global Supply Chains 71
Prof Usha Ramanathan and Prof Ramakrishnan Ramanathan
Logistics Information Systems 76
Petri Helo and Javad Rouzafzoon
Factors Affecting the Selection of Logistics Service Providers 85
Aicha AGUEZZOUL
Logistics Service Performance 89
Kee-hung Lai, Jinan Shao, and Yongyi Shou
The World Bank’s Logistics Performance Index 94
Christina K. Wiederer cwiederer, Jean-François Arvis, Lauri M. Ojala, and Tuomas M. M. Kiiski
Outsourcing Logistics Functions 102
Evi Hartmann, Hendrik Birkel, and Matthias Kopyto
Freight Transport and Logistics in JIT Systems 107
James H. Bookbinder and M. Ali Ãœlkü
Supply Chain Finance 113
Erik Hofmann
Packaging Logistics 119
Jesús Garcıá-Arca, Alicia Trinidad Gonz
alez-Portela Garrido, and J. Carlos Prado-Prado
The Bullwhip Effect 130
Jan C. Fransoo and Maximiliano Udenio
Blockchain Applications in Logistics 136
Yingli Wang
Logistics in Asia 143
Shong-Iee Ivan Su
Logistics in the Developing World 150
Charles Kunaka
Freight Network Modeling 157
Lór
ant Tavasszy and Yousef Maknoon
National Freight Transport Models 162
Gerard de Jong
Freight Flows in Cities 168
Genevieve Giuliano
xxvi Contents of all Volumes
Urban Logistics and Freight Transport 178

Michael Browne, Jose Holguin-Veras, and Julian Allen
Omni-Channel Logistics 184
Tom Van Woensel
Humanitarian Logistics 190
Gyöngyi Kov
acs and Diego Vega
Optimization of Humanitarian Logistics 195
M. Teresa Ortuño, Jose M. Ferrer, Inmaculada Flores, and Gregorio Tirado
Event Logistics 201
Rev. Ruth Dowson and Dan Lomax
Reverse Logistics 208
Dale S. Rogers and Ronald S. Lembke
E-Tailing and Reverse Logistics 219
Sharon Cullinane
Green Routing of Freight Vehicles 224
Tolga Bektaş
Freight Mode Choice 231
Hyun Chan Kim and Alan Nicholson
The Value of Time in Freight Transport 236
Marıá Feo-Valero, Amaya Vega, and B
arbara V
azquez-Paja
Behavioral Research in Freight Transport 242
Edoardo Marcucci, Valerio Gatta, and Michela Le Pira
Container (Liner) Shipping 247
Theo Notteboom
Bulk Shipping Markets: An Overview of Market Structure and Dynamics 257
Manolis G. Kavussanos and Stella A. Moysiadou
Ferries and Short Sea Shipping 280
Lourdes Trujillo and Alba Martıńez-López
Shipping and the Environment 286
Karin Andersson, Selma Brynolf, Lena Granhag, and J. Fredrik Lindgren
Energy Efficiency of Ships 294
Harilaos N. Psaraftis
Seaports 299
Mary R. Brooks and Geraldine Knatz
Port Hinterlands 305
Francesco Parola, Giovanni Satta, and Francesco Vitellaro
Seaports as Clusters of Economic Activities 310
Peter W. de Langen
Port Efficiency and Effectiveness 316
Lourdes Trujillo, Marıá Manuela Gonz
alez, Casiano Manrique-De-Lara-Peñate, and Ivone Perez
Container Port Automation 323
Michael G.H. Bell
Optimizing Crane Operations in Ports
Scheduling of Liner Container Shipping Services 335
Contents of all Volumes xxvii
Yuquan Du and Qiang Meng

Dry Ports 344
Gordon Wilmsmeier and Jason Monios
Arctic Shipping 349
Yufeng Lin, David G. Babb, and Adolf K.Y. Ng
Airfreight and Economic Development 355
Kenneth Button
Air Freight Logistics 361
Keith Debbage and Neil Debbage
Air Freight Marketing 369
Lucy Budd and Stephen Ison
Drones in Freight Transport 374
Oliver Kunze
Duty of Care in the Selection of Motor Carriers 382
Thomas M. Corsi
Carrier Selection for Less-Than-Truckload (LTL) Shipments 388
Dinçer Konur, Gonca Yildirim, and Bahriye Cesaret
Decarbonizing Road Freight Transport 395
Heikki Liimatainen
The Rebound Effect in Road Freight Transport 402
Tooraj Jamasb and Manuel Llorca
Autonomous Goods Transport 407
Heike Flømig
Rail Freight 413
Dr Allan Woodburn
Rail Freight Vehicles 423
Maksym Spiryagin, Qing Wu, Peter Wolfs, Colin Cole, Valentyn Spiryagin, and
Tim McSweeney
Eurasia Rail Freight: Enablers and Inhibitors of Future Growth 436
Hendrik Rodemann and Simon Templar
Intermodal and Synchromodal Freight Transport 456
Tomas Ambra, Koen Mommens, and Cathy Macharis
Pipelines 463
Matthew E. Oliver
3D Printers and Transport 471
Wouter P.C. Boon and Bert van Wee
The Physical Internet and Logistics 479
Eric Ballot and Shenle PAN
Bicycles for Urban Freight 488
Barbara Lenz and Johannes Gruber
China’s Belt and Road Initiative 495
Paul Tae-Woo Lee
xxviii Contents of all Volumes
VOLUME 4
Introduction to Traffic Management 1

Edward C.S. Chung
Urban Motorway Management 2
John Gaffney and Hendrik Zurlinden
Ramp Metering Application 10
City Wide Coordinated Ramp Meters 21
Variable Speed Limits for Traffic Efficiency Improvement 33
Jose Ramón D. Frejo and Bart De Schutter
Hard Shoulder Running 41
Justin Geistefeldt
High-Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) and High-Occupancy Toll (HOT) Lanes 45
Roxana J. Javid, Jiani Xie, Lijiao Wang, Wenruifan Yang, Ramina Jahanbakhsh Javid, and Mahmoud Salari
Reversible Lanes: Guidelines, Operation and Control, Research Directions 52
Gowri Asaithambi, Venkatesan Kanagaraj, and Madhuri Kashyap
Electronic Toll Collection 60
Azusa Toriumi
Road Pricing-Theory and Applications 68
Kian Keong Chin
Road Pricing 1: The Theory of Congestion Pricing 74
Timothy D. Hau
Road Pricing 2: Short- and Long-Run Equilibrium of Road Transportation 83
Timothy D. Hau
Road Pricing 3: The Implications for Pricing Public Transportation 90
Timothy D. Hau
Road Pricing 4: Case Study-The Implementation of Electronic Road Pricing in Hong Kong 103
Timothy D.
Advanced Travelers Information Systems (ATIS) 106
Chintan Advani and Ashish Bhaskar
Travel Time Reliability 109
Sharmili Banik, Anil Kumar, and Lelitha Vanajakshi
Traffic Incident Management 122
Ruimin Li
Traffic Incident Detection 128
Shuyan Chen and Yingjiu Pan
Bottleneck 134
Kentaro Wada, Toru Seo, and Yasuhiro Shiomi
Flow Breakdown 143
Kentaro Wada, Toru Seo, and Yasuhiro Shiomi
Recurrent Congestion 154
Takahiro Tsubota
Contents of all Volumes xxix
Nonrecurrent Congestion 158

Takahiro Tsubota
Freeway to Arterial Interfaces 162
Abolfazl Karimpour and Yao-Jan Wu
Arterial Road Management 169
Jiaqi Ma, Yi Guo and Adekunle Adebisi
Signalized Intersections 178
Chaitrali Shirke
Protected Phase 185
Jiarong Yao, Yumin Cao, and Keshuang Tang
Permitted Phase 196
Yumin Cao, Jiarong Yao, and Keshuang Tang
Hook Turns: Implementation, Benefits, and Limitations 203
Sara Moridpour and Amir Falamarzi
Traffic Signal Coordination 213
Rahim F. Benekohal
Emergency Vehicle Priority (Preemption): Concept and Advancements 221
Chaitrali Shirke
Signalized Roundabouts 227
Yetis Sazi Murat and Rui-jun Guo
Turbo Roundabouts: Design, Capacity and Comparison With Alternative Types of Roundabouts 238
Marco Guerrieri and Raffalele Mauro
Capacity of an Intersection 247
Ashish Verma and Milan Mathew Thomas
Delay 258
Shinji Tanaka
Queue Length 263
Shinji Tanaka
Local Area Traffic Management 268
Michael A.P. Taylor
On-Street Parking 278
Jun Chen and Guang Yang
Off-Street Parking 285
Jun Chen and Guang Yang
Parking Information Systems 289
Behrang Assemi and Douglas Baker
Performance-Based Parking Management 299
Douglas Baker and Behrang Assemi
Transit Priority 307
Wanjing Ma, Qiheng Lin, and Ling Wang
Adaptive Bus Control 315
Monica Menendez
Transit Fare Collection 325
Mahmoud Mesbah and Kamal Khanali
xxx Contents of all Volumes
Transit Information Systems 331

Ankit Kumar Yadav and Nagendra R Velaga
Tram Lane Configurations and Driving Rules 338
Farhana Naznin
Railway Crossing 341
Chunliang Wu and Inhi Kim
Pedestrian Crossing (Crosswalk) 346
Miho Iryo-Asano, Wael K.M. Alhajyaseen, and Koji Suzuki
Bike-Sharing System: Uncovering the “1Success Factors” 355
S.K. Jason Chang and Amanda Fernandes Ferreira
Airspace Systems Technologies-Overview and Opportunities 363
Banavar Sridhar and Gano B. Chatterji
Air Traffic Flow and Capacity Management 380
Li Weigang and Cristiano P Garcia
Port Management 390
Maria G. Burns
Port Performance Measurement from a Multistakeholder Perspective 396
Min-Ho Ha, Zaili Yang, and Young-Joon Seo
Transport Modeling and Data Management 407
Chandra Bhat
Computational Methods and Data Analytics 408
Bilal Farooq and David López
Activity-Based Models 414
Renato Guadamuz and Rajesh Paleti
Advanced Traveler Information Systems 418
Stephen D. Boyles
Demand-Responsive Transit, Evaluation Studies 423
Sebasti
an Raveau
Location Choice Models 428
Adam Wilkinson Davis
Full Feedback and Equilibrium Modeling in Urban Travel Forecasting 432
Yu (Marco) Nie, Jun Xie, and David Boyce
The Use and Value of Geographic Information Systems in Transportation 440
Modeling
Ming Zhang
Latent Demand and Induced Travel 448
Charisma F. Choudhury
ICT, Virtual and In-Person Activity Participation, and Travel Choice Analysis 452
Jacek Pawlak and Giovanni Circella
Public Transit Ridership Forecasting Models 459
Ipsita Banerjee, Deepa L, and Abdul Rawoof Pinjari
Spatial Mismatch, Job Access, and Reverse Commuting 468
Gian-Claudia Sciara
Contents of all Volumes xxxi
Microsimulation and Agent-Based Models in Transportation 473

Milos Balac
Choice Models in Transportation 477
Naveen Chandra Iraganaboina and Naveen Eluru
Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis 485
Zhanmin Zhang and Srijith Balakrishnan
The National Household Travel Survey Data Series (NPTS/NHTS) 493
Nancy McGuckin
Route Choice and Network Modeling 496
Emma Frejinger and Maëlle Zimmermann
Departure Time Choice Modeling 504
Khandker Nurul Habib
Traveler Responses to Congestion 509
David T. Ory and Gayathri Shivaraman
Origin-Destination Demand Estimation Models 515
William H.K. Lam, Hu Shao, Shuhan Cao, and Hai Yang
Parking Demand Models 519
S.C. Wong, Zhi-Chun Li, and William H.K. Lam
Pavement Management Systems 524
Senthilmurugan Thyagarajan
Residential Location Choice Models 531
Shlomo Bekhor and Sigal Kaplan
Transport Demand Management 537
Feiyang Zhang and Becky P.Y. Loo
Traffic Flow Analysis 544
H. Michael Zhang and Jia Li
Autonomous Vehicles and Transportation Modeling 557
Annesha Enam, Felipe de Souza, Omer Verbas, Monique Stinson, and Joshua Auld
Ride-Hailing and Travel Demand Implications 564
Felipe F. Dias
Transportation Modeling and Planning Software 569
Joel Freedman
Transportation Statistics and Databases 574
Taha Hossein Rashidi
Travel Surveys 587
Stacey G. Bricka
Travel Demand Forecasting: Where Are We and What Are the Emerging Issues 590
Thomas F. Rossi
Travel Model Calibration and Validation 596
Ram M. Pendyala
Trip Chaining Analysis 606
Cynthia Chen and Yusak Susilo
Vehicle Ownership Models 612
Dr. Sören Groth and Prof. Dr. Dirk Wittowsky
xxxii Contents of all Volumes
Bicycle Sharing/Bikesharing 617

Catherine Morency and Jean-Simon Bourdeau
Carsharing 623
Shiva Habibi and Frances Sprei
Urban Recreational Travel 629
Long Cheng and Frank Witlox
Place Perception and Travel Behavior 635
Kathleen Deutsch-Burgner and Konstadinos G. Goulias
VOLUME 5
Transport Modes 1
Edoardo Marcucci
Infrastructure Transport Investments, Economic Growth and Regional Convergence 2
Xavier Fageda and Cecilia Olivieri
Transport Modes and an Aging Society 6
Charles B.A. Musselwhite and Theresa Scott
Sustainable Mobility Paths 13
Erling Holden and Geoffrey Gilpin
Vehicles that Drive Themselves: What to Expect with Autonomous Vehicles 19
Michele D. Simoni and Kara M. Kockelman
Transport Modes and Tourism 26
Ila Maltese and Luca Zamparini
Transport Modes and Accessibility 32
Bert van Wee
Transport Modes and Globalization 38
Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Transport Modes and Cities 45
Erick Guerra and Gilles Duranton
Transport Modes and Remote Areas 51
Modeling Mode Choice in Freight Transport 57

Lór
ant Tavasszya and Gerard de Jongb
Travel Mode Choice as Reasoned Action 63
Sebastian Bamberg, Icek Ajzen, and Peter Schmidt
Energy Consumption of Transport Modes 71
Zissis Samaras and Ilias Vouitsis
Transport Modes and People With Limited Mobility 85
Roger L Mackett
Transport Modes and Commuters 92
Colin G. Pooley
Shopping and Transport Modes 98
Antonio Comi
Transport Modes and Health 106
Jennifer S. Mindell and Sandra Mandic
Contents of all Volumes xxxiii
Multimodality in Transportation 118

Sören Groth and Tobias Kuhnimhof
Transport Modes and Disasters 127
Brian Wolshon
Big Data for Public Transport Planning 134
Jan-Dirk Schmöcker
Active Transport: Heterogeneous Street Users Serving Movement and Place Functions 140
Regine Gerike, Stefan Hubrich, Caroline Koszowski, Bettina Schröter, and Rico Wittwer
Electric Vehicles 147
Christine Eisenmann, Daniel Görges, and Thomas Franke
Shared Mobility: An Overview of Definitions, Current Practices, and Its Relationship to Mobility on 155
Demand and Mobility as a Service
Susan Shaheen, PhD and Adam Cohen
Adoption of new travel information platforms 160
Sigal Kaplan
ICT and Transport Modes 165
Galit Cohen-Blankshtain
Mode Choice and Life Events 171
Joachim Scheiner
Introduction to Air Transport 178
Milan Janic ́
The History of Air Transportation 192
Richard P. Hallion
The Geography of Air Transport 198
The Future of Air Transport 203
Rico Merkert and James Bushell
Air Transport and Its Territorial Implications 208
Lanfranco Senn
Next Generation Travel: Young Adults’ Travel Patterns 215
Tobias Kuhnimhof and Scott Le Vine
Airport Network Planning and Its Integration with the HSR System 222
Francesca Pagliara, Juan Carlos Martıń, and Concepción Rom
an
Airport Management 229
Peter Forsyth and Hans-Martin Niemeier
Airport Regulation 234
Achim I. Czerny
Air Route Planning and Development 241
Renan Peres de Oliveira and Gui Lohmann
Airline Management 249
Sveinn Vidar Gudmundsson
Air Cargo 258
Volodymyr Bilotkach
xxxiv Contents of all Volumes
Airline Regulation 263

Andrew R. Goetz
Air Vehicles Classification 269
Vincenzo Torre
Aircraft Manufacturing 290
Antonio Sollo
A Geography of Road Transport in Cities 300
Cristian Domarchi and Juan de Dios Ortúzar
The Future of Road Transport 306
Preston L. Schiller
Road Transportation and Territorial Scale 315
Ana M. Condeço-Melhorado
Road Modes: Walking 320
Kevin Manaugh, PhD Associate Professor
Bus Public Transport Planning and Operations 326
Ehab Diab and Ahmed El-Geneidy
Street Design for Active Travel 333
Bruce Appleyard
Transit Planning and Management 349
Zakhary Mallett and Marlon G Boarnet
Road Infrastructure: Planning, Impact and Management 360
Jos Arts, Wim Leendertse, and Taede Tillema
Road Transport Planning at the Urban Scale 373
David A. King and Kevin J. Krizek
Road Traffic Regulation: Road Pricing and Environmental Quality 378
Marco Percoco
Car Ownership and Car Use: A Psychological Perspective 384
J.L. Veldstra, A.B. Ünal, E.M. Steg
Road Transport: E-Scooters 391
Gysele Lima Ricci and Klaus Bogenberger
Railway Station and Network Planning 399
Ingo Arne Hansen
Introduction to Rail Transport 406
Chris Nash and Tony Fowkes
The History of Rail Transport 413
Carlo Ciccarelli, Andrea Giuntini, and Peter Groote
The Geography of Rail Transport 427
Frederic Dobruszkes and Amparo Moyano
Rail Transport and Territorial Scale 437
Prof. Andres Monzón and Dr. Elena López
Railway Management 444
Vassilios A. Profillidis
Railway Terminal Regulation 454
Nacima Baron
Contents of all Volumes xxxv
Service Network Design for Freight Railroads 464

Teodor Gabriel Crainic
Subway Systems 471
Guillaume Monchambert, Daniel Hörcher, Alejandro Tirachini, and Nicolas Coulombel
Railway Company Management 479
Vilius Nikitinas, Skaistė Miliauskaitė
Regulation of Rail Infrastructure and Services 485
Javier Campos
Rail Vehicle Classification 490
Christos Pyrgidis and Alexandros Dolianitis
Introduction to Maritime Shipping 508
Christa Sys and Thierry Vanelslander
The Geography of Maritime Transport 517
Cesar Ducruet and Justin Berli
The Future of Maritime Transport 535
Harilaos N. Psaraftis
Maritime Transport and Territorial Scale 540
Brian Slack
Containerization and the Port Industry 545
Hercules Haralambides
Port Management 557
Lourdes Trujillo, Daniel Castillo Hidalgo, and Manuel Herrera
Economic and Environmental Regulation in the Port Sector 563
Beatriz Tovar and Alan Wall
Maritime Route Planning 570
Johan Woxenius
Inland Waterway Transport and Inland Ports: An Overview of Synchromodal Concepts, Drivers, and 577
Success Cases in the IWW Sector
Behzad Behdani, Bart Wiegmans, and Yun Fan
Maritime Company Passenger Management/Liner Industry 587
Claudio Ferrari and Alessio Tei
Cruise Industry 593
Athanasios A. Pallis and Aimilia A.Papachristou
International Maritime Regulation: Closing the Gaps Between Successful Achievements and Persistent 600
Insufficiencies
Laurent Fedi
Ship Classification 607
Gareth C. Burton and Mimosa T. Miller
The Shipbuilding Industry and its Interactions With Shipping 617
Paul William Stott
Methods for Designing Public Transport Networks 625
Zain Ul Abedin and Avishai (Avi) Ceder
Space Transportation 638
Mark Hempsell
xxxvi Contents of all Volumes
Pipelines 646
Franco Cotana and Mattia Manni
Women and Transport Modes 656
Priya Uteng, PhD and Yusak Susilo, PhD
Transport Modes and Big Data 665
Hannah D Budnitz, Emmanouil Tranos, and Lee Chapman
Transport Modes and Inequalities 671
Caroline Mullen
Railway Traffic Management 678
Francesco Corman
Indoor Transportation 684
Lutfi Al-Sharif
Bicycle as a Transportation Mode 697
Raktim Mitra and Paul M. Hess
Urban Air Mobility: Opportunities and Obstacles 702
AdamCohen and SusanShaheen, PhD
Transport Modes and Sustainability 710
Long Cheng, Jonas De Vos, and Frank Witlox
VOLUME 6
Introduction to Transport Policy and Planning 1

Maria Attard
Workplace Parking Levy 2
Air Transport 7
Mobility as a Service 12
MiloÅ N. Mladenovic ́
Bicycle Sharing 19
Cyrille Medard de Chardon
Light Rail 31
Fiona Ferbrache
Planning Tourism Travel 39
Luca Zamparini
Transport Planning and Management and its Implications in Chinese Cities 44
Mengqiu Cao
Road Safety 51
George Yannis and Eleonora Papadimitriou
Mobility Planning and Policies for Older People 59
Charles B A Musselwhite
Electric Mobility 64
Graham Parkhurst
Transport Policy and Governance 73
Lisa Hansson
Contents of all Volumes xxxvii
Transferability of Urban Policy Measures 77

Paul Martin Timms
Accessibility Tools for Transport Policy and Planning 83
Benjamin Büttner
Demand Responsive Transport 87
Marcus Enoch
Transport and Climate Change 94
Robin Hickman and Christine Hannigan
Taxicabs and Microtransit 101
David A. King
Land-Use and Transport Planning 107
Luis A. Guzman
Parking 113
Transport Planning in the Global South 118
Daniel Oviedo and Mariajose Nieto-Combariza
Planning for Children’s Independent Mobility 125
E. Owen D. Waygood and Raktim Mitra
The Politics of Mobility Policy 131
Geoff Vigar
Technology Enabled Data for Sustainable Transport Policy 135
Susan M. Grant-Muller, Mahmoud Abdelrazek, Hannah Budnitz, Caitlin D. Cottrill, Fiona Crawford, Charisma
F. Choudhury, Teddy Cunningham, Gillian Harrison, Frances C. Hodgson, Jinhyun Hong, Adam Martin, Oliver
O’Brien, Claire Papaix, and Panagiotis Tsoleridis
Car Sharing 142
Cyriac George and Tanu Priya Uteng
Toward a More Holistic Understanding of Mega Transport Project (MTP) Success 147
John Ward
Equity Considerations in Transport Planning 154
Karel Martens
Planning for Rail Transport 161
Simon P. Blainey
Connected and Autonomous Vehicles: Priorities for Policy and Planning 167
Dr.Alexandros Nikitas
Gendered Mobility 173
Sheila Mitra-Sarkar
Modeling and Simulation for Transport Planning 184
Michela Le Pira, Giuseppe Inturri, and Matteo Ignaccolo
Externalities and External Costs in Transport Planning 191
Silvio Nocera
Planning for Public Transport with Automated Vehicles 198
Gonçalo Homem de Almeida Rodriguez Correia
Urban Congestion Charging in Transport Planning Practice 206
Ida Kristoffersson and Maria Börjesson
xxxviii Contents of all Volumes
Energy and Transport Planning 214

Debbie Hopkins and Christian Brand
Customer Satisfaction as a Measure of Service Quality in Public Transport Planning 220
Laura Eboli and Gabriella Mazzulla
Car Sharing and the Impact on New Car Registration 225
Mario Intini and Marco Percoco
Evaluation Methods in Transport Policy and Planning 230
Niek Mouter
Transport and Air Quality Planning and Policy 236
Dr Fabio Galatioto
Cycling Policies 241
Esther Anaya-Boig
Community Severance 246
Paulo Anciaes and Jennifer S. Mindell
Planning for Bus Priority 254
Claus H. Sørensen, Fredrik Pettersson, and Joel Hansson
High-Speed Rail and the City 261
Marie Delaplace
Public Engagement in Transport Planning 266
Miriam Ricci
Long-Distance Travel 272
Giulio Mattioli and Muhammad Adeel
Urban Freight Policy 278
Laetitia Dablanc
Regional Transport Planning 286
Chia-Lin Chen
Transport Project Financing 292
Romeo Danielis and Lucia Rotaris
ITS for Transport Planning and Policies 298
Bruno Dalla Chiara
Transitions and Disruptive Technologies in Transport Planning 309
Kate Pangbourne and Maria Attard
Community Transport: Filling the Gaps for Those in Need of Mobility 314
Ian Shergold
Fundamental Emerging Concepts and Trends for Environmental Friendly Urban Goods Distribution 320
Systems
Sandra Melo
Plateau Car 324
David Metz
Emerging Trends in Transport Demand Modeling in the Transition Toward Shared Mobility and 331
Autonomy
Patrizia Franco
Policy and Planning for Walkability 340
Carlos Cañas Sanz and Maria Attard
Contents of all Volumes xxxix
Public Transport Subsidy and Regulation 349

Jonathan Cowie
Urban Regeneration and Transportation Planning 356
Thomas Vanoutrive
Social and Distributional Impact Assessment in Transport Policy 361
Laura Walker and Angela Curl
Mobility Planning for Healthy Cities 368
Ersilia Verlinghieri
Transport Demand Management 374
Begoña Guirao
Planning and the Global Movement of Goods and Commodities 380
Christopher Clott and Chris Petrocelli
Public Transport Network Planning 388
Corinne Mulley and John D. Nelson
A Timely Perspective on Planning for Ageing Infrastructure 395
Anthony Perl
The role of media in transport planning and the transport policy process 400
Özgül Ardiç and J.A. Annema
Travel Plans 408
Stephen Potter and Marcus Enoch
Home Deliveries and their Impact on Planning and Policy 413
Ros
ario Mac
ario
Planning for Safe and Secure Transport Infrastructure 418
Per Erik Gårder
Sensors and Data Driven Approaches in Transport 426
Mohammad Sadrani and Constantinos Antoniou
Planning Active Travel and School Transport 432
Fahimeh Khalaj, Dorina Pojani, and Sara Alidoust
VOLUME 7
Introduction to Transport Psychology 1

Carlo Prato
From Self-reports to Auto-Tech-Detect (ATD)-based Self-reports in Traffic Research 2
Türker Özkan and Timo Lajunen
Observational Field Studies in Traffic Psychology 8
Tova Rosenbloom and Hodaya Levy
Driving Simulators 14
Karel A. Brookhuis
Naturalistic Driving Studies: An Overview and International Perspective 20
Johnathon P. Ehsani, Joanne L. Harbluk, Jonas Bärgman, Ann Williamson, Jeffrey P. Michael, Raphael Grzebieta,
Jake Olivier, Jan Eusebio, Judith Charlton, Sjaanie Koppel, Kristie Young, Mike Lenne, Narelle Haworth, Andry
Rakotonirainy, Mohammed Elhenawy, Gregoire Larue, Teresa Senserrick, Jeremy Woolley, Mario Mongiardini,
Christopher Stokes, Paul Boase, John Pearson, and Feng Guo
xl Contents of all Volumes
A Detailed Approach to Qualitative Research Methods 39

Sonja Forward and Lena Levin
Behavioral Change 46
Sonja Haustein
Habitual Behavior 54
Carlo G. Prato
Driving Behavior and Skills 59
Timo Lajunen and Türker Özkan
The Multidimensional Driving Style Inventory 65
Orit Taubman - Ben-Ari
Risk Perception in Transport: A Review of the State of the Art 74
Trond Nordfjrn, An-Magritt Kummeneje, Mohsen F. Zavareh, Milad Mehdizadeh, and Torbjørn Rundmo
Social-Symbolic and Affective Aspects of Car Ownership and Use 81
Birgitta Gatersleben
Pitfalls of Statistical Methods in Traffic Psychology 87
J.C.F. de Winter and D. Dodou
Data Analysis: Structural Equation Models 96
Marco Diana
Data Analysis: Integrated Choice and Latent Variable Models 102
Carlo G Prato
Explaining Data Analysis Using Qualitative Methods 107
Lena Levin and Sonja Forward
ITS for Transport Planning and Policies 113
Bruno Dalla Chiara
Driver Aggression and Anger 121
Mark J.M. Sullman and Amanda N. Stephens
Speeding: A “Tragedy of the Commons” Behavior 130
Bryan E. Porter, Thomas D. Berry, and Kristie L. Johnson
Cycling as a Mode Choice: Motivational Psychology 136
Sigal Kaplan
Motorcyclists 144
Narelle Haworth
Drivers’ Hazard Perception Skill 151
Mark S. Horswill and Andrew Hill
Driver Education and Training for New Drivers: Moving beyond Current ’Wisdom’ to 158
New Directions
Teresa Senserrick, Oscar Oviedo-Trespalacios, David Rodwell, and Sherrie-Anne Kaye
Road Safety Advertising: What We Currently Know and Where to From Here 165
Ioni Lewis, Barry Watson, Katherine M. White, and Sonali Nandavar
Traffic Law Enforcement Theories and Models 171
Richard Tay
Satisfaction with Travel and the Relationship to Well-Being 177
Tommy Gørling and Filip Fors Connolly
182
Contents of all Volumes xli
Electromobility: History, Definitions and an Overview of Psychological Research on a Sustainable

Mobility System
Josef F. Krems and Isabel KreiÃŸig
Sharing: Attitudes and Perceptions 187
Yi Wen and Christopher R Cherry
Women’s Travel Patterns, Attitudes, and Constraints Around the World 193
Sandra Rosenbloom
Driver Stress and Driving Performance 203
Lisa Dorn
Introduction to Sustainability and Health in Transportation 225
Roger Vickerman
Sustainable Development Goals and Health 226
Rosa Surinach
Human Ecology 234
Roderick J. Lawrence
Car- Free Cities 240
Haneen Khreis and Mark J. Nieuwenhuijsen
Superblocks Base of a New Model of Mobility and Public Space. Barcelona as an Example 249
Salvador Rueda Palenzuela
Resilience of Transport Systems 258
ErikJenelius and Lars-GöranMattsson
Impact of Shipping to Atmospheric Pollutants: State-of-the-Art and Perspectives 268
Daniele Contini and Eva Merico
Noise Pollution From Transport 277
Marianna Jacyna, Emilian Szczepański, Konrad Lewczuk, Mariusz Izdebski, Ilona Jacyna-Gołda, Michał‚
Kłodawski, Paweł‚ Goł‚da, Piotr Goł‚ and Ebiowski
Visual Impacts From Transport 285
Paulo Rui Anciaes
Light Pollution 292
John D. Bullough
Wildlife Crossings and Barriers 297
Scott D. Jackson
Environmental Justice, Transport Justice, and Mobility Justice 305
Devajyoti Deka
Transport Noise and Health 311
Elisabete F. Freitas, Emanuel A. Sousa, and Carlos C. Silva
Climate Change and Health, Related to Transport 320
Ersilia Verlinghieri
Urban Greenspace, Transportation, and Health 327
Payam Dadvand and Mark J. Nieuwenhuijsen
Transport Access and Health 335
Alireza Ermagun
Social Exclusion and Health, Related to Transport 341
Roger L. Mackett
xlii Contents of all Volumes
Burden of Disease Assessment 347

David Rojas-Rueda
Achieving a Near-Zero CO 353
Lewis M. Fulton
Disabled Travelers 359
Bryan Matthews
Health Impacts of Connected and Autonomous Vehicles 364
Soheil Sohrabi
Electric Vehicles and Health 372
Kanok Boriboonsomsin
Shared Mobility Opportunities and their Computational Challenges for Improving Health-Related 376
Quality of Life
Cristiano Martins Monteiro, Cl audia Aparecida Soares Machado, Adelaide Cassia Nardocci, Fernando Tobal
Berssaneti, Jose Alberto Quintanilha, and Clodoveu Augusto Davis
Bike Sharing and Health 384
David Rojas-Rueda and Mark J. Nieuwenhuijsen
E-Bikes and Health 393
Aslak Fyhri and Hanne Beate Sundfør
Index 399
Introduction to Transportation Economics
Maria Börjesson, VTI Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A well-functioning transportation system is decisive for the modern society. High accessibility to workers, suppliers, jobs, services,
and other activities is fundamental for all other sectors in the economy. It is also essential for the welfare of all citizens and their
everyday lives. But the transport sector also generates negative external effects such as emissions, accidents, and noise. Moreover,
huge public resources have for a long time been spent on infrastructure and transit provision. Still, the public resources allocated to
the transportation system is dwarfed by the enormous resources of time and money spent on transportation by citizens and firms.
Moreover, in all countries, public decisions have a vast influence on the transportation system. Transport investments, main-
tenance, operations, pricing, regulations, and various policy measures have huge consequences for the economy and the welfare.
Pricing instruments often under public control include vehicle and fuel taxes, transit fares, congestion charges, airport charges,
waterway and port charges and railway track access charges. Public regulations and administrative policies, such as emission
standards and safety regulations, also have a large impact on the transportation system.
The articles in this section span over a range of topics across the core of transportation economics: cost–benefit analysis methods;
pricing and financing; industrial organization, procurement and contract analysis, as well as the interaction between the transpor-
tation system and the housing and labor markets. Some articles deal with cost–benefit analysis and wider impact of transport
investments. Since transport investments and other public interventions in the sector generate both positive and negative effects,
appraisal methods are essential in project and policy evaluation. Moreover, proposed mega-projects such as high-speed rail and
metro extensions are often justified by their anticipated effects on regional economic growth, employment, land values, and
opportunities for housing construction. Other articles cover issues of pricing, governance, regulations and institutional organization
issues in the transportation sector. Such topics are receiving increasing attention, for several reasons. First, physical transport
infrastructure is already well developed in many countries. Second, the resources allocated to transport infrastructure is reducing
in many countries, and in other countries the prices of transportation infrastructure are increasing fast. At the same time crowding
and congestion are increasing, calling for greater efficiency. Third, most of the future possibilities are not directly related to physical
infrastructure: autonomous cars, a fossil-free transportation system, and real-time information to travelers. Electrification and
digitalization might substantially impact the benefits of infrastructure investments. So in spite of the diversity of topics covered
by the articles in this section, they are all interrelated in some way or another. Since economics is part of most domains of society, the
articles are crosscutting themes with articles in other sections.
International Encyclopedia of Transportation http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102671-7.10785-7 1

Transport Economics
Market Failures and Public Decision Making in the Transport Sector

Bruno De Borger*, Stef Proost†, *University of Antwerp, Belgium; †KULeuven, Belgium
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction 2
Market Failures 2
Public Decision Making 4
Choice of Policy Instruments by a Benevolent Planner 4
Choice of Policy Instruments by the Political Process 5
Conclusion 6
References 6
Further Reading 6
Introduction
In this chapter, we look into the motivation for public intervention in the transport sector. A market economy offers certain efficiency
properties, but these can only be attained when a number of strong and unrealistic conditions is satisfied. When these conditions are
not satisfied, markets may fail. These market failures are the main motivation for public intervention.
In Section 1, we describe the main market failures in the transport sector, and we explain why they are a problem for efficiency. In
Section 2, we look at public decision making. We first consider the ideal policy intervention to resolve market failures. Then we
introduce more realistic policy making institutions and discuss possible political failures.
Market Failures
To understand the concept of market failures it is instructive to start from a world without such failures, that is, an ideal world with
perfectly functioning markets. In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith already argued that perfectly competitive markets would lead
to highly desirable outcomes. They are nowadays typically summarized in the two theorems of welfare economics (Johansson, 1991;
Salanie, 2000).
The first theorem states that, when a set of basic assumptions are satisfied, a perfectly competitive equilibrium is Pareto-optimal.
A Pareto optimum generates maximum efficiency, in the sense that it is impossible to improve the utility of one individual without
decreasing the utility of other individuals. The second theorem shows that, assuming the government has perfect income redistri-
bution instruments, any Pareto-optimal allocation can be achieved as a perfect competition equilibrium. This means that one can
achieve an efficient equilibrium that is also equitable as a perfectly competitive equilibrium.
Although the world is far from this theoretical construct, a perfect equilibrium is a good benchmark: it allows to study the public
policy questions associated with the different technical conditions that have to be satisfied (these include, among others, the absence
of monopoly power, public goods and externalities, see below). When these conditions are not satisfied we say there are “market
failures”: the operation of perfectly competitive markets is either impossible, or it generates inefficiencies. Market failures are of
course not limited to the transport sector, they exist in many other sectors as well.
We focus on two assumptions that generate important market failures in the transport sector: increasing returns to scale (and,
hence, market power) and external effects. In our discussion, we initially take the location of economic activity as given. Transport
activities have also an important effect on the spatial distribution of economic activities, a topic we briefly discuss at the end of this
section.
Increasing returns to scale implies that the average cost of production declines as more units are produced. Under those circum-
stances, it is cheaper to concentrate production in one firm or facility; splitting demand over multiple firms would only lead to higher
average costs. In industries with increasing returns there will, therefore, be a limited number of producers. There, private firms no
longer take market prices as given, but they understand they can exploit their market power. They can increase profit by producing
less and selling at prices above the marginal production cost. This is inefficient: at the production level that is chosen, consumers’
International Encyclopedia of Transportation http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102671-7.10000-4 2

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CHAPTER IX
Journey into Shansi in 1893
I
NOW must go back to my first coming to Tientsin in 1893. From
Shanghai I came in a coasting steamer, and it was after starting
that I made the rather disconcerting discovery that I was the only
woman on board. Nevertheless it was the pleasantest voyage I ever
had, as my cabin had a proper bed in it and its own bathroom, and I
made the happy discovery that Chinese servants could be the best
in the world, while the officers all conspired to amuse me. The
voyage lasted a week, and the slow passage up the mouth of the
Peiho (ho means “river”) was quite a new experience. We ran into
the soft banks pretty frequently, and they crumbled like dust;
sometimes we were in imminent danger of carrying away a hut as
well, but happily that did not occur. One dreadful object kept
recurring again and again—a tall pole on the river-bank with a basket
on the top, containing a criminal’s head.
At Tientsin I was met by one of my sisters and her husband, who
had come to take me into Shansi. The European town was very dull
and prosaic, and the native city abjectly squalid, but now the former
is well laid out and there are plenty of large houses, shops, schools,
colleges, and tramways. I was not sorry to get away from it, however,
as I was anxious to see the real China, and we soon got our things
accommodated in a small house-boat to travel up the river to
Paoting-fu. Three little compartments were all we had, but we spent
a good part of each day walking on the banks and admiring the
lovely autumn colouring of the rushes. On my return a year later we
were not so fortunate, as the war with Japan was in full swing, so
that the country was too disturbed for us to walk about, and we had
to take whatever could be got in the way of a boat, namely, one
infested with cockroaches and other vermin. For three days and
nights we sat in misery, scarcely able to eat or sleep, and when we
opened our trunks at Tientsin we found them simply swarming with
cockroaches. They had eaten all the straw of a bonnet, leaving
nothing but lining and trimmings!
CAMEL INN
At Paoting-fu we left the river, and I had a mule litter while the
others rode. These litters are the most horrible invention, as the
mules perpetually tumble down, and even though you pad the sides
with your bedding you get much shaken. When we came to a river
we had to ford it or be ferried across, for there are no bridges in this
part, and often the rivers are very dangerous. On the roads we met
long strings of camels carrying packs, the tail of one animal being
attached to the nose of the one behind. They have inns of their own,
being cantankerous beasts, and are supposed to travel at nights,
because of being such an obstruction to traffic. Certainly if you lie
awake you can generally hear the tinkle of their bells. They are a
most attractive feature of the landscape in the north, whether seen in
the streets of Peking, or on the sandy plains of Chili. My sketch was
taken in the summer when the camels were changing their coats, so
that the one in the front has a grey, dishevelled look, corresponding
with Mark Twain’s description. He says that camels always look like
“second-hand” goods; but it is clear that he cannot know the fine
stately beast of North China.
The road leading to Taiyüanfu—our objective—was always
thronged with traffic, men on foot, on horseback, in chairs, or in
carts. The official messengers wore yellow, and dashed along faster
than any one else; but one day we met six mandarins in four-bearer
chairs, carrying an important document from the Emperor at Peking
into Szechwan, the western province. They were received
everywhere ceremoniously, and crackers sent off in their honour;
they were accompanied by a military escort and gorgeous banners.
At nights we often had to put up in wretched inns. The cold was
extreme at this time of year (November), and the brick bedsteads
were heated from underneath by a fire. This was all very well if it was
properly regulated, but sometimes it was allowed to get too hot, and
then you woke to find yourself baked like a biscuit. The nights were
short, for we often arrived after dark and had to get up at 4.30. Even
then it was difficult to get the men started at six, sometimes only at
seven o’clock. The clear cold moonlight mornings were very lovely,
and I was glad enough to walk to keep warm.
One day my brother-in-law made a détour to visit a village where
there is an interesting Christian community, whose history is a
remarkable one. It was the home of a thief, who in his wanderings
happened to go into a mission hall and heard the story of the life of
Christ. The next time he returned home, amongst other items of
news he retailed what he could remember of this strange story, and
so deeply interested the listeners that they found his knowledge far
too meagre to satisfy them; they decided to send two of their most
respected seniors to learn more about it. These men went to the
mission station, were carefully instructed and became Christians.
They returned to their village in course of time, taking a supply of
Christian literature, and thenceforward they have given themselves
entirely to the work of evangelisation at their own cost. Occasionally
a missionary goes round to see them—as in the present instance—
but otherwise they work steadily and successfully, without any
assistance from Europeans. This is an example of a fact which holds
good in China generally, namely, that the people do not leave
mission work to be done only by the missionaries, but become the
best workers themselves when they have accepted Christianity.
What Mr. James (of the Bombay Civil Service) says of the work of
the Presbyterians in Manchuria exemplifies this same fact: “Of 600
people who have been baptized since Mr. Ross came to Manchuria,
not more than a dozen owe their conversion primarily or chiefly to
the foreign missionaries; the others have become disciples of these
converts, and this spiritual seed has produced within a dozen years
the sixth or seventh generation.” This is the experience of workers
throughout the Empire, and was expressed by a Chinese lady
visiting England in a pathetic appeal for more missionaries: “If only
you will send us teachers now—for a few years—we will do the rest.”
To return to our narrative, my brother-in-law brought the two
Chinese elders with him when he rejoined us on the road, and they
greeted us like old friends, with radiant happiness. It was inspiring to
see their simple, heartfelt piety and their absolute realisation of
Christian brotherhood. We chanced to come across them again a
year later on my return journey to the coast, and again I saw their
simple, joyous faith, the sincerity of which could not be doubted by
the most cynical sceptic. It was the one bright spot in an otherwise
very trying and anxious journey, for the country was much disturbed,
owing to the war with Japan, and one of our party was ill with fever—
a boy of seven—and growing daily worse, so that when we at last
reached Tientsin he had a temperature of 107°.
When we approached the province of Shansi we got into a hilly
district, and crossed several ridges called “the Heavenly Gates.” In
some cases the ascent was pretty steep (2860 feet), and there were
temples at the bottom where the coolies prayed for a safe journey
up. When I stopped to sketch it aroused much interest, and
spectators always treated me with respect. It was explained to them
that I desired to show my mother the beauties of their country, so I
became the type of English “filial piety”!
The dangers of the road are numerous, and crossing the rivers is
often a very perilous proceeding: sometimes it is possible to ford
them, but the river-beds are so changeable that it was usually
necessary to have the guidance of experienced men. Sometimes we
had to be carried across on men’s backs, and it is not altogether a
pleasant experience to cling on to a bare, greasy back in a kneeling
position, with your arms round a most unwashed neck! Sometimes
we were ferried over, which was much the safest and pleasantest
way of crossing, and the charge is infinitesimally small.
Another danger of the road arises from the nature of the soil,
which is largely a loess formation. The road runs through deep
gulleys, often over 100 feet deep and quite narrow, but the loess
walls are apt to give way, especially after rain. One day we were
walking quietly along under a high cliff, when a deafening
thunderclap close behind us made us start and look back, to see a
dense cloud of dust where the cliff had fallen right across the path
we had just traversed. We had a very close shave that time. About a
year later my cousin was killed by the similar breaking down of a
road alongside a river; she was riding in a cart, and was buried
under it in the river. A friend who was with her had just got out to
walk a little, and consequently escaped.
During the rains travellers are often drowned by the sudden rush
of water down the gullies, and there are places of refuge in the high
banks—little caves or hollows. In some of the villages where we had
to stop the night the houses were dug in these cliffs, and were really
caves. The smells were atrocious, as there was but little ventilation.
The chimneys form danger traps to the unwary traveller walking
along the top of the cliffs; he may easily step into one, if he is not
looking carefully where he is going.
The day before we reached Tai Yuänfu, the capital of Shansi, we
stopped at a mission station in the charge of a delightful, courtly old
Chinese evangelist, whose hospitality I enjoyed several times. He
treated us royally, cooking dinner for us in European style, and would
have been sorely grieved had we offered him any remuneration.
When the troubles came later, not only he but every member of his
little flock—forty-one in all—were “faithful unto death,” refusing to
accept life at the price of recantation.
The journey from the coast took altogether a fortnight, and I was
glad when at last we reached the wide plain in which Tai Yuänfu is
situated. In May it is a vision of loveliness with its crops of millet,
sorghum, and poppy—white and puce colour—but now it was one
monotonous expanse of dust. The dust storms which blow across
the plain are terribly trying; they are as bewildering and as blinding
as a fog, and they sometimes go on daily for weeks during the early
part of the year.
Shansi is one of the worst provinces of all as regards opium-
smoking, and the poppy is largely cultivated. In the accompanying
sketch a group of patients is seen, who have come to a mission
refuge to try and break off the habit. They are allowed to smoke
tobacco, but are mostly resting or sleeping on the khang; the brick
bed seen in every inn and in most private houses. On the floor in
front of it is seen a small round aperture, where the fire is fed, which
heats the whole khang. The present Governor of Shansi is taking
active steps to put down opium cultivation, and the prospect seems
hopeful. Revenons à nos moutons. When we reached the city gate
there was a slight delay, as carts are apt to get jammed in it. Though
the gateway is large it is considerably blocked by stones, set up by a
former governor to prevent carts of above a certain gauge from
entering the city: this was to encourage the trade of the
wheelwrights. Now there is a railway right up to the walls of the city,
but from what I have already said it will be easily understood how
difficult a task it has been to construct a safe line. The railway joins
the Péhan line at Cheng Ting.
OPIUM REFUGE
CHAPTER X
Taiyüanfu
T
AIYÜAN is surrounded by a lofty wall, with a gateway at each
of the four points of the compass. The Chinese always use
these terms when we should use “right” and “left”: they speak
of the position of furniture in a room, for instance, as being north,
south, east, or west, and can always tell you the relative positions of
places and things in that way. It is the seat of the Government of the
province, and was the first place in the Empire to have a Western
university after the 1900 troubles.
The finest of all its temples—whether Confucian, Buddhist,
Mohammedan, or Taoist—is the temple of Heaven and Hell. The
entrance is magnificent in colouring, with roof and walls covered with
turquoise-coloured tiles peculiar to this province, which make its
temples so much more beautiful than those in the west. There are
interesting but repulsive statues within, mostly depicting the torments
of hell. In one temple, however, there is a deity to which childless
women especially come to pray. She is a hideous figure about life
size, with a gaping mouth, into which they stuff raw eggs by way of
offering. On the adjoining wall is a fresco representing people
receiving babies out of a cash-bag full of them, which a man carries
over his shoulder.
I visited the temple at the time of a large fair, which was held in
its courtyards (a common custom in China), and had one of the
teachers in attendance, to his great disgust, as it is not the correct
thing for Chinese ladies to go to fairs, and European manners had
not yet penetrated to this part of the Empire. It was a very fine sight,
notwithstanding the absence of the élite, for the women and children
were most gaily attired—and then the setting! They were all perfectly
civil to us and ready to talk. A woman was feeding her five-year-old
baby, not yet weaned. Family parties kept arriving on donkeys, and
women had their feet tied up in bags to protect their dainty shoes
from the dust of the road. At one side theatricals were going on, to a
loud and ceaseless accompaniment of drums. The theatres are all
connected with the temples, a visible sign of their origin in the East
as well as in the West; and the theatre and temple dues are
collected together. Actors are looked down on, and none is allowed
to compete in the literary examinations; they are in the lowest grade
of society. The accompanying sketch gives some idea of the
beautiful colour scheme of temple and theatre eaves. It is the open-
air stage of a theatre at Showyang, about sixty miles from Taiyüan.
The little figures of beasts on the roof are a characteristic feature.
THEATRE STAGE
The stalls were full of interesting objects from all parts of the
province, and we went round buying various things that took our
fancy. There were handsome embroideries and lovely silks, and I
was surprised to find that we could take whatever we liked without
paying for it; it was sufficient to say, “Come to the mission hospital to-
morrow and the doctor will pay.” No Chinaman could have had better
credit, and few, I think, as good, in this city.
From the temple of Heaven and Hell we returned past the
barracks, and saw the men practising walking on stilts; apparently
that was part of their drill, as finally they all filed off into the yard on
them. The soldiers are quite a decent set of men, and one of the
officers frequently sent them to the hospital to be broken of the
opium habit. It is terribly common here. In a neighbouring town it is
estimated that 90 per cent. of the population (men, women, and
children) are smokers.
From Taiyüanfu we made an interesting little excursion to a place
to the south-west called Tsinssu, where there is a magnificent old
temple on the rocky hillside dominating the village. The temple is
overshadowed by hoary trees, and has remarkable golden dragons
twisted round the pillars of the façade. In the grounds are hot
springs, and the water flows under an ornamental bridge leading to
the terrace on which the temple stands. Had it not been for the hot
water it would have been impossible to sketch, as the water froze on
the surface of the paper, and every few minutes I had to put my
paint-box in the stream to thaw the coating of ice formed on the
colours. The subject, however, was so charming that I could not
waste the one chance I had of sketching, and in the afternoon I
made a rapid drawing of a pagoda, with the little bells hung on each
story tinkling in the breeze; an adjacent tower looked precisely like
an English church, but its real use was as a granary. The hot springs
are valuable in enabling the people to grow rice, which is not grown
elsewhere so far north, and it is the motive-power of many paper-
mills in the district. In a recent expedition roe-deer, leopards, boars,
and David squirrels have been found in this neighbourhood, but we
saw nothing more interesting than a beautiful pastoral scene—a
shepherd lad piping a melancholy ditty to his sheep under the clear
blue sky. I should like to have sketched him, but the shadows were
already lengthening, and we had to hasten our return before the city
gates were closed.
PAGODA
We attended a review one day, and saw the old régime in its full
glory, now already a thing of the past. We started at 7 a.m. in the
cart, and although the parade-ground was only a quarter of a mile
away we were none too early. The soldiers were already mustered,
and two gorgeously arrayed officials were seated in state under a
canopy waiting for the Governor, with a fine sort of helmet on a stand
behind them. He arrived shortly after we did, and although there was
a drizzling rain the numberless banners looked lovely, bowing down
while the Governor passed, and then floating proudly up again. Many
of them were pale-blue silk and carried on long bamboo rods. There
were a good many soldiers mounted on smart ponies that
scampered along bravely; but the black turbans surmounting the
blue or red uniforms made them look rather like women. Some of
them were armed with bows and arrows, slung on their backs; others
had prehistoric guns which required two men to work them, one to
hold and the other to fire off by means of a lighted stick of incense,
which at other times was thrust (lighted) into the soldier’s chest,
where also he carried his powder!
One regiment was a great contrast to the others—the celebrated
tiger braves. They were clad cap-à-pie in yellow cloth striped with
black, even the boots and cap being of the same material. The latter
was most cunningly made, with little pink-lined ears which stood
erect, and ferocious black eyes, and white fangs, and a red tongue
hanging out. This alarming costume was supposed to render all
further equipment unnecessary, and I asked one of the “braves” if he
had no weapon, on which he showed me merely an ordinary knife
stuck in his waistband. I asked if he would sell me his uniform, but as
he could not do that he lent it, and I had an exact copy made. On my
return home Mr. Chamberlain saw it, and was struck with the idea
that the braves scared away the enemy by their uniform and their
roaring, and made a telling use of it later on in describing the tactics
of “the opposition”!
Yet a step farther back in history, it is interesting to learn how the
soldiers used to travel in earlier times. A model has recently been
constructed (by Professor Hopkinson) of the chariot used to convey
eighteen soldiers. This chariot was in use about a thousand years
ago in China, and registered distance, a gong sounding at the end of
every “li” (about one-third of a mile), and a bell at the end of every
ten “li.” This vehicle was called the “measure-mile drum carriage,”
and it is from the description of the mechanism given in the writings
of the period that the professor has made his model. An ode was
written in its honour. The chariot was drawn by four horses.
TIGER BRAVE
The main features of the review were the sword exercises,
varied with turning somersaults, the charging of soldiers with two-
pronged pikes, accompanied by roaring—and various feats of
horsemanship. The men rode about clinging to their horses from
underneath, or jumped on them going at full gallop. The review
lasted all day, and we got tired long before it was over. The military
examinations of officers were on the old lines, and success in getting
promotion depended on the strength shown in drawing a bow, or
lifting a weight. Two officers came to hospital for treatment on
account of having overstrained themselves by their exertions, and
were anxious lest they should be disqualified in consequence. Now
everything is changed. There are military colleges springing up,
where everything is modelled on the military systems of the West,
and students go in increasing numbers to Europe to study these at
first hand. The Ministry of War has decided to adopt the same
gradations of rank as those of the British army and navy
respectively; thus a second lieutenant in the navy will be of equal
rank with a senior lieutenant in the army, and so on. In the past,
military service was one of the two only ways in which it was
possible in China to climb the social ladder.
In September 1904 I saw one of the last great triennial
examinations, to which students came from all parts of the province.
It opened with a great procession, headed by the Governor and
examiners who had come from Peking. Some of the big men rode in
chairs, preceded by scarlet umbrellas, and boys carrying boards
enjoining silence, many banners and discordant drums. It seemed as
if all the rag-tag and bobtail of the city had been collected to grace
the occasion; they were decked out in magenta felt hats and scarlet
cloaks which by no means covered their rags and dirt. Some wore
scarlet and gilt, others green and gilt caps, but no shoes on their
feet. The three principal men were carried on chairs, raised on little
platforms and covered with yellow rugs, supposed to represent the
imperial dragon. The imperial letters were carried (wrapped in yellow
cloth) across the shoulders of men on horseback, and the imperial
seals under gay canopies. The examination buildings are extensive,
and are well seen from the city wall. There are 10,000 cells,
arranged in rows of 100 each in alleys closed by a door. Each cell is
about 6 feet high, 4 feet wide, and 5 feet deep, and is provided with
a sliding seat and a board for writing on, which the student can slide
into the same groove as the seat to curl up on at night, for he has to
spend three days and nights without leaving it. The cell is open in
front, and an invigilator walks up and down to see that no cheating
goes on. If the student is taken ill he may not leave, and if he dies
(not an infrequent occurrence at examination times) his body is
simply put over the wall at the outside end of the alley. These
examinations are competitive, and there may be only thirty or forty
vacancies for thousands of students. At Canton there are 25,000
cells in the examination hall, and each province has its own
examination, to which students of other provinces may not come.
There are characters at the end of the rows of cells, drawn from one
of the classics, which are used as numerals, to distinguish the rows
from one another.
It is interesting to observe what supreme importance is attached
by the Chinese to learning and to morals. Learning is the main road
to eminence; the only other one—the military service—is quite
subsidiary. The highest grade of the people is the Sze, the scholar,
and from it all public servants are drawn. There is no bar to prevent
men of other grades passing into this class, provided they fit
themselves to do so and pass the necessary examinations. There
are six examinations possible.
OLD EXAMINATION BUILDINGS
The first examination is held yearly by the district magistrate; it

lasts for three days, and the candidate has to write two essays, one
on poetry. The second examination is held (generally a few months
later) in a prefectural town, and is therefore called Fu Kau, or country
examination. The students who pass this examination are called Shu
Tsai. The third examination (only open to those who have passed the
previous one) is the triennial one, which takes place in the capital of
each province, as above described, and is called the Ju Jen degree.
This time the candidate has to write several more essays than for the
Shu Tsai degree; the quality most valued in these essays is skill in
quotation, both as to the number of quotations made from the
classics and the way in which they are combined—this might aptly
be compared to a string of pearls. The candidates who obtain the Ju
Jen degree are alone eligible for the degree of Tsin Sze. This fourth
examination takes place triennially at Peking. The candidate is
confined for nine days in a small compartment in the examination
building. No matter how great the discomfort of this confinement may
be, he has to write nine essays. I obtained the most fascinating little
crib containing the whole classics, not larger than one inch square,
which would offer a severe temptation under such circumstances to
the most conscientious student! If the candidate is successful with
his nine essays he receives the title of Tsin Sze, but if not, he may be
appointed to a clerkship of a more or less important nature,
according to the merit of his essays.
A yet higher degree may be obtained called the Tien Sze,
because it is held in one of the buildings of the Imperial Palace. The
student at the head of the list is called Cheong Yuan; the second is
Paun Yien; the third is called Tua Hwa, and the fourth Chuan Lo To.
Their official title, which is also given to other successful candidates
in this examination, is Han Lin Yuan Shu Chi Sze, and they are
obliged to study for the next three years at the Han Lin Yuan for the
next examination. The successful candidates are retained at the Han
Lin, and the unsuccessful ones receive posts of lesser importance,
such as magistracies and other civil appointments. They are
6
considered to have a first claim to all such appointments.
This old examination system is being replaced by one in which
Western subjects are to a large extent taking the place of the
classics. Since 1904 the degrees of the Ju Jen and Han Lin have
been granted in this way to students educated abroad and examined
on their return to China. At the present time there are about 300
Chinese students in England, studying mainly law, medicine,
engineering, and manufactures: some are still in public schools,
grammar schools, &c.; others are at the English or Scotch
universities.

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Publisher: Oliver Walter

Jose Holguı́n-Veras Darı́o Farren

Raquel Espino Ismir Mulalic

Ricardo Flores-Fillol Johan Nyström

Tiziana D’Alfonso Chris Nash

Jake Whitehead Jing Lu

Leif Sörensen Alberto Iozzi

Market Failures and Public Decision Making in the Transport Sector 2

Transport Infrastructure Effects on Economic Output: The Microeconomic Approach 347

Cost Overruns of Transportation Infrastructure Projects 483

Introduction to Transportation Safety and Security 1

The Concept of “Acceptable Risk” Applied to Road Safety Risk Level 2

Connected Automated Vehicles: Technologies, Developments, and Trends 180

Human Factors in Transportation 331

Road Diets 500

Surrogate Measures of Safety 662

Freight Transport and Logistics 1

Planning and Financing Logistics Spaces 35

Urban Logistics and Freight Transport 178

Yuquan Du and Qiang Meng

Introduction to Traffic Management 1

Nonrecurrent Congestion 158

Transit Information Systems 331

Microsimulation and Agent-Based Models in Transportation 473

Bicycle Sharing/Bikesharing 617

Modeling Mode Choice in Freight Transport 57

Multimodality in Transportation 118

Airline Regulation 263

Service Network Design for Freight Railroads 464

Introduction to Transport Policy and Planning 1

Transferability of Urban Policy Measures 77

Energy and Transport Planning 214

Public Transport Subsidy and Regulation 349

Introduction to Transport Psychology 1

A Detailed Approach to Qualitative Research Methods 39

Electromobility: History, Definitions and an Overview of Psychological Research on a Sustainable

Burden of Disease Assessment 347

International Encyclopedia of Transportation http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102671-7.10785-7 1

Market Failures and Public Decision Making in the Transport Sector

International Encyclopedia of Transportation http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102671-7.10000-4 2

The first examination is held yearly by the district magistrate; it

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Jose Holguı́n-Veras Darı́o Farren