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•
••
Contents VII
Affirmative Action in Employment 77

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 81
The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 81
EEOC Guidelines on Sexual Harassment (1980) 82
Older Workers Benefit Protection Act of 1990 85
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 85
The Civil Rights Act of 1991 87
The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 88
The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 88
Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act of 2008 89
The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 89
OTHER RELEVANT STATE, LOCAL, AND CITY ORDINANCES 89
THE EQUALITY ACT OF 2010 - UNITED KINGDOM 90
FUTURE FEDERAL ACTS: WHAT'S AHEAD? 90
DIVERSITY IN THE JUDICIARY AND ITS EFFECTS ON JUDICIAL DECISIONS 90
SUMMARY 91
KEY TERMS 92
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER 93
ACTIONS AND EXERCISES 93
NOTES 94
PART 2 EXAMINING SPECIFIC GROUPS AND CATEGORIES
4 BLACKS/AFRICAN AMERICANS 98
HISTORY OF BLACKS IN THE UNITED STATES 100
Blacks in the Military 102
The Civil Rights Movement 102
RELEVANT LEGISLATION 103
POPULATION 104
EDUCATION, EMPLOYMENT, AND EARNINGS 105
Education 105
Participation Rates and Employment 106
Earnings by Educational Attainment 107
RESEARCH ON THE EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCES OF AFRICAN AMERICANS 107
Access Discrimination 109
Treatment Discrimination 111
The Glass Ceiling and Walls 112
viii Contents
Negative Health Effects of Discrimination 113

Immigrant Blacks and Their Descendants and Native-born Blacks Similarities
and Differences 114
African American Women at Work 116
Discrimination against Customers: Consumer Racial Profiling 117
RECOMMENDATIONS 118
Recommendations for Blacks 119
Recommendations for Organizational Change 120
Consumer/Customer Service Recommendations 122
SUMMARY 122
KEY TERMS 123
NOTES 125
5 LATINOS/HISPANICS 134
HISTORY OF HISPANICS IN THE UNITED STATES 136
Mexicans 136
Puerto Ricans 137
Cubans 138
POPULATION 139
Population by Race for Hispanics and Non-Hispanics 141
Education 142
Employment 143
Earnings 144
ORGANIZATIONAL EXPERIENCES OF HISPANICS 144
Access and Treatment Discrimination 145
Hispanic Immigrants at Work 146
Latinos and Blacks at Work 148
Latinas at Work 149
Language Fluency and Bilingualism: Issues for Diverse Organizations 151
English-Only Rules 153
Racial Profiling, Police Misconduct, and Differential Judicial Treatment against
Hispanics 154
•
Contents IX
LATINOS AS CUSTOMERS 155

The Hispanic Market and Buying Power 155
Consumer Racial Profiling against Hispanics 157
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INDIVIDUALS 157
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ORGANIZATIONS 158
SUMMARY 159
KEY TERMS 159
NOTES 161
6 ASIANS/ASIAN AMERICANS 166

HISTORY OF ASIANS IN THE UNITED STATES 168
Asians and the Civil Rights Movement 171
Selected EEOC Cases 172
POPULATION 173
Participation, Unemployment, and Occupations 177
Earnings 179
Racial Microaggressions 183
Asian American Consumers 183
ASIAN AMERICAN ENTREPRENEURS 184
RESEARCH ON EXPERIENCES OF ASIAN AMERICANS AT WORK 186
Asian American Women at Work 186
Asians and Name-Based Discrimination 188
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INDIVIDUALS AND ORGANIZATIONS 188
SUMMARY 190
KEY TERM 190
NOTES 191
7 WHITES/CAUCASIANS 196
HISTORY OF WHITES IN THE UNITED STATES 198
The Past Transiency and Current Meaning of "Race" for Whites 199
History of Whites as Anti-Racist Allies 202
x Contents

Race Discrimination against Whites 206
Discrimination against Whites in Favor of Hispanics 207
Termination of Whites for Refusing to Comply with Discrimination against Minorities 207
Associational Discrimination 208
POPULATION 209
EDUCATION, EARNINGS, AND EMPLOYMENT 209
RESEARCH ON WHITES AND DIVERSITY 210
Similarities and Differences in the Experiences of White Women and Men 211
White Ethnic Identity 212
Perceptions of "Quotas" and "Reverse Discrimination" 213
Effects of Increasing Diversity on Dominant Group Members 215
DIVERSITY AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS FOR WHITES 215
SUMMARY 219
KEY TERMS 220
NOTES 221
8 NATIVE AMERICANS AND MULTI-RACIAL GROUP MEMBERS 226

HISTORY OF AMERICAN INDIANS IN NORTH AMERICA 228
POPULATION 230
RESEARCH ON AMERICAN INDIANS AT WORK 235
AMERICAN INDIAN AND ALASKAN NATIVE WOMEN 235
MULTl-RACIAL GROUP MEMBERS 236
Introduction and History 237
Blacks and Racial Determination 237
POPULATION 238
AMERASIANS 240
Native Americans and Alaska Natives 240
Multi-Racial Group Members 241
•
Contents XI
SUMMARY 241
KEY TERMS 242
NOTES 243
9 SEX AND GENDER 248

POPULATION 251
EDUCATION 251
PARTICIPATION AND EARNINGS 252
Participation Rates 253
Sex Segregation 253
Income 255
GEN DER ROLE SOCIALIZATION 256
SEX DISCRIMINATION 261
SEXUAL HARASSMENT 265
Sexual Harassment of Women 266
Sexual Harassment of Men 267
THE GLASS CEILING AND OTHER GLASS BOUNDARIES 268
SEX, RACE, AND ETHNICllY 271
White Women and Women of Color 271
UNIQUE GEN DER ISSUES 272
Gender and Poverty 272
Negotiating Pay 273
Curbing Sexual Harassment 274
Breaking the Glass Boundaries 275
SUMMARY 276
KEY TERMS 276
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER-FEDEX CASE 277
NOTES 278
xii Contents
10 WORK AND FAMILY 284

HISTORY OF WORK AND FAMILY 286
Equal Pay Act and Title VII 287
Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 288
The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 289
Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 290
POPULATION, PARTICIPATION, AND EDUCATION 290
EARNINGS 292
Part-time Work and Earnings 293
FLEXIBLE SCHEDULES 294
Unpredictability, Rigidity, and Instability of Scheduling 295
Flexible Schedules for Singles 296
UNPAID AND PAID LEAVES 296
Career Outcomes for Employees who Take Leaves of Absence 297
SAME-SEX COUPLES IN FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 297
MEN, WORK, AND FAMILY 298
BEYOND THE FAMILY: SOCIETY, ORGANIZATIONS, AND FAMILY ISSUES 299
FAMILY POLICIES IN SELECTED COUNTRIES 300
ELDER CARE 302
PARENTING AGAIN: GRANDPARENTS CARING FOR GRANDCHILDREN 302
SUMMARY 304
KEY TERMS 305
NOTES 306
11 SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY 312

HISTORY OF GAY RIGHTS IN THE UNITED STATES 315
POPULATION 315
EDUCATION AND INCOME LEVELS 316
RESEARCH ON ACCESS AND TREATMENT DISCRIMINATION AGAINST SEXUAL MINORITIES 320
ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES AND BENEFITS 323
•••
Contents XIII
HIV/AIDS AT WORK: UNFOUNDED FEARS 325

DETERMINANTS OF ATTITUDES TOWARD GAYS AND LESBIANS 326
CODES OF SILENCE, OR OUT AT WORK? 326
SUMMARY 331
KEY TERMS 331
NOTES 333
12 RELIGION 338
HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY IN THE UNITED STATES 340
POPULATION AND VARIATIONS AMONG BELIEFS 340
RACE, ETHNICITY, AND RELIGION 341
EEOC Guidelines on Religious Exercise and Religious Expression in the Federal
Workplace 341
Claims and Selected Cases under Title VII 345
THE DIVERSITY AMONG ARAB AMERICANS AND MUSLIMS IN THE UNITED STATES 347
Racial Profiling 347
RELIGION AS AN INVISIBLE IDENTITY 347
WOMEN'S ROLES IN ORGANIZED RELIGION 348
RELIGION AND DIVERSITY IN SEXUAL ORIENTATION AT WORK 349
Conflicts between Religion and Sexual Orientation: Two Cases with Different
Outcomes 350
Resolving Conflicts 351
SUMMARY 353
KEY TERMS 354
NOTES 354
xiv Contents
13 AGE 358
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 360
RELEVANT LEGISLATION FOR OLDER WORKERS 361
Selected EEOC Cases Involving Older Age Discrimination Claims 363
LEGAL PROTECTIONS FOR YOUNGER WORKERS 365
POPULATION, PARTICIPATION RATES, AND EMPLOYMENT 365
An Intergenerational Workforce 367
EDUCATION 368
RESEARCH ON EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCES OF OLDER WORKERS 369
Age, Accidents, and Injuries at Work 370
Training and Development 370
Bridge Employment and Layoffs 371
Older Women at Work 373
RESEARCH ON EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCES OF YOUNGER WORKERS 375
Sexual Harassment of Teen Workers and the EEOC's Youth@Work Initiative 375
Long-term Consequences of Harassment of Young Workers 377
SUMMARY 380
KEY TERMS 380
NOTES 381
14 PHYSICAL AND MENTAL ABILITY 384

HISTORY 386
Essential and Marginal Functions 390
Reasonable Accommodations 390
Medical Examinations 391
The Americans with Disabilities Amendments Act of 2008 391
The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 391
POPULATION, EDUCATION, AND EMPLOYMENT 393
EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCES OF PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES 395
Intellectual Disabilities 397
Perceptions of Performance Inadequacies 399
Contents xv
When Employees Acquire a Disability 399

DuPont and the Employment of People with Disabilities 400
CUSTOMERS WITH DISABILITIES 401
Changing Negative Attitudes at Work 402
Human Resources Needs 402
Accommodations 403
SUMMARY 404
KEY TERMS 404
NOTES 405
15 WEIGHT AND APPEARANCE 408

POPULATION 412
EDUCATION, EMPLOYMENT LEVELS, TYPES, AND INCOME 413
APPEARANCE 414
Effects of Attractiveness of Appearance on Employment and Income 415
LEGISLATION RELEVANT TO WEIGHT AND APPEARANCE 415
The ADA and Weight 415
State and Local Statutes Prohibiting Weight and Appearance Discrimination 417
Should Size Discrimination Be Prohibited by Federal Law? 418
EFFECTS OF WEIGHT ON HEALTH AND ON COSTS TO EMPLOYERS 419
IS IT THE FAT, THE HEALTH, OR THE STIGMA OF OVERWEIGHT? 420
Obesity Discrimination in Health Care and Customer Service 421
APPEARANCE: CASES AND LEGISLATION 422
Considerations for Employers: Weight 425
Considerations for Employees: Weight 426
Recommendations to Individuals and Organizations for Minimizing Appearance
Discrimination 426
SUMMARY 427
KEY TERM 427
NOTES 428
xvi Contents
PART 3 GLOBAL DIVERSITY
16 GLOBAL DIVERSITY 434

DISCRIMINATION AND DIFFERENTIAL TREATMENT AS WORLDWIDE PHENOMENA 437
SEX AND GENDER: THE STATUS OF WOMEN AROUND THE WORLD 439
Population and Participation Rates 439
Sexual Harassment, Segregation, Discrimination, and Other Inequities 439
Wage Inequity and the Glass Ceiling 440
Focus: "Think Manager, Think Male" Worldwide? 440
PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES 442
Population and Participation 443
Legislation 443
Focus: Disabled People's Experiences in the Workplace in England 443
SEXUAL ORIENTATION 443
Legislation Prohibiting Sexual Orientation Discrimination 444
Focus: Anti-Gay Sentiment among Youth in Belgium and canada 444
POVERTY 444
FACING THE FUTURE: THE BROAD REACH OF DIVERSITY IN ORGANIZATIONS 446
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CHANGE AT A SOCIETAL LEVEL 447
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CHANGE AT AN ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL 447
Management Commitment to Diversity in Organizations 448
Changes in Human Resources Practices 448
Other Employment Considerations 452
Diversity for Service Providers 452
The Role of the Media 453
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CHANGE AT AN INDIVIDUAL LEVEL 454
SUMMARY 455
KEY TERM 455
NOTES 456
Index 459
In the years since I wrote the first edition of Diversity in Organizations, many sig-
nificant events related to diversity have occurred. In 2008, the United States elected
its first Black president, the man identified as "Barack Obama, U.S. Senator" in the
multiracial chapter of the first edition. Although my prescient Goolsby Leadership
students in the spring of 2006 referred to him as "the hope of our generation," when
I wrote that feature in 2005, I had no thought that Senator Obama would be elected
U.S. president. That he was elected was momentous in and of itself, as were the
diverse backgrounds of the people who voted for him.
Obama's election in 2008 and re-election in 2012 led to claims of a "post-racial"
America, which are far from being realized, as evident, in part, by the race-based
hatred and criticism directed toward him. As I began writing the third edition and
once again investigating the status of each racial and ethnic group, women and
men, people with disabilities, and other non-dominant group members, it became
even more clear that far from being "post-racial," the need for diversity research
and education remains strong. Blacks continue to have nearly twice the unemploy-
ment rate of Whites a problem that persists even at the same education levels, and
that has been the case for many decades. Racial profiling and police brutality against
African American men, women, and children, often with impunity, continue. The
male-female wage gap remains tenacious, even though women now earn more col-
lege and graduate degrees than men earn. Sexual harassment, discrimination, and
segregation continue to be severe and pervasive problems for working women. For
every non-dominant group, some disparities persist, and, in some cases, have wors-
ened since the first and second editions of Diversity in Organizations. Anger, fear,
and hatred pervade the news, social media, and many people's psyches, and percep-
tual and attitudinal gaps about race relations, inequality, and discrimination remain.
On the other hand, increasing numbers of people are supporting and working for
equality and inclusion. New legislation, social media, and innovative ways to get
around barriers, such as using Title VII in cases of sexual orientation discrimination,
are helping bring about positive change. Increasing numbers of organizational lea-
ders seem to understand the power in diversity, and the business, moral, and ethical
reasons to truly pursue inclusion. There is still much work to be done, but there is
still progress amid retrenchment and there is still hope for a better, fairer, more just
future for all of us, whose futures and hopes are inextricably intertwined. "If we go
down, we go down together," is now clearer than ever. 1
1
West, C. (1993). Race Matters. Random House LLC: New York, NY, p. 8.
••
XVII
xviii Preface
CHANGES TO THIS EDITION

As were previous editions, this edition of Diversity in Organizations is research-
based, using hundreds of articles, chapters, and books from the fields of manage-
ment, sociology, psychology, economics, criminal justice, and health as resources.
This edition contains a general updating of the content of all chapters, including
data on population, participation, and employment, legislation, litigation, relevant
research, and features. Objectives and Key Facts in each chapter have been updated
as well. Each chapter includes new examples of litigation under diversity-related
laws, including those recently passed, and new relevant empirical research.
Some of the key changes in this edition are:
• Added research on hierarchies that exist even in "diverse" organizations.
• Added conceptual and empirical research on stereotype threat and stigma.
• Included the United Kingdom's Equality Act (2010).
• Included listing of audit studies on access discrimination worldwide.
• Provided more details on the education, income, participation, and employment
of those who are foreign-born in the United States.
• Included content on class and classism.
• Provided Gallup Poll data on the population of sexual minorities.
• Included cases in which Title VII has been used to protect sexual minorities.
• Included research on work-family flexibility needs of low-wage workers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Mike Roche, Sarah Ginn, Zach Fleischer, and the staff at Cengage Learning
and its affiliated organizations for their support and guidance throughout the devel-
opment of this edition.
I am grateful to the many colleagues who reviewed and offered valuable feed-
back on the book:
I thank Mary E. McLaughlin and Karen Lyness for their important input into the
first editions that continues to strengthen this one. I am immensely grateful to all of
those who are using the book for teaching diversity and especially to those who
have provided ideas for improvement of this edition. While I was not able to incor-
porate them all, I sincerely appreciated them all and will continue to try to use
them in the future. I appreciate Dennis J. Marquardt, whose research assistance
and, more importantly, emotional support for my work are truly priceless. I am
thankful he chose to work with me.
Although they are far too numerous to name, I owe a tremendous debt to the
many members of the Gender and Diversity in Organizations division of the Acad-
emy of Management. These friends and colleagues continue to examine important
questions in their research, providing the research evidence that is the foundation
for this book. With diversity and inclusion work, when trying to educate and
change deeply entrenched and strongly held attitudes, stereotypes, and mispercep-
tions, a strong foundation built on sound empirical research and data is critical.
Many semesters students tell me, "I had no idea," "Why don't they tell us this?", "I
didn't believe you, so I looked it up, and found even more information," or, "This
class should be mandatory for all college students." Evidence matters. I am there-
fore so very grateful to my dear GDO friends and many others who publish diver-
sity research not because they need a publication, but because they are committed
to the cause of equality, diversity, and inclusion.
Very special appreciation goes to my wonderful students at UT Arlington, who
keep their "diversity hats" on and who e-mail me years later to let me know what a
•
Preface XIX
difference the book and course have made for them and to share their continued
diversity learning experiences. I thank them for enrolling in my Diversity in Organi-
zations courses, for sharing their ideas, questions, and hopes, and for going out
into the world to make things better, fairer, and more inclusive. They affect their
organizations, employees, and customers, and ultimately, help make the world a
better place. I know they change their worlds, which changes the world, one per-
son at a time.
Words cannot express my gratitude to my dear husband and great champion,
Earnest, without whom this edition and the others would not exist, and to my
beloved children, who continue to inspire me to do this difficult work. My mother,
Iris Johnson, is the reason I chose this path, having learned from a small child to
love human beings regardless of their race, social status, skin color, or many of the
other factors used to divide and harm. I appreciate her early and continued lessons
and encouragement. I am grateful to my sister, Daphne, for believing in me always,
and for the confidence I have always had in knowing she unequivocally has my
back. This has truly shaped me as a human being.
Lastly, I thank God for the privilege of doing this work, and the certainty that
it matters.
After completing this chapter, readers should have a firm understanding of the importance of
diversity in organizations. Specifically, they should be able to:
• explain what "diversity" encompasses in the United States and some of the considera-
tions used in determining the relevant diversity concerns in other areas.
• discuss changing population demographics and associated effects on workforce and
customer diversity.
• explain interrelationships among diversity, discrimination, and inclusion.
• discuss research on the individual and organizational benefits of diversity and
inclusion.
Changing population demographics and changing attitudes toward diversity have consider-
ably increased diversity in many organizations, yet discrimination, inequality, and exclusion
persist. Many organizations are more diverse than in the past, yet sexual harassment and
1
segregation, glass ceilings and walls, and social hierarchies remain.
Organizational context is important in determining diversity's effect on performance.
Properly managed, diversity and inclusion can benefit organizations in the areas of cost,
resource acquisition, marketing, creativity, problem solving, and system flexibility.
If an organization develops a reputation for valuing all types of employees and custo-
mers, it will become known as an organization in which workers and customers from all
backgrounds feel they will be treated fairly.
Working in and learning in environments with people who are different can benefit indi-
viduals through intellectual engagement, perspective taking, and greater understanding of
the implications and benefits of diversity.
2
What Is Diversity?
In this book, diversity is defined as real or perceived differences among people in such areas as
race, ethnicity, sex, age, physical and mental ability, sexual orientation, religion, work and family
status, weight and appearance, social class, and other identity-based attributes that affect their
2
interactions and relationships. These focal areas encompass differences that are based on power
or dominance relations among groups, particularly "identity groups," which are the collectivities
people use to categorize themselves and others. 3 Identity groups are often readily apparent to
others, sources of strong personal meaning, and related to historical disparities among groups in
treatment, opportunities, and outcomes.
The definition of diversity includes the terms real and perceived to acknowledge the social con-
structions of many areas of difference. In particular, although race is socially constructed, percep-
tions of race, beliefs about people of different races, and discrimination on the basis of race strongly
4
affect people's life chances and experiences. Similarly, gender is also socially constructed, repre-
senting perceptions of how males and females should behave, rather than being representative of
biological differences between the sexes that might cause males and females to behave differently.
As do perceived racial differences, beliefs about the differences between males and females strongly
affect the expectations of, experiences of, and opportunities for girls, boys, men, and women in fam-
ilies, society, and organizations.
In contrast to the categories of focus in this book, some research has explored diversity in
terms of functional area (e.g., marketing, finance, or accounting), tenure, values, attitudes, and
social class as they affect people's organizational experiences. These categories may also be
sources of real or perceived differences that affect people's interactions, outcomes, and relation-
ships at work. For example, engineering, finance, and accounting managers typically earn more
and have greater occupational status than human resources managers. (The former positions are
also more likely to be held by men than the latter position; sex typing and segregation of jobs, and
their negative consequences for women, will be discussed in later chapters.) However, one's func-
tional area at work is not likely to fit the criteria for identity groups that is, readily apparent, or
associated with historical disparities in treatment, opportunities, or outcomes in society at large.
Social class, referring to those "who occupy a similar position in the economic system of produc-
tion, distribution, and consumption of goods and services in industrial societies" 5 meets some of the key
criteria for inclusion (e.g., having strong personal meaning and stemming from or coinciding with signif-
icant power differences among groups; in some situations, it is also readily apparent). Although the
3
4 Part 1 • Introduction, Theories, and Legislation
effects of social class are not separately considered, "practices that exclude, exploit, and limit the poten-
6
tial of poor and working-class people disproportionately affect women and ethnic minorities," who are
covered in individual chapters in this book. For some racial and ethnic groups, upward class movement,
along with associated benefits, is possible, given the right circumstances. For other groups, however,
even education and income do not insulate them from discriminatory practices and exclusion. For
example, regardless of their social class, Blacks must often "contend with being stereotyped as poor,
7
ill- educated, criminal, lazy, and immoral." Along with racial, ethnic, and class relationships, class-
based differences related to diversity in organizations are included in many other chapters (e.g., work
and family concerns for low wage workers, and part-time work as under-employment, which are more
likely for women and minorities) as well. These and other class-based concerns, and their intersections
with other diversity issues, are considered in various chapters.
Employment discrimination or labor market discrimination occurs when personal characteristics
8
of applicants and workers that are unrelated to productivity are valued in the labor market. Access dis-
crimination occurs when people are denied employment opportunities, or "access" to jobs, because of
their group memberships. Treatment discrimination occurs when people are employed but are treated
unfairly on the job, receiving fewer rewards, resources, or opportunities than they should receive based
on job-related criteria. 9 In cases of access or treatment discrimination, people with identical productive
characteristics, such as performance, education, skills, and tenure, are treated differently because of
factors such as race, ethnic origin, sex, age, physical ability, religion, and immigrant status.
Discrimination limits diversity and harms both targeted individuals, vicarious victims, and the
organizations that completely miss or limit their contributions, resulting in lower commitment,
morale, job satisfaction, and performance among those targeted and sometimes among those who
10
observe it but are not themselves targeted. It can be intentional and deliberate, or the unintentional
result of organizational practices, such as having informal, unmonitored recruiting, selection, or per-
formance evaluation practices. Discrimination may be interpersonal, occurring between individuals,
or institutional, related to differential access to goods, services, and opportunities, and not necessar-
ily involving any specific interpersonal encounter. 11 Regardless of intent or source, the outcome of
discrimination is that members of some groups are systematically disadvantaged while others are
advantaged. These systematic disadvantages include such things as chronically lower wages (e.g.,
the wage gap for women), chronically higher unemployment (e.g., for Blacks and people with
disabilities), and a host of other negative individual, organizational, and societal consequences.
Relationships among diversity, discrimination, individuals, organizations, and society will be dis-
cussed throughout the book. 12
Along with efforts to avoid discrimination and ensure that employees are diverse, efforts to
ensure employees are also included and able to fully contribute are critical to organizational
13
success. Inclusion is the degree to which "different voices of a diverse workforce are respected
and heard. "14 As we will discuss, organizations can be quite "diverse" on the surface without
being at all inclusive. In inclusive organizational cultures, all employees feel as though they are
15
accepted, belong, and are able to contribute to decision-making processes. Thus, throughout the
book, "valuing diversity" refers to diversity and inclusion.
MULTIPLE GROUP MEMBERSHIPS AND PERMEABILITY

OF BOUNDARIES
People's group memberships affect their outcomes, opportunities, and experiences
in society and in organizations. 16 Employment, compensation, advancement, reten-
tion, participation, and competitiveness are a few of the outcomes that are related
to demographic background. In the United States, those who are White, male, and
do not have a disability generally earn higher wages and have higher organizational
Chapter 1 • Introduction 5
status than minorities, females, or people with disabilities. 17 However, the categories
of race, ethnicity, sex, age, physical ability, sexual orientation, and religion are not
mutually exclusive. Everyone possesses a racial and ethnic background, age, sexual
orientation, and, possibly, religion. Some of the categories are immutable, but others
are not and may change over one's lifetime. People may be born with or acquire
disabilities, and everyone ages. A person may be a member of the majority group in
one area but not in another, for example, White and female or male and Latino. A
white man may have a disability, be an older worker or of a minority religion, and
personally experience job-related discrimination. He may also have a working wife,
mother, or sister who has faced sex-based salary inequity or harassment or a daugh-
ter or granddaughter whom he would prefer not to have to face such discrimination
at work.
Diversity research indicates that the commitment of top management to diver-
sity increases the effectiveness of diversity initiatives. White men are considerably
more likely to occupy leadership positions (executive, board member, or manager)
than other group members. 18 Therefore, they are more likely to have the power to
implement important changes at the organizational level and to influence behaviors
and perspectives about the overall benefits of diversity; White men's commitment to
diversity is essential.
Although data. clearly show that members of some groups face more barriers and
organizational discrimination, this book stresses the value of diversity to everyone.
Roosevelt Thomas, a pioneer in diversity work, proposed that "managing diversity
is a comprehensive managerial process for developing an environment that works
19
for all employees. " While diversity and inclusion efforts should include all employ-
ees, data. show that membership in some groups or that some combinations of
memberships consistently have more negative ramifications for job-related opportu-
°
nities and that some groups are systematically denied opportunities. 2 For example,
21
Whites and men are less likely to report perceptions of workplace discrimination,
rate diversity as being less important, and have less favorable attitudes toward
diversity22 than minorities and women. Commitment to diversity requires a con-
certed effort to recognize, acknowledge, and address historical discrimination, dif-
ferential treatment, and unearned advantages rather than resisting efforts to
23
address inequities in the name of inclusiveness or color-blindness. The research
and recommendations in this book make apparent the need to consider the past
and present while working toward a more just, fair, diverse, and inclusive future.
Misperception:
Diversity is beneficial only to minorities and women.
Reality:
Diversity can benefit everyone.
This book is relevant to large and small companies, colleges and universities,
religious organizations, military organizations, hospitals, and any other organizations
in which people work or wish to work or that have clients, customers, or constitu-
ents. Although under U.S. laws some organizations (e.g., churches and private
clubs) may be allowed to prefer certain types of people over others as employees,
many of the concepts in this book also apply to such organizations and can be of
benefit to their leaders. For example, religious organizations may legally require
that employees be members of a particular faith, yet they will likely have employees
with work and family issues or may be wrestling with the issue of ordaining women.
Similarly, the U.S. military is a unique male-dominated organization, yet its issues
with sexual harassment and sexual orientation diversity can help inform other types
of organizations dealing with the same issues. Hospitals have to learn to address
patient racism and sexism, and need to be cognizant of cultural differences related
to medical care. 24 As will be apparent from the variety of organizations discussed in
6 Part 1 • Introduction, Theories, and Legislation
this book, diversity issues affect all organizations at some point. In addition, although
most of the diversity research that is reported in this book was conducted in the
United States, many of the concepts and findings, such as differential treatment
based on racial or ethnic heritage, religion, sex, or sexual orientation, are relevant
to non-dominant groups in other areas. Chapter 16 discusses these similarities in
more detail.
TERMINOLOGY
In this book, when referring to the U.S. population, the following expressions are used
somewhat interchangeably: sex/gender, Blacks/African Americans, Latinos/Hispanics,
Asians/Asian Americans/Asians and Pacific Islanders, Native Americans/American
Indians, Whites/Anglos/European Americans/Caucasians, and minorities/people of
color. 25 Although the linked terms are not exactly the same (e.g., sex is biological
while gender is socially constructed,26 and not all Blacks consider themselves African
American), the terms are widely recognized, their meanings are generally well under-
stood, and they are often used interchangeably. Even so, there are important differences
among them. Indeed, some scholars have argued persuasively that the ambiguity and
:fluidity of terminology render "race" and "ethnicity" almost meaningless. 27 Some
researchers go so far as to use quotation marks at any mention of the word race to indi-
cate its lack of meaning, despite its real consequences in people's lives.
Like gender, "race is socially constructed to denote boundaries between the
powerful and less powerful" and is often defined by the more powerful group. 28 In
the United States, these social constructions are reflected by the changes in termi-
nology used by the Census Bureau over the years and in court rulings about who
was or was not White. Latinos may be of any race, and people may be of more than
one racial or ethnic background, which adds to the complexity of understanding race
and what it means. In recent years, increasing numbers of Whites are self-identifying
as Latino compared to in prior data collections, 29 further suggestive of the social
construction of race. There are also substantial differences in the diversity-related
experiences of Latinos who are Colombian, Dominican, Mexican, Nicaraguan, and
30
Puerto Rican, with skin color within country of origin also playing a role.
Ethnicity refers to a shared national origin or a shared cultural heritage. Thus,
"Hispanic" is an ethnic description, although it is often treated as a racial one. 31
"Asian" is another ambiguous term. Is it an ethnicity, since ethnicity refers to a
shared national origin, or is it a race, as the term is often used and understood? As
with differences among Latinos, there are considerable differences among Asians
who are from Korea and those from India or Vietnam, and among Black Americans,
South African Blacks, and those from the West Indies. These and other contextual
complexities related to race, ethnicity, sex, and gender and their effects on indivi-
duals in organizations will be explored in later chapters.
As discussed further in Chapter 2, instead of the terms majority and minority,
which reflect population size, the terms dominant and non-dominant are used at
times to distinguish between more powerful and less powerful groups, acknowledging
the importance of power in access to and the control of resources. The powerful con-
trol more resources and are "dominant," regardless of whether they are more numer-
ous (such as Whites in South Africa and men in the United States). Dominant groups
make, interpret, and enforce regulations that affect and control the life chances and
opportunities of those who are non-dominant. For example, the U.S. criminal justice
system, police forces, the U.S. Supreme Court, Congress, Senate, and the office of the
President, who make, interpret, and enforce laws, currently are and have historically
been dominated by White men, which is similar to political and legal systems in many
other parts of the world. Although many of the distinctions and terminology discussed
are U.S.-centric, the idea of dominant and non-dominant groups is not
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carelessly without speaking to the horse, seeing that he stands over,
or otherwise responds to his call, is himself to blame if he gets
kicked. The attendant who does things to a dangerous or
questionable horse for mere bravado cannot blame the owner if he
gets himself injured. If a person teases a horse so as to tempt him to
retaliate, not only is he responsible for his own consequent injuries,
but largely also for the habits of the horse and for such injuries as
others may subsequently sustain from him.
A dog or a bull shown in a public place, and which breaks loose
and injures spectators or others, manifestly renders his master
responsible for all such damage.
Treatment of aggressive vice. In mild dispositions in which the
vice is roused by temporary suffering, it may often be cured by
removal of the cause of such suffering. Indeed, without the healing of
sores under the collar or saddle the vice cannot be arrested.
Considerate and gentle treatment, too, will go far to restore
confidence and to gradually do away with the aggressive disposition.
In wicked stallions castration will usually restore to a good
measure of docility. The exceptional cases appear to be those that are
hereditarily and constitutionally vicious, or in which the habit has
been thoroughly developed and firmly fixed by long practice.
Mares, too, which become vicious and dangerous at each
recurrence of œstrum, can usually be completely cured by the
removal of the ovaries especially if this is done early in the disease.
The inveterate cases may usually be subdued and rendered
controllable for a time by one of the methods of subjugation
employed by the professional tamers, but unless they are thereafter
kept in good hands they are liable to relapse into the old habit.
Among the more effective methods are the Rarey mode of throwing
which may be repeated again and again until the animal is
thoroughly impressed with a sense of the domination of man and the
futility of resistance; the resort of tying the head and tail closely
together and letting the animal weary and daze himself by turning in
a circle, first to the one side and then to the other; the application of
the Comanche bridle made of a small rope, one loop of which is
passed through the mouth and back of the ears and drawn tightly,
then another loop is made to encircle the lower jaw, and the chin is
drawn in against the trachea by passing the free end of the rope
round the upper part of the neck and again through the loop
encircling the lower jaw and drawing it tight; or a similar small rope
is passed a number of times through the mouth and back of the ears
and drawn tightly so as to compress the medulla and stupify the
animal. This is supposed to be rendered more effective by passing
one turn each between the upper lip and gums and between the
lower lip and the gums.
CATALEPSY.
Definition. Tetanic and paralytic forms. Balance of flexors and extensors

Cataleptoid. No constant lesion. Hysterical. Hypnotic. Subjects: horse, ox, wolf,
cat, chicken, Guineapig, snake, frog, crayfish. Causes: strong mental impression,
indigestion, etc., in susceptible system. Lesion: inconstant, muscular degeneration,
etc. Symptoms: wax-like retention of position given, voluntary movement in
abeyance, mental functions impaired, secretions altered. Duration and frequency
variable. Treatment: shock; cold; ammonia, pepper, snuff, electricity, amyle nitrite,
nitro-glycerine, apomorphine, bromides, purgatives, bitters, iron, zinc, silver, open
air exercise.
Definition. This is a functional nervous disorder, characterized by

paroxysms of impaired or perverted consciousness, diminished
sensibility, and above all a condition of muscular rigidity, by means
of which the whole body, or it may be but one or more limbs retain
any position in which they may be placed.
Laycock describes two forms in man—the catochus or tetanic form,
and the paralytic form. Mills would restrict the name catalepsy to
cases in which the muscular tone is such that the affected part may
be bent or moulded like wax or a leaden pipe, and will not vary from
this when left alone. Other forms in which this waxen flexibility
(flexibilitas cerea) is absent or imperfect he would designate as
cataleptoid.
The disease is not associated with any constant cerebral lesion,
though it may supervene in the course of other nervous disorders,
and therefore may own an exciting cause in existing lesions of the
brain. The immediate cause must however be held to be functional,
and this is in keeping with its most common form in man
(hysterical), and with the hypnotic form which is observed both in
man and animals. This latter may be looked on as a form of induced
or hypnotic sleep, in which the retention of the position given to a
limb or part is the most prominent symptom. In all cases there is an
impaired condition of the sensory functions of the cerebral
convolutions, and an insusceptibility of the motor centres to the
control of the will, or the reflex stimulus.
Hering has recorded the disease in the horse, Landel in the ox, and
Leisering in the prairie wolf. The hypnotic form has been shown in
cats, chickens, and Guinea pigs. The serpent charming of the Indian
dervishes and similar effects on frogs and crayfish have been
attributed to hypnotic catalepsy.
Causes. Strong mental emotions and diseases which profoundly
affect the nervous system have been adduced as causes (fear,
excitement, chills). Indigestible food has even been charged with
causing it. There is undoubtedly, to begin with, a specially
susceptible nervous system, and hence it is liable to prove hereditary,
and in man to appear as a form of hysteria, or to alternate in the
same family with epilepsy, chorea, alcoholism, opium addiction and
other neurosis.
Hypnotism as a cause is claimed by various writers. Azam says that
in the fairs in the South of France, jugglers hypnotize cocks by
placing the bill on a board, on which they trace a black line passing
between the two feet of the bird. Cadeac adds that Father Kircher, in
the 17th century, employed a similar method to put fowls to sleep.
Alix put cats to sleep by securing them firmly, and then looking
steadily into their eyes. The condition attained varies according to
the degree of the sleep, the will being dominated first, and later,
consciousness of external objects is lost. Hypnotism, however,
appears to be difficult and uncertain in the lower animals, in keeping
with the limited development of intelligence and will, as compared
with the human being. Cadeac states that the very old and the very
young are completely refractory to hypnotizing influences.
Lesions. No constant pathological changes are found, though
different nervous lesions may serve to rouse the disease in a
predisposed subject. Fröhner found in the affected muscles granular
swelling, fatty degeneration, hæmorrhages, and waxy (amyloid)
degeneration of the cardiac muscles, corresponding to what has been
found in tetanus; also hæmorrhages on the stomach and intestines.
Symptoms. The leading objective symptom is the tonic condition
of the muscles by which a perfect balance is established and
maintained between the flexors and extensors so that the affected
part maintains the same position which it had when the attack
began, or any other position which may be given to it during the
progress of the paroxysm. The position is only changed when the
muscles involved have become completely exhausted. During the
attack the affected muscles are swollen and firm, so that their outline
may often be traced through the skin, later as the attack subsides
they become soft and flaccid. Voluntary movement of the affected
muscles is impossible until after the paroxysm. The attack usually
comes on suddenly and in this respect resembles epilepsy; at other
times there are premonitory symptoms of nervous anxiety,
excitement or irritability. There is usually considerable impairment
of consciousness, intelligence, common sensation, and even of the
special senses. In a cataleptic dog Fröhner noted mental and motor
troubles, considerable anæsthesia, and loss of sight, smell, and
hearing. The eyes are fixed, the pupils either contracted or dilated,
and the urine passed may be albuminous or even icteric.
Course, Duration. Like other functional nervous disorders this is
extremely uncertain in its progress. There may be but one attack or a
succession; they may last from a few minutes, to 7 days (Fröhner), or
even several weeks (Hertwig); they may end in recovery or less
frequently they may prove fatal usually by inanition.
Treatment. During a seizure a sudden shock will sometimes cut
short the attack, douching with cold water, an inhalation of
ammonia, of capsicum or of snuff, or the application of electricity in
an interrupted current through the spine and affected muscles. Ether
anæsthesia will not always relax (Sinkler). Inhalation of a few drops
of nitrite of amyle has proved effective in man, as has also the
injection subcutem of three drops of a 1 per cent solution of nitro-
glycerine, apomorphine hypodermically is usually effective (Sinkler).
Bromide of potassium has also been advised, and in case of coldness
of the surface, a warm bath.
When there is overloaded stomach and gastric indigestion an
emetic is indicated, and in constipation a purgative (for speedy
action chloride of barium or physostigma subcutem).
In the intervals between attacks tonics and general hygiene should
be invoked to build up the weakened nervous system. Quinine, and
salts of iron, zinc or silver with a nourishing diet and out door
exercise are especially indicated.
INSOLATION. HEAT EXHAUSTION. SUNSTROKE.
THERMIC FEVER.
Definition: two forms. Heat exhaustion. Causes: prolonged heat, and

moisture, overexertion. Impaired vaso-motor centre. Failing heart. Carbon dioxide
poisoning. Symptoms: weak, fluttering pulse, perspiration, muscles flaccid,
prostration, no hyperthermia. Treatment: stimulant, digitalis, digitalin, subcutem,
nitro-glycerine, warm baths. Thermic fever. Hyperthermia excessive. Causes:
insolation, prolonged heat and impure air, furnace heat, moist and dry heat,
electric tension, overwork, muscular exhaustion, coagulation of myosin, constant
heat on one part (head), excess of carbon dioxide, stiffening of bodies when killed
in hot weather, debility, weakness, fatigue, chest constriction, tight girths or
collars, short bearing reins, plethora, obesity, open cars and yards, fever, privation
of water, heavy fleece. Lesions: right heart and systemic veins full, blood black fluid
or diffluent, left ventricle empty, congested meninges, effusions in or on brain, or
hæmorrhages. Symptoms: horse: dull, stupid, stubs toes, sways quarters, droops
head, hangs on bit, props on feet, breathes rapidly, pants, stertor, dilated nostrils,
gasping, fixed eyes, dilated pupils, tumultuous heartbeats, gorged veins, epistaxis,
perspiration, convulsions: ox: parallel symptoms: sheep: open mouth, stertor,
fixed eyes, pupils dilated, panting, swaying, fall, convulsions: dog: dull, prostrate,
pants, congested veins and mucosæ, weakness, spasms, syncope, speedy rigor
mortis. Overheating. Diagnosis: early excessive hyperthermia, venous congestion,
shallow panting breathing, violent heart action, loss of sensory and motor
functions, convulsions. Prevention: avoid violent, prolonged heat, and exertion,
especially in case of fat animals or those new to hot climate, keep emunctories
acting, shade head, water on head and to drink, protect fat cattle, shear sheep,
water. Treatment: shade and laxatives; if severe, cold water from hose, ice bags to
poll, rub legs, acetanilid subcutem, stimulant enemata, later mineral tonics, iron or
zinc.
Definition. A morbid condition produced by the exposure to

extreme heat, and marked by profound disorder of the vaso-motor
and heat centres.
The single term of sun-stroke or heat-stroke has been replaced by
two,—heat exhaustion and sun-stroke, indicating two distinct
conditions, brought about by exposure to heat and manifested by
different states of the body and distinctive symptoms.
Heat Exhaustion.
This appears as an exaggerated form of the general sense of
relaxation, weakness and languor which follows on prolonged violent
exertion in a hot atmosphere. There is more or less impairment of
the vaso-motor nerve centre in the medulla, relaxation of the
capillary system, and flagging of the heart’s action, which loses its
customary stimulus, by reason of the defective supply of blood
returned by the veins. This may become so extreme that the patient
dies by syncope. In other cases the paresis is mainly shown in the
vaso-motor system, and its centres in the medulla, the blood is
delayed in the distended capillaries and veins, it becomes
overcharged with carbon dioxide, the heart’s action is accelerated
and feeble, the pulse rapid, weak and fluttering, perspiration breaks
out on the skin, and the temperature is normal or subnormal. The
muscular weakness, the flaccid condition of the facial muscles, and
general depression suggest a state of collapse. This condition is not
necessarily due to exposure to the intensity of the sun’s rays, but may
come on in animals subjected for a length of time to artificial heat,
and especially if the air is impure, and if the subject has to undergo
severe physical exertion.
Treatment. In slight cases of this kind a stimulant is usually
desirable and ammonium carbonate in bolus or solution will usually
serve a good purpose. In its absence alcohol or spirits of nitrous
ether may be given. Digitalis is of great value in sustaining the
flagging action of the heart and has the advantage that as digitalin it
can be given hypodermically when it is impossible to give ammonia,
alcohol or ether by the mouth. For the same reason nitro-glycerine
may be resorted to, or even atropia as a vaso-motor stimulant. Active
friction of the body and limbs will aid circulation and indirectly
stimulate the heart, and in case of subnormal temperature it may be
supplemented by a warm bath in the smaller animals, kept up until
the normal temperature in the rectum has been restored.
Thermic Fever. Sun-stroke.
This is readily distinguished from heat exhaustion by the
predominance of the hyperthermia. While in heat exhaustion the
temperature is usually subnormal, in sun-stroke it is excessive,
(108°–113° F.).
Causes. The immediate cause of sun-stroke is exposure to undue
heat, but this need not be the heat of the sun’s rays direct. A large
proportion of cases in the human subject are attacked during the
night, and again at sea where an attack in a passenger is practically
unknown, it is terribly common among stokers working in a close
atmosphere of 100° to 150° F.
The attendant conditions have much influence in determining an
attack, thus it is generally held that heat with excess of moisture is
the most injurious, yet in Cincinnati, statistics showed a greater
number of cases in man when the air was dry. The suppression of
perspiration and the arrest of cooling by evaporation in the latter
case would tend to a rapid increase of the body temperature, and the
condition would be aggravated by the electric tension usually present
with the dry air. With the hot, moist air perspiration might continue,
but evaporation would be hindered, and there would be arrest of the
cooling process and an extreme relaxation of the system.
Again, if is usually found that seizures take place during or after
hard muscular exertion in a hot period, and much importance is
attached to the attendant exhaustion, the excess of muscular waste,
and the alteration of the myosin, which latter coagulates at a lower
temperature in the overworked animal. But on the other hand,
experiment shows that the animal confined to absolute inactivity in
the hot sunshine or in a high temperature (at 90°), dies in a few
hours, whereas another animal left at liberty in the same
temperature does not suffer materially. The explanation appears to
be that the dog, kept absolutely still, has the continuous action of the
heat on the same parts and on the same blood, for the capillaries
dilate, and the blood is delayed, overheated, and surcharged with
carbon dioxide, and the result is either syncope from heart failure, or
asphyxia from excessive carbonization of the blood. Back of these
and concurring with them is the paralysis of the vaso-motor and heat
generating nerve centres, from the high temperature or the condition
of the blood.
The excessive carbonization of the blood deserves another word.
The prolonged contact of the blood and air in the lungs is essential to
the free interchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Vierordt showed
that with sixty respirations per minute the expired air became
charged with but 2.4 per cent. of this gas, whereas with fourteen
respirations it contained 4.34 per cent. Therefore, with violent
muscular work (which charges the blood with carbon dioxide) and
rapid breathing (which fails to secure its elimination), the overdriven
animal soon perishes from asphyxia. Under a high temperature of
the external air, this condition is aggravated since the rarefied air
contains just so much the less oxygen, the absorption of which is the
measure of the exhalation of carbon dioxide.
Dr. H. C. Wood, who has experimented largely on the subject in
animals, finds the cause of heart failure in the coagulation of the
myosin, which takes place under ordinary circumstances at 115° F.,
but at a much lower temperature when a muscle has been in great
activity immediately before death. As the temperature of thermic
fever frequently reaches 113°, or even higher, he easily accounts for
the sudden syncope occurring during active work in a high
temperature. As an example of such sudden rigor, he adduces the
sudden stiffening of the bodies of some soldiers killed in battle
during hot weather.
Wood further shows that all the symptoms of thermic fever can be
produced in the rabbit by concentrating the temperature on its head,
which seems to imply a direct action on the brain and in particular
on the heat producing and vaso-motor centres. This becomes the
more reasonable that the temperature attained does not impair the
vitality of the blood but, leaves the leucocytes possessed of their
amœboid motion. He found, moreover, that if the heat were
withdrawn before it has produced permanent injury to the nervous
system, blood or other tissues, the convulsions and unconsciousness
are immediately relieved and the animal recovers.
Other conditions may be adduced as predisposing or concurrent
causes of thermic fever. Whatever impairs the animal vigor has this
effect. Fatigue, as already noticed, is a potent factor, in man a
drinking habit; in all animals a long persistence of the heat during
the night as well as the day; impure air in badly ventilated buildings;
and mechanical restriction on the freedom of breathing. In military
barracks with the daily temperature at 118° F. and the night
temperature 105, the mortality became extreme, and in close city car
stables the proportion of sun-strokes is enhanced. In all such cases,
the air becomes necessarily more and more impure continually. The
atmosphere has the same heat as the animal body, so that no upward
current from the latter can be established, to create a diffusion. The
carbon dioxide and other emanations from the lungs, the exhalations
from the skin, dung and urine, accumulate in the air immediately
surrounding the animal and respiration becomes increasingly
imperfect and difficult. This condition is further aggravated by the
accumulation of the animal heat in the body. The blood circulating in
the skin can no longer be cooled, to return with refrigerating effect
on the interior of the body, the cooling that would come from the
evaporation of sweat is obviated by the suppression of that secretion,
as well as by the saturation of the zone of air immediately
surrounding the body, and thus the tendency is to a steady increase
of the body temperature until the limit of viability has been passed.
The mechanical restriction of respiration should not be
overlooked. In European soldiers landed in India and marched in the
tight woolen clothing and close stocks a high mortality has been
induced and in horses with tight girths or collars and short bearing
reins, and oxen working in collars a similar result is observed. Any
condition of fever is a potent predisposing factor.
Horses or cattle that are put to violent or continued exertion when
too fat or out of condition are especially subject to sun-stroke. Fat
cattle driven to market under a hot sun, or shipped by rail, crowded
in a car and delayed on a siding under a hot sun, with no circulation
of air, often have insolation in its most violent form. The same may
be seen in the hot stockyard, with a still atmosphere and the fat
animals subjected to the full blaze of a July sun. The chafed feet
caused by travel, and the muscular weariness caused by standing in
the moving car are material additions to the danger.
Similarly horses suffer on the race track when subjected to
protracted and severe work in hot weather, or again dragging loads
in a heated street under a vertical sun, or on a side hill with the sun’s
rays striking perpendicularly to its surface.
A change in latitude has a decided effect, the Northern horse
suffering much more frequently than the one which is native to the
Southern States and which has inherited the habit of heat endurance.
Finally faults in feeding and above all watering are appreciable
factors. The privation of water in particular is to be dreaded. Tracy in
his experience with American soldiers in Arizona, found that the
command could usually be guarded against sun-stroke when a
supply of water was kept on hand. It should be used guardedly, but
nothing would act better in obviating an attack. On the other hand,
when the canteens were empty, under the hot sun the seizures
increased disastrously.
Sheep are especially liable to suffer from heat by reason of their
dense fleece, which hinders the evaporation of perspiration, and the
cooling effect of air on the skin. When the temperature rises,
respiration is accelerated and panting, the lungs seeking to
supplement the work of the skin. When traveling in a heavy fleece, or
in the hot sunshine in July or August sun-stroke is not uncommon
among them.
Lesions. Among the lesions may be named, vacuity of the left
ventricle and fullness of the right ventricle and veins with fluid blood
or a diffluent clot; congestion of the pia or dura mater, effusion into
the ventricles, hæmorrhages into the subserous tissues, and
degeneration of the muscles.
Symptoms. Horse. When premonitory symptoms are observed
the animal fails to respond to whip or voice, lessens his pace, stubs
with his fore feet and sways with the hind, depresses his head and
hangs heavily on the bit.
Too often these are omitted or overlooked, and the horse suddenly
stops, props himself on his four limbs, drops and extends the head,
breathes with great rapidity, panting and even stertor, dilates the
nostrils widely, retracts the angle of the mouth and even gapes, has
the eyes fixed, the pupils dilated and the beats of the heart
tumultuous. The superficial veins are distended, the visible mucosæ
congested with dark blood, and blood may escape from the nose.
Perspiration usually sets in.
The animal may fall and die in a few minutes in convulsions, or, if
stopped sufficiently early and suitably treated, he may in a measure
recover in 15 to 20 minutes.
Symptoms. Ox. The premonitory symptoms are like those in the
horse: dullness, rapid, panting breathing, the mouth is opened and
the pendent tongue is covered with frothy saliva, a frothy mucus
escapes from the nose, the eyes are congested and fixed, the pupils
dilated, the nostrils and flanks work laboriously, the heart palpitates,
the animal sways or staggers and falls. Death follows in convulsions,
or it may be delayed, the animal struggling ineffectually to rise, or
having periods of comparative quiet. The rectal temperature is very
high, 107° to 114° F. If able to stand, there is usually blindness and
heedlessness of surrounding objects.
Symptoms. Sheep. The open mouth, protruding tongue, frothy
saliva, reddened fixed eyes, rapid breathing, beating flanks, stertor,
and unsteady gait are characteristic when taken along with the
manifest causes. Swaying movements followed by a sudden fall and
death in convulsions form the usual termination of the disease.
Symptoms. Dog. These have been mainly produced
experimentally and consisted in hyperthermia, dullness, prostration,
accelerated breathing and heart action, congested veins, and
mucosæ, muscular weakness, convulsions, and syncope or asphyxia.
After death the muscles became speedily rigid, and the blood
accummulated in the venous system, was fluid or only loosely
coagulated. In these animals, if the experiment were stopped in time
the animal could be restored to health.
Slighter cases may occur in the different animals, more
particularly from overdriving in hot weather, and in such cases the
overheated animal recovers, but there is liable to remain a special
sensitiveness to excessive heat and a tendency to be dull, sluggish
and short winded, to hang the head in hot weather, and to seek
shelter from the direct rays of the sun.
Diagnosis is largely based on the suddenness of the attack, on the
occurrence of high temperature before the seizure, not after as it is
liable to be, if at all, in apoplexy, on the dark congestion of the
mucosæ, and of the venous system, on the rapidity and shallowness
of the respirations, on the tumultuous action of the heart, and on the
general loss of sensory and especially of motor function, in
circumstances calculated to induce sun-stroke. Localized paralysis or
spasm would suggest the formation of a cerebral effusion or clot.
Prevention. This will depend on the class of animal and its
conditions of life and work. In horses care should be taken to
regulate the work by the heat of the season and condition of the
animal. When the temperature ranges from 80° to 100° F. the work
should be lessened and every attention should be given to maintain
the healthy functions (bowels, kidneys, skin) in good working
condition. If the horse is young, fat, or out of condition from idleness
or accumulation of fat he must have the greater consideration. So it
is with a horse recently come from a colder latitude, and with a heavy
draught horse that may be called on to do rapid work. Some
protection is secured by wearing a sunshade or a wet sponge over the
poll, and much may be expected from an occasional rest in the shade,
a swallow of cool water and sponging of the head.
Very heavy fat cattle should not be driven far nor shipped on the
hottest days, and the packed car should not be left in the full
sunshine in a still atmosphere. Yards with sheds under which they
can retreat must be secured if possible.
The heavily fleeced sheep must have equal care and the pastures
for fat sheep and cattle should have available shade in form of trees,
walls or sheds. Access to water is an important condition.
Treatment. In slight cases (overheated) a few days of rest, under
an awning rather than in a close stable, with a restricted and laxative
diet.
In severe thermic fever the first consideration is to lower
temperature. If available turn a hose on the head, neck and entire
body for five or ten minutes, or until the rectal temperature
approaches the normal. In the absence of such a water supply, dash
cold water from a well on the body but especially the head and neck,
and if available tie a bag of ice around the poll. Active friction to the
legs and body is often of great advantage. A large dose of antipyrin or
acetanilid may be given hypodermically. On the other hand
stimulants, and especially carbonate of ammonia, or sweet spirits of
nitre may be given as an enema. This may be repeated in an hour in
case the pulse fails to acquire force and tone.
Should the temperature rise again later it may often be kept in
check by cold sponging and scraping followed by rubbing till dry.
In case of continued elevation of temperature, with heat of the
head, and perversion of sensory or motor functions, meningitis may
be suspected and appropriate treatment adopted.
For the prostration and weakness that is liable to follow thermic
fever, mineral tonics such as the salts of iron or zinc may be resorted
to.
EPILEPSY. FALLING SICKNESS.
Definition. Frequency. Susceptibility: dogs, pigs, cattle, horses, parrots,

sparrows. Divisions: slight and severe: Jacksonian (partial): symptomatic;
idiopathic. Lesions: inconstant: of brain, cranium, cerebral circulation, myelon,
poisons in blood, dentition, cortical and ganglionic lesions, cerebral asymmetry,
stenosis of vertebral canal. Medullar asymmetry, traumas of cranium, anæmia,
bleeding, carotid ligation, spinal reflexes, irritation of skin, creatinin, cinchonoidin,
lead, ergot, nitro-pentan, nitro-benzol, ptomaines, toxins, parasites, nerve lesions,
local hyperæsthesia (withers of horse, recurrent ophthalmia), indigestion,
constipation, sciatic neuritis. Causes: nervous predisposition, heredity (man, cat,
dog, ox), sexual excitement, fear, sudden strong visual impression, uric acid in
blood, meat diet. Symptoms: horse, sudden seizure, bracing feet and limbs,
swaying, fall, convulsive rigidity, jaws working or clenched, eyes rolling, salivation,
stertor, dyspnœa, sensation absent. Duration. Symptoms of localized epilepsy.
Cattle, bellow, stertor, rolling eyes, jerking, rigidity, fall. Sheep. Swine
premonitory malaise, jerking, champing jaws, fall, trembling, rigidity, involuntary
discharges. Dog trembles, cries, falls, rigidity, clonic contractions, stertor,
sequelæ. Diagnosis: sudden attack, unconsciousness, spasms, quick recovery, no
spasms in syncope, vertigo has no spasms, thrombosis has symptoms developed by
exercise. Jurisprudence: animal returnable after twenty-eight days (Wurtenberg,
etc.,) thirty days (France). Treatment: of susceptible brain, and peripheral irritant.
Correct all irritation or disease, or expel parasites. Nerve sedations: bromides,
opium, valerian, belladonna, hyoscine, duboisine. Tonics: zinc, arsenic, silver,
baths, electricity. Borax. Vegetable diet. Castration. Avoidance of excitement.
Surgical operations. Trephining. Excision of cortex. Outdoor life. During a fit:
amyle nitrite, chloroform, ether, chloral, warm bath, cold or warmth to head, quiet
secluded place.
Epilepsy is the name given to a class of cases characterized by a

sudden and transient loss of consciousness with a convulsive seizure,
partial or general. It appears to be due to a sudden explosive
discharge of convulsive nervous energy, which may be generated by a
great number of causes of morbid irritation—pathological, traumatic,
or toxic. As a rule the epileptic seizure is but the symptomatic
expression of a complex derangement which may be extremely
varied as to its nature and origin.
Frequency in different animals. The affection is far less frequent
in the domestic animals than in man, doubtless because of the
absence of the special susceptibility which attends on the more
highly specialized brain, the disturbing conditions of civilization, and
the attendant vices.
Among domestic animals, dogs are the most frequent victims in
keeping with their relatively large cerebral development, their
emotional and impressionable nature and the unnatural and
artificial conditions in which as house pets they are often kept. Their
animal food and the consequent uric acid diathesis is a probable
cause, as it is in man. In ten years of the dog clinic at Alfort they
made an average of 3 per cent. of all cases. Next to the dog the pig
kept in confinement is the most frequent victim, while cattle and
horses come last. At the Alfort clinic epileptic horses were not more
than 1 per 1000 patients. It is not at all infrequent in birds, especially
canaries and parrots. Reynal has seen it in sparrows.
Divisions. The disease has long been divided into petit mal and
grand mal (haut mal). The petit mal (slight attack) is usually a
transient seizure affecting a group of muscles only and associated
with only a momentary or very transient loss of consciousness. The
loss of consciousness is uncertain as to many cases. Under partial
epilepsies must be included the hemi-epilepsy, or Jacksonian
epilepsy, which is confined to one side of the body.
The grand mal (severe attack) is one in which the loss of
consciousness is complete, and the convulsions are general in the
muscles of animal life.
Another division is into symptomatic and idiopathic cases, and
if this distinction could always be made it would be of immense value
in the matters of prognosis and treatment as the removal of the
morbid state of which epilepsy is the symptom will usually restore
the patient to health. Thus the removal of worms from the
alimentary canal, of indigestible matters from the stomach, of a
depressed bone or tumor from the surface of the brain may in
different cases be the essential condition of a successful treatment.
Morbid Anatomy and Pathology. The literature of epilepsy is very
rich and extensive and yet no constant lesions of the nervous system
can be fixed on as the local cause of the disease. A review of the
whole literature leads rather to the conclusion that irritations coming
from lesions of the most varied kind, acting on a specially susceptible
brain will rouse the cerebral centres to an epileptic explosion. Thus
epilepsy has been found to be associated with lesions of the following
kinds:
1st. Brain lesions of almost every kind, including malformations.
2nd. Lesions of the walls of the cranium.
3d. Disorders of the cerebral circulation.
4th. Lesions of the spinal cord.
5th. Morbid states of the circulating blood (excess of urea, uric
acid, creatinin, lead poisoning).
6th. Reflected irritation, as from dentition, worms, sexual
excesses, injuries to certain nerves, notably the sciatic, or to
particular parts of the skin.
1st. Brain lesions. Those which affect the medulla and the
cortical convolutions around the fissure of Rolando would be
expected to be implicated because these centres preside over the
principal motor actions of the body and limbs. Yet though these parts
are found to be affected with various morbid lesions in a certain
number of cases of epilepsy, such lesions are exceptional, rather than
the rule. In 20 cases of epilepsy in man, 15 showed no lesion
whatever of the brain. Blocq and Marinesco, pupils of Charcot,
recently made a critical examination of the medulla and Rolandic
cortex in nine cases that died during the fit. All showed granular
bodies (degenerated myelin or blood pigment) in the perivascular
sheaths but they found these in disseminated sclerosis and even in
healthy brains as well. The neuroglia cells of the first cortical layer
contained black granules. Otherwise four cases had no change, while
five showed sclerosis of the cortex. The medulla was sound in all
cases excepting one which showed punctiform hæmorrhages. Visible
lesions may be present in other parts of the brain; Wenzel long ago
claimed constant lesion of the pituitary body. Beside the cerebral
cortex, lesions have been found in the bulb, the hypoglossal nucleus,
the olivary body, the hippocampi, the thalamus, the corpus striatum,
the quadrigemini, the cerebellum, etc. Hughlings-Jackson who made
an extended investigation of the subject concludes that any part of
the gray matter of the encephalon may become over-excitable and
give rise to a convulsive attack. Not only may the lesion be in any
part of the brain, but it may be of any kind: meningitis, cerebritis,
softening, tubercle, tumor, hydatid, embolism, or dropsy. Marie Bra
found an extreme asymmetry of the cerebral lobes in epileptics.
Kussmaul and others found stenosis of the vertebral canal and
asymmetry of the two lateral halves of the medulla.
2nd. Cranial lesions. These consist largely in blows or falls upon
the head, with osteitis, periostitis, fractures with depressions, fibrous
neoplasia implicating or not the meninges and pressing on the brain,
hæmorrhages from minute arteries, etc. The diagnosis of such
lesions will often open a way to a successful treatment. Baker found
most of the severe cases from head injuries.
3d. Disorders of the cerebral circulation. Burrows,
Kussmaul and Turner showed that in animals, loss of consciousness
and epileptiform convulsions followed on cerebral anæmia caused by
profuse bleeding or by compression of the carotids. The same has
been observed in surgical cases after ligation of one common carotid.
Hermann caused convulsions in a rabbit by ligating both anterior
and posterior venæ cavæ.
4th. Lesions of the Spinal Cord. Brown-Sequard determined
epileptiform convulsions by transverse section of one-half of the
spinal cord, or of its superior, lateral or inferior columns. The later
development of the doctrine of interrupted spinal inhibition,
suggests that, many of the seizures in question are but exaggerated
spinal reflexes, which are no longer restrained by cerebral inhibition.
That all are not of this spurious kind may be fairly inferred from his
further demonstration that bruising of the great sciatic in animals
tended to produce epilepsy. In such cases., the irritation of certain
areas by pinching the skin, served to produce a seizure. Not only so,
but the animals in which such artificial epilepsy had been induced
tended to transmit the infirmity to their progeny. The prevailing view
of epilepsy however, would consider such lesions as sources of
peripheral irritation by which the brain is affected sympathetically,
while the real explosion is the result of the sudden discharge of the

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3rd Edition by Myrtle P. Bell

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Affirmative Action in Employment 77

PART 2 EXAMINING SPECIFIC GROUPS AND CATEGORIES

Negative Health Effects of Discrimination 113

LATINOS AS CUSTOMERS 155

6 ASIANS/ASIAN AMERICANS 166

RELEVANT LEGISLATION 204

8 NATIVE AMERICANS AND MULTI-RACIAL GROUP MEMBERS 226

9 SEX AND GENDER 248

10 WORK AND FAMILY 284

11 SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY 312

HIV/AIDS AT WORK: UNFOUNDED FEARS 325

14 PHYSICAL AND MENTAL ABILITY 384

When Employees Acquire a Disability 399

15 WEIGHT AND APPEARANCE 408

PART 3 GLOBAL DIVERSITY

16 GLOBAL DIVERSITY 434

CHANGES TO THIS EDITION

MULTIPLE GROUP MEMBERSHIPS AND PERMEABILITY

Definition. Tetanic and paralytic forms. Balance of flexors and extensors

Definition. This is a functional nervous disorder, characterized by

Definition: two forms. Heat exhaustion. Causes: prolonged heat, and

Definition. A morbid condition produced by the exposure to

Definition. Frequency. Susceptibility: dogs, pigs, cattle, horses, parrots,

Epilepsy is the name given to a class of cases characterized by a

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